Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

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——

SIXTY-FOURTH MEETING

-

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

HELD AT

OXFORD IN AUGUST 1894.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1894.

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W

PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON

CONTENTS,

———————

Page

Dpsects and Rules of the Association .......s0scscassecscesencosseensecenceceess ap Same

Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement .............++ XXXIX
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-

Berea RESTA UUM slate cups afn]aeeleaieian sioinin nsicetsnise's/claoe Solaebiaeea ele dae aseeeee Mesmoetedcanse es con xlix

eR mEV ORIN: WeChULEB is. 2. cc sevet vastaines ofusinnnddensecenecoouusess sieaens + saslenclee Ixvii
| Lectures to the Operative Olasses .............seccsscncesccecceccecescees Qoscsebnote lxx
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Oxford Meeting............... Ixxi
BEELER ANG O OUMCH 91 SO4—O hoc cca. odaserssesesantnsisadensaspesecsiinasctcsine dese sds Ixxiii
Pe RRR SPCOUENE i Asc Hoe aon «Favs base cleten sedcbutemaetpbbacde duetaeabesvovaebete lxxiv
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxvi
Report of the Council to the General Committee .............c.cceceeeceeeeeeeuee lxxviii
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Oxford Meet-

RM St EE ALCOA 8) 5) Us URL ARE Ct ee Ixxxi
Papers ordered to be printed 72 extenso ...........cnssccnccnsconccssccescesceeecss Ixxxix
Resolutions relating to the Constitution and Titles of Sections ............... xc
Resolutions, referred to the Council for consideration, and action if

RE oe eng SA ef ns vince 10s seem MmP MR Ra a Vegenicds saad saxctaaiions ede ahes xe
SEL CITHN AOE WIGUGY 5... .<:cccnumiahaieasnesdaadigecsnxcsee csiackanb¥uses ses xei
Beaces of Meeting in 1895 and 1896 ...1...i....ccessepecssncesopesseccecsneescdeoes xcli
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants

RRREMAGTING AAT GOS ERG sn sackin 162 = cass an Sannaardent nt does tinaadepnansinds tuetekees xelii
IME TENE oe a ae Sono ugnisssiewandie=s axe somali cloaratusqaxcsnsaghenéaanaveet tes cviil
Address by the President, the Most Hon. the Marquis of Satispury, K.G.,

D.C.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Oxford ............066.. 3

A 2

iv CONTENTS.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark } indicates the same,
but a reference is given to the journal or newspaper where it is published in extenso. }

Corresponding Societies,— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor R.
Metpota (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hotmus (Secretary), Mr. FRANCIS GALTON,
Sir Doveras Garon, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir Joun Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T, G. Bonnny, Mr.
W. Wuitaker, Mr. W. Toptey, Professor E. B. Poutron, Mr. CurHBERT
Pursrx, and Rev. Canon H. B. TRISTRAM .............0000 ésende seicnsepeeyeneteaperease

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics. By
G. H. Bryan. Part IJ.—The Laws of Distribution of Energy and their
Wii batiONsteaeser.cssocescce crests cesar aseaumetce et ocawt cos ceiads serene e eee eeteeteeenae

Avppenpix A.—The Possible Laws of Partition of Rotatory Energy in
WNon-colliding, Rigid) Bodies 2.025. cc... senses cet ome eee eeReeeeee

Appenpix B.—Gnthe Law of Molecular Distribution in the Atmo-
spuere-of a Rotating Planet %.2..0...s0ssonrc-«copses acme ey oe stacemetpeemeeree

Aprrnpix C.—On the Application of the Determinantal Relation to
the Kinetic Theory of Polyatomic Gases. By Professor Lupwice
TR OIWAATAOS DSF oc onecor doc ao dapdene a7 son dernce nots cmpebroscce: pocubsucescocnonn! aac

The Best Methods of recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation.—Tenth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. Sroxes (Chairman),
Professor A. Scuusrrr, Mr. G. Jonnstonr Stonny, Sir H. E. Roscoz,
Captain W. pe W. Asyey, Mr. C. Cures, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. E.
Witson, and Professor H. McLrop. (Drawn up by Professor McLEopD) ...

Underground Temperature.—Twentieth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. D. Evernrr, Professor Lord Kertyin, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. Gerxiz, Mr. J. GuatsHEer, Professor Epwarp Hutt, Professor J,
Prestwicu, Dr, C, Le Neve Foster, Professor A. S. Hprscuet, Professor
G. A. Luspour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. W. Gattoway, Mr. Josera
Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Weruerep, Mr. A. Srrawan, and
Professor Micure Smira. (Drawn up by Professor Evernrr, Secretary.)

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLarnn (Chairman), Professor A. Cntum Brown (Secretary),
Dr. Jonn Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER BucHan, Hon. RatpH ABERCROMBY,
and Professor R. Coprtanp. (Drawn up by Dr. Bucuan) ....... dsepeeeiess

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Elec-
trical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
Carry Foster (Chairman), Lord Krtvin, Professors Ayrton, J. PERRY,
W. G. Apams, and Lord Rayreten, Drs. O. J. Lopez, Joan Hopxryson,
and A. Murruean, Messrs. W. H. Preece and Hersert TAyLor, Professor
J. D. Everert, Professor A. Scuusrrer, Dr. J. A. Frumine, Professors

age

19

64

98

100

102

106

107

108

CONTENTS. Vi

G. F. FrrzGerrarp, G. Cxrystat, and J. J. Taomson, Messrs, R. T. Graze-
BROOK (Secretary) and W. N. Suaw, Rev. T. C. Frrzparricx, Dr. J. T. Bor-
TOMLEY, Professor J. Vir1amu Jonzs, Dr. G. JonNsTONE SronzEy, Professor

8. P. THompson, and Mr. G. FoRBES.............-.0000 edsaeanccckabaereteseesaae sees TZ
ApprenpiIx I.—Report of the American Delegates at the Chicago Con-

ference to the Secretary of State at Washington ................ceceeeee 119
ApprenDix IJ.—Experiments on the Value of the Ohm. By J.

VEERTAMD DS ONES (s.cctecacesccqasss centers owed edetiet a sadikevacacteeldi'desls sidsajsas'es 6 123

Apprnpix III.—Comparison of the Standards employed by Professor
Jones with the Standards of the Association. By R.T.G tazEBRoox 128

Apprnprx 1V.—Comparison of some of the Standards of the Board of
Trade with those of the Association. By J. RENNIE .................- 130

_ AppenDIx V.—Values of Certain Coils belonging to the Indian Govern-
DREN SY) er, Os NWATRBR) fuos..2u «ca caisseusscesisnencaeesssechtecsidulenaveve ac 131

AppenDIx VJ.—On the Specific Resistance of Copper and of Silver.
iy einer. 03: Cp rrZPAMRICI) wacrerscsssy sh de nasilnwis a4 ieeSowavecat sd nsucteadsiec’ 131

Apprenpix VII.—Final Report of the Electrical Standards Committee
of the Board of Trade, and Order in Council regarding Standards for
Eee trical Gasuremien tam oc. .0s cs. socecserc ss se oes ch cesuacnsantne dete sc cueen 136

The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Pheno-
mena.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons
(Chairman), Professor R. Metpoza, Mr. J. Hopxryson, and Mr. A. W.
CLAYDEN (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary) ..............csceeeeeeeeee 143

Earth Tremors.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons,
Mr. C. Davison (Secretary), Sir F. J. BRamwett, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor J. A. Ewrne, Dr. Issac Roserts, Mr. THomas Gray, Sir JoHN
Evans, Professors J. Praustwicu, E. Huxit, G. A. Lesour, R. Merpora,
and J. W. Jupp, Mr. M. Watron Brown, Mr. J. GLaisHmr, Professor C.
G. Knorr, Professor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. Horack Darwin, and Dr. R.
Copptann. (Drawn up by the Secretary) .......2.......ccecsecsecscscescecceas sees 145

Appendix I.—Account of Observations made with the Horizontal
Pendulum at Nicolaiew. By Professor S. Korvaz2i ...............005 155

Apprenpix I].—The Bifilar Pendulum at the Royal Observatory, Edin-
burgh. By Professor R. COPELAND ........scssccsccorcessescsvcossesceses 158

The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. EmrRson REynoxps (Chairman), Dr. C. A. Koun
(Secretary), Professor P. FRANKLAND, Professor F. Crowzs, Dr. Hue
Marswatt, Mr. A. E. Frercner, Mr. D. H. Naeger, Mr. T. Turner, and
etme Es COUMMAN 8s 272. 0. te ssacasmmaaee ers cnsstm an sonsaddeecdasneaas secarcmadeviasa wal 160

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor H. McLzEop (Chairman), Professor W. C. Roperts-A vsten, Mr. H, G.
Pian, ed Mir, Ase, NAGHE cate mdceesctsedenccketiacacshsienesccacceocccsecsseee 161

An International Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel.—Sixth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor W.C. Roprerts-A UsTEN (Chairman),
Sir F. Azez, Mr. E. Ritzey, Mr. J. Sprnier, Professor J. W. Lanetey, Mr.
G. J. Snetus, Professor Trrpen, and Mr. Tuomas Turner (Secretary).
MUirawN Up Dy GE SOCKELALY)) Ledecs.so<tqcwen-n.rcssaansussbassaceasworteucee paeenrer ray

The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor T. EK. THorpx (Chairman), Professor J. J. Hummut (Secretary),
Dr. W. H. Prrxrn, Professor W. J. Russrtt, Captain W. pz W. ABNey,
Professor W. Srrovup, and Professor R. MeLpota. (Drawn up by the
MP TMEV Nis orated eras ASSL al iy SSeS ec dadeapetseshs tate tecavasdoacan 238

vl CONTENTS.

Page
The Bibliography of Solution.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. Trtpen (Chairman), Dr. W. W. J. Nico (Secretary),
Professor H. McLxop, Mr. 8. U. Picknrine, Professor W. Ramsay, and
Professor SYDNEY, YOUNG: <5 ctssnccnensadeseie «tanstes sesh odeeaniocdasndestcemeseeeee dates 246

Proximate Chemical Constituents of Coal_—tInterim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir I. Lowrnian Bett (Chairman), Professor P. PHILEIPs
Bepson (Secretary), Mr. Lupwie Monn, Professor Vivian B. Lewes,
Professor E. Hurt, Mr. J. W. THomas, and Mr. H. BAvERMAN..............- 246

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscon, Dr. MarswaLt Warts,
Mr. J. N. Locxysr, Professors J. Dewar, G. D. Livurne, A. Scuustar,
W.N. Harrtey, and Woxcorr Gisss, and Captain ABNEY. (Drawn up
bys r. MARS TAT (VWVAGITS)otessccs ace nce ons coeiineneceeciaclsseeiese)-t pees. tee eee eee 248

Isomerie Naphthalene Derivatives—Eighth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor W. A. Ti~pen and Professor H. EH, ARMsTRONG.
(Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG) ........... Pidgeocboo qaceno-ercee.cocon- a5 0u-neS 268

The Investigation of the Cave at Elbolton in order to ascertain whether the
Remains of Paleolithic Man occur in the Lower Cave Earth.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. TippEmMan (Chairman), Rev.
Epwarp Jonzs (Secretary), Sir Jonn Evans, Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. W.
IPENGELLY, and Mr. Js. S WILKINSON ov. .iccse sce ses oskne vse cactescessccasennectesets 270

Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Eleventh Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor T. Wiirsurre (Chairman), Dr. H. Woop-
WARD, and Professor T. Rupprr Jonus (Secretary). (Drawn up by Pro-
fessor 1. RUPERT JONBB) .......c0.vosmebs sven sage onedecvscepeersesadadscneeccmerembens 271

Exploration of the Calf Hole Cave at the Heights, Skyrethorns, near Skipton.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. Trpppman (Chairman),
Rey. E. Jones (Secretary), Professor W. Boyp Dawxtns, Professor L. C.
Miaxt, Mr. P. F. Keypatt, Mr. A. BrrtwHiste, and Mr. J.J. Witkrnson 272

The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Fifth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor Jamms Grrkiz (Chairman), Professor
T. G. Bonney, Dr. Temprst AnpERsoN, Dr. VaLentiIne Batt, Mr. Jamus
Kk. Beprorp, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Epmunp J. GaRrwoon,
Mr. J. G. Goopcurup, Mr. Witttam Gray, Mr. Roperr Kuipston, Mr.
ArrHur 8. Rei, Mr. J.J. H. Treats, Mr. R. H. Trpppman, Mr. W. W.
Warts, Mr. Horace B. Woopwarp, and Mr.Osmunp W. J»FFs (Secretary),
(Drawn ‘up by the Secretary). .....0cis.-sleresssdvncwaldsnmeenes dot eh os Ccememmenemae 274

The Circulation of Underground Waters.—Twentieth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. E. Hutt (Chairman), Sir Dovetas Garton, Mr.
J. GUAISHER, Mr. Percy Kernpauu, Professor G. A. Lesour, Messrs.
E. B. Marren, G. H. Morton, Professor Presrwicn, and Messrs. I.
Roserts, THos. 8S. Srooxn,G. J. Symons, W. Tor.ey, C. TyLDEN- WRIGHT,
EH, Weruprep, W. Wuiraker, and C. E. De Rance (Secretary). (Drawn
heb gh OF Ul Dre !s 2.0. (01) toa Pee Atle URE fe 283

The Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills.—Second Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. R. H. Traquarr (Chairman), Professor T.
Rupert Jones, and Mr. Manconm Lavrig (Secretary). (Drawn up by
PRIS IELTEUANY))” rota xericesis active si ngieinvase snieevadc > tatiewseapeent Sanaa ape oa6 aie een

CONTENTS. Vii

Page
Stonesfield Slate——Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. B. Woop- ‘
WARD (Chairman), Mr. KE. A. Waxrorp (Secretary), Professor A. H. GREEN,
Dr. H. Woopwanrp, and Mr. J. Winpoks, appointed to open further sections
in the neighbourhood of Stonesfield in order to show the relationship of the
Stonesfield Slate to the underlying and overlying strata. (Drawn up by
Maer WEN Al WALFORD, SCCTOLATY.)....00cc0scosedecsgcovesteserccebncnsrsercecses 804

The Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall,
and other Localities (Chapelhall Section).—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. J. Horne (Chairman), Mr. Davin Rozertson, Mr. T. F.
Jamison, Mr. JAMns FrAspr, Mr. Percy F, Knnpart, and Mr. Dueatp
BEMICIIN (JS ECROLADY,) «<0 Scena aaan tasers das boss stinidece asi Anse ta coeelis ad cateaMnemercarescetedas ses 307

APPENDIX—On the Chapelhall Clay, by D. Roperrson .................. 313

The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its Neighbourhood.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Bavgrman, Mr. F. W. Rupier, Mr.
J. J. H. Teatt, and Professor H. J. Jonnsron-Lavis. (Drawn up by
rotessonvel (J: JOHNSTON=DA Vas) t aces... sdaabdieed tisidehotlene teste stivoed adeesaticnstls 315

The Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea.—Second Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. C. Happon, Professor G. B. Howzs, Mr. W. E.
Hoyts, Mr. I. C. Taompson, Mr. A. O. Watker, and Professor W. A.
Eimenwan (Chairman and! Reporter)! J... sccnsstesieeedestebecabis sslactinns wanes sistaee 318

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples——Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Sctarsr, Professor E. Ray LAnKESTER,
Professor J. Cossan Ewart, Professor M. Fostrr, Mr. A. Srpewicr, the late

Professor A. M. Marswatt, and Mr. Percy Sxapen (Secretary) ............ 335
AppEnDIx I —On the Reduction Division in the Cartilaginous Fishes.
Jaay dSLR AIS Bie lott) ho Be BapapeBponee cn ocr cos coeOst bopnoccercec ape ronaer car CeaCe- 338

Apprnpix II.—A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoo-
logical Station from the end of June 1893 to the end of June 1894... 340
Apprnpix IIf—A List of Papers which have been published in the
year 1893 by the Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zoo-
Per erl SUAGEON. 5 2555p anaes «a dokctn tye taactnamee i avsias Aan dywges de> kas oahet scgreas 341

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Fourth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. Newron (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Buanrorp, Dr. 8. J.
Hicrson, Professor C. V. Rinny, Mr. O. Satyvry, Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Mr.
BA. SMITH, and Mr. D. SHARP (Secretary) ....2c-.v-cecocevcecesceresssneneterss 343

The Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, and on taking Steps to investigate ascertained Deficiencies in
the Fauna and Flora.—Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
PL. Scuarer (Chairman), Mr. Guorezr Murray (Secretary), Mr. W.
Carruruers, Dr. A. C. L. G. Gtytuer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. Du Cane
(omMman, and Professor A; NEWTON: ssc: cacccec oes cccoasscncqesecacesonveceeccescces 344

Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E, Ray
LANKESTER (Chairman), Professor M. Foster, Professor S. H. Vines, and
MEAG C PSOURNE (SCCTOATY))aecsusnes tc: <oeeceeb ees secaetosetldcssWecdurtesccdeedess

On the Development of Aleyonium. By Dr. 8. J. Hioxsown ............ 345
On the Later Stages in the Development of Decapod Crustacea. By
BGR taa AMEE. o¢-nisaaasese tase anspor ea case etecdnumatr secs anvamnentsnes.saha<s 345

The Influence of Previous Fertilisation of the Female on her Subsequent
Offspring, and the Effect of Maternal Impressions during Pregnancy on the
Offspring.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. RussEL
Wactace (Chairman), Dr. Jamus Crark (Secretary), Dr. G. J. Romanns, .
Professor 8. J. Hrcxson, Professor E. A. ScHArsr, and Dr. J. N. Lanexny.
rawn: up: by the Secretary). cic cccscccieeevedsbvuesqulaveddvelvaveededsapee seedsceae 346

Vili CONTENTS.

Page
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consist-
ing of Sir W. H. Frowsgr (Chairman), Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Dr. H. Woop-
wAnp, and- My) Woda SoravEr (Secretary): ....0..062.ssecessnossddeundonesoduae 347

The Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir Jonn Luszock (Chairman), Professor ALFRED Newton,
Rey. Canon Tristram, Mr. Joun CorpEaux, Mr. W. H. Hupson, Mr.
Howarp Saunpurs, Mr. Tuomas H. Tuomas, Dr. C. T. Vacuett, and Mr.

H. E. E. Dresser (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary) ............... 347

Migration of Birds.—Interim Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor
A. Newron (Chairman), Mr. Joun Coxpeavux (Secretary), Messrs. R. M.
Barrineton, J. A. Harvis-Brown, W. Eacte Crarke, and the Rev. E. P.
KNUBLEY, appointed for the purpose of making a Digest of the Observations
on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels ...........22..00- 348

The Climatological and Hydrographical Conditions of Tropical Africa —Third
Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. E. G. Ravensrery (Chairman),
Mr. Batpwin Laruam, Mr. G. J. Symons, and Dr. H. R. Mitt (Secretary).
(ira wap by Mir VG RAVENSTMEN), 9\..05...cseseieudgexeddechsnnessmotaneganeadan 348

The Exploration of Hadramout, in Southern Arabia.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. H. Srrpoum (Chairman), Mr. J. THEopoRE BENT
(Secretary), Mr. E. G, Ravenstery, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Mr. G. W.
CrORAM Grewia p by MiryDRNT) i cs.i0ss.od-cs0.cesevbse tov edausecddrnea sheen 354

Geographical, Meteorological, and Natural History Observations in South
Georgia or other Antarctic Island.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. Crements R. MarxHam (Chairman), Dr. H. R. Mrux (Secretary), Mr.
Jr ¥, Bucwanan, and. Mx. Hy O, FORBRS»:esisccvice.sssdedtevenses oxen ee ae 358

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapstonsz (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary), Mr. S. Bournu, Mr. G. Guapstone, Mr. J. Hnywoop, Sir Joan
Lussock, Sir Partie Maenvs, Professor N. Story Masketyne, Sir H. E.
Roscon, Sir R. Temprn, and Professor 8. P. THompson. (Drawn up by
DUS GEA DATONE) CL J oedaai s-tnicchles fs .osadvootenseSeeheiwel cesae babkecactaeeee sea 359

APPENDIX.—Addition to Alternative Courses in Elementary Science 364

Methods of Economic Training in this and other Countries.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor W. Cunyinewam (Chairman), Professor
E. C. K. Gonyer (Secretary), Professor F. Y. Epaeworrs, Professor H. 8.
Foxwsti, Mr. H. Hiees, Mr, L. L. Price, and Protessor J. SHIELD

DYMO GUSOINY 55 \2eisdlds cere RUdENOE ah wa vin cond dseqin duaceadeueeebvesedeeera Ras 365
ApprnDIx I.—On the Methods of Economic Training adopted in
Foreign Countries. By Professor E. C. K. GONNER.........cseceese0e0s 366

Appsnp1x IT.—On Economic Studies in France. By Hunry Hrees... 384

APPENDIX III.—On the Condition of Economie Studies in the United
Kingdom. By Professor BH. ©. K. GONNER .......ccsseesceeesceseeeeeess 387

Methods of Determining the Dryness of Steam.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir F. J. Bramwext (Chairman), Professor T. H. Brarg, Mr.
Jeremsan Heap, Professor A. B. W. Kunnepy, Professor Osnorne Rey-
nops, Mr. Marr Rumiey, Mr. C. I. Wirson, and Professor W. C. Unwin
PSPCREUSEY) (0; sinvt.. uate aang sumer oa. c <atg aseen ach sah caster ice cot tip > nee a 392

Prehistoric and Ancient Remains of Glamorganshire.—Second Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. C. T. VacHELn (Chairman), Lord Burs, Mr.
G. T, Crarx, Mr. R. W. Arxrnson, Mr. FRANKLEN G. Evans, Mr. JAmzs
Bett, Mr. T. H. Toomas, Dr. G. J. Garson, and Mr. E. Sewarp (Secretary).
WPrawn up by the Secretary). ..c..icaacsereacccasaovat cecueteayes bolt wadtuets oka 418

CONTENTS. ix

. Page
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom,—Second Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting ot Mr. KE. W. BraBrooxk (Chairman), Mr. Francis Gatton,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A.C. Happon, Dr. JosspH Anpprson, Mr. J.
Romitty Apien, Dr. J. Beppos, Professor D. J. CunnineHAM, Professor
W. Boyp Dawrrns, Mr. AntHUR Evans, Mr. E. Stipney Harrnanp, Sir H.
Howortn, Professor R. Mrtpona, General Prrr-Rivers, Mr. E. G. Raven-
STELN, and Mr. W. Buroxam (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman) ... 419

ACPPBN DER b-—Horin Of Schedule...) .:..0cccovesvavcsacescseces secdcecuceswects 426

AppEnpDIXx IJ.—Directions for Measurement ...........0.c0ceeeeeeceeseeceees 428

AppEnpDIx III.—The Ethnological Survey of Ireland—Report of the
Woammnitee tor: Urelande sn. s0tcsstnccnesaccssnesteatesecdobniices avccwensanehsen 499

The Lake Village of Glastonbury.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Mr. A. Bu.tnrp (Secretary), Professor W.
Boyp Dawxins, General Pirr-Rivers, and Sir Joun Eyans. (Drawn up
PRUE OUSECIOURTY))) 2h se eco wines oceneescicnsesedssdscesatarcicmmeadt reais cores cwvsetectexee 431

Physical and Mental Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public
Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
Dovetas Garon (Chairman), Dr. Francis WARNER (Secretary), Mr. E.
W. Brasrooxr, Dr. Garson, Mr. G. W. Broxam, and Dr. WILBERFORCE

SMITH. (Report drawn up by the Secretary) .............s0-cecesceeeceeeereeeee 434
- Appendix I.—Certificate as to a Child requiring Special Educational

PTI OY Set ns as cise teas canes oa celle apiece sitcie 4 sSowaises gua ce cesesiaase ses dstecrtdeien 437
Apprnprx II.—Statistical Report concerning 50,000 Children examined,

NS Aor Mens etc cresecis clan's. ca 4c senciivas sidacttiasamtrcsocsseadstsdssonceessedse 437

AppEnvix III.—Distribution of the Cases seen as to Standards......... 438

Anthropometric Work in Schools.—Report of a Committee, consisting of
Professor JoHN CLELAND (Chairman), Mr. G. W. Bioxam, Mr. E. W.
Brasroox, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A. Macatistpr, and Professor B.
WINDLE (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary) ...........c:secseeseeeeeee 439

AppEnpdix I.—Circular sent to Schools ........0....:sceeeeneeneeeeeeeeecneeee 440
Apprnpix IJ.—Suggestions for Anthropometric Observations in Schools 441

Anthropometric Laboratory (at Nottingham).—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir W. H. Fiower (Chairman), Dr. J. G. Garson (Secretary),
Mr. G. W. Broxam, Dr. Wi~BERFORCE SmirH, Professor A. C. Hannon,
SE EMICHROD BERTRAM WIND Bis cyst cnccoaindesspcdvssecestssencsccaasnedseqnetacses 444

On the North-Western Tribes of Canada. Ninth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. EK. B. Triton, Mr. G. W. Broxam, Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr.
LP ALTBURTON, and Mins El. EVADE fics. cecelscscectbonavescesscsecesccetaccenne 453

The Indian Tribes of the Lower Fraser River. By Dr. Franz Boas ... 454

The Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart.— Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor E. A. Scudrer (Chairman), Mr. A. F.
Stantey Kent (Secretary), and Professor C. S. SHeRRINGTON. (Drawn up
ss CEO ME MaMa e 2 ac sink ap ngtclnny sean ed-icse sanirasd ance us.cl wodlehdva snichernohs 464

On Recent Researches in the Infra-red Spectrum. By S. P. Lanetey, D.C.L.,
esha ie Malo ade lewis on aedes anche ears gis va ka aaa ticneoaee cosine iutinedveacoecs cde 465

On the Formation of Soap-bubbles by the Contact of Alkaline Oleates with
Parakey ProressorG,. QUENGKA.. 5.) +co<narcstancassabvacceenacdseseqansacecnoes 475

x CONTEN'IS.

Page
On the Displacements of the Rotational Axis of the Earth. By Professor W.
EDTA IE, spans delglds putes CaS Re aw agus) oc én no tisgiicdla node ov a doko eleina sie ene 476
A Lecture-room Experiment to illustrate Fresnel’s Diffraction Theory and
Babinet’s Principle. By Professor A. COoRNU, F.RS. .........ssccseeeeeeee coisa 480
The Connection between Chemical Combination and the Discharge of Elec-
tricity through Gases. By J. J. THOMSON, F.R.S. ...........sccncceceeessencoee 482
On the Electrification of Molecules and Chemical Change. By H. Brereton
FPENMMPUID arc casidien Gansta dole ASGas sae cele ton vical su'sscons odeucescetrn Sense n eee Eeeamenin 495
Report on Planimeters. By Professor O. HENRICI, F.R.S. ..........:secseseeeeeee 496

On Methods that have been adopted for Measuring Pressures in the Bores of
Guns. By Captain Sir A. Nosts, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E................ 523

CONTENTS. xi

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
Page

Address by Professor A. W. Ricxsr, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section 543

1.

bo

Preliminary Experiments to find if Be ean of Water from Air Elec-
trifies it. By Lorp Ketvin, P.R.S., Macnus Macigan, M.A., F.R.S.E.,
ANGPATAXAN DAR, GALT WonsC., Eels. Bs cacccesssdsettacedreccatsessesacecsacstens 554

. Preliminary Experiments for comparing the Discharge of a Leyden-jar

through different Branches of a Divided Channel. By Lorp Ketvin,
PMS a BTC ATX. COATT TS SCs WIR AS: in tiene see chincenntteasasceseeers cineet sor 555

. *On Photo-Electric Leakage. By Professor Ottver J. Lover, F.R.S....... 556
. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part

II., ‘On the Laws of Distribution of Energy and their Limitations.’
By CME RWAN YMG Alec ts sisiniosesseertiinvesefasnecaccines PpORNoHODCEREDOEreccoAgeAe 556

. On the Possible Laws of Partition of Rotatory Energy in Non-colliding

iRipid Bodies. By .G. Hi. BRYAN, M.A. ..c..-..c0c-cccesecsscece-raertavessborces 556

. On the Law of Molecular Distribution in the Atmosphere of a Rotating

lanotae Dye G. tel. RYAN, MCAT... ds ccneweg ek cesses sete daitiouseasevindas be tes 556

. On the Application of the Determinantal Relation to the Kinetic Theory

of Polyatomic Gases. By Professor LUDWIG BOLTZMANN ...........2000008 557

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

1. On Planimeters, By Professor O. Hmnrict, F.R.S. ...........cecceeeceeeenees 557
2. *Note on the Behaviour of a Rotating Cylinder in a Steady Current. By
PGR UEPE MALIOUK” 2:.+i<5, jesaganeasseeseeieenaeeaeets. be ccees -«.uiascuepaedarne 557
3. *On the Resistance experienced by Solids moving through Fluids. By
PGREOGELVEN ERS. sis ccanansonqugna sacha -phkaaeesuad oes aicebbde det icebadees 557
4, *Discussion on Flight, opened by Hinam S. MAXIM ..........cccsceceeeneee ees 557
SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.
DEPARTMENT I.
1. A Method of Determining all the Rational and Integral Algebraic Integrals
of the Abelian System of Differential Equations. By W. R. Wusrrore
PROBUS MV GAL Ne. tro oceihic se vem aaumasavncet case sakarateccts tnacsmeteacdteausstata saute ace 557
2, On a Graphical Transformer (for Replotting Curves). By A. P. Trorrer 558
3. On a Linkage for the Automatic Description of eae Polygons. By

Professor J. D. Evprert, F.B.S, ......... Aelasateorasvetemtnimanaadavarcasatesveeee 559

CONTENTS.

. On the Addition Theorem. By Professor MrtraG-LEFFLER .............+. 561
. Note on a General Theorem in Dynamics, By Sir Ropprr Batt, F.R.S. 561
. The Asymmetric Probability Curve. By Professor F. Y. Epczwortn, M A. 562
. On the Order of the Groups related to the Anallagmatic Diplacements of

the Regular Bodies in z-Dimensional Space. By Professor P. H. Scuoure 562

. On Mersenne’s Numbers. By Lieut.-Colonel Arnsan CunnineHam, R.E. 563
. End Games at Chess. By Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN CunniINGHAM, R.E. ... 564

DEPARTMENT IT.

10. *Experiments showing the Boiling of Water in an Open Tube. By Pro-
fessoriOSBORNE, REYNOLDA,- ERS.) vcs .<ecesrsersei incre tue nc beensecenaae teen 564
11. Report of the Committee on Earth Tremors .............seceeeseerereeereren ees 564
12. Report of the Committee on Meteorological Photography .............s0ceee0 564
13. Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation .................ssceeceseeceeeeeees 564
14. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature .............0..0e00s 565
i, eport of the Ben Nevis Committee: s275.<2.. 2. .ascedsieusscece sad asesemn tees 565
16. On Recent Researches in the Infra-red Spectrum. By Dr. 8. P. Lanetry 565

. A New Determination of the Ratio of the Specific Heats of certain Gases.

By O. LumMer and E. PRINGSHEIM ...........066 sectsueueceseronne etsmnsens 565

DEPARTMENT III,

. A Method for accurately Determining the Freezing-point of Aqueous

Solutions which Freeze at Temperatures just below 0°C. By the late
P. B. Lewis. Communicated by Dr. MnsER WILDERMANN ............... 567

. The Influence of Temperature upon the Specific Heat of Aniline. By

BVA GRURKITHG: MISA) Crs. veg oven tesc ster thestitona csc esesehcrocemere toeeeeeneee 568

. On some Photometric Measures of the Corona of April 1893. By Pro-

fessor Hl. E. TURNERS MGA, 1.2. .15.cncscosssees ces reste hn caseonencheseteaeeens 568

. On Photographs of Spiral and Elliptic Nebule. By Isaac Ropers,

ESE rs pokUSat (aveeassccaeevscesacdevecaccs sin evpohacemanteraiencest eres eaads tee eee 569

. On the Formation of Soap Bebbiles by the Contact of Alkaline Oleates

with. Water... By Professor 'G! QUINCKE:....20.1.00+2s0s0-scpce-sseetecneemeesees 569

. On the Effect of Gases on the Surface Tension and Electrical Conductivity

of Soap-films,, By Ee) SPANSELRDD: <c.nisseoeueseemectencere sees eotsermsemecemears 569

. On the Velocity of the Hydrogen Ion through Solutions of Acetates. By

WiC. DAMPIER “WE DEAM, -MisAt— otc Aaeweveeoteculeces trate ceectee sae aeeeaneeeeee 569

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.

. On the Results of a New Analytical Representation of the Distribution of

Magnetic Force on the Surface of the Earth. By Ap. ScHMIDT ......... 570

. A Suggested Explanation of the Secular Variation of Terrestrial Mag-

netism., By ARTHUR SCHUSTDR, FRiSicsicv.c..cceccesee meee ceoeeceeer same 571

. On the Construction of Delicate Galvanometers. By ARTHUR SCHUSTER,

BB iy Syacde nina sh oban sccdatab ores odeleavesths «deus clea seMneeae aes 00 aay ean aa 572

. fOn eo Minimum Current audible in the Telephone. By Lord RaYLeren,

BCC Ba By neintnanacpncind camanieninsomainnenresmowes sev deeeth slat Nenii fess esate en aeemem 572

CONTENTS. xiii

Page
tAn Attempt at a Quantitative Theory of the Telephone. By Lord

6.
RMN TEEER ED OU LL 9:7e wan dadia dasaiisesiaciie's <seeendanvences cee view tonldeuseevsee ces ¥eebe 573
6. tOn the Amplitude of Sonorous Waves which are but just audible. By
Sea PE AR YGTCE CHET SOC AENS 92S thn Umass okes get dcleehoeieaactecec. ase ccdnsecneede sts 573
7. On the Production of Beat-tones from two Vibrating Bodies whose
Frequencies are so high as to be separately inaudible. By Atrrep M.
HPNAW PAGES ete or cn canvases oisinisia sale gainaicilasicinee neiasasiaicndvocteesserasenersiceseusravcescee de 573
8. On the Variation of the Modulus of Elasticity with Change of Tempera-
ture as determined by the Transverse Vibration of Bars at Various
bemperatures.. . By ATHEAD) M\ MAYER) ..25..-0ss00sngecceancansecdececasse scenes 573
9. *On an Apparatus for Measuring small Strains. By Professor J. A.
IPIWVIEN, Geo. Licsanctantoseummesinsinacin stwsent Nags te cdeceecteeee nce re sei eb tae ee reeee 574
10. On Mirrors of Magnetism. By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, D.Sc.,
Hae Sieicras as co cote dha te tsar tases Minate sce os ARMM Mah Senne else cass wajsceabuoeteee 574
11. The Volume Changes which accompany Magnetisation in Nickel Tubes.
Eyabrofessor Ch Gy KNODDSDISGH ce teteeeees ss sracenclese<svicge encase odacsaevaces 576
12. On Hysteresis in Iron and Steel in a Rotating Magnetic Field. By
PRANCIS G. BATLY, M.A. ...cs0..cceec0e00s sue igavdedsel odes Oss dacckbRneeeeatas 576
13. On the Vibrations of a Loaded Spiral Spring. By L. R. Wuiper-
PEORSENTUAG, 35.5 ocrcaisnat Tatecee satis cpomasines dase teste sadeaes ouside svemeveseapentnen dnse 577
TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
DppaRTMENT I.
1. On Fuchsian Functions. By Professor Mirrag-LEFFLER ..... Secncr bidocboree 577
2, On Ronayne’s Cubes. By Professor H. Hennussy, F.R.AS. 20.0... eee 578
8. On a Property of the Catenary. By Professor H. Hunnessy, F.R.S....... 578
4, A Complete Solution of the Problem, ‘To find a Conic with respect to

6.
as
8.

9.

10.

1p

12,

which two given Conics shall be Reciprocal Polars.’ By J. W. Rus-
BGT AN Yoatais cada cee eiddinsc <jnsincecescaReteae ads Mw eeeny aoe e roe rak aN Tiare tee ee 578

The Impossibility of Trigraphic Fields of Spaces. By J. W. Russect, M.A. 578

On Maxwell's Method of deriving the Equations of Hydrodynamics from
the Kinetic Theory of Gases. By Professor Lupwic BotrzMann ......... 579

*On the Invariant Ground-forms of the Binary Quantic of Unlimited
Order. By Major P. A. MacManon, R.A., FLR.S. .. cece cccccecesene ene 579

Principes fondamentaux de la Géométrie non-euclidienne de Riemann.
Par P. Mansion, professeur & |’ Université de Gand ...............0cccceeeeeee 579

Formule for Linear Substitution. By Professor FE. B. Exwiorr,
Seema beat te. Senrstoih 325s eeda seen eeeee aceon Nec hitoeks Loos ni seeker asentude - 581

Departments II., III.

Joint meeting with Section I to discuss the two following Papers :—

*On Experiments illustrating Clerk Maxwell’s Theory of Light. By Pro-
PPPROMO EVER WOM GH Hits Si Masten terete: ota naac shire cetuetascn recedes isisec wees es 582

*On an Electrical Theory of Vision. By Professor Ot1ver Lopes, F.R.S, 582

DrEpartTMENT II.

*On the Velocity of the Cathode Rays. By Professor J. J. Toomson,
WS. sk. eter Sehaavsneavan oN ee Bo anee se ee aripaieidactaioesat ergata 582

xiv

CONTENTS,
Page
. On a Ten-candle Lamp for use in Photometry. By A. Vernon Har-
COURT, My As, MARIS We eeltencc soetscvnacecnsancuves sod coed adnate soe ean see teem 582

. On the Cause of the Spurious Double Lines sometimes seen with Spectro-

scopes, and of the Slender Appendages which accompany them. By
G. JORNSTONE STONDY, MCA, DISC... BUR.S. scocseocbewspnusestos ecu es Ree eeate 583

. On the Luminosity observed when a Vacuum Bulb is broken. By Joun

DURA cas ahae an een eeseen See ec one ood cle ciia'e oe ee sve siealeletaornee ete ech CRE eee REESE 585

. On the Correction of Optical Instruments for Individual Eyes. By Tempxst

ANDERSON) MADE ISC Hack: adbe cece ccieas sdu's os bon.cbuveadeide ont sesanee ac mmeummen een 586

. How the Misuse of the Word ‘Force,’ in Attractions, Electricity, and

Magnetism, may be avoided without much departure from existing practice.
By2Dr.G, JOMNSTON EDS LONAY, Hak... 0. seaveneuoesnnedernch once scot oaaeneneeoee 586

18. On a Nomenclature for very much Facilitating the Use of Systematic

Measures. By G. Jounstone Sronny, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. ........ceeeeee 587
Department III.

1. Report of the Electrical Standards Committee............::sccsssesseeeceneeeeee 592

2. Determination of the International Ohm in Absolute Measure. By Pro-
fOSAOr) VURTAMU: JONES, sakcSnmss seclinteveceeeeteceseneeccs teen resctrestecceree a 592

3. Comparison with the B.A. Units of some Coils of Low Resistance. By
Ate EG DAZHBROOK) Hb Ossreccsseuteeageee ees civesdeesscesctecderauceesttedereeeeene 592

4, Comparison of the Standards of the Board of Trade with the B.A. Unit.
Bid. RENNIE), coc casessaeeus semtinies Soler nlodanascasie dunetnsseecne seccac eaeateeceneeene 592

5. Comparison of some Standards belonging to the Indian Government. By
BO, (WALKER. .5scstden dal ivin ds Vacnisen dlsincendd en sedeh s gee one tres amen 592

6. On the Specific Resistances of Copper and Silver. By Rev. T. C, Frrz-
PATRIOK (vsnaaschecosesrasssseseoecasessesnseinedeseotosseetisnsiseascsiscaes site soseaehmens 592

7. *On Standards of Low Electrical Resistance. By Professor VirIAMU
JVONHS, HEPES: sven swssueseat noes Sones dosasactecwstetdecens ones rhe tridencecaestann aCe meena 592
8. *On the Specific Conductivity of Copper. By J. TntcHMULIER ............ 592

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 165.

1. On the Displacements of the Rotational Axis of the Earth. By Professor
DW) SPORSUME os. .a,-n-nmepbiah svtede oom ocnnonbnnnbacan te aspeoAG- epee. ee an 593

2. A Lecture-room Experiment to illustrate Babinet’s Principle. By Pro-
fessor: A. CORNU, FR. Sisc.scgsdeasnesencnacchicosoceesanedteeeatee cetnene coat taemetiee 593

3. A New Explanation of the Wave-movements of a Stretched String. By
WE, BERLOW ..seceaeenseseassnscuduesssnevacaescoeasusayeuganneeter: een ema 593

. On Lunar Curves of Mean Temperature at Greenwich and the Heat of

the’ Moon,” By J. PARm HHARRISON «.5..1s cssi0.osaeesscasedeeeepeetee eres eeee -- 593

Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.

Address by Professor Harotp B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President of the

ih

SSCCHLOM sccttcce. sdasivad eames ducma cota cceene co Ct ee EEC See ee ee 594

Report of the Committee on an International Standard for the Analysis of
PROD: BNE SGCOL, ..nnsencswouseinmvevavewcnevensenereranseedemeteedd do taaeeende tee 605

CONTENTS. XV

Page
2. Report of the Committee on Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis 605

8. On the Proportions of Carbonic Acid in Air which are Extinctive to
Flame, and which are Irrespirable. By Professor Frank Crowns, D.Sc, 605

4. On Some Experiments with Free Hydroxylamine. By Dr. C A. Lopry

PUSIBESEEUVING VAMMSTCL ASIN bow. Soy. nasticntwoddaweneed ao ceadaicoehanaesudedeucs both eadee Seb 606
5, The Chemical Action of a New Bacterium in Milk. By ALpxaNDER
ERRIGNSIICUIN A! cess va a ccjesletidts Shia apince cote c gatiacee hades Seva aebeae Ra ee Weedless’ 608

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

Discussion on the behaviour of gases with regard to their electrification and
the influence of moisture on their combination :—

1. On the Connexion between Chemical Change and Electric Discharge

through Gases. By Professor J. J. THomson, M.A., F.R.S.......... 609

2. On the Influence of Moisture on the Combination of Chemical Sub-
stances. By H. BRERETON BAKER .iscc...ccsvccoseeccssccscecunessseseue 609

3, On the Rate of Oxidation of Phosphorus, Sulphur, and Aldehyde.
iy Lomas wan, BSc; PhD x en 80s. choot uddeks OO esa eens 609

4, New Methods of Spectrum Analysis, and on Bessemer Flame Spectra. By
Pe rolessor VV, IN. J HAREEEY,,FRSs, i. csaccJaleerehencsiincckae nt denulndecd 610

5. On the Chemistry of Coal Formation. By J. W. Tuomas, F.LC., F.C.S. 611
6. On the Iodine Value of Sunlight in the High Alps. By Dr. S. Rrpzat 612

7. *Interim Report of the Committee on the Formation of Haloids from
Meee MURMESE ERS BUS RS GN. ced.ven J. Jal tdvacsouceebaaddeaccec thieeths lestteeeens 614

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
1. *A New Gaseous Constituent of Air. By Lord Rayteten, Sec.R.S., and

SeECEE: NV LLAMBAY, BRSY.. osan.sochbet eaosee emer nea en! 614
2. tOn Schuller’s Yellow Modification of Arsenic. By Professor H. McLxop,
rete eas slong gsesStansatW ac fa casos maar eeeece ens s ccunadadeaiweeiaiccs 615
3. *On the Electrolysis of Glass. By Professor W. C. Roserts-AUSTEN,
Re ree sG 5.5 u avs Xan alts daa nd aueie samemmee eens demas ve aus dcoevenevakwarasstces 615
4, On the Relations between the Viscosity of Liquids and their Chemical
Nature. By Dr. T. E, Toorps, F.R.S., and J. W. Rovp@ar ............... 615
5. Some Experiments on the Rate of Progress of Chemical Change. By Dr
See CATATON, E1.S, ....s..cdecdeen manor net Aieolers slices Loveseat ees 616

6. The Determining of the Freezing-point of Water, van’t Hoff’s Constant,
Arrhenius’ Law of Dissociation, Ostwald’s Law of Dilution. By Dr.
Senet VU IED RRMANN 9) 1g. A was «antanian ioc ds x ecards MLMRE Aieavaktialveallds Lal 616

7, On the Effect of Dilution upon the Colours of Salt Solutions and the
Measurement of this Effect. By Wyarr W. Ranpatt, Ph.D. ............ 618

8. On the Distinction between Mixtures and Compounds. By P. J. Harroa,

2 aE ee, EE RR ie 1S ot CURE ene Ook Oe Ce I A 618

9. The Atomic Weight of Carbon. By Professor J. A. WANKLYN ......... 619
10. Popular Method for the Estimation of Carbon Dioxide in the Air. By

ie oe Conan, PhD. sand. G, \AppraiwaRrn,....iiiii id icles leseti hislvsecles. 619

11. *On the Diffusion of very Dilute Solutions of Chlorine and Iodine. By
A. P, LavRIE........ daeescassevecsseenens VonwveatabeucwoueiVoeisdetderedeweben sucess 620

xvi CONTENTS.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14,

Page
1. *Investigations on Tautomerism. By Professor W. J. BRUHL ............ 620
2. On Ortho-dinitroso Derivatives of the Aromatic Series. By Professor
HN OWEUING ce atescemacn ose ro cisceseelee= 00s Ws octejseaieate'de cetstck rte tents eae enamine 620
3. On the formation of Indazol Derivatives from Aromatic Diazo-compounds.
By, Eecetessor Erp NOMETING S25. jpincsact seve scees ed odedvateuuaens soe teaahtee eeeeE 622
4, *On Some New Colouring Matters, By Dr. H. Caro ...........cecseeeeeeeee 623
5. On the Tartrarsenites. By G. G. Henpurson, D.Sc., M.A., and A. R.
IBAW AEN Ge MEH aD) tae ieee cieistais sop sisapisaiis raiding d «steps nisellnaiemep cat oases em ee emeeeneteeeee 624
6. On the Constitution of the Acid Amides. By J, B. Conny, Ph.D.......... 625
7. Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ............ 628
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 1a.
1. Report of the Committee on the Action of Light on Dyed Oolours......... 628
2. Report of the Committee on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ............ 628
3. *Discussion on Dr. J. B. Conen’s Paper on the Constitution of Acid
PATINA GR i ncemsceas teins omevcesedd staealsensie cme sepiass do vpudae Reese teh Sauce eRe 628
4, On Certain Phenomena occurring during the Evaporation of Salt Solutions.
By Da: WieeMmYERHORFDR: 225.500. cieseaewsinesds damian’ sbes destiny mecmete emaeee ne 628
5. *On Some Derivatives of Camphene. By J. E. Marsn and J. A.
(CEARTENGEHE | aciisin co'eaeaat sess cas ciaciees cass ose aasesscaanettaasies secret eer amma 629
6. On Fluorene Diacetate. By Professor W. R. Hopexinson and A. H.
(OOTE ieccs scines son Catanasp enbiecaseaes oa idaiaaneslesietealea(cue saist/s pac eas tee meee 629
7. Interim Report of the Committee to inquire into the proximate Chemical
Constituents of the various kinds of Coal ..............2:sesseeecsceceeseeseaees 630
8. *Interim Report of the Committee on the Properties of Solutions ......... 630

9. Report of the Committee for Preparing a New Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ...,.:...casssascdececsnsneon cee adueeeeeenee 630

Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.

Address by L. Fretoner, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., President of the Section 631
1. Some Points of Special Interest in the Geology of the Neighbourhood of

Oxford. . ‘By Professor A.. H. Greun, M.A., FLB.S.ULo .ncseesosmeeee 644
2. Report of the Committee for making New Sections in the Stonesfield

SSlabe y ig; s asaventquusie Redhat ke bdo avsibicbis | Foa.c's se cole a 645
8. On the Terraced Hill Slopes of North Oxfordshire. By Epwin A.

"WiSGEORD, -BUGS aoe spaseertre eases se ois code dd cc sck. ROLE ea 645

4, The Probable Range of the Coal-Measures under the Newer Rocks of
Oxfordshire and the adjoining Counties. By Professor Boyp Dawxrns,

1 RS ere sels] ee res ee 646
5. On the Deposit of Iron Ore in the Boring at Shakespeare Cliff, Dover.
By, Professor Boxp WAWacINS, PVRS... :.0.ic.-aesnadd-naetenne de leggiencbeeen ene 648

6. On the Cause of Earthquakes. By Professor J. Logan Losiey, F.G.S.... 649

7, On Certain Volcanic Subsidences in the North of Iceland. By Tempgsr
PENGEREON, IM. D.: Bien Pulau: savage oskcncuaanwaeaseewenca tee daidoree ease aeieue 650

Z.

to

on

to

to

CONTENTS. XVIL

IRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
Page
*Discussion with Section H on the Plateau Gravels, &c., North Kent...... 651
(a) On the Geology of the Plateau Implementsin Kent. By Professor
RUPERT JONHS) HRs, HGS oteeasecscaees Siasvaesbadedtaad.s wah 651
(6) On the Age of the Plateau Beds. By W. Wurraxnr, F.R.S.,
Gs be eraws seme tautsncannd- acs titened saa culahuiecaae cede ose wbascmactarts 652

. On the Traces of Two Rivers belonging to Tertiary Time in the Inner

Hebrides. By Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIB, F.R.S...........:ccccecceceeesceseeeecs 652

. On a New Method of Measuring Crystals, and its Application to the

Measurement of the Octahedron Angle of Potash Alum and Ammonia
PMlinia yet. AVrnRs) MSA. 5 WG Ss.6 5. s.asscdtacinge peade deg agessbahaon’ ona 654

. A Comparison of the Pebbles in the Trias of Budleigh Salterton and of

Cannock Chase. By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. ... 655

. On a Soda-felspar Rock at Dinas Head, North Coast of Cornwall.

PV BLOW ARDY WOK: oopistuiesseeeecn nels ais cual homan atts lad sstqaindsacameceldeccMaotee okcuec as 655

. Report of the Committee on Geological Photographs ...........ccsceseseeees 656

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

. Report of the Committee on Paleeozoic Phyllopoda ............... cece eee 656
. Report of the Committee on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the

(sy TEC ERC 2 I NTI saat Nid eR SO 7) 656

. Preliminary Note on a New Fossil Fish from the Upper Old Red Sandstone

of Elginshire. By R. H. Tragvarr, M.D., FBS. wee eeceeneee ees 656

. On the Homes and Migrations of the Earliest Forms of Animal Life as

indicated by Recent Researches. By Henry Hicxs, M.D., F.R.S.,F.G.8. 657

5. On some Vertebrate Remains from the Rheetic Strata of Britain. (Third
Contribution.) By Monracu Brown, F.G.S., F.Z.8........cceceecseceeeneee 657
6. On some Forms of Saurian Footprints from the Cheshire Trias. By
PEMAEDE NV c DIEBES 5. canes tdeee.ace daa: ciedaganararenstddadsy <daachad sag isy Wied eaaeg 658
MONDAY, AUGUST, 13.
1. *Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks .............sscecsconecsccetececees 659
2. Report of the Committee on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits of
MO PENG OUCH cecintcensiee ssjoiie neerea tS eam He Reu RS RINGa w'siciv'ss sacce-sdee cmetbisalecar 659
5. On some Lacustrine Deposits of the Glacial Period in Middlesex. By
HEINE VAELUOISs NUD). HR Ses He Cra Stiresceptastascesee ttle smcestecaesevecaeueseahes 659
4, On Sporadic Glaciation in the Harlech Mountains, By the Rev. J. F.
OMAK AV ePID. visoosusemetartcimcensaecacerensesedcntesetestriset parecer ces tas 659
5. On the Probable Temperature of the Glacial Epoch. By Professor T. G.
Bonn.) DiS Talay HRS eae cadses. sev cesaete mete a cae cates aes ones atten 660
6. On the Inadequacy of the Astronomical Theory of Ice Ages and Genial
maces, by Bpwarp P.CunvERweLn, MA), BUD CiDs s\iccccassessesstovesce 660
7. On the Mechanics of an Ice-sheet. By Rev. J. F. Braxn, M.A., F.G.S. 661
8. Report of the Committee on the Elbolton Cave ........c.ccssscssscssceseeeeeces 662
9. Report of the Committee on the Calf-hole Cave .........sssccssesssccsscnssceees 662
1894. a

XVili CONTENTS.

1,

2,

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
Page
On the Permian Strata of the North of the Isle of Man. By Professor 1
ASOD MDA WIRING) ONES syaap:pesiea s C8 aw wslctewanielt leat slew aivdte'd aisle ote Se eoe SR DRRDE me 662

The Carboniferous Limestone, Triassic Sandstone, and Salt-bearing Marls
of the North of the Isle of Man. By Professor Boyp Dawxtns, I'.R.S. 662

3. *Strictures on the Current Method of Geological Classification and Nomen-
clature, with Proposals for its Revision. By Sir Hznry Howorrn,
BTR alfciashinsiseusleiasiseiseleitescs Ganesomdeceules sacteuceseescsres se su deessenend aaeeenane 663

4, On the Pleistocene Gravel at Wolvercote, near Oxford. By A, Monr-
GOMPR TE MB BE MGA Ts Acddsvion- olen stecs sd ve. vaececcsevouatedes soatenemseeeeeneeetenes 663

5. On Prehistoric Man in the Old Alluvium of the Sabarmati River in Gu-
jarat, Western India. By R. Bruce Foorn, F.G.S. ............ecseeeeeeees 664

6. On the Shape of the Banks of Small Channels in Tidal Estuaries, By
HTOfessOL eel VELEN: NEGO, LARD.) Ls sainecivaatennceeuade seeemoateeee comes ree 664

7. Report of the Committee on Harth Tremors ...............seeescecsseseseceececs 665

8. *Interim Report of the Committee on the Investigation of a Coral Reef... 655

9. Report of the Committee on Underground Waters............s.cecssseeseeceees 665

10. Report of the Committee on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea ......... 665
11. On a Keuper Sandstone cemented by Barium Sulphate from the Peak-

stones Rock, Alton, Staffordshire. By W. W. Warts, M.A., F.G.S. ... 665

12. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ......... 666
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
1. Report on Investigations made at the Zoological Station, Naples............ 667
2. Report on Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Bio-
logical Association, Plymouth: ....2isssdedesess suveeosteteocccndtedocesss teins . 667
3. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands .............cseceeeeceeseeceees 667
4. Report on the Fauna and Flora of the West India Islands .................+ 667
5. Report on the Index Generum et Specierum ...........:scccsseceeeeseencceeanee 667
Address by Professor I. Bayrny Batrovr, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., President
DIB SECON tre eennactsl sot or cap Sunn htens danwe Me gees Cesk pe eceaee enema bias Sennett 667
DEPARTMENT OF ZooLoay.
1. On the Didermic Blastocyst of the Mammalia. By Professor A. A. W.
(EFUB RE CHIE, AGM AD) Nereereomaractesns <a staecte easiness «01¢co caret Cee RE rae Ree 681
2. *On the Ancestry of the Chordata. By W. GARSTANG........:s0escceenerecss 683
3. *On the Structure of the Integument of Polyodon. By W. E. Cottiner 683
4, *On the Vertebree of Amphisile. By W. E. CoLbINGE.........0..00ecee0eeee 683
DEPARTMENT OF Borany.
1. Two Irish Brown Algee. By Professor T. JOHNSON ......ccc.ccssecceseseeners 683

Some Chalk-forming and Chalk-destroying Alge. By Professor T. JoHn-
SON ..... ances estas sae sisislaiisisaiesnin. slviiny vies eae yslemie@lelv cl’eslensishtennir vse iiteenne 683

CONTENTS. xix

Page
3. *On the Development of the Cystocarp in Poldsiphonia nigrescens.! By H.
BePMMEMEE DS. ox cemcd hd sat dosicl Gansu cys’ desde +c qdanstapneus rin des<aeath cbsjeadesd aeate-ed 684
4, *An Exhibition of Algae. By A. CHURCH ......s.cecsecesesccsvecseoenesesceese 684
FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
1. *On the Relations of Protoplasm. By Professor E. yvaN BEnepEn......... 684
2. *On the Periodic Variation in the Number of Chromosomes. By Professor
ee URS OGG own sre ctusiec gaan ai due ye cap Gen amnadiee ddedeipeanehsasomtsssOhanaatarte 684

3, *On Chlorophyll in Animals. By Professor E. Ray Lanxesrer, F.R.S. 684

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY.
1. *On the Origin and Morphological Signification of the Notochord. By

IEeofessor 1) VAI BENEDEN* “)). 25k. ]isgsdee die. c Res. Ou sek ecal kad 684
2. On the Carpus of the Greenland Right-whale compared with those of Fin-

whales. By Professor J. STRUTHERS, MED: Mar DD Aeeeahe Bak eee eaee 684
3, On the Species of Amphioxus. By J. W. coe soelee detecennaseancaces 685

DEPARTMENT OF Borany.
1, On the Phylogenetic Position of the Chalazogamic Amentiferse. By Miss

MPM EEERIIIN <oravay, Gas dac. ss <ecvccanus erobtessoreaeansacteencatonacaentetaadansnedtncs 687
2. *On the Hygroscopic Dispersal of Fruits in certain Labiates. By Miss D.

Meta sabi dextetas aida cde'dri ied re sees cee aavetndate ctetns sdhivdearivescaeseatraudcnet deat 687
3. *On the Hybridisation of Orchids. By Dr. Jamus CLARK ...............008 687

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

DEPARTMENT OF ZooLoGy.
1. Interim Report on a Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds

Bid Dire) ld (0.0) an ater ane ER Sen Ae oStncorcabercrcodurdenc uate Ratpeicer EAT ao erer ran 687
2. Report on the Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs .................. 687
me leport ona, Deep-sea Dow Nety oo cc.sscouctaccsccwiscssesnssencscadesessns cdscapavs 687
4. On Temperature as a Factor in the Distribution of Marine Animals. By

POET ARES os cn ais npc su uku cen detat tet ceaeaees pa pse ak eps sce den ciunisaat odo edema 687
5. Second Report on the Zoology of the Irish Sea .........sscseseeseceeeceeeeees 688
6. On Marine Fish-hatching and the Dunbar Establishment of the Fishery

Board for Scotland. By Professor W. C. McINTOSH .......08...00 . 688

DEPARTMENT OF BoTAny.

1. *On the Correlation between Root and Shoot. By Professor L. Kny ... 638
2. *On the Sensitiveness of the Root-tip. By Professor W. PFmrrer......... 689
3. *Exhibition of Diagrams. By Professor L. KNY ..........ccsceceseeeeeeeeeees 689

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
DEPARTMENT OF ZooLocy.
. Interim Report on Telegony ...... Weis asvisetenan deren dure aucieacenesditeonecesets 689

2. *On Some Difficulties of Darwinism. By Professor D'Arcy THomrson ... 689
a2

—

xX CONTENTS.

Page
3. On Social Insects and Evolution. By Professor C. V. Rtuney ............00 6389

4. On the Réle of Sex in Kyolution. By Professor Joun Burry Haycrart,
PR LO Nie tainase apnea pies wine cic dsselsbes = seidvie delve sd wis slic tie So's la eeR 691

5. On the Relation of Mimetic Characters to the Original Form. By F. A.
BD) ar ey AG wD) raacakc Mears aenanucsacses ts oesescce% venison cadeebeaeee Ree dcememee 692

6. *On certain Principles of Progressively Adaptive Variation observed in
ossil Series. “By Professor HW. Fs OSBORN. .2.....0:...cccccscercoste ese eteeeneen 693

7. On the Wing of Archeopteryx viewed in the Light of that of some
ModemBirds) (Sy 4Wirk. PYCRAED © .2..lccvcdedccvuceacetbenaeeee ee a eeeereeee 693
8. On the Nephridial Duct of Owenta. By Professor G. GInson ..............5 695

DEPARTMENT OF Botany.

1. On the Origin of the Sexual Organs of the Pteridophytes, By Professor
ER NS ET AM PRUE soon cain sao ein oSesianvai sn 58 pannaeh Magee Mee atone sepeaeses 695

2. Notes upon the Germination of the Spores of the Ophioglosser. By
Peniesior MOU GUAGE. CAMPRELD oii. saws sienaresb4ehpuces Aearanudassnceoe seein 695

3. On Sterilisation and a Theory of the Strobilus. By Professor F. O.
SOM REP Le Sere areca oem estat janiCeders cise vials Suleleire mas OSotae Mea taee aes Laem col Cone eee 695

4, *On a Method of taking Casts of the Interiors of Flowers. By Miss N. F.
HESHATRID © ese ociscntanivatsee cunt anaes «0 scagmenetecicaccera declares te etree eee neem 696
5. *On the Function of the Nucleus. By Professor E. ZACHARTAS ..........66 696
G. *Exhibition of Diagrams. By Professor Lito ERRERA ............eseseeceeees 696

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
DEPARTMENT OF ZooLoey.

i, On the Blood of Magelona. By W. B. Benwam, D.Sc...............cceceneeee 696

2. Suggestions for a New Classification of the Polycheta. By W.B. Brn-
PLAID) Cats hes ote tchie exe Saye cicvannse yoneudews shea wooo sale oak decccee mene race nae 696
3. *On Museum Preparations. By E. S. GooDRICH ................ssceeeeeeeeeee 697

4, On Random Publishing and Rules of Priority. By Thomas R. R. Sres-
BEN Gos MUA Soa eaevaeeccey cots som atecaentancece tia tee nena ee nae ne 697

5. *On the Relations of the Cranial Nerves to the Sensory Canal System of
Pisites, | “Sy "W. El. OOnLinG ys 2.75 6..0o:. cecs once. sdeeeceetacee, een 698
- *On Some Models of the Crania of Siluroids. By H. B. Pornarp ......... 698

“Ic

he

. On the Epidermis of the Plantar Surface and the Question of Use-inheri-

tance. y+ FAs Drxmy MAGS MCD. «os .c<<ssapp ssn: «ees Demet coe 698

DEPARTMENT or Borany.

oy On -Pachytheen. By. Gz OG RRA Ysa tci.. ue. os piccuctaapae Sa eee 698
2. *The Structure of Fossil Plants in its bearing on Modern Botanical

Wrestions. By Dr DAH Scorn, FBS. :.is5.0s500sccsseteeee eee ee 698

. *On a Thames Bacillus. By Professor II. Marswatn Warp, F.R.S. ...... 698

me CO

or

. *Influence of Light on Diastase. By Professor J. R. GRrmn
. “A Contribution to the Geological History of Cycads. By A. ©, Snwarp 698

CONTENTS. Xxi

Srcrion E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.

Address by Captain W. J. L. Wuarron, R.N., F.R.S., President of the =
Bebe meniseeine Meine eSeeisci emia dade celsirda seinen Carnaden tains ocasiieriaas esa sccenenes cceaoacs 699

1. tOn Current Polar Exploration. By Colonel H. W. Feimpen ............ (All
2, On a Recent Journey in the Valley of the Euphrates. By D. G. Hocarrm 711
3, fOn Russian Armenia. By Dr. A. Marxorr...... Sone cor deeshwseasetusstete es 711
4, Montenepro. By W. H. CozEns-HARDY.......ccsscssescssssceedscsecscscscoseee 711

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

. On the Bathymetrical Survey of the French Lakes, By E. Detenecaus 712

2. On a Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes. By HueH Rosurr

INTE RED SEs PUM eben chess vee.ceuacceaatease emcee cateece cee sacs oe bs belgdearwanecee 713
3. On the Currents of the Faerée-Shetland Channel and the North Sea. By

IPSN GD KOK SON, Baht: Siti 0s dccanacscuqseetaranch satasaen tance wiass adie seiture teteces 7138
4, On Geographical Photography. By JoHN THOMSON ............seecceseceeeees 714

. A New Light on the Discovery of America. By H. Yune OLpwam, M.A.,

HEN Cha Someta sce ssi csanne adds -saaonescncosde means neodnanacessleenesdsaraedesiedeonceeteoss'o 715

. Explorations in the Sierra Madre of Mexico. By Osprrr H. Howarru... 715

MONDAY, AUGUST 13,

J. On a Visit to British New Guinea. By Miss Francus Baiipon ......... 716
2, Report of the Committee on the Climatology of Africa .................eeeee 716
3. FOn a Journey in the Libyan Desert. By H. Weip BLUNDELL ............ 716
4, *On Bhutan and the Himalayas East of Darjiling. By Colonel H. Gopwry-

PAVUSERNG (Ds htapoe. acsctiea de oa scales aamenemateractoemaeicie easiness w'vaciversiamstaa ta ws’ ivetae 717

. On the Best Method of Aiming at Uniformity in the Spelling of Place-

names, By G. G. CursHorm, M.A, B.Sc. ...........0.00e A PPERR Sere Semeper gine 717

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.

1. +On Researches by the Prince of Monaco in the North Atlantic and Mediter-

ranean during the Summer of 1894, By J. Y. Bucuanan, F.R.S. ...... 717
2. Report of the Committee on Observations in South Georgia or other Ant-

BVCUIC ESA .c.....nc0ectancemtterreesas¥ac ce tebaw been atop acne std adagdasietiss setae sdien 717
3. *On the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic Expedition. By A. Monvrsriorn... 717
4. *On the Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution of Marine Organ-

SBS, oy SOHN MURRAY, Wit). .tecssseesecsessecssnee Rsenthustinedcses sweet oe (eile
5. Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Hadramout ..............- ravi
6. On the Geography of Lower Nubia. By Somers Crarxy, F.S.A. a 8
7. *On a New Representation of the Vertical Relief of the British Isles. is

Wai AV ys DARBISHURE: 55 :scccsses/s0s0s0nasdcece Cepaices a aoe co vt aee ctr actonke Oe 718

Xxil CONTENTS.

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
Page

Address by Professor C. F. Bastasxe, M.A., F.S.S., President of the Section 719

LS)

i. *On the Mathematical Theory of International Trade. By Professor F. Y.

; OGM WORTH), VUIA-. ics smscewse ce erh pene ec os dees ah dosav aconede ch qs cee meeneens 729
2. Mechanics of Bimetallism. By Professor InvinG FISHER .............s000 729
3. *On Factors of Production. By Hi. Hiaes, UL.B.............scscssssssesensss- 729
4, On Stock Exchange Taxation. By J. Manprtto, Ph.D. ..................0.. 729

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

1. The Church Army and the Unemployed. By the Rev. W. H. Hunz...... 729
2. *On the Unemployed. By Boron SMART...........0.:cccccsscsescsscceeerseees 730
3. *On Prices, Wages, and the Standard of Value. By Epwarp

PAUIKUNSON ee nent acter ete t eet rene scooia cet semhece ee ce ecb eeenemepie re Tee eters: Secarer 730
4, On the Report of the Labour Commission. By L. L. Pricn, M.A. ...... 730
5. *On Women’s Industries. By Miss MAITLAND ......ccecsseseeesseceeeceeeseees 73
6. On Girl Life in an Industrial Centre. By Miss KenwaRp .................. 73

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

1. Statistics of Comparative General and Old-age Pauperism in England and

Wales, 1831 toU891. “By ©. S0ce \ iiiccecss.cscsscn-esvesscosereoteeeaec 732

. Proposals for an Agreement on the terms ‘Rent’ and‘Interes By

CES MD BVAS=) ca dekweie pce ec tan vest Svinsitee sone memaeepeaneaees tans teehee oe nee eet aan 733

. On the Economic Results of the Black Death in Italy. By M.

TROVIATIEVSICN escintecates coccsicatess cv oocy ac teauvereterctenats nse couelncccasetes teeter 1383

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.

1. On the Inequality of Local Rates; its Extent, Causes, and Consequences.
Bey TEA GAN INAN, MA oo cteravees ee an sianbeabenidnteagea. dobsiehe eee dene 734
2. A Few Remarks on Fifty Years’ Accounts of the Bank of England. By
PAU INN ep LTIX:, p Mic Am cactvacercb secs s.scccssseeeceuace Asoo acess isdsenoasosens036950- 734
3. On the ‘Economic Heresies’ of the London County Council. By SrpNEY
WV es DBs © 0 it mace eceog-cucecscetouce vacecescccede ser treee eee eaten eee 735
4, On Co-operation in Agriculture. By Harotp MOORE ............-.seeeeees 736
TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
1, Report of the Committee on Methods of Economic Training in this and
ober A7OUNEIBS S-.- presen tceep nas gant We5a- 04s sees e0-ona>senpe nea aeeee needa code 737
2. Report of the Committee on Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools 737
3

. On the Relation between Wages and the Numbers employed in the

Coal-mining Industry. By R. H. Hooker, M.A. ......ccccecsseseeseeeceees 737

. Popular Attitude towards Economics. By Rey. L. R. Puers, M.A. ... 738
. On the Relation between Wages, Hours, and Productivity of Tiabbtat

By J. A. Hoxson, M.A.

CONTENTS. XXiil

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.

Page

Address by Professor A. B, W. Kunnepy, LL.D., F.R.S., M.Iyst.C.E.,
FORA ONT OL ThE SOCHONN A. ceyenatinn.th oyddeces cocousessdiqestsvadtuctleswss easiest ite 739

1, {Some Reminiscences of Steam Locomotion on Common Roads. By Sir
EP ORAMWHLL, Barts, DiCili, BURG. .cocsccevsecssnedcecavccesevccescesesee 748

2. On Bore-hole Wells for Town Water-supply. By Henry Davey,
Bees Di 5 cg MCh aw Mane eact hdd aed. nan Code Sateee acura sae is ondocescotuane . 748

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
1. Joint meeting with Section A :—

(@) On Planimeters. By Professor O. HEnRIcT, F.R.S. ......ccccceeceeee 750

(4) *Note on the Behaviour of a Rotating Cylinder in a Steady Current.
& VY Mi

iy DOE P Is: MUA TLE OOK So wcaste Sicewane ddan sedan mrad thcesabanins ates keg 5
(c) *On the Resistance experienced by Solids moving through Fluids.
Bye ord emrvEny: BORIS. “scan eeseetancs dene Pet tucenteteee este canmeeete 50
(@) *Discussion on Flight. Opened by Hiram S. Maxim .........cceeee 750
2. On the Strength and Plastic Extensibility of Iron and Steel. By Professor
HACUARTON UP EDLERY Mi Inst:O. Bn” <.faesneieccdeccececesectecthecscce ec ccenwauene
3. On Tunnel Construction by means of Shield and Compressed Air, with
special reference to the Tunnel under the Thames at Blackwall. By
PP seriN ist ELAM MU RICH 4) f Wpdsiclo cesses dachapdbosadith oc aasevaad ls iacbanseceneseeeen 751
SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.
J, On Methods that have been adopted for Measuring Pressures in the Bores
peGanees By Sir Ad Neowin, 10:8. PRs. Meee, 7
2. On the Most Economical Temperature for Steam-engine Cylinders ; or,
Hot v. Cold Walls. By Bryan Donxin, M.Inst.C.E. ........cceecceeeeeee 755
MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
1. *On Signalling through Space. By W. H. Presce, C.B., F.R.S. ......... 756
2.*On Some Advantages of Alternate Currents. By Professor S. P.
PEP MVSOW BTSs 2002227 otsdeadaarbecdradeuees decade sectuse tlic tedddedeceanveek 756
3, Continuous-current Distribution of Electricity at High Voltage at Oxford.
By Tuomas Parker, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., M.Inst.E.E. 756
4, On a Special Chronograph. By Henry Lua, M.Inst.C.E., and Ropert
RRTACHER CI tyhin solos. tcc vs sn soe cm tameaemete woSt socas ecto een eee ek deta oatheoacaen a eetetee 757
5, On a Direct Reading Form of Platinum Thermometer. By G. M.
BBSTGATRR IB As vase aici's e'vnlvd ote wate atau sta vecale seetatads aodae ce ttacud cteds eters dad ekees 758
TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
1. The Report of the Committee on Dryness of Steam ..........0c..seeeceneeeees 758
2, On the Temperature Entropy Diagrams, By H. F. W. Bursratt, M.A.,
Be DAL TAB CEs, Me vnts <oarnciganpat acid nailed Sanpicus tgsye sais pseedamtannintdvnat® 758
3. On the Hunting of Governed Engines. By James SwiInBURNE,
PT ie Oeics ach - «Ila dnc See aats pees s banndE ne stenaanopilh dhinncndt che andla< seh8 758

XXIV CONTENTS.

4,

cr

Page
On Engineering Laboratory Instruments and their Calibration. By Pro-
FESBOLVUAVADIS: OAPPER, NT Ao. veo s.asins sm anmasepoeiee dale cere ceee core eneereeeteeeae 759
On Lighthouse Apparatus and Lighthouse Administration in 1894, By
SPECKSEINNVARD VEEIS MA y..leldnietnsetiailedaiulsetes oslo an sus sadentteeeapeeioe-eaepeeete 760

. On Spring Spokes for Bicycles. By Professor J. D, Everert, F.R.S. ... 760

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
Address by Sir W. H. Frower, K.C.B., LL.D., Se.D., F.R.S., President

Ofsthos SCCtHON) 2. .ascdsacesaveccsnse+0edtecosnnegataseMagtaewee ee a= seman eneeeaaneee 762
1. The Report of the Anthropometric Laboratory Committee ..........:s.:.00 774
2. The Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee .............cecceeeeeee 774
3. The Report of the Committee on Anthropometry in Schools ............... 774:
4, On the Diffusion of Mythical Beliefs as Evidence in the History of Culture.

ByHpwARD BB, Lyi0r,i)iC.1i., 1u1),; BARS.) aceascsssasecenacasesbeeeeeees 774

On Complexional Differences between Natives of Ireland with Indigenous
and Exotie Surnames respectively. By Joun Beppon, M.D., LL.D.,
HA atacalapsatssstanenensatecesaeeroeacteptoncdtncn se<cnp erseana tr occa sep ae ee 77>

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

1, The Report of the Committee on Prehistoric and Ancient Remains in

(Gilamorpanshire: \yor.ccadesnsascssctuen cere cenememeencer ann: seduces beeeteee en 775
2. The Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Elbolton Cave ...... 775
38. *The Report of the Committee on the Explorations at Oldbury Hill ...... 775
4. On the Evolution of Stone Implements. By H. STOPES ........cssecseeeeee 776:
§. Joint Discussion with Section C on the Plateau Flint Implements of

IN OTtHK ent, © fscc essen cecedee Sostouek sh tee cose aere eet oa ee oes oso a cee ee 776.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

1. The Report of the Committee on the Mental and Physical Condition of
COTAN ETI i,t epee ents Lotta dee asin canteen Bee Aedadane oe cosets eSeeht Geb ose Renan meats 76
2. Ona NewSystem of Hieroglyphics and a Pre-Pheenician Script from
Crete and the Peloponnese. By ARTHUR J. Evans, M.A. ..ccseeceeseees 776
3. *Exhibition of Prehistoric Objects collected during a Journey and Explora-
tions in Central and Eastern Crete. By Artuur J. Evans, M.A. ...... Wes
4. *lhe Heredity of Acquired Characters. By Professor A. MAcaLisTER,
MID, RSM cssiosias tretap ie asre eden snes ssce0sresspsnsie as eats tuade nde taeeamnan 778
5. *Notes on Skin, Hair, and Pigment. By Professor ArtHuR THOMSON,
DA. ise asp eenes nian REM RE pen Mees chee onion an ei Tniowne ng siicives een aes ere er 778
G. On the Anthropological Significance of Ticklishness. By Lovis
ROBINSON, MIDS cecatecceacs tt Stati Gil sigan UeleetbecaoReenaes Cone ee eee 778
7. On the Bow as a Musical Instrument. By H. Batrour, M.A. .........-.. 778
8. The Relations between Body and Mind, as expressed in Early Languages,

Customs,and Myths. By Rev. G. Harrwett Jones, M.A. ...... eee 779

. On the Alleged Presence of Negritoes in Borneo. By H. Line Ror ... 780

CONTENTS. xXV

Page
10. On the Possibility of a Common Language between Man and other
Animals. By Miss AGNES G. WELD. ......cccceceseeeeeseceeseneeseesaeeeneeens 780
11. On Mythical Pygmy Races. By Professor Brrrram Winpxez, D.Sc.,
MRE e cle divecdiac.sdecdoasdclaidevedeeves coovdobwedvdes-aseccvoude shibnai lL pitas 781
MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
1. Pygmies in Europe. By Professor J. KoLuMAann, M.D. .....esesseeeeeeeees 781
2. On some Stone Implements of Australian Type from Tasmania. By E. B.
PVEGRS DIOL, f ERS co. cde gnadecacdcewsceretssssrtevcasecuededevenncbeastssioneuses 782
8. *On Tasmanian Stone Implements. By H. Line ROTH ..........0seeeeeee 782
4, The Troglodytes of the Bruniquel, a Grotto of Ironworks on the Borders
of Aveyron, By Dr. EMILE CARTAILHAC ......-seeeseeeeeeeeeteeeeeeeeeeeeneees 782
5, A New Statuette of the Reindeer Age, representing a Woman, sculptured
in Ivory. By Dr. EMILE CARTAILHAC ......csseccesecneeeeecenseeneceesen scene 783
6. The End of the Stone Age on the Borders of the Mediterranean Basin.

By Dr. EMILE CARTAILHAC ........cscsssscrecenesecscenseceescesecnesenccesscnenss 783:

. On the Present State of Prehistoric Studies in Belgium. By Count

GOBLET D’ALVIELLA -..........scceessenccccnscsecssesceenesecnscasesassenccanaseeess 783

. *Observations on the Antiquity of Manin Belgium. By Professor Max

TL STIS a ACR GG SRE RES So Re SBS A BBB REE ion tae cbeechGotationeredeanaasasea éeen 784

9, *Exploration of British Camps and a Long Barrow near Rushmore. By
SENECA LEVEES Pe Eca asc cescsecsecen cians qesadtaes stscccpecseaescoreczasep 784
10. *On a New Craniometer. By General Pirt-Rivers, F.R.S. .........-.+06 784
11. *On the Long Barrow Skeletons from Rushmore. By J.G. Garson, M.D. 784
12. Report of the Committee on the Glastonbury Exploration ..........-...++ 784.
13. On Ancient Bone Skates. By Ropert Munro, M.D. ..........0e00e-ee weeee 184
14, *On the People of Western Ireland and their Mode of Life. By Professor _

SMemAe OP ETIAUIV TONG Sinicicie che sd obates och Sou'e's saaGennen sae nie eeitatara eles elote wees ofp rove Ueleniets 785

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.

1. On Three Neolithic Settlements in North Kent. By Mrs, Sropus ......... 785
2. On the Native Tribes between the Zambezi and Uganda, By Lionpr

BOE essctos phisleay ah odds's <dincoaden auatiin tide end aaalea'« ein dua Caienaianaawieyes aetdete neice 785
3. On the Lex Barbarorum of the Daghestan. By Professor Maxime Kova-

TEPIVISKGY « oe oilac usiosenscnesaseisseee omens ryneiacepes sia custiciinsylecite sonwes ws\siniesiarinesicce=sinas 735
4, On the Natives of the Hadramout. By J. THroporE BENT................++ 786
5. On the Shells used in the Domestic Economy of the Indonesians. By Dr.

J. D. OC. ScHMELTZ...........0. Rbbadercits he cdledanh daeihllae Mmedutanttl 200 dodaaetedonre “een 786:
6. On the Pantheon of the Fijians. By Bastz H. THomson ..............0605 786
7. The Distribution of the Picts in Britain, as indicated by Place-Names.

k=

ayes CHIRAN Ys vas cee vniccs que oddoanenmiattes «sabe sx ant RRRneORb enc s sacleaweusns sa Jacwsia nae 787

. *On the Ceremonies observed by the Kandyans in Paddy Cultivation. By

ES PAWN MEAs Srtcanceetteatescsccce stcnecnocccstesttoeesecresepesscetesesece 787

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 15.

. On the Brain of a Young Fuegian. By Professor L. MANOUVRIER......... 787
. *On the Valuation of Proportional Dimensions in the Description of the

ram. By-Professor L; MaNouvRiteRr Aa.) icles eacstecwicesaseoghesee . 788-

XXV1 CONTENTS

Page

3. On the Classificatory System of Relationship. By Rev. Lorurer Fison 788

. On Some of the Natives of British New Guinea. By H. Bettyse Barr-

DON pL Als Hibs ena ncaeys sn naaacbscddt «cease scinsnisciipsedeieaehe tesed eoeeceeerne 788

. On the Tobas of Gran Chaco, South America. By J. Gramam Kerr ... 789
. On the Maya Indians of Chichén Itz’, Yucatan. By Atrrep P.

WMATA STTACY a8 oe Meme nes coe ore esc emaaoe Soko deu doses BeGus Bede sua hatteces secsee eee 789

. On the Loochooan Language. By Professor Bastin Hatt CHAMBERLAIN 789
. Report of the Committee on the North-Western Tribes of Canada
. On the Significance of Objects with Holes. By Miss A. W. Bucxtanp... 790

See baton 799

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.

1. The Response of Animals to Changes of Temperature. By M. S. Prm-
REV MIVA ee NUE nrecep rere ca otesssccsveasescteuneen cette natere ssc cart oranecanaee “Spon 791
2. On Some Experiments to determine the Time-relations of the Voluntary
Tetanus in Man. By Davin Fraser Harris, B.Sc., M.B. ...........2.00000 792
3. *On Mirror Writing. By Professor F. J. ALLEN ...........c0ccssessseesveeens 793
4, On a Model of the Cochlea. By Professor John G. McKrnpnrick, M.D.,
PetaStar cite gateaevens dads sa eageehdesaeetedars toes aukciaeyateee eae ee seats eee me 793
5. On Some Physiological Applications of the Phonograph. By Professor
DOH Gy, MOKENDRICKS AID). FE Ssiccsecavevcnsspakcsrsss ase ee dacs seeeeeeeeree 794
6. On Trophic Changes in the Nervous System. By Professor Justus Gauty 794
7. On the Development of Kidney. By Professor Joun Burry Haycrarv,
I i Dye Sosa apab oscueod irae Deebe ipepeoadoesda- ater Aadasean nema sobaccaocd conus se L008 795
FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
Address by Professor E. A. ScuArmr, F.R.S., President of the Section ...... 795
1. *On the Absorption of Poisons. By Professor P. HEGER............ssecceee 804
2. *On a New Theory of Hearing. By C. H. Hurst, Ph.D. ..........ceeeenee 804
3. On the Fats of the Liver. By D. Nor PATON ..........sec0eceecneceeees $5pp¢ 804
4. On the Measurement of Simple Reaction Time for Sight, Hearing, and
Touch. By Professor W. RUTHERFORD, M.D., F.LR.S. ......cceceeeeeeeeeee 805
5. *On the Microscopic Appearance of Striped Muscle in Rest and in Con-
traction. By Professor W. RuTHERFORD, M.D., F.RS. ........c.seceeeeeeee 806
6. *On Effects of Suprarenal Extract. By Professor E. A. SHAFER ...... 806
7. On Epithelial Changes produced by Irritation. By D’Arcy Power,
MLA. MLB.) FBC Ssgiees auet oweiseedeecnkls.. ccsecao bbe oceei bay a epenneaae mane ae 806
SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.
1. *On Vowel and Consonant Sounds. By Professor D. L. HERMANN ...... 806

. On an Aerotonometer and a Gas-burette. By Professor Lion FrepErice 807
- On Local Immunity. By Lovrs Copperr, M.A., M.B., F.R.C.S., and

IW... Manson, MCAS MAD. 05.00.0000: ptosicgee soteeees eae Caen pean eee 807

. A Form of Experimentally-produced Immunity. By J. Lorrain Smiru,

MCA: MD; and H, TREVETHIOK, MIB. yz:ccues Snoca dace secre eltieeee ot eee 808

CONTENTS. XXV1L

Page

. *On the Changes in Nerve Cells due to Functional Activity. By Gustav

Wien) 0a BST ee RRS aaa ontanace cwesmadte Cesecd smackwassene 809
*On the Effect of Gravity on the Circulation. By Dr. L. Him ......... 809

Experimental Inquiry upon the Different Tracts of the Central Nervous
een VV. ND ETM Dye aoc ccc uniencanccprasses sGemprintsanscavnassepenss 809

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.

1. *On the Mechanical Theory of Lymph Formation. By Dr.Srartine ... 810
2. On Lymph Formation. By Watter S. Lazarvus-Bartow, M.D. ......... 810
3. *On the Innervation of the Portal Vein. By W. M. Bayziss and Dr.
DLATRILIISES:,“ aenoneebectiCe (boc reoeua0et JOent © JO" ad6o J Jeedo ba. roouaccrsceddacaseodseucee 811
4, *On Some Vaso-dilator Reflexes. By W. M. Bayniss ............:.c:0cceeeee 811
5. On the Production of Heat in Hibernating Animals. By Professor
UMPETAET DUBOIS .......2.00.06s00000es Bag daaodtocc cccseneheslahooo ap pcbanoctueoounocne 812
6. On ‘ Pigeons’ Milk.’ By Professor EH. WAYMOUTI REID ............eceeee eee 812
TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
1. *Joint Meeting with Section A to discuss Papers by Professor OLIVER
ee Ficperisonts illustrating Clerk Maxwell's Theory of Light ...... 814
(d) *An Electrical Theory at Vision 20 fe beeen haere 814
2. On a Modification of Golgi’s Methods. By OLiver 8. STRONG .........44 815
. On an Attempt to supply Motor Power to the Muscles of the Lar me from
a New Source. By Veterinary-Captain F. Suirn, F.R.C.V.S. ... 815
4, On the Causes and Prevention of Suffocation in Mines. By a A S.
PMMUEDVAGN HPV ACs IMD) co cateaoclns'ce Qu cltaRetaes gaeceelnesemteejesaicumeevaeasseiase sass 816
5. Observations on the Effects of After-damp. By J. Suaw-Lyrrrz, M.D. 817
6. Experiments on Memory. By W. G. Surry, M.A., Ph.D. ......... eee 817
7. *On Typhoid Bacilli in Water. By Dr. La. OLLIVIER .............00eeeeeeees 818
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 15.
*On Some Physiological Effects of the Passing of Rapidly-alternating

Currents of Great Intensity through Nerve. By Professor OLIVER
Lopes, F.R.S. and Professor F. GotouH, F.RAS..........:.eceseecseseeeeee HA SLS

-*On a New Spring Kymograph and Polyrheotome. By Professor

RRVUROVV SEIN GHEMAININ: wd cuccacsteeccettecesonse teen nacsatsiens acdebsavectiatesucwes 818

. *On the Production with the Capillary Electrometer of ee res

Records of Currents produced by Speaking into a Telephone. By G. J
BMRA See Sees i LUiscat svc Se vslodavenousiscbede dacemen EMPL Rian eich bdaee saciuineaessiens 818

. Report of the Committee on the Structure and Function of the Mam-

clan Ted EIGEN ane ected sa a ea 818

" Xxvill

fist (ORS LATTES.

PLATES

Illustrating the Second Report on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea.

PLATES II., III., IV.

illustrating Dr. 8. P. Langley’s paper ‘On Recent Researches in the Infra-red
Spectrum,’

ERRATA.

In 1893 (Nottingham) Report.
Page 571, line 31. Omit ‘ Dr. J. N. Keynes.’

In 1894 (Oxford) Report.

Page 651, line 18. For West 7ead North.
Page 681. For Professor A. W. W. Hubrecht read Professor A. 4. W. Hubrecht.

=
a
a
8
a?
3

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

THE ASSOCIATION.

—+——_

OBJECTS.

‘Tae Associarion contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
“@ more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
mpire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
o conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

_ The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
__ All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
il or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
eneral Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
“ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

__ Lire Menpsrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association. —

__Awnuat Supscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive

}

XXX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermissicn their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.

Assoctatgs for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :-—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council. .

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Sccretaries.

1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. b 9.9.41

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. PrrmMAnent Members.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Cruass B. Temporary Mempers.!

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organising Sectional Committees?

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,? and of preparing Reports

1 Revised by the General Committee, 1884.

2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.

3 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become

EXXIl RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.’

An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the Sectional Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.”

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.?

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.at., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee, except for Thursday and Saturday.’

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the

necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
WELONE.. ions wasievensteenebens ...., addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... ’ Ifit should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

! Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. 3 Edinburgh, 1871.

4 The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1882. ° Nottingham, 1893.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxXlil

Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

8. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees. !

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 a.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxxi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-.
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of-
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined:
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the-
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or~
Committees for the executiou of such Reports or researches ; and to state-
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by;
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to:
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members uf the Committee should be named, and

1 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
? This and the following senterce were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871,
1894. b

XXXiV RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and dishursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.

That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.

That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.

That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Comnuittee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Committee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.'

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.

The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.?

Notices regarding Grants of Money.

Committees and individuals to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Chairman of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must
forward to the General Officers, before July 1, a statement of the sums
which. have been expended, with vouchers, and the balance which
remains disposable on each grant.

Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire on June 30 following; nor is the Treasurer authorised, after that
date, to allow any claims on account of such grants, unless they be
renewed in the original or a modified form by the General Committee.

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices
of the British Association without special permission from the General

1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
2 Passed by the General Committee at Sheffieid, 1879.

et Be ee

—————

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.

In each Committee, the Chairman is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, ¥.R.S., Burlington
House, London, W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from
time to time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, when not
employed in carrying on scientific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.

At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,! and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.

3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

1 The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of
meeting of the Section and Sectional Committee, except for Thursday and Saturday.

b2

XXXVi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.!

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.”

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.?

Corresponding Societies.4

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Secretary on or before the 1st of June preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annual report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4. Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association

1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.

? Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
® Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.

« Passed by the General Committee, 1884.

a

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVil

a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre.
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
‘being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.

6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.

8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding

‘Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.

9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
‘tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.

10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
‘the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
‘Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
‘Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
“of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
‘carried into effect.

11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
‘able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

XXXVIi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of !

. The Trustees.

. The past Presidents.

. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.

6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing

Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.

(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—I1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.

QP Cone

Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

1 Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.

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xlix

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Presidents | Secretaries

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE

Oxford......
Cambridge
Edinburgh

1832.
1833.
1834.

sereee

1835. Dublin

1836. Bristol

1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle

1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...

1841. Plymouth
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork .........
1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......

1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull

1894,

OF SCIENCES, I—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. H. Coddington.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......| Prof. Forbes.
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. Prof. Forbes, Prof, Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Pia osteny «»|Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.

Rey. Dr. Robinson
Wheatstone.

Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.|Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......)}W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,

Prof. Stevelly.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,| Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
F.R.S. Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....|J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.

Stevelly.

Prof. Forbes, F.R.S...........6+ Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith,

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......| Prof. Stevelly.

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,| Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
F.R.S. W. Scoresby.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...| Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

The Very Rev. the Dean of|Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,

Ely. G. G. Stokes.

Sir John F. W. Herschel,|John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Bart., F.R.S. Stokes.

Rey. Prof, Powell, M.A.,|Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
E.R.S. Stokes.

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......
William Hopkins, F.R.5.......

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, GG. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W..J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.

S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.

W. Thomson, ° M.A.,|Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
E.RB.S., F.R.S.E. kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.

The Very Rey. the Dean of|B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt;
Ely, F.R.S. Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.

ec

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

Rev. W. Whewell,
F.R.S.

D.D.,

1

Date and Place

REPORT—1 894.

Presidents

1854. Liverpool...| Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
Ras.

1855. Glasgow ...|Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.RB.S., F.R.S.E.

1856. Cheltenham|Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

1857. Dublin...... Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.

1858. Leeds ...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.

1859. Aberdeen...|The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
1860. Oxford...... Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.B.S....
1861. Manchester/G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.

1864. Bath......... Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

1866. Nottingham}Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

1867. Dundee ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.

1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LUL.D.,
F.R.S.

1869. Exeter...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

18709. Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

1871, Edinburgh | Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...

1872. Brighton ...}W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1873. Bradford ...; Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. .

1874. Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.

1875. Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

1877. Plymouth...| Prof. G. C. Foster, B.A., F.B.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.

1878. Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.B.S.

1879. Sheffield ...|George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A.,, F.R.S.

Secretaries

J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.

Tyndall.

C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly. :
Rey. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.

Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin, Prof.H.J.S. Smith,
Rev. §. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,

rof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

=

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

Presidents

1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.

1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.

1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.
Southport

Montreal ...

Aberdeen...
Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne

Leeds .

Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford

2. Oxford......
. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
. Edinburgh

5. Dublin......
. Bristol......

7. Liverpool...

. Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840.
i841.

1842,
1843.
1844.
1845,

Glasgow ...
Plymouth..,

Manchester

Cambridge

Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.R.S

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. G. Chrystal,
F.R.S.E.

Prof. G. H. Darwin,
LL.D., F.B.S.

Prof. Sir R. 8S. Ball,
LL.D., F.B.S.

Prof. G. F.. Fitzgerald,
F.RB.S.

Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.B.S.

M.A.,

M.A,

J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.RB.S., V.P.R.A.S.

Prof. O. J.- Lodge, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. <A. Schuster,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.

Sce.D.,

Ph.D.,

Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A.,
F.R.S.

M.A,
M.A,

Secretaries. :

W. E. Ayrton, J. W.. L.. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J.. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O: J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.

W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D
MacAlister, Rev..G. Richardson.

W. M. Hicks, Prof. O.. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.

C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A.
Johnson, Prof. O. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.

J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, Prof. H.
Stroud.

R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.

R. HE. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof, A.
Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.

I. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A,
Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

W.T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
J. Walker.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. Hope.......0...

Pees eeseercsecs

James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr, Christison,

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. .....
Rey. Prof,.Cumming .,.......

.|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
ath.

pa
Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr,

Reynolds.

Rev. William Whewell,F.8.S.| Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas

Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......

Richardson.
Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.

Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S8.|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T, Clark,

Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S.

Dr. L. Playfair:
.|J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Dr. L. Playfair, R, Hunt, J. Graham.

Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I. vo
Prof. T. Graham, ERS... eure
Rey. Prof. Cumming

.|B. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

.| Dr. L. Playfair, B. Solly, T. H. Barker.

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,
E, Solly,

Cc 2

lii

REPORT—1894.

Date and Place

1846.
ton. F.R.S.
1847, Oxford...... Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
: F.R.S.
1848. Swansea ...|Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
1849. Birmingham| John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....
1850. Edinburgh | Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
1851. Ipswich ...|Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
1852. Belfast...... Thomas Andrews,M.D.,F.R.S
TEBE, 18 Grtll coaatancs Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
1854. Liverpool |Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
1855. Glasgow ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
1856. Cheltenham | Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S.
5 olay foul Dario uu eases. Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
1859. Aberdeen... | Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B.,F.R.S,
1860. Oxford...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S....
1861. Manchester] Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
1862. Cambridge | Prof. W.H.Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle |Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
1864. Bath......:.. W. Odling, -M.B., F.R.S.,
F.C.S. ;
1865. Birmingham | Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
VAP. RSs
1866. Nottingham|H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
1867. Dundee ...|Prof. T. Anderson, M.D.,
¥.R.S.E.
1868. Norwich ... | Prof. oF Frankland, F.R. S.,
F.C
1869. Exeter ...... Dr. H. ats F.R.S., F.C. S.
1870. Liverpool... |Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R:S.
1872. Brighton ... | Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
1873. Bradford ...| Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....
1874. Belfast...... Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
; F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
1875. Bristol...... A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A,
thst ageless ke
1876; Glasgow ...| W. H. Perkin, EVB.S.. s.s0s00s
1877. Plymouth...|F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S.
1878, Dublin..\...|Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,

Presidents

Southamp-'|Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,

F.RB.S., F.C.S.

2

...|J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley,

.|A. Vernon Harcourt,

Secretaries

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.

..|R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

.|Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.

Ronalds.

H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr,
Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White. .

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. ees
sell, F. Sutton..,

Prof, °A Crum Brown, Dr. Ww. ae
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T
KE. Thorpe.

.|Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.

W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

.|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

.../Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C, R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lili

Ce

Date and Place

Presidents

1879. Sheffield ...| Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.

188C. Swansea ...

1881.

1882
1883

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.

Bis Ee eie Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
. Southamp- |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
ton. F.R.S.
. Southport |Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Montreal ...| Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,

1884.
1885.

1886

1887

1888.

1889. Newcastle-

1890

. Manchester

LL.D., F.R.S.

Aberdeen...| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,

F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

. Birmingham | W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.8.

sholotyse'biss Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,

D.S8c.,

upon-Tyne| D.C.L., F.B.S., F.C.S.
. Leeds ...... Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Cardiff ...... Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,

1891.

1892. Edinburgh

C.B., F-R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. H.McLeod,F.R.8.,F.C.8.

1893. Nottingham|Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,

M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

1894. Oxford...... Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

Secretaries

H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. Gough.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,

H.¥ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W W.J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.

C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, Dr.
G. 8S. Turpin.

Dr. J. Gibson, Dr. H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur

Harden, H. Forster Morley.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, unrit 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.

1838.
1839. Birmingham| Rev. Dr. Buc

Liverpool..

Oxford...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Cambridge.|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......
Edinburgh .| Prof, Jameson .........sseeee0es

John Taylor.

W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rey. J. Yates.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

Dublin...... Riga Grifithi secsccscweseeecsennes
Bristol ...... Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—| William Sanders, S. Stutchbury,

|Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

Geography, R.1. Murchison,| TT. J. Torrie.
F.R.S.

B Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—| Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— Geo-

Geography,G.B.Greenough,| graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
F.R.S R.N

Geography, Lord Prudhoe,

Newcastle. .|C. Lyell, F-R.S., V.P.G.8.—|W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—

Geography, Capt. Washington.

kland, F.R.S.—|George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-

Geography,G.B.Greenough,| land, Charles Darwin.
F.B.S.

liv

REPORT—1894.

Date and Place

1840.

1841.
1842,
1843.
1844,
1845.
1846.

1847.
1848.

Glasgow

Plymouth...
Manchester
Cork...... aoe
York
Cambridge.

Southamp-
ton.

Oxford......

Swansea...

1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh?

1851.
1852.

1853,
1854.

1855.
1856.

1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.

Ipswich ...

Belfast...... |

OY Feces sce
Liverpool..

Glasgow ...

Cheltenham

Dublin

teens

Leeds .,.,....
Aberdeen...
Oxford......
Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

Presidents

Secretaries

...|Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-

graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.B.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ..

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
E.R.S.

Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.

Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D. t :

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

.|E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.

Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.

Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. CO.
T. Beke.

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.

Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof,
A. C. Ramsay.

Oldham,

Sir Roderick I. Murchison,|A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,

F.R.S.

Prof. Nicol.

SECTION © (continwed).—GEOLOGY.

| WilliamHopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.

Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........

Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.8,

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.

Nicol.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rey. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall. .
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert

Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.

Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.

2 Ata meeting of the General Committee held in 1850. it was resolved ‘ That
‘the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Secticn, under the title of the “Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,” for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page Ix.

:

—

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place:

1864.

[BAUS vedsces

1865. Birmingham

1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.

1876.
1877.

1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884,
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891:
1892.
1893.
1894.

Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol

eeeeee

Glasgow ..
Plymouth...

Sheffield ...
Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Hieeds! f...-.
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford......

Presidents
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D..,|
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,)

..-|Archibald Geikie,

.| Prof. John Young, M.D.......

K.C.B.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

F.BS.,|

F.G.S.

iR. A. C. Godwin-Austen, |
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,}
F.G,S.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton, |
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof, A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. Hull, M.A.,
E.G.S.

Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S.

D.GL.
F.B.S.,

W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., ¥.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. C.
LL.D., F.B.'.

W. T. Blanford, F.RS.,, Sec.
G.S.

Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof.W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,

Williamson,

F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. H. Green, M.A,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Secretaries

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B,. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.

J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler,W.Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.

Prof. G. A, Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr,
Reid, W. W. Watts.

H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. BE. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

lement

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S.

F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

lvi

REPORT—1894.

Date and Place Presidents

Secretaries

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

|J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 3.
Rootsey.

C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

|J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,

Dr. Richardson.

|E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

|Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-

terson.

1832. Oxford...... | Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. oe |
1833. Cambridge') Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.1.S.
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham..................008
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY,
1835. Dublin...... Dra AUMANIN.., oc .ccsvcnce dase cee
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Henslow .........068
1837. Liverpool...|W. S. MacLeay...........ss0000
1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart. .........
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. .........0.-
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
1841. Plymouth...| John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.

1842. Manchester | Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.

1843. Cork......... William Thompson, F.L.S....

1844, York......... Very Rev. the Dean of Man-
chester.

1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....

1846. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,

ton. F.R.S.
1847. Oxford......;H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

|G. J. Allman, Dr.
Patterson.

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.

| Wollaston.

Lankester, R.

SECTION D (continwed).—zOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. lix. ]

1848. Swansea fale W. Dillwyn, F.B.S..........

1849. Birmingham William Spence, F.R.S. ......

1850. Edinburgh Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.
1851. Ipswich ... | Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,

1852. Belfast...... w. Onilby Facsecatindiisnac CaanooabE
V8bo> Hulls... ..|C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
1854. Liverpool...| Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

1855. Glasgow ...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
1856. Cheltenham | Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.
1857. Dublin...... |Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,

| ER.S.

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F’. W. Johnston, Dr. E.

Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

‘ At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lix.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lvii

Date and Place

1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath.........

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter......

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh.)

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...

| Presidents Secretaries

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.| Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....|W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.| Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. ......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Prof. Balfour, M.D.. F.R.S....| Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. ...|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...|Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
| H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

SECTION D (continued),—BIoLoGyY.!

Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.| Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
—Physiological Dep., Prof.| B. Tristram, W. Turner, I. B.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Anthropological Dep., Alf.

R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.

.| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.| C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.| H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
H. Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,

Dr. E. P. Wright.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,| E. Ray Lankester, Prof, Lawson,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—| H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.| tram.

Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,| Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S.— Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
Anat. and Physiol.,Prof.M.| TT. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.| C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. kester.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,| Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and| EH. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King.

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiovl.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,} Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Ru-| R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
therford, M.D.—Dep.ofAn-| Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.' H. Lamprey.

1 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved ‘That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ;’ and ‘That for the word “Subsection,”
in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “Department”

be substituted.’

lviii
Date and Place

1874. Belfast

1875, Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878. Dublin

1879,. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

USSU Vork.scscs

1882. Sonthamp-
ton.!

1883. Southport ?

1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...

REPORT— 1894.

Presidents

Secretaries

|

.|Richard Owen, C.B.,

| Prof.

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of,

jand, M.D., F.R.8.-—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.RB.S.

A, Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,

Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJeffreys, LL. D.,F.R.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-

siol., F.

F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,

F, W. Rudler, F.G.S.

M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep.of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol, Prof. J. 8. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.B.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
| W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. C. McIntosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.

Anat.and Ph uaa Prof.Cle- |

F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and}

A, C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.

M. Balfour, M.A.,|

8./G.

W.T.Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

'K. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.

Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.

E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

‘Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,

Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schifer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.

'G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.

W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.

W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. DB.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

‘Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.

Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard

Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

"1 The Departments of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were

amalgamated.

* Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. lxvi.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE &ECTIONS.

Date and Place Presidents

LS.,

1886. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres.

F.R.S., F.G.S.

1887. Manchester | Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.
1888. Bath......... W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F.RB.S., F.L.S.

1889, Newcastle -| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
upon-Tyne| . M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

1890. Leeds ....... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

lix

Secretaries

Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof:
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner;
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

§. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Dr. S. J. Hickson, Prof. F. W.
Oliver, H. Wager, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

1891. Cardiff......|Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,|F. E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,

E.RB.S., F.L.S.

1892. Edinburgh |Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,

F.R.S., F.R.8.E.

1893. Nottingham'| Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,

M.A., LL.D., F.B.S.

1894. Oxford......| Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,
E.R.S.

Dr. 8S. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.

G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Murray, Prof. W. Stirling, H.
Wager.

G. C. Bourne, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Dr. S. J.
Hickson, Dr. W. B. Ransom, W.
L. Sclater.

W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W A. Herdman, Prof. 8. J.
Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Drees EeavilanG c.cscccnccesaceeee
Dr. Abercrombie

1833. Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh

eee ee nee eseeees

(Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.
‘Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

Dr. J. C. Pritchard
Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S.
Prof. W. Clark, M.D.

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol ......
1837. Liverpool...

1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D.
1839. Birmingham |John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D.

se eeweete

Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

....| Dr. Symonds.
aes once Dr. J.

Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.

1841, Plymouth...

P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8.

Sargent.

1842. Manchester |Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

1843, Cork ....... .|Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1844, York......:.. J.C. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1845. Cambridge Prof. J. Haviland, MDa. \Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixvi.

i Ix REPORT—1894.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.B.S. v1 C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-

ton. ent.
1817. Oxford! ...| Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ....../Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.

| Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
£850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......;Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,!C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen...) Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.RoNeston,M.D.,F.L.S.|Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D................ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turrer.
4864. Bath......... |Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J.8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
F.R.S.

4365. Birming- |Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,/Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,

ham.* F.R.S. Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

{For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p. liii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Drevin Crbritchard. ascceenseee | Dr. King.
1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
ABA Sa WallSCr Iieon linea deeukeascchessensaceca aseeraceonter G. Grant Francis.
1849. Birmingham | Dr. R. G. Latham.
1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm) Daniel Wilson.

1846.Southampton

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

... {Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,!R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.

| Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw. ;

Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L., R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S. Shaw.

R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.

Norton Shaw.

|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.

F.R.S. Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

. Ipswich
1852. Belfast

beeen rene

1854. Liverpool...

4855. Glasgow .../Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,/Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.

1856. Cheltenham |Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,!R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1857. Dublin...... Rey. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.

. Pres. R.IA. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

. | By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
imcorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. lvi.). Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.

* Vide note on page lyii.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1858, Leeds

1859. Aberdeen...
1860, Oxford......

Presidents

Secretaries

Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,

F.R.S.

Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

1861. Manchester | John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........

1862, Cambridge | Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

1863.. Newcastle
1864, Bath

eeeeeeeee

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

1865. Birmingham | Major-General Sir H. Raw-

linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

1866, Nottingham/Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter

weeeee

1870.
1871.

Liverpool...
Edinburgh
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875..

Brighton ...
Bradford ...

1876. Glasgow ...
1877.

1878.

Plymouth...
Dublin......

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

TSS81., York. 000.05

1882. Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport

.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
F.RB.S.

R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr, C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. S. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, F: Wright.

H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements
R. Markham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continwed).—GEOGRAPHY.

Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,

LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.

K.C.B.,

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,

¥.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.8.1.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.L. S., EGS.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R S.E.

Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.

Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B.,K.C.M.G., R.A., F.B.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L,
C.B., F.R.S.

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.1.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S,

H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.

H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

H. W. Bates, E. oC, Byes, Es i
Tuckett,

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. C. Rye. .

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C,
Rye.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.

E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Rye.

Ixii

Date and Place

Report—1 894.

Presidents

Secretaries

18S4.

.|Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,

Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S, O’Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

J.S. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.

F. T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
E. G. Ravenstein.

Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8S. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.

A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
A. Silva White.

John Coles, J. S.,Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.

J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
Keltie, A. Silva White.

Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, W. 8. Dalgleish, H. N.
Dickson, Dr. H, R. Mill.

| J. E. Drinkwater.
| Dr. Cleland, C’. Hope Maclean.

W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
J. E. Bromby, C.
James Heywood.

EB. Fripp,

Moe
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,V.P.8.G:S. |
1885. Aberdeen... |Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.B.S8.
1886. Birmingham | Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S8.1., C.B., F.R.G.S.
1887. Manchester|Col. Sir C. Warren, B.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.
1888. Bath<...,-.»- Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.8., F.R.G.S. Ravenstein.
1889. Newcastle- Col. Sir F. de Winton,
upon-Tyne} K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S.
1890. Leeds ...... Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
1891. Cardiff...... E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,
F.S.8.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof. J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
V.P.R.Scot.G.s.
1893. Nottingham | H. Seebohm, Sec. B.8., F.L.S.,
te F.Z.8.
1894. Oxford....., |Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N.,
PLA SR
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.5S. .........
1834. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin...... {Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.| Rev.
1837. Liverpool.../Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........

1838.

Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840.
1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.

1845.

1846.

1847.
1848.

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...:

Manchester

se eeeeene

Cambridge
Southamp-

Swansea ...

1849. Birmingham

1850.

Edinburgh

i

iG. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S.

|Very Rev. Dr.

Colonel Sykes, F.R.S........0.
Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........

| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,

F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P.

Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.B.S.,
F.L.S.

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam

G.R, Porter, RIS. ..052ce.c0ec

Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.

J. A. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S.
‘Rt. Hon, Lord Lyttelton

John Lee, |
V.P.R.S.E.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.

F. Clarke, R..W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

|C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.

Rawson.

|Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R,

W. Rawson.

..|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.

W. C. Tayler.

...|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler,

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock,
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.

.|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.

...{ Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F, G. P,
Neison.

Prof, Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.

PRESIDENTS AND SBCRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxili

Date and Place

Presidents

1851. Ipswich ..
1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull

see aeeeee

1854, Liverpool...
|

1855. Glasgow

. Sir John P. Boileau, Bart.

| Dublin.
‘James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.

ms ‘R. Monckton Milnes, M.P....

His Grace the Archbishop of

Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........

Secretaries: .

...|J- Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.

Edward Cheshire, W. ewanarel,

E. Cheshire, J. T.. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh,

SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

1856. Cheltenham!

1857. Dublin......
1858. Leeds .......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle .;

1864. Bath

1865. Birmingham |

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee .....
1868. Norwich....
1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool..

1871, Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ..
1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878, Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...
1881. York....,....

1882. Southamp-
ton.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.
Edward Baines......... seen shade

Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
‘Nassau W. Senior, M.A. .
; William Newmarch, F.R.S....

Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.

Prof. Je Hil. -ROSers....c.cse<0

M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......
Samuel, Brown .......cescceecees

Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

.| Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P...

Lord O’Hagan .......sccseeeeeee

James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. §.S.

Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.1.,
M.P.

| Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.-R.LA.

G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.8.

G. W. Hastings, M.P...........

Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.

\Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,

| M.P., F.B.S.

Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D.. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof, Cairns, Edmund Macrory, a M,

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

.|/Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,

Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof..R.,C; Christie,
E. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, EH. T.; Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
EK. Macrory.

R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

| Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

EH. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

.|J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips. '
.|Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.

\J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P.. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.

F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. S. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

lxiv

REPORT—1894.

Date and Place Presidents

Southport

1883. R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.

1884. Montreal...|Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.I., C.LE., F.R.G.S.

1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,

Litt.D.
1886. Birmingham |J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.

1887. Manchester | Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.

1888. Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,

LL.D., F.R.S.

1889. Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.8.8,

Prof. A. Marshall, M.A., F.S.5

Neweastle-
upon-Tyne

1890. Leeds

1891. Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,

D.8c., F.S.8.

1892, Edinburgh |Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle

K.C.B.
1893. Nottingham | Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.8c.,
F.S.S.

Secretaries

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.

Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.

F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.

Rey. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant. :

Prof. F, Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, L. L. F. R.
Price.

Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elhott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

.|W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,

T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E.C. Munro,
L. L. F. BR. Price.

Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, T’rof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof. W. R. Sorley.

Prof, J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
E. ©. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

KE. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A. 5. Hewins, H. Higgs.

'T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
\Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
C.. Vignoles, T.

,W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
| J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,

Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles. -

' James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.

.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.

J. Glynn, Ri. A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

1894. Oxford...... Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,
¥.S.S.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE,
1836. Bristol...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1837. Liverpool...|Rev. Dr. Robinsor . ............
1838. Newcastle |Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......|R. Hawthorn,
Webster.
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Willis, ’.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson. Webster.
1840. Glasgow ....; Sir John Robinson ..............
C. Vignoles.
1841. Plymouth |John Taylor, F.R.S. ............
1842. Manchester| Rev. Prof. Willis, F.I.S. ....../J. F.
1843. Cork......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.LA....
1844. York......... JohneLaylor, HRS. vscscsceos es
1845. Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S..........
1846.Southampton| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S
1847. Oxford...... Rey. Prof.Walker, M. re sH.R.S.
1848. Swansea ...|Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.
1849, Birmingham Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S.

1850. Edinburgh |Rev. R. Robinson ...............
1851. Ipswich .....) William Cubitt, F.R.S..........

Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.

oes ae Haare
v ‘

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1852. Belfast...... John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

1853. Hull........+. William Fairbairn, C.E.,

; F.B.S.

1854, Liverpool...| John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...

1855. Glasgow ...;W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.

1856. Cheltenham|George Rennie, F.R.S. ........
1857. Dublin...... Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.B.S.

1858. Leeds ...... William Fairbairn, F.R.S....
1859. Aberdeen...| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
1860. Oxford...... Prof.W.J.Macquorn Rankine,

LL.D., F.B.S.

1861. Manchester |J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
1862. Cambridge | William Fairbairn, LL.D.,
F.B.S.

1863. Newcastle | Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.

1864. Bath......... J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S.

1865. Birmingham| Sir W. G. Armstrong, EL. 1
F.R.S.

1866. Nottingham | Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.

1867. Dundee...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.

1868. Norwich ...!G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.

1869. Exeter ...... C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..

1870. Liverpool...| Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., E.R. 8.

1871. Edinburgh | Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.

1872. Brighton ...|F. J. Bramwell, C.E. ........

1873, Bradford ...|W. H. Barlow, F.B.S. .........

1874. Belfast...... Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.

1875. Bristol ...... W. Froude, C.E., M. A, F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow ...|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......

1877. Plymouth...| Edward Woods, C.E. .........

1878. Dublin...... Edward Easton, C.E. .........

1879. Sheffield ...|J. Robinson, Pres, Inst. Mech.

: Eng.

1880. Swansea ...| James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.B.S.E.

eos, VOLK... cess Sir W. G: Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

1882. Southamp- | John Fowler, C.E,, F.G.S. ...

ton
1894,

lxv

Presidents

Secretaries

.|C. Atherton, B. Jones,

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.

John Grantham, J. Oldham,
Thomson.

J.

|L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.

Thomson.

jun., H. M,
Jeffery.

Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J: C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.

R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

.|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

|'P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, 'C.
Manby, W. Smith.

_|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T,
King, J. N. Shoolbred.

H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie,
J. P. Smith.

.|H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,

J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.

W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

A, T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, J. F. Pee Henson
* T. Wood.

‘Atchison, F. Chuston, ‘Ht. Ts
wraodl roan
d

A.

Ixvi REPORT—1894,
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1883. Southport |James_ Brunlees, F.R.S.E.,!A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
| Pres.Inst.C.E:
1884. Montreal... Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,|A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
V.P.Inst.C.E. Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
1885. Aberdeen...|B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. ......... A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
1886. Birmingham Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst. C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
C.E. Marshall, E. Rigg.
1887. Manchester Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,|C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
| LL.D., F.R.S. E. Rigg.
1888. Bath......... |W. H. Preece, F.R.S.,}C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, BE.
M.Inst.C.E. | Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
1889. Newcastle- |W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ....C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
upon-Tyne C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.
1890. Leeds ....../Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
F.R.A.S. | Marshall, E. Rige.
1891, Cardiff ....,.|T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E., C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,

1892.
1893.
1894.

1884.
1885.

1886. Birmingham
1887.
1888.
1889,
1890.
1891,
1892.
1893.

1894.

1894,

Edinburgh
Nottingham

seeeee

Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E. |
Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
F.C.S. |

Montreal...
Aberdeen...

Manchester
Bath

eee eeeeee |

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds ,

Cardifi,,....|
Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford......

| Lieut.-General

|Prof. A. Macalister,
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E.

Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E,

W. B. Marshall, E. Rige.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. Bb. Marshall, IE.
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rey. F. J. Smith.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... |
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. |

Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.1.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......

Pitt-Rivers,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. J. Evans, Treas. R.S
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.

M.A.,
M.D., F.R.S.

Oxford......

Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,|

F.R.S.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.

G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.

G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, TH. Ling
Roth.

PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY,

Prof. E. A, Schifer, F.R.S.,)Prof F. Gotch, Dr. J.

M.R.C.S.

Haldane,
M. S, Pembrey.

ee Spe Ee

Date and Place

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

LIST OF EVENING

Lecturer

Ixvii

LECTURES.

Subject of Discourse

1842. Manchester

1843. Cork

1844. York

1845. Cambridge

1846. Southamp-
ton.

1847. Oxford......

1848. Swansea ...

1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...

1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull.........

1854, Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ...

1856. Cheltenham

Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......

Sir M. I. Brunel
Reis MianehisoOnccecs.sess+.<se.'s
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........

DyrF-RODINSONIe, . ceate sede cactass
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S........00.0.

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........
W,.R.. Grove, HRS. .cccsscscsss

Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......

Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ............
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Dr. Mantell, F:R:S.° oc. .sccacecs
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S,

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.G.S,

Robert Hunt, F.R.S.............
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson .........

W. R, Grove, F.R.S, ....cesee00

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.

The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America.

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
.| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-

nection with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent Discoveries in the properties

of Light. :

Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species. ;

Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

a2

lxvili

Date and Place

Lecturer

1857

1864.
1865. Birmingham!
1866, Nottingham

1867.

1868.
1869.

1870.

1875.

1876. Glasgow ...

3. Newcastle

Dublin......| Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
/Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.

Leeds ...... ‘Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

. Aberdeen... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....

'Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Oxfords... |Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...

|Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.

. Manchester | Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

|G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. |

| Royal.
Cambridge Prof. ‘Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Odline, HORS. 2 -...:.sass
|Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......

| James Glaisher, F.R.S.........

Ath seccdeens Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. .......0s00s

Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
J. Beete Jukes, F'.R.S...25...

William Huggins, F.R.S.......
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S......

Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S....
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
Norwich .../J. Fergusson, F.R.S.......
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S.........
Exeter ......| Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....
Liverpool... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
MOTT Ds BRS,
. Edinburgh |F. A. Abel, F.R.S.........
E. B. Tylor, F.R.S. eees..eeeees
2. Brighton ... ' Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
| E.R.S.
| Proés"W Ke Olifford :..:sssccs0.
. Bradford .,.| Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S8.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
. Belfast ......|Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,

F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.

Bristol ......| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
| Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E.

| Sir Wyville Thomson, ERS.

REPORT—1894.

Subject of Discourse

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa,

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands,

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

Recent Travels in Africa.

.| Probabilities as to the position and

extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

.|Insular Floras.
.| The Geological Origin of the present

Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

.|Archeology of the early Buddhist

Monuments.

.| Reverse Chemical Actions.

Vesuvius.

The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulz.

The Scientific Use of the Imagina-
tion.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.

.../Some Recent Investigations and Ap-

plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

Coal and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarised Light.

Railway Safety Appliances.

.| Force.

The Challenger Expedition,

Date and Place

1877.

1882.

1885.

1884.

1885.

1887.

1888.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894.

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

lxix

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

|

Plymouth...
F.R.S.
Prof, Odling, F.R.S..........
SDublin ..... G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.......
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S. .........
Sheffield ...|W. Crookes, F.R.S. .........

wee

W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,|The Physical Phenomena connected

with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.

|

...| The New Element, Gallium.

Animal Intelligence.

..-|Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of

Chemical Action,

...| Radiant Matter.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.

Degeneration.
Primeval Man.

...| Mental Imagery.
.../|The Rise and Progress of Palwon-

tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.

Swansea ...!Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Francis Galton, F'.R.S.......
PMOL crwasecse Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S.
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.5....
Southamp- |Prof.SirWm. Thomsca, F.R.S./} Tides.

ton,
Southport |Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.R.S.

Prof. J. G.

‘ F.R.S.E.
Montreal...

Aberdeen...

John Murray, F.R.S.E.......
1886. Birmingham |A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....

Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.

McKendrick,
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ...
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.

Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....

Pelagic Life.

...|Recent Researches on the Distance

of the Sun.
Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

...| Dust.

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest

| Forms of Life.

The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.

...| The Great Ocean Basins.

Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.

. |The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

Explorations in Central Africa.

The Electrical Transmission of
Power.

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applica-
tions.

Some Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.8.,| Magnetic Induction.

Manchester | Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G.
avs ccce ec. Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.RBS.
Newcastle- | Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
upon-Tyne| F-.R.S.
Walter Gardiner, M.A.........
Leeds ...... E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S8.
Cardiff ...... Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.RB.S.
Edinburgh |Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
D.Sc., F.R.S.
F.R.S.E.
Nottingham | Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.

Flame.

Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.|The Discovery of the Physiology of

Oxford......

J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.| Experiences

the Nervous System.
and Prospects of
African Exploration.

Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.| Historical Progress and Ideal So-

cialism,

lxx

REPORT—1!894.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

| Subject of Discourse
|
|

Date and Place Lecturer

1867. Dundee...... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

1868. Norwich ...| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S

1869. Exeter ...... Prof, Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...

1870. Liverpool...|Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.

1872. Brighton ...| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.

1873. Bradford ...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1874, Belfast...... Prof, Odling. WORsS...sses-2-.

1875. Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow ...)|Commander Cameron, C.B.,
R.N.

MSHMERELYMOUDM... |W. Es PLCCCE .. .c0cceceensarenaese

UST SHeMeLG sae | Wi He AYO S woensccesscsavens

1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............

1881. York.........|Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
F.R.S.

1882. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.

ton.

1883. Southport |Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...!

1884. Montreal ...| Prof. R.S. Ball, F.R.S..........

1885. Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ |

1886. Birmingham| Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.RB.S.

1887. Manchester | Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ......
1888. Bath......... Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,|
F.RB.S.

1889. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.©.B., .0c.:.-.

upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S.
1891. Cardiff ...... | Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. |
1892. Edinburgh | Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. |
1893. Nottingham | Prof. Vivian B. Lewes......... |
1894. Oxford...... vale

Matter and Force.
|A Piece of Chalk.

modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.

Savages.

Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
Fuel.

The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.

A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Electricity as a Motive Power.

The North-East Passage.

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

Talking by Electricit;y—Telephones.

Comets.

The Nature of Explosions.

The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.

Electric Lighting.

The Customs of Savage Races,

|The Forth Bridge.

Spinning Tops.

Electricity in Mining.
Electric Spark Photographs.
Spontaneous Combustion.

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...|

Geologies and Deluges.

lxxi

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE OXFORD MEETING.

SECTION A.,—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

President.—Professor A. W. Riicker.

Vice-Presidents.—_R. E. Baynes, M.A.; Professor R. B. Clifton, M.A.,
F.R.S. ; Professor E. B. Elliott, M.A., F.R.S. ; Professor W. Esson,
M.A., F.R.S.; R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.; Lord Kelvin,
Pres.R.S.; Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R.S.

Secretaries.—Professor W. H. Heaton, M.A.; Professor A. Lodge, M.A.
(Recorder); J. Walker, M.A.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY,

President.—Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice Presidents.—Sir F, A. Abel, Bart., K.C.B., F R.S.; Professor E.
Frankland, D.C.L., F.R.S8.; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S. ; Pro-
fessor R. Meldola, F.R.S., For.Sec.C.S. ; Professor W. Odling, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.8.; Professor J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.;
Sir Henry E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Secretaries—H. A. Colefax, M.A., Ph.D. ; W. W. Fisher, M.A.; Arthur
Harden, M.Sc., Ph.D. ; H. Forster Morley, D.Sc. (Recorder).

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY,

President.—L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.; Sir Archibald
Geikie, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor A. H. Green, F.R.S. ;
Dr. H. Hicks, F.R.S.; Dr. E. Mojsisovics von Mojsvar ; Professor
A. F. Renard; Dr... A. R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S.; H. Woodward,
LL.D., F.RS.

Secretaries.—F. A. Bather, M.A. ; Alfred Harker, M.A. ; Clement Reid ;
W. W. Watts, M.A. (Recorder),

SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.

President.—Professor I. Bayley Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—The Right Hon. T. H. Huxley, D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Pro-
fessor E. Ray Lankester, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor Alfred Newton,
M.A., F.R.S.; Professor E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.; P. L. Sclater, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.; W..T. Thiselton-Dyer, M.A., F.R.S.; Rev. H. B. Tristram,
M.A., LL.D., D.D., F.R.S.; Professor S. H. Vines, M.A., F.R.S.

Ixxli REPORT—1894.

Secretaries— W. B. Benham, D.Sc., M.A. ; Professor J. B. Farmer, M.A.,
F.L.S. ; Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.8., F.R.S.E. ; Pro-
fessor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc. (Recorder) ; G. Murray, F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S.; W. L. Sclater, M.A., F.Z.S.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Captain W. J. L. Wharton, R.N., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Guido. Cora; J. Scott Keltie; H. J. Mac-
kinder, M.A. ; The Warden of Merton College ; Admiral Sir Erasmus
Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S.; E. G. Ravenstein; Henry Seebohm, F.L.S.;
Lieut.+General R. Strachey, R.E., C.8.1., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—J. Coles, F.R.G.S.; W. Scott Dalgleish, LL.D. ; H. N. Dick-
son, F.R.S.E. ; Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Recorder).

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

President.—Professor C. F. Bastable, M.A., F.S.8.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor W. Cunningham, D.D.; Professor F. Y.
Edgeworth, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. ; The Hon. Sir Charles Fremantle,
K.C.B.; Professor J. 8. Nicholson, M.A., D.Sc., F.8.S. ; R. H. Inglis
Palgrave, F.R.S. ; L. L. Price, M.A., F.S.8. ; Professor H. Sidgwick,
Litt.D.

Secretaries.—E, Cannan, M.A., F.S.S.; Professor E. C. K. Gonner, M.A..,
F.S.8. (Recorder); W. A. S. Hewins, M.A., F.S.8.; H. Higgs, LL.B.

SECTION G,—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor A. B. W. Kennedy, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Vice-Presidents.—Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cunningham; G. F. Deacon,
M.Inst.C.E. ; Professor L. F. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. ;
Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. ; Sir A. Noble, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Secretaries. — Professor T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; Conrad
W. Cooke; W. Bayley Marshall, M.Inst.C.E.; Rev. F. J. Smith,
M.A., F.R.S.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President.—Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents—Sir John Evans, K.C.B.,, F.R.S.; Professor Max
Miiller, D.C.L. ; Professor A. H. Sayce, M.A.; E. B. Tylor, D.C.L.,

Secretartes.—H. Balfour, M.A. ; J. G. Garson, M.D. (Recorder) ; H. Ling
Roth.

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
President.—Professor E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.

-Vice-Presidents.—Professor M. Foster, M.D., F.R.S.; Professor J. G.
McKendrick, M.D., F.R.S.; Professor W. Rutherford, M.D., F.R.S. ;
Professor J. S. Burdon Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries—Professor F. Gotch, F.R.S.; J. 8. Haldane, M.A., M.D.
(Recorder) ; M.S. Pembrey, M.A., M B.

|

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1894-95.

PRESIDENT.

THE Mosr Hon. tHE MARQUIS OF SALISBURY, K.G.,

D.O.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of the

University of Oxford.
VICE-PRESIDENTS,

The Right Hon. the EARU oF JERSEY, G.C.M.G.,
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Oxford.

The Right Hon. Lorp WANTAGE,K.C.B., V.O., Lord-
Lieutenant of Berkshire.

The Right Hon. the EarL OF ROSEBERY, K.G.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHoP OF OxForD, D.D.

The Right Hon. Lorp RorHscHILD, Lord-Lieu-
tenant of Bucks.

The Right Hon. Lorp Ketviy, D.C.L., Pres.R.S.

The Rev. the VICE-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVER-
SITY OF OXFORD.

The Mayor or Oxrorn.

Sir W. R. ANSON, D.C.L., Warden of All Souls”
College.

Sir BFRNHARD SAMUELSON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Sir Henry Dyker ACLAND, Bart., K.C.B., M.D..
F.R.S., Regius Professor of Medicine.

The Rev. the Masrser oF PEMBROKE COLLEGE,
Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy.

Dr. J. J. SYLVESTER, F.R.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
CarraIn SIR DOUGLAS GALTON, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., P.R.G.S., F.G.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Most Hon. the Marquis of BrisTou, M.A.,
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Suffolk.
The Right Hon. Lorp WaLsinGHaAM, LL.D., F.R.S.,

High Steward of the University of Cambri‘ge.
The Right Hon. Lorp Rayueicu, D.C.L., Sec.R.8.,
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Essex.
The Right Hon. Lorp Gwypyr, M.A., High
Steward of the Borough of Ipswich.

The Right Hon. LorpD HENNIKER, F.S.A.
The Right Hon. Lorp RENDLESHAM.
The Mayor of Ipswicu.

Sir G. G. STOKES, Bart., D.C.L.. F.R.S.
Dr. E, FRANKLAND, D.C... F.RS.
Professor G. H. Darwin, M.A., F.R.S.
FELIx T. COBBOLD, Esq., M.A.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Douetas Gatton, K.O.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GrirrirH, Esy., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex,

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR W. RUckKER, M.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT IPSWICH.
G. H. Hewerson, Esq. | S.A. Norcurt, Esq., B.A.,LL.M., B.Sc. | E. P. Ripiay, Esq..

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT IPSWICH.
H. J. W. JERVIS, Esq. ROGER Kerrison, Esq.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ANDERSON, Dr. W.. F.R.S.
AYRTON, Professor W. E., F.R.S.
BAKER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Boys, Professor C. ViRNON, F.R.S.
EDGEWORTH, Professor F. ae M.A.
EVANS, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S.
FOXWELL, Professor i. S., M.A.
HERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
HORSLEY, Professor Vicror, F.R. S.
LANKESTER, Professor E. Ray, F.R.S.
LIVEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S

LopGE, Professor OLIVER J., ERS.
MarkuHaM, CLEMENTS R., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.

MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S.
PREECE, W. H., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
RAMSAY, Professor W., F.R.S.
REINOLD, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
REYNOLDS, Professor J, EMERSON, M.D.,
F.R.S,
Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
TEALL, J. J. H., Esq.. F.R.S.
THOMSON, Professor J. J., F.R.S.
Unwin, Professor W. C., F.R.S.
VINES, Professor S. H., F.R.S.
Ward, Professor MAksHALL, F.R.S.
WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurers and’

Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Sir Joun Luspock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.5
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M. .A., D.C.L., LL.D. sy Sec.R. Ss. PRL
The Right Hon. Lord PLayFrarr, K.C, Be Ph. D., LL.D., F.R.S,

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.

Lord Armstrong, C.B., F.R.S. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, ‘Bart. 7) F.R.S.
Sir William R. Grove, F RS. Sir John Lubbock, Bart. F.R.S. | Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. Prof. Cayley, LL. Dy F, R.S. Sir F. A. Abel, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.RS. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. | Dr. Wm. Huggins, D.C.L »» F.R.S.
The Rt. Hon. Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. | Lord Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S. SirArchibald ¢ Geikie, L LL.D.,F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, LL.D., Pres.&.5. Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. | Prof. J.S.Burdon Sanderson,F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S.
L. L. Sciater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F,R.S.
AUDITORS.
| Dr. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.

F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S.

Prof, W. Cunningham, D.Sc, | Ludwig Mond, Esq., F.R.S.

Dr.
1893-94.

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR

THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,

RECEIPTS.
£ 8 dad,
Balance brought forward ..........s.seeesseeeenes Ror Jace ee ny ee 391 1.9
Mie! COMMPOSUGIONS) (25 oe stecas wows wcrc ocon ss cecene sels cuvesecigs cuesee eee 280 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ....csccc.ccscececeececeeseees 134 0 0
Anintiall SUDSCMIPLIONS |. ....- secs esaccc+sseccaue dsc es sse+oscencnadaeeiaen 558 0 0
Sale-of Associates: iCKCtSic..scsed-eshoesede a= che nceavctinenecesereede 762 0 0
PalevoL ladies NCKELS) \5.2ccsscrwessceveussock’s seiiverereseets teccas tome 268 0 0
Salerot Index. S61= 90)... sevecsseacceacemsresatscsecass £85 1 3
Sale‘of other Publications ....2.../.s1.acssesseieeesss se 145 5 4
——— 230 6 7
Intereshion exchequer Bills). ....csa-caseaecesetpaneaavsvosr eceseer een 12 14 11
DavadendsoniConsols)-. 6. <t0s.<csaceasctiesaalesnasasitidicerastsetecte 22618 8
Dividends'on India 3"per’ Cents. .....cte...csascoversnscsessoe¥erts 104 17 O
Unexpended Balance of Grant for investigating the Physio-
logical Action of Oxygen in Asphyxia ............sseeeeeeeees 1-0) UL
Unexpended balance of Grant to Wave-lengths Committee 136 4 0
Mncome Dax TetULNe yc. a Wessus dequaises das vvesvaneuekomevemeeatesemess 2511 8
Sale of Consols—£962 16 7 at 1002 = £971 5 1
Less Stamp and ComMission........scccccssceeeeeecens ib: si
— 970 0 0
Exchequer Bills transferred from Investments Account ..... 500 0 0
pak
Le*
£4600 15 6
Investments
£ Ss. dp
JUNE BOMIPUSEMOOUSOIS, secnccccrescasesetonvsssancersescmacanacensece 8500 0 O
India S, PErAMEUesMeccccses. <cacaeee tsecssceodecs-ocasewacsceneens 3600 0 0
In hands of General Treasurer :
IXGHEGICT POUL Sieiecsa-scaecenescs-ecesusocesmareassuccspnanesssnens 500 0 0
£12,600 0 0

e

) THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

from July 1, 1893, to June 30, 1894. Cr.
1895-94. PAYMENTS.

Expenses of Nottingham Meeting, including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &C. ........eeeeeeee eee WEE Zcsa els 133 16
Rent and Office Expenses .............04
A ATIOS eacdeen ceeeeones ce deceaen ened 5b
Printing, Binding, &c. :—1892— 93.
+ 3 SO SOA jaccnseidvan Adele
Pr # Index, 1861-90

Cam &

> ee ot

2 2182 13° 4
Payment of Grants made at Nottingham :—

Zs. a

: Electrical Standards .......... abd olaleyieiniavera sal ietattig acts 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena ... 10 0 0

Tables of Mathematical Functions ......+......eeeee ee 15 0 0

Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation..... ay 3t 0d 6

, Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.... 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed Colours..... eters al eraiclee ohare tata 5 00

q Erratic Blocks ......... eaaatete nis afatctafetnia aiielahalciae sats sale 15 0 0
4 Fossil Pay NO pGds . isis Jaiainies deleele scminecinveiniessts cy 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall, &c 20 0 0

Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills ......... See PAG) AVY

New Sections of Stonesfield Slate..........ce0eee eee ee 14 0 0

Observations on Harth-tremors ..........cceeeeeeeaee 50 0 0

Exploration of Calf-Hole Cave ............cceeeseveeee 5 0 0

Table at the Naples Zoological Station ......--......+. 100 0 0

Table at the Plymouth Biological Laboratory .......... 5 0 0

Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ............ sale cette 100 VU O

Badlopy Of the lrish Sea, fers... as wet o)-\aj0n.n010.0/s.(eleiefalarolahiels 40 0 0

Structure and Function ot the Mammalian Heart ...... 10 0 0

Observations in South Georgia................65 Seaer 60 0 0
Exploration/im ATavia’.. 0) .cuescesescscesardonseeces 30 0 0

Methods ot Economic Training............. AY ames 910 0

Anthropometric Laboratory Statistics 5 0 0

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom . 10 0 0

‘Lhe Lake Village at Glastonbury............... fa* 209.0 X60

Anthropometrical Measurements in schools;............ 5 0 0

Mental and Physical Condition of Children ............ 20 0 0

Corresponding Societies .......ceeceeccecesceece RinAaiaia a 25 0 0

ono oeo
In hands of General Treasurer :—
At Bank of England, Western Branch £682 9 8

Less Cheques not presented ............ 89 6 9
Exchequer Bills
Cash.
"TW WEE § fet oaat tay
£4600 15_6
Account.
£ Ss. d.
BPE MSL Gl sess ne setup dui css cns.acscsongh adie sade dy tiociecewomaes 962 16 7
‘ _ Exchequer Bills transferred to General Account.. 500 0 0
_ Investments June 30, 1894 :—Consols L7537
Mirtle, 3 Per Cents, cc. ..cecneecacsaesetecens
—_—_—— 11137 3 6

£12,600 0 0

WM. CUNNINGHAM, ee
T. E. THORPE, uditors

0

'

ry

4

; ARTHUR W. RUCKER, General Treasurer.
Io July 13, 1894.

Table showing the Attendance and Receip

1861, Sept. 4
1862, Oct. 1

1864, Sept.

1890, Sept. 3

...| Manchester
...| Cambridge
1863, Aug. 26...
.--| Bath

eee ewer re eeeeeneee

1865, Sept. 6 ...| Birmingham......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.
1866, Aug. 22...) Nottingham......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S.
1867; Sept. 4 2../ Dundee .......5..2..0 The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
1868, Aug. 19...) Norwich ............ Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
BGO. eAme.. USr | MIRCUCDU ceccesescons ses Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.......
1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ............ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.......
1871, Aug. 2 ...] Edinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
1872, Aug. 14 ...| Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
1873, Sept. 17 ...| Bradford ............ Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R. 8.
1874, Auc: 19),..| Belfast’ .....150.5<.0 Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S.
1875, Aug. 25 ...| Bristol ............0+ SirJohn Hawkshaw,C. E a Eegs
1876, Sept. 6 ...| Glasgow ............ Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
1877, Aug. 15 ...} Plymouth ............ Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
S78; xt ee 5. DUIS vers ores cceses W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.
1879, Aug. 20 ...| Sheffield ............ Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
1880, Aug. 25 es) Swansea ............ A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S....
LSSiy Anca eat MOK occstee-tacssccses Sir John Lubbock, Bart. »F.R.S.
1882, Aug. 23 ...| Southampton ...... Dr. C. W. Siemens, eer:
1883, Sept. 19...) Southport ............ Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1884, Aug. 27 ...| Montreal ............ Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F_R.S. ...
1885, Sept. 9 ...| Aberdeen ............ SirLyon Playfair, K.C.B.,F.R.S.
1886, Sept. 1 .| Birmingham......... Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G.,F.R.S.
1887, Aug. 31 ...| Manchester ......... Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,F.R.S.
IBS8s Sepunomes- Moatiewee.. c.dscccemees Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S...
1889, Sept. 11 ...; Newcastle-on-Tyne | Prof. W.H. Flower, oO. B., F. RB.

MME COB es cosncceas rescs

Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Old Life | New Lif
Members | Membe

1Sai, Sept..27 ..| York ...<ssssssseec The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.

1832, June 19...| Oxford ...........000. The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.5.
1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge ......... The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.

1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L.......
1835, Aug. 10 ...| Dublin ............... The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
1836, Aug. 22 ...| Bristol 7... .2cessesss The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
1838, Aug. 10 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne | The Duke of Northumberland
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
1840, Sept. 17 ...] Glasgow ......sse00- The Marquis of Breadalbane...
1841, July 20...) Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton......
18435 Atos 7 ron CORK a npersecocecasas The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.......
1844, Sept. 26 ...] York ....2....ceeseeeee The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
1845, June 19...) Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
1846, Sept. 10...) Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
1847, June 23 ...| Oxford .........00000. Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart.......
1848, Aug. 9 ...| Swamsea ........000- The Marquis of Northampton

1849, Sept. 12...) Birmingham......... The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
1850, July 21...) Edinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H.......
1851, July 2 ..| Ipswich............... G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal

1852, Sept. 1 ...| Belfast ............00 Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.

DSHS, Septeia)) -22| LULL (oo... ccnsereceeces William Hopkins, F.R.S. ......
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
1855, Sept. 12 ...} Glasgow ............ The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
1856, Aug. 6 ...| Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.

UBT, AUS. 2G ss|DUDUIM. «.-.c0cecccem The Rev.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.
1858, Sept. 22 ...| Leeds...........:.0.« Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
1859, Sept. 14 ...) Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. the Prince Consort ...
1860! June’ Ql.) OxtOrd. <ecnsew.csecene The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...

WilliamFairbairn, LL.D.,F.R.S.
The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.

Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., E.RS.

1891, Aug. PHO ARGU Eee tescte coast Dr. W. Huggins, F.RS. sees

1892, Aug. 3...) Edinburgh ......... Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S. ...
1893, Sept. 13 ...| Nottingham......... Prof. J. 8S. Burdon Sanderson...
1894 Ave. 8: ...| Oxford).........: 0000 | The Marquis of Salisbury,F.R.S.

*% Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.

{7 Tickets of Adm

ual Meetings of the Association.
Attended by

Amount Sums paid on

ae Bah r ; received Account of iene
bers | Members | ciates | Tdles | Forelmers | Totat | axing the [orantetorseien|
SOME Ceo Allies co asauteeece 1831

GAbmoderbe lt | me eaoraonnccrn 1832

Botedocooll | Peepectoectaccr 1833

easaeices £20 0 O| 1834

A o0S3600 167 0 O | 1835

Rsieaesae 435 0 O | 1836

Jeasteivas 922 12 6} 1837

peadeeene 932 2 2] 1838

seeaee eae 1595 11 O | 1839

Salesacren 1546 16 4) 1840

Saniaeean 1235 10 11 } 1841

eaten 1449 17 8 | 1842

GACSRASAD 1565 10 2 | 1843

eseceuels 981 12 8 | 1844

Bestatiee's 831 9 9 | 1845

ee tease 685 16 0, 1846

Sastaaiaiscs 208 5 4 | 1847

£707 0 0 275 1 8 | 1848

963 0 0 159 19 6) 1849

1085 0 0 345 18 O | 1850

620 0 0 391, 9 71.1881

1085 0 0 304 6 7 | 1852

903 0 0 205 O O} 1853

1882 0 0 380 19 7 | 1854

2311 0 0 480 16 4 | 1855

1098 0 0 734 13 9 | 1856

2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857

1931 0 0 618 18 2 | 1858

2782 0 0 684 11 1 | 1859

1604 0 0 766 19 6 | 1860

3944 00); 1111 5 10} 1861

1089 0 0} 1293 16 6 | 1862

3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 | 1863

2965 0 0} 1289 15 8 | 1864

2227 00! 1591 7 10}; 1868

2469 0 0}] 1750 13 4 | 1866

2613 0 0| 1739 4 O | 1867

2042 00} 1940 O O |} 1868

1931 0 0 | 1622 0 0} 1869

38096 0 0 | 1572 O O | 1870

2575 00 | 1472 2 6 1871

2649 00] 1285 O O| 1872

2120 0 0 | 1685 O O| 1873

1979 0 0} 1151 16 O |} 1874

2397 0 0 960 O O | 1875

3023 0 0 | 1092 4 2 | 1876

1268 00/1128 9 7 | 1877

2615 0 0 725 16 6 | 1878

1425 0 0 | 1680 11 11 | 1879

899 0 0 73) 7 7 | 1880
2689 0 0 476.8 11} 3881;

1286 0 0 | 1126 1 11 | 1882

. 5 2369 0 0} 1083 3 3 | 1883
317 219 826 74 2660 H.§) 1777 | 1538 00/1173 4 0] 1884
«832 122 1053 447 6 2203 | 225600] 1385 O 0} 1885
428 17 1067 429 iil 2453 | 253200] 995 0 6) 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 | 4336 0 0] 1186 18 O | 1887
: 399 100 639 509 12 1984 | 2107 00] 1511 0 5 | 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 | 24410 0] 1417 0 11 | 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0.0 789 16 8 | 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 | 1664 0 0 | 1029 10 0} 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 | 2007 0 0 864 10 O | 1892
328 57 773 268 V7 1661 | 1653 00 907 15 6 | 1893
435 69 941 451 rid 2321 | 217500] 58815 6) 1894

cluding Ladies, § Fellows of the Americau Ass ciation were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

Ixxvill REPORT—1894.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Report of the Council for the Year 1893-94, presented to the General
Committee at Oxford on Wednesday, August 8, 1894.

Tue Council have received reports from the General Treasurer during
the past year, and his account from July 1, 1893 to June 30, 1894, which
has been audited, will be presented to the General Committee.

As the amount of money voted for grants has been subject to con-
siderable fluctuations, and as the expenditure on printing is apt to
increase unless carefully watched, the Council appointed a Committee to
report on the desirability of equalising the grants made for scientific
purposes in different years, and of making, if possible, still further
reductions in the expenditure on printing.

The Council received and adopted the following Report from their
Committee.

(1) That it is not desirable that the Invested Funds of the Association be
increased, and that the floating balance in the hands of the Treasurer
might be diminished if the bill for printing, which is now due, were paid
out of Capital. The Committee therefore recommend that a sufficient sum
be taken out of Capital to allow this to be done.

(2) That the Treasurer be requested to continue the practice, which he began
at Nottingham, of presenting to the Committee of Recommendations, at
their second meeting, an estimate of the receipts and expenses of the
Association for the current financial year.

(3) That it is not advisable to lay down any definite rules as to the amount to
be expended in grants, but that as far as circumstances permit the following
regulations should be adhered to :—

(a) That 1,000/. be at present regarded as the normal annual grant in aid
of research.

(8) That this sum be annnally granted, unless the estimated floating
balance in the hands of the Treasurer at the end of the current
financial year is less than 500/. or greater than 1,000/.

(y) If the estimated balance falls short of 5002, it is desirable that the
grant should be reduced. If it exceeds 1,000/., the excess may be
regarded as available for increasing the grant above 1,000/.

(8) In the case of a sudden increase of the floating balance above 1,000/.,
due to an exceptionally large meeting, it is not desirable that the
whole of the surplus should be spent at one meeting.

(4) That in view of the large annual expenditure on printing, the Committee
recommend that the attention of Committees to whom grants of money
are made be drawn to the importance of economy. Good service would be

{ rendered to the Association if members of Committees would remember
| that they are severally responsible for the reports, and would do their best
to make them as short and inexpensive as is consistent with their utility.

In accordance with the recommendation that the printer’s bill then
due should be paid out of Capital, the Council authorised the Trustees to
sell an’ amount of stock sufficient for this purpose.

a a a a ee

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxix

An invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association at
Liverpool in 1896 has been received, and will be brought before the
General Committee on Monday ; communications in reference to the
Meeting of the Association in 1897 have been received from Toronto.

The Council recommend that the Mayor of Oxford, Sir W. R. Anson,
Warden of All Souls’ College, and Professor Sylvester be elected Vice-
Presidents of the Association.

The Council having been informed that Mr. L. A. Selby-Bigge, one
of the Local Secretaries, was obliged to resign his office, owing to his
having accepted the appointment of Assistant Charity Commissioner,
Mr. D. H. Nagel was nominated Secretary in his place.

The Council have elected the following Foreign Men of Science
Corresponding Members :—

Prof. Christian Bohr, Copenhagen. Dr. R. Hertwig, Munich.
Prof. W. C. Brogger, Christiania. Dr. Hildebrand, Stockholm.

Prof. W. Einthoven, Leiden. M. Henri Moissan, Paris.
Prof. Heger, Brussels. |

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if
desirable :—
(1) That the recommendations regarding the times at which the Sections and

Sectional Committees shall meet, which have been received from the
Sectional Committees, be referred to the Council.

The Council, having regard to the fact that the enforcement of the
same hour of meeting for all Sections would be contrary to the expressed
wish of some of the Sections, resolved that the times of meeting of the
Sections and Committees be arranged by the several Organising Com-
mittees, and be communicated to the General Officers at least one month
before the Annual Meeting ; and that the times so fixed be regularly
adhered to throughout the Meeting on every day except Thursday and
Saturday, in respect of which days the hours may be settled, as at present,
by the Sectional Committees. If no such resolution be received from an
Organising Committee, the times of meeting will be arranged as follows :—
Section at 11 a.m., Committee at 10 a.m.

(2) That the resolution received from the Committees of Sections © and G,
proposing a change in the rule relating to the appointment of Committees
for special objects of science, be referred to the Council.

The Council, having considered the question, do not recommend any
change in this rule.

In consequence of the establishment of a separate Section of
Physiology, Animal and Vegetable, it seemed likely that papers on
botanical subjects might be divided between this Section and that of
Biology. The Council received a communication from a meeting of
Botanists, held last November, pointing out the inconvenience that was
likely to arise from such a division ; and they were asked to appoint a
Committee to confer with a Committee of Botanists, who would represent
the views of the meeting. The Council, after receiving their Committee’s
Report, resolved to recommend to the General Committee that, instead
of Section D and Section I as at present constituted, there be three
Sections, namely Section D, Zoology; Section I, Physiology; and
Section K, Botany

The Council also propose that the word ‘Mineralogy’ be omitted
from the title of Section B, as papers on Mineralogy are read not only

‘Ixxx --REPORT—1894.

in this Section but also in the Physical Section and’ in the Geological
Section.

By a rule of the Association, proposals for a change‘ in the titles of
Sections must be referred to the Committee of Recommendations for a
report. This Committee will be able to consider any representations
‘which may be made to them by the Committees of the Sections which
would be affected by the proposed changes.

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year has been received and will be presented to the General Committee.

It is proposed in future to print the account of the Conference of
Delegates in the Annual Report of the same year instead of in that
of the following year. The Report of the Oxford Meeting will therefore
contain an account of the proceedings of the Conference both at Nottingham
and at Oxford.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola, Sir Douglas Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. Topley, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V.
Holmes, Professor E. B. Poulton, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, and the Rev.
Canon Tristram, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the General
Committee.

The Council nominate Professor Meldola, F.R.S., Chairman, Mr.
Cuthbert E. Peek, Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary, to
the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to be held during
the Meeting at Oxford.

In accordance with the regulations, the retiring Members of the
Council will be :—

Sir R. 8. Ball. Prof. H. Sidgwick.

R. T. Glazebrook, Esq. Dr. H. Woodward.
Prof, A. H. Green.

The Council recommend the re-election of the other Ordinary
Members of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose
names are distinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

Anderson, Dr. W., F.R.S. Meldola, Prof. R., F.R.S.
Ayrton, Prof. W. E., F.R.S. Preece, W. H., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
Baker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Ramsay, Prof. W., F.R.S.

Boys, Prof. C. Vernon, F.R.S. Reinold, Prof. A. W., F.B.S.
Edgeworth, Prof. F. Y., M.A. Reynolds, Prof. J. Emerson, M.D., F.R.S.
Evans, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
*Foxwell, Prof. H. S., M.A. *Teall, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S,
“Herdman, Prof. W. A., F.R.S. Thomson, Prof. J. J., F.B.8.
Horsley, Prof. Victor, F.R.S. Unwin, Prof. W. C., F.R.S.
*Lankester, Prof. E. Ray, F.B.S. *Vines, Prof. 8. H., F.R.S.
Liveing, Prof. G. D., F.R.S. Ward, Prof. Marshall, F.R.S.
Lodge, Prof. Oliver J., F.B.S. Whitaker, W., Esq., F.R.S.

Markham, Clements R., Esq.,C.B., F.R.S.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

lxxxi

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
OxrorpD MEETING IN AuGustT 189-4.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.

The Application of Photography
to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.

For Calculating Tables of certain
Mathematical Functions, and,
if necessary, for taking steps to
carry out the Calculations, and
to publish the results in an
accessible form.

[Unexpended balance in hands of
‘Committee. ]

Considering the advisability and
possibility of establishing in
other parts of the country Ob-
servations upon the Prevalence
of Earth Tremors similar to
those now being made in Dur-
ham in connection with coal-
mine explosions.

1894.

Members of the Committee

Grants

Chairman.—Professor G. Carey
Foster.

Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Oliver J. Lodge, Lord Ray-
leigh, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Muirhead, Messrs. W. H.
Preece and Herbert Taylor,
Professors J. D. Everett and A,

Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming, |

Professors G. F. FitzGerald,
G. Chrystal, and J. J. Thomson,
Mr. W. N. Shaw, Dr. J. T.
Bottomley, Rev. T. C. Fitz-
patrick, Professor J. Viriamu
Jones, Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney,
Professor §. P. Thompson, Mr.
G. Forbes, and Mr, J. Rennie.

Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.

Secretary.—Mr. A. W. Clayden.

Professor R. Meldola and Mr. John
Hopkinson,

Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.

Secretary.—Professor A. Lodge.

Lord Kelvin, Professor A. Cayley,
Professor B. Price, Dr. J. W.
L. Glaisher, Professor A. G.
Greenhill, and Professor W. M.
Hicks.

Chairman.— My. G. J. Symons.

Seeretary.—Mr. C. Davison.

Sir F. J. Bramwell, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Mr. Isaac Roberts, Mr. T. Gray,
Sir J. Evans, Professor J. Prest-
wich, Professor E. Hull, Pro-
fessor G. A. Lebour, Professor
R. Meldola, Professor J. W.
Judd, Mr. M. Walton Brown,
Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor C.
G. Knott, Professor J. H.
Poynting, and Mr. Horace
Darwin,

bo
oh
or
on

10 00

Q

or

00

lxxxii

REPORT—1894.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making
Meteorological Observations on
Ben Nevis.

To assist the Physical Society in
bringing out Abstracts of Phy-
sical Papers.

To co-operate with the Royal Corn-
wall Polytechnic Society for the
purpose of comparing and re-
ducing the Magnetic Observa-
tions of Falmouth Observatory.

To confer with the Astronomer
Royal and the Superintendents
of other Observatories with refer-
ence to the Comparison of Mag-
netic Standards with a view of
carrying out such comparison.

To co-operate with Professor Karl
Pearson in the Calculation of
certain Integrals.

To confer with British and Foreign
Societies publishing Mathema-
tical and Physical Papers as to
the desirability of securing uni-
formity in the size of the pages
of their Transactions and Pro-
ceedings.

Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements.

The Action of Light upon Dyed
Colours.

The Investigation of the direct
Formation of Haloids from pure
Materials.

Chairman,—Lord McLaren.

Secretary.— Professor Crum Brown.

Mr. John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan,
Professor R. Copeland, and Hon.
R. Abercromby.

Chairman.—Dr. Ki. Atkinson.
Secretary. — Professor <A. W.
Ricker.

Chairman.—Mr. Howard Fox.
Secretary.—Professor W.G. Adams.
Professor A. W. Riicker.

Chairman. — Professor A.
Riicker.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Watson.

Professor A. Schuster and Pro-
fessor H. H. Turner.

We

Chairman.—Rev. Robert Harley.

Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Forsyth.

Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A.
Lodge, and Professor Kar] Pear-
son.

Chairman.—Professor §. P. Thomp-
son.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Swinburne.

Mr. G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V. Burton,
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professor
A. W. Riicker, and Dr. G. John-
stone Stoney.

Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.

Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.

Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A.
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and
Wolcott Gibbs, and Captain
Abney.

Chairman.—Dr. T. E. Thorpe.

Secretary.—Professor J. J. Hum-
mel. ‘

Dr. W. H. Perkin, Prof. W. J.
Russell, Captain Abney, Prof. W.
Stroud, and Prof. R. Meldola.

Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.

Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr,
C. H. Bothamley.

Grants |

£
50

100

50

bo
or

or

10

as
0

s.
0

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.

The Electrolytic Methods of Quan-
titative Analysis.

Recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Cha-
racters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest con-
nected with the same, and tak-
ing measures for their preserva-
tion.

The Description and Illustration
of the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Paleozoic Rocks.

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological In-
terest. f

[Last year’s grant renewed. ]

To investigate the Character of
the High-level Shell-bearing de-
posits at Clava, Chapelhall, and
other localities.

The Investigation of the Eury-
pterid-bearing Deposits of the
Pentland Hills.

To open further Sections in the
neighbourhood of Stonesfield in
order to show the Relationship
of the ‘Stonesfield Slate’ to
the underlying and Oyerlying
Strata,

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Chairman.—Professor J. Emerson
Reynolds.

Seeretary.—Dr. C. A. Kohn.

Professor Frankland, Professor F.
Clowes, Dr. Hugh Marshall, Mr.
A. EH. Fletcher, Mr. D. H Nagel,
Mr. T. Turner, and Mr. J. B. Cole-
man,

Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.

Secretary.—Mr, P. F. Kendall.

Professors W. Boyd Dawkins, T.
McK. Hughes, T. G. Bonney, and
J. Prestwich, Messrs. C. H. De
Rance, R. H. Tiddeman, J. W.
Woodall, and Prof. L. C. Miall.

Chairman.—Rev. Prof. T. Wilt-
shire.

Seeretary.—Yrofessor T. R. Jones.

Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretary.—Mr. O. W. Jeffs.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, Prof. Boyd
Dawkins, Professor T. McKenny
Hughes, Dr. V. Ball, Dr. T.
Anderson, and Messrs. A. S.
Reid, E. J. Garwood, W. Gray,
H. B. Woodward, J. E. Bedford,
R. Kidston, W. W. Watts, R. H.
Tiddeman, J. J. H. Teall, and
J. G. Goodchild.

Chairman.—Mr. J. Horne.
Secretary.—Mr. Dugald Bell.
Messrs. J. Fraser, P. ¥. Kendall,

T. EF. Jamieson, and David |

Robertson.

Chairman.—Dr. R. H. Traquair.
Secretary.—Mr. M. Laurie.
Professor T. Rupert Jones.

Chairman.—Mz. H. B. Woodward.

Seerctary.—My. EH. A. Walford.

Professor A. H. Green, Dr. H.
Woodward, and Mr. J. Windoes.

Ixxxlil

40 00

10 00

or

00

10 00

10 090

50 00

e2

Ixxxiv

REPORT— 1894.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

To explore the Calf-Hole Cave, at

the Heights, Skyrethorne, near
Skipton.

To consider a project for investi-

gating the Structure of a Coral
Reef by Boring and Sounding.

To investigate the nature and pro-

bable age of the High-level
Flint-drift in the Face of the
Chalk Escarpment near Igh-
tham, which appears to be pro-
ductive of Flakes and other
Forms of Flint, probably
wrought by the hand of Man.

_ Toexamine the ground from which

\

the remains of Cetiosaurus in
the Oxford Museum were ob-
tained, with a view to deter-
mining whether other parts of
the same animal remain in the
rock.

To appoint Mr. M. D. Hill to inves-

tigate the Fertilisation of the
Eggs of Echinoderms, Molluscs,
and Annelids, or, failing this, to
appoint some other competent
investigator to carry on a defi-
nite piece of work at the Zoo-
logical Station at Naples.

To enable Mr. Edgar Allen or

other zoologist to investigate
the Decapod Crustacea, and Mr.
J. J. Lister to work at Fora-
minifera, at the Laboratory of
the Marine Biological Associa-
tion, Plymouth.

[10/. renewed. ]

Chairman.—My. R. H. Tiddeman.

Secretary.—Rev. E. Jones.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Pro-
fessor L. C. Miall, Mr. P. F.
Kendall, Mr. A. Birtwhistle,
and Mr. J. J. Wilkinson.

Chairman.—Professor T. G. Bon-
ney.

Secretav'y.— Professor W. J. Sollas.

Sir Archibald Geikie, Professors
A. H. Green, J. W. Judd, C,
Lapworth, A. C. Haddon, Boyd
Dawkins, G. H. Darwin, 8. J.
Hickson, and A. Stewart, Cap-
tain W. J. L. Wharton, Drs. H.
Hicks, J. Murray, W. T. Blan-
ford, Le Neve Foster, and H. B.
Guppy, Messrs. F. Darwin, H.
O. Forbes, G. C. Bourne, A. R.
Binnie, J. W. Gregory, and
J. C. Hawkshaw, and Hon. P.
Fawcett.

Chairyman.—Sir John Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. B. Harrison.

Professor J. Prestwich and Pro-
fessor H. G. Seeley.

Chairman.—Professor A. H. Green.

Secretary.—Myr. James Parker.

Earl of Ducie, Professor E. Ray
Lankester, and Professor H. G.
Seeley.

Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.

Secretary.—My. Percy Sladen.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor J. Cossar Ewart, Pro-
fessor M. Foster, Professor 8. J.
Hickson, and Mr. A. Sedgwick.

Chairman.—Mr. G. C. Bourne.

Secretary. — Professor E, Ray
Lankester.

Professor M. Foster and Professor
8. H. Vines.

10 00

10 00 |

100 00

ee

Arabia,

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxy
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee Grants |
foP AIOE]
The Zoology, Botany, and Geology | Chairman.—Professor W.A.Herd- | 40 00 |
of the Irish Sea. man. |
[42. 10s. 8d. renewed. ] Secretary.—Mr. I. C. Thompson.
Professor A. C. Haddon, Professor |
G. B. Howes, Mr. W. E. Hoyle,
Mr. A. O. Walker, Mr. Clement |
Reid, and Professor F, E. Weiss.
To report on the present state of | Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater. 50 00 |
our Knowledge of the Zoology | Seerctary.—Mr. G. Murray. |
and Botany of the West India | Mr. W. Carruthers, Dr. A. C. Giin-
Islands, and to take steps to in- ther, Dr. D. Sharp, Mr. F. Du
vestigate ascertained deficien- Cane Godman, and Professor A. :
cies in the Fauna and Flora. Newton.
Compilation of an Index Generum | Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower. 50 00
et Specierum Animalium. Sceretary.—Mr. W. L. Sclater.
Dr. P. L. Sclater and Dr. H. Wood-
ward,
Climatology of Tropical Africa. Chairman.—Mr. &. G. Ravenstein. 5 00
Seeretary.—Dr. H. R. Mill.
Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. Baldwin
Latham, and Mr. H. N, Dickson.
Exploration of Hadramout, | Chairman.—Mr. H. Seebohm. 50 00
Seerctary.—My. J. Theodore Bent.
Mr. E. G. Ravenstein, Dr. J. G.
Garson, and Mr. G. W. Bloxam.
To report on methods of Calibrat- | Chairman.—Professor A. B. W.| 50 00
ing the measuring instruments Kennedy.
used in Engineering Laborato- | Secretary.—Professor W.C. Unwin.
ries, and to take steps for Com-
paring the Measuring Instru-
ments at present in use in dif-
ferent laboratories.
To organise an Ethnographical | Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook. 30 00
Survey of the United Kingdom. | Seeretary.—Mr. Hi. Sidney Hart-
land.
Mr. Francis Galtcn, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Dr. Joseph Anderson, Mr. J.
Romilly Allen, Dr. J. Beddoe,
Professor D. J. Cunningham,
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins,
Mr. Arthur J. Evans, Sir H.
Howorth, Professor R. Meldola,
General Pitt-Rivers, and Mr.
E. G. Ravenstein.
The Lake Village at Glastonbury. | Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro. 30 00

Seeretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Gen-
eral Pitt-Rivers, and Sir John
Evans.

Ixxxvi

REPORT— 1894.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee Grants
£ 3. d.
Anthropometric Measurements in | Chairman.—Professor A. Macalis- 5 00
Schools, ter.
Secretary.—Professor B. Windle.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Professor J.
Cleland, and Dr, J. G. Garson.
An ancient Kitchen-midden at | Chairman.—Sir John Evans. 10 00
Hastings already partially ex- | Secretary.—Mr. W. J. Lewis Ab-
amined, and a Settlement called bott.
the Wildernesse. Professor Prestwich, Mr. Cuthbert
Peek, and Mr. Arthur J. Evans.
To carry out an investigation on | Chairman.—Professor J. G. Mc- | 25 00
the Physiological Applications Kendrick.
of the Phonograph, and on the | Secretary.—Professor G. G. Mur-
true form of the voice curves ray.
made by the instrument. Mr. David 8. Wingate and Mr. John
S. McKendrick.
Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.| 30 0 0
mittee. Secretary.—Mr. T. V. Holmes.

Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Douglas
Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr.
G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson,
Sir John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkin-
son, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
W. Whitaker, Mr. W. Topley,
Professor E. B. Poulton, Mr.
Cuthbert Peek, and Rev. Canon
H. B. Tristram.

a ee Ee bel el A eee

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Considering the best Methods of Record-
ing the Direct Intensity of Solar Ra-
diation.

The Volcanic and Seismological Phe-
nomena of Japan.

Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Sir G. G. Stokes.

Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.

Professor A. Schuster, Mr. G. Johnstone
Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain W.
de W. Abney, Mr. C. Chree, Mr. G. J.
Symons, and Mr. W. E. Wilson.

Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.

Secretary.—Professor J. Milne.

Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. J. '[. Bottom-
ley, Professor A. H. Green, and Profes-
sor C. G@. Knott.

Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.

Secretary.—Mr. C. Chree.

Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Mr. C. H. Carp-
mael, Professor A. Schuster, Captain
E. W. Creak, the Astronomer Royal,
Mr. William Ellis, and Professor A.
W. Riicker.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxvii

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.

The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.

That Mr. W. N. Shaw and the Rev. T.
C. Fitzpatrick be requested to con-
tinue their Report on the present state
of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and
Electro-chemistry.

That Mr. John Brill be requested to
draw up a Report on Non-commuta-
tive Algebras.

The Properties of Solutions, ° .

Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.

The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.

The Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of
Oxygen.

To inquire into the Proximate Chemical
Constituents of the various kinds of
Coal.

Chairman.—Mr. John Murray.

Secretary.—Mr. John Murray.

Professor A. Schuster, Lord Kelvin, the
Abbé Renard, Dr. A. Buchan, the Hon.
R. Abercromby, Dr. M. Grabham, and
Mr. John Aitken.

Chairman.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Professor Lord Kelvin, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor
Edward Hull, Professor J. Prestwich,
Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Professor A. 8.
Herschel, Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr.
A. B. Wynne, Mr, W. Galloway, Mr.
Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon,
Mr. E. Wethered, Mr. A. Strahan, and
Professor Michie Smith.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor W. Ramsay.

Chairyman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.

Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.

Professor H. McLeod, Mr. 8. U. Picker-
ing, Professor W. Ramsay, and Profes-
sor 8. Young.

Chairman.—Professor H. McLeod.
Seeretary.—Professor Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan and Mr. D. H. Nagel.

Chairman.—Dr. W. J. Russell.

Secretary.—Dr. A. Richardson.

Captain Abney, Professor W. Noel Hart-
ley and Professor W. Ramsay.

Chairman.—Sir I. Lowthian Bell.

Secretary.—Professor P. Phillips Bedson.

Professor F. Clowes, Mr. Ludwig Mond,
Professors Vivian B. Lewes and E.
Hull, and Messrs. J. W. Thomas and
H. Bauerman.

Ixxxviil

REPORT—1894..

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

OO

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To report on recent Inquiries into the
History of Chemistry.

The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools.

The Rate of Wrosion of the Sea-coasts of
England and Wales, and the Influence
of the Artificial Abstraction of
Shingle or other material in that
action,

The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius
and its neighbourhood.

To consider the best Methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.

The Circulation of the Underground
Waters in the Permeable Formations
of England, and the Quality and
Quantity of the Waters supplied to
various Towns and Districts from
these Formations. And that a Digest
of the eighteen Reports should be
prepared by the Committee, and sold
in a separate form.

To report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, and to take steps
to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the Fauna, with power to co-operate
with the Committee appointed for the
purpose by the Royal Society, and to
avail themselves of such assistance in
their investigations as may be offered
by the Hawaiian Government.

To make a Digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Light-vessels.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Professor H. E, Armstrong,
Secretary.—Professor John Ferguson.

Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.

Seeretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Mr. George Gladstone, Professor W. R.
Dunstan, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. E. Roscoe, and Dr,
Silvanus P, Thompson.

Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.

Secretaries.—Messrs. C. E. De Rance and
W. Topley.

Messrs. J. B. Redman and J. W. Woodall,
Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Clarke, Admiral Sir EB.
Ommanney, Capt. Sir G. Nares, Capt.
J. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton,
Professor J. Prestwich, Mr. Edward
Easton, Mr. J. 8. Valentine, and Pro-
fessor L. F. Vernon Harcourt.

Chairman.—Mr. H. Bauerman.
Secretary.— Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis.
Messrs. F. W. Rudler and J. J. H. Teall.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.

Rev. G. F. Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston,
and Mr. J. E. Marr.

Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.

Secretary.—Mr. C. E. De Rance.

Sir D. Galton, Professor J. Prestwich,
and Messrs, J. Glaisher, P. F. Kendall,
E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, I. Roberts,
T. S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Topley,
C. Tylden-Wright, E. Wethered, and
W. Whitaker.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Professor Riley, Mr. O. Sal-
vin, Dr. P. L. Sclater, and Mr. Edgar A,
Smith.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.

Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M.
Barrington, Mr. W. E. Clarke, and Rey.
i. P. Knubley.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

Ixxxix

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

The Collection of Facts and Statistics
bearing on the following Questions :—

1. The influence of previous ferti-
lisation of the female on her
subsequent offspring.

2. The effect of maternal impres-
sions during pregnancy on the
offspring.

The Committee are authorised to
communicate with the Councils of the
British Medical Society, the Royal
Agricultural Society, the Highland
Agricultural Society, and the Royal
Dublin Society, with the view to joint
work.

| For carrying on the Work of the An-

thropometric Laboratory.

The Prehistoric and Ancient Remains
of Glamorganshire.

The Physical Characters, Languages,
and Industrial and Social Condition
of the North-Western Tribes of the
Dominion of Canada.

To co-operate with the Committee ap-
pointed by the International Congress
of Hygiene and Demography in the
investigation of the Mental and Phy-
sical Condition of Children.

Chairman.—Dr. A. Russel Wallace.

Secretary.—Dr. James Clark.

Professor S. J. Hickson, Professor F,
Jeffrey Bell, and Dr. J. N. Langley.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.

Secretary.—-Dr. J. G. Garson.

Dr. Wilberforce Smith, Professor A. C.
Haddon, and Professor B. C. A. Windle.

Chairman.—Dr. C. T. Vachell.

Secretary.— Mr. HE. Seward.

Lord Bute, Messrs. G. T. Clark, R. W.
Atkinson, Franklen G. Evans, James
Bell, and T. H. Thomas, and Dr. J.
G. Garson.

Chairman.—Dx. E. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Mr. Cuthbert HE. Peek.

Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. Haliburton,
and Mr. H. Hale.

Chairman.—Sir Douglas Galton.

Secretary.—Dr. Francis Warner.

Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Dr. J. G. Garson,
and Dr. W. Wilberforce Smith.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.

Dr. S. P. Langley’s paper on ‘ Recent Researches in the Infra-red Spectrum.’

Professor G. Quincke’s paper on the ‘Formation of Soap-bubbles by the Contact

of Alkaline Oleates with Water.’

Professor W. FGrster’s paper on the ‘ Displacements of the Rotational Axis of the

Earth.’

Professor A. Cornu’s paper on a ‘ Lecture-room Experiment to illustrate Fresnel’s

Diffraction Theory, Babinet’s Principle.’

Professor J. J. Thomson’s paper on the ‘Connection between Chemical Combi-
nation and the Discharge of Electricity through Gases.’

xe REPORT—1894.

Mr. H. Brereton Baker’s paper on the ‘ Hlectrification of Molecules and Chemical
Change.’

Professor O. Henrici’s report on Planimeters.

Sir Andrew Noble’s paper on ‘Methods that have been adopted for Measuring
Pressures in the Bores of Guns.’

Resolutions relating to the Constitution and Titles of Sections.

That the title of Section B in future be ‘ Chemistry.’
That the title of Section D be ‘ Zoology.’
That a separate Section of Botany be established.

That the title of Section I be ‘ Physiology, including Experimental Pathology and
Experimental Psychology.’

That Section I be next constituted independently for the Liverpool Meeting in
1896.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action

af desirable.

That the Council of the Association be requested to give their full support to the
efforts being made to induce the Government to send out a fully-equipped expedition
for the exploration of the Antarctic and Southern Seas.

That the Council be requested to call the attention of the Civil Service Commis-
sioners to the report of a Committee of Section F on the Methods of Economie Train-
ing, and especially to the recommendations (contained on page 2) with regard to
the position of Economics in the Civil Service Examinations.

tiie

xcl

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
General Committee at the Oxford Meeting, Auqust 1894. The Names
of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the

respective Grants are prefixed.

Mathematics and Physics.

*Foster, Professor Carey—Electrical Standards..................
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Photographs of Meteorological Phe-
SRE Soe ile wae oe csese pm cts, sec eatmeeaa eter e tcqeemy pce
*Rayleigh, Lord—Mathematical Tables (unexpended balance)
peymons, Mr. G. J.—Earth Tremors ........c00-.s000-cbeennaners
*McLaren, Lord—Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis
Atkinson, Dr. E.—Abstracts of Physical Papers ...............
Fox, Mr. Howard—Reduction of Magnetic Observations made
gepearmcuthh- Observatory ......s--cesdecdendsse deans beter tenes
Ricker, Professor A. W.—Comparison of Magnetic Standards
Harley, Rev. R.—-Calculation of Certain Integrals ............
Thompson, Professor 8. P.—Uniformity of Size of Pages of
MDH SACDIONS, OIC. 4 sau oseacs sie wea ceoseh oeeae adeno ae eae teases
Chemistry.
*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of
BREEN CTE ac Fes ois L255 a n.0 sna cuile ig he arenes eps aciges pees > ape Fe
*Thorpe, Dr. T. E.— Action of Light upon Dyed Colours ......
*Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Formation of Haloids from
031 2 SO a eee Sep leleei te 4 arene a

*Tilden, Professor W. A.—Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives
*Reynolds, Professor J. E.— Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis

Geology.

Aijall, Professor H:—Erratic Blocks | .21i12.3.5k0 view ceseocce ove
*Wiltshire, Professor T.—Paleozoic Phyllopoda..................
*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest
LSS co Re ge 8 hve oe Lie oA en
*Horne, Mr. J.—Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, &e. .........
*Traquair, Dr. R. H.—Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills
*Woodward, Mr. H. B.—New Sections of Stonesfield Slate ...
*Tiddeman, Mr. R. H.—Exploration of Calf-Hole Cave ......
*Bonney, Professor T. G.—Investigation of a Coral Reef by
Bers and Sounding :. ;.:: nrsnachh Pgatiganhe icdeiete: sc ccvevars
Evans, Sir John—Nature and Probable Age of High-level
Mitte Darnley ch 124.41 «500. Seats ake BOM SALA ass
Green, Professor A. H.—Examination of Locality where the
Cetiosaurus in the Oxford Museum was found ....,.......

Carried forward .wbberdiveates ath cass edddies oe fae

* Reappointed.

SV) oo

S| © Oo oO oc oO oS oo

(a eles) steel ey Kok

ooo oo

=) oO f=) ooococo oo

xcli REPORI—1894.

A £, 8. a,
(BrOWp liber amearetes ccs. be ornccesc asad veviesnactvsaveaeieeeen 598 0 0
Diology.
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.—Investigations at the Zoological Station,
Were lee ee ee rcmee rere eckcics 2s csns ces Saban Civics a uab eaee ane 100 0 0
*Bourne, Mr. G. C.—Investigations at the Biological Labora-
Lory, Eyer VOL Tenewed) oc... +02 cnaneecs veboescaengeang 20 0 0
*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea (partly renewed) ..........062....eceeceecee ens 40 0 0
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.—Zoology and Botany of the West India
WE AMUL SPR e ane aie certain e2 <0 es vadcnaines vcore saigas cui'saeeanestees 50 0 0
*Flower, Sir W. H.—Index of Genera and Species of Animals 50 0 0
Geography.

*Ravenstein, Mr. E. G.—Climatology of een Weirica 5.1. i Eel)
*Seebohm, Mr. H. —Exploration of Hadramout .. aes ssa peda ae
Mechanical Science.

Kennedy, Professor A. B. W.—Calibration and Comparison
pt MeasurmeIstraments.”'.").20527.2.504.- +. vacetbeerebheere eee 50 0 0

Anthropology.

*Brabrook, Mr. E. W.—Ethnographical Survey.................- 30 0 0
*Munro, Dr. R.—Lake Village at Glastonbury .................. 30 0 0

*Macalister, Professor A.—Anthropometric Measurements in
BOGUS fests SU orc ahlon Vile ew e.o.n3 ok tt oe ee eRe IETS eee ee ee wav 0
Evans, Sir J.—Exploration of a Kitchen-midden at Hastings 10 0 0

Physiology.

McKendrick, Professor J. G.—Physiological Applications of
the Phonogr ROP cia ca ahs + dscns nnipnieige sane ie Soe ee 2p. 0.0
*Meldola, Professor R.—Corresponding Societies ............... 30 0) 20
£1,093 0 0

* Reappointed.

The Annual Meeting in 1895.

The Meeting at Ipswich will commence on Wednesday, September 11.

The Annual Meeting in 1896.

The Annual. Meeting of the..Association in 1896 will be held at

Eaperpenl.

——

xcill

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.

Ea eK
1834.
Tide Discussions ....... eenaeee 20 0 0
1835
Tide Discussions ........-...+++ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 VU O
1836.
Tide Discussions .........+0++++ 163 0 O
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,

SEE sneee Peudeersueerecsrcecssesss 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tinued Heat .........+- Feaas: n UG gel a)
Rain-Gauges ...sesceceeesees ae elo a0
Refraction Experiments ...... 15. .0., 0
Lunar Nutation...........-..+0+ 60 0 0
Thermometers .....eseeeeses sees 15 6 0

£435 O O

1837.

Tide Discussions ........sssee0 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation................+ 70 0 O
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Miles ab Bristol’ s.2:.,2s-ses-- 200s 150 0 O
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature........+.++ 93 yor0.
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ..........- wince 6
Barometric Observations ..... - 380 0 0
UBSATOMETECTS <2 0.5) .csscceene sees fsax}/ L186

£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ..... son eeoee ent OnO
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

UID), copdScdabadeenShassceenanes 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
PSEUHBOL LIC CS aes acess cmaceneses + ,90. 0.0
Growth of Plants .............+5 75 0 0
IAGO RAVETS ...s..s.520-cecnes 3 6 6
Education Committee ......-.. 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ....... chao OmaonsO
Land and Sea Level....... sees ZOU Ons o
Steam-vessels.......0.scsceserere ov LOD OF 2G
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5

£932 2 2

1839.

£ 8. d.
Fossil Ichthyology ........++++ OF (0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &C. .........0+. 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ........+ 144 2 0
i) BCISiOl SRI CS oscsscenteassressens 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature...........+ 2 it
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 O
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 7
Railway Constants ............ 28 7 O
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 2
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 17118 0O
Stars in Lacaille .............06 ll 0 6
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0
Animal Secretions......... asigci sty LO) LOW G6.
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0O
Atmospheric Air ...........0006 16 1 0
Cast and Wrought Tron ...... 40 0 QO
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... ZAnsO, Oi

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
KON EDSSIC) vo seaaadeshaeedagena 49 7 &
Fossil Reptiles ........scs0..e00 aL ee ees
Mining Statistics .............06 50 0 0
£1595 11 O
(eee

1840.

Bristol Tides ....... padaaoaa teens 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 1313 6
Heart Experiments .......... ko Loe
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions ............+5 Toor
Land and Sea Level....... care OTL E
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 24210 O
Stars (lacatlle)*.... 652.02. .5+00 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ....... pena es On
Atmospheric Air ........seeeeee 1515 0
Waterion Iron” ....02....6.00.-.5 10°°0o" 6
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... fim (
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population............ 100 0 0
School Statistics ..............- 50 0 O
Forms of Vessels .........200.+. 184 7 @

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
DOMED \eastsecnsrtestesran te ash A OPO

Meteorological Observations
Ath ly MOUulaceteesensancnes - 80 0 06
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13-9
£1546 16 4

REPORT—1894.

XC1V
1841.
o 8. 3G
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature.........+.- 8 8 Q
AGHINOMEHETS ...,0000ccesseeserce 2 LOMO VO
Earthquake Shocks ..... PAon iio G
Acrid Poisons. :...........2sc.0006 G7 Or 0
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3 0 0
Mud in Rivers .......:....200008 By a0)
Marine Zoology ........sseeseeeee 1512 8
Skeleton Maps .........:sceeeeee 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille).............++ ato. gor.
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... Th ffael BMS)
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0 0
Water on Iron .......-....2000ee 50 0 O
Meteorological Observations

BUPIMVOTNESS) Geecep-crcsccsese. 20 0 0}
Meteorological Observations

(reduction Of) .........sseeee 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles .........00...+.. 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ -..... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............. sone te
Forms of Vessels ...........+.++ 193" 120
Meteorological Observations

AME LYNOUWON | Sesaepe ovenesseres 55 0 O
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

BEOHGRgeneeacerecasea-sseeereeaeee 100 0 O
Mi estab CIOS eceeactesseesss 50 0 O
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... O63
RACES OUMMGU: asnscconapeceecsecee Sy eo)
Radiate Animals ............... 2. (0 =0

£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ..............04 SP oysy ell
Gases on Light ...............0 30 14 7
Chronometes.......02.seseereseee 2617 6
Marine Zoology.........ssees.0. LS dy (0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

INCI yesnncneesctancen=seest sean 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ....... Res iode 161 10 O
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

of Report) .......... sane emses 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ....... Sane 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

Rocks ....... Seeneccseasicbeeentine 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

ab Plymouth © .....5...c--..500. 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 O

Ce ane
Force of Wind .......ss.s+0 sae 10° OO
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 O
Vital Statistics .............. ses 120) -O0.80
Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8&8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
OPStANS is. .2ecscescocesvaneente 2 0-0
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 O
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
MOrth” sc csassscsessesscseseteeee 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
IMIVEIN@SS! \ jeacsecsccceedarcuaas 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .......... Geese 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
NOUN seeneosaseeetsemereceneees 20 0 O
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations ..scneeseses cess aoa) 20 AnO)
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities .........0.00 39 6 #O
Construction of Anemometer
at/INVerness: + '...cauecseness ests 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation.......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ....... ssoee, DO TOD
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 183 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
TOOHSWhenta «-ncssneceensages 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails “of
RailWAySsccts.scacasapacsadecee 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ............... 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections ..........ssc000. . 14718 3
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS’ .sesc-<s setae cosa en atone 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
clature.......... bhoaaernasocsodtos 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds . 5 3 8
Marine Testacea Cpe of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .................. 10 0 0
Marine Zoology ..........+seeeeee 214 11
Preparation of Report on ‘Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0
Vital Statistics ........00..0.... 36 5 8

GENERAL
£ 8. ad.
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels. ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-

stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength

OL Materials ...c25.5s0.ccese0 60 0

£1565 10 2
1844.
Meteorological Observations

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at

UPEVAMIOUILH, . 0c steebedecccsncces 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation .............s000s 25 8 4
Publication of the British

Association Catalogue of

SUG, gcc" teoer Rade neu nee rece 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the

East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature

EPRI UAES) \eovaa cee <scederexe 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-

STEEP coo cac dS oscncenocoee er area 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-

DALOLY “caseeda sete «csaiececses 56 7
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0
Subterraneous Temperature

POMITCIANGs \5.20.<caccosesecesos 5 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

way Sections: .........5c0.00006 15 17
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0
Registering the Shocks of

Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 111
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0

tadiata and Mollusca of the

Augean and Red Seas 1842 100 0
‘Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology......... 1842 010
Marine Zoology of Devon and

tama atl Wiese ceive sian ahiace oes 10 0
‘Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0
‘Experiments on the Vitality

SEEREECS) secavecstesdeckbsesacs 9 0
Experiments on the Vitality

GEINGCOS)...<sccce.se0scce0 1842 8 7
Exotic Anoplura ............00. 15 0
‘Strength of Materials ......... 100 0
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals...... 50 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-

rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0

£981 12

ao oS SOS Oto Ooms © oo Oo ior) Oo ow

STATEMENT. XCV
1845.
maa as
Publication of the British As-
| sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
| Meteorological Observations
| =) Va&UHENVEINCSS Ws e5.04ccchas «7 <5< - 30 18 11
| Magnetic and Meteorological
| gy CO-Operation: <2 iccssccsrugscn ss 1616 8
| Meteorological Instruments
|@ ab Hdinburehy......c..04..--2- 18.11 °9
Reduction of Anemometrical

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 14915 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0

| Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 O
The Actinograph .............2- 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of
SHelIG.y steve seu stansvosarge tee ts 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 18438 10 0 0
| Vitality of Seeds ......... 18435 2 Ol.
| Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CINES Mi Sexcaacte. ee taceeceeecasee 20 0 0
| Statistics of Sickness and
| Mortality in York............ 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1845 1514 8
| £831 9 9
1846.
| British Association Catalogue

GE Stans. cacaotsacepeaseys 1844 211 15 0
Fossil Fishes of the London

(GLA Retat. ac oyecnsseoescassa=sws 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829 ......... 5 (0) 0

| Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 14616 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 215 10
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 712 38
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-

MMGUETSs atacsstheccceranoscesners ie eG
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 23° 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 ~=3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race

1844 7 6 3
tatistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York............ FOO

£685 16 0

XCV1
1847,
EG
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829............ 50 0
Habits of Marine Animals ... 10 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CIES Sass cactececoscecensesccarens 20 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0
Atmospheric Waves .........--. 6 9
Vitality of Seeds ............... 4 7
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8

£208 5

&

Eo NWOe oo

1848.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 171 iy

Atmospheric Waves .........++ SLONN9
Vitality of Seeds ...........+0+. iS) ls
Completion of Catalogue of
SLATS tieesnanecestccescsseuss +s sae 70 0 O
On Colouring Matters: ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... Se HOMO
- CHA panel lott)
1849,
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ........+... 50) 00
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at ditto.......... salto 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 is) al
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PheNOMENA,......ceseeeeeeeenee LOR LOMO
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... sh Meu o)
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,
PAIZOTES! i. dekisbaasces Seton tise ise De ORO
£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
SLO sec semawececess gic aaeeeane 309 2 2
Pheory Of: LCA <.sqs00n sasenaseet 230) 1
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals-and Plants.........ss00+ 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............00 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries........ 5 SEIS OO. 1D)
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0
£391 9 7

REPORT—1894:.

1852.
Lisa.
Maintaining the HEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
for W850) Fes ccsversseveeeeora are 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-
tion of Heat ...........0.s+00s 5 eee
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 9
Researches on the British An-
baKOIIKG ES) Bosergcenoarodascnennnce: 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............ Rig, OAS
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0
£304 6 7
1853,

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0O
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British
Annelidarter,sestirers seers - lO Oo} 0
Dredging on the East Coast
Of, Scotland eeeecnoerecesceens . 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
£205 0 0
1854,
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former grant)........... seceeee 030 15 4
Investigations on Flax........ - ll 0 @
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Tron..............00 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena Lacan cepentoetarena - 10 0 0
British Annelida ........... wee 10 0.0
Vitality of Seeds .............06 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat ........... i £9200
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ............+ oo LOT st
Map of the World.............+ 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 10) 10
£480 16 4
1856,

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-

tory :—
O59: PR eee £75 0 0
1855.........£500 0 of I

~~, ) 2

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£185 id
Strickland’s Ornithological

DMMOMVITIGssaccesececaseesecs ss 100 0 UV
Dredging and Dredging

PG RRIM ME getialsaiacssscecdceserss 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

PHENOMENA 2.5 ..ccccsceseeeesns 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

PRMSR CSOs nce aceat hateatst «bbe 40 0 90
Dredging near Belfast......... LOS ORO
Dredging on the West Coast

OiMSCOUANG \...2.ccscec2-2---+- 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusea of California ......... 10 0 0
Experiments on Flax ......... Die OO)
Natural History of Mada-

Crs seas nanecaaelec eames sie =lna's 20 0 O

tesearches on British Anne-

OPM tio catcsdsecssesscae0d 25-0: 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

DORR carts sc sess desnsccees ves 10°07 0
Temperature of Mines......... C8 0
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations............ Bot 4
TEE SOUS: Cc esncacevcevstesse-seeee dm Oe O

£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
_ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

PERAUMMEC Ph iclccs\aceacind>-s=+s +300 257 O60
Dredging on the West Coast

GMASOOULANC.....c.s0eevsscse0ne 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 10)10
Maitality of Seeds ..............- By bend
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

eM eeee s earclas aniectoianicus sea 7%0 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

PETIT GS oa sate vein sees cise erace’ 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

Pee datas «s(n «lve Peet auaese 10 0 0

£618 18 2
1859.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
Dredging near Dublin.........

1894,

500 0
145 0 0

xcevill

Bi Ri de
Osteology of Birds .........+6+ 50 OO
nish: Tunicaitar se ccssssdccenss 5-00
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 O
British Medusidee .............0+ Dar OneO
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 QO
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland............... 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 Ll
Balloon Ascents.........sessseee 39) 11 0

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of

Bilamiighes soxscteqnadceasee tagaee's 10’ 0 0
Researches on the Solubility

OLS OALiSNeacc see saucecdenenes eens 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents

Of *MANUNES, <..<-t-scscsencect 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNUBS, J.ccns-cdgeteaiaa ses cooe 113 6

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and Kast

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23) (0) 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0

1861......£22 0 por Tea
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 O
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0O
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 5 0" 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ............... 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACH OWS saeco cccce coeek cote « 100 0 0O
Dredging in the Mersey and

ID Se een bisebonsepeceennenconntad yO) 0)
WIM LCInCle ievectacsceteeantscess > 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

GIONS isanccenevesstctncaccom tes 50 0 O
Prisons Dich ectcscctsetcsess cess 20" 10" 0
Gauging of Water.............- a Oe Oi 0
AlpINEVASCENIUS ses) .sas: sence -. 6 510
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10
Se ee
f

xcevill
1862.
Ok. ed:
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Patent Maws' sisvc.cceusesestccsps 21 6 O
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile

Marine ~ ern... Sens ponaardee Layo}
Tidal Observations ...........+ 25 0 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the

SUM ate ccccccmesercetsessdseaps 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal.............66 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-

umberland Coasts ............ 25 0 0
Connection of Storms ......... 20 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast

Oi SCOMANGM cs scsesarecrcer se 6 9 6
Ravages of Teredo ..........+. oot "O
Standards of Electrical Re-

RISHAMC EO Mascccemarcrseeencseces 50 0 0
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 0
MSD O WILE De assccinneesscoce see 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............... 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
Thermo-electric Currents ... 5 0 0

£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

AGUISES)) Neste cacise sess sisciteel-ceaies 25 0 0
I pOZOS eect rec asmessscdesssncsas 25 0 0
WoalMOSSUS) Asescssecesesscesosts 20 0 0
VOT YIN Sie eee semnanlecs's <eisiels pocccon ZU Nwta) a0)
Granites of Donegal............ 5 0 0
IBnISOUMDUCtN espe ones skates een. 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

TEGIANHTS! . snaggaboecandodbockeALpeCoS 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast of

ICOULANG cevencieseincnasastercecis 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland

Shavsl IBabdaeeieny AR ose soqeeeec acc 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-

EEHGENCEE Udenaspusacnseecensars 10 0 0
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ......... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Electrical Construction and

Distrib UUON! sep. scones ses ce 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ......--.+.. 17 0 0
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ............ 100 0 0

REPORT—1894.

£ 8. d.
Thermo-electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 8 0 0
Hy droida.cowessrssemeteese, staceeen 10 0 O
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Goal} Rossile \;..-ccsscssssaseanene 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

MENUS, Gace cncses cheap rene eaeee 20 0 0
Dredging, Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 O
Standards of Electric Re-

BISUANGCE'. Sivodedhsec cases eentee 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
Wydroida )2itccccsesesce se Sectses 2) LOS 70580
Askihaim’s' Gitte. “sscc.cessrsccsee 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amiyle: ...3352.2..2s 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
Rain-Gauges .........cessscsceces 19 15 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

BUuMbeL ssscsccdsceccveccccocede 50 0 0
Speciral Rayste-.sisc..ssseseseeee 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 O

£1289 15 8
ee
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

Balloon Committee ............ 100
Ely GU ORB sei c...acessteecsases caren 13
RAIN-P AUP OS, cs. ravsacwaepecesneee 30
Tidal Observations in the

1 Shadell ofS mecocoonesconcecnnboceo- 6
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20
Amyl Compounds ............... 20
Trish Wlora’....4..00ss-0 aeoeeanee 25
American Mollusca ............ 3
OrganiceAcids ei.weseeesctere 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
WUT PCETUS | Joyaesseetecsereneseeee 50
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Researches ...... 3
Oyster Breeding” 2c... .....eee 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100
Moon’s Surface Observations 35
Marine Hantiat sesccsereoe scenes 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies

In “Watercieercce see eacee eek 100
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8
Luminous Meteors ............ 40

oso oTocoecoeocooooosoocom oooo

oso escocoooceoocoococooecoosoo ocoococs

‘£1591 7 10
oe

YS ey ae

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1866.
£
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee..........-..++ 64 1
Balloon Committee ............ 50
Metrical Committee............ 50
British Rainfall..............++ 5 0)
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors .......++-+. 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitution of

Cast Tron ....eeseeeeeeeeeeeees 50
Amy] Compounds .......+++++++ 25
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

and Cornwall ......seeeeeseesee 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50
Dredging the Mersey ......--. 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies

BED WoatbCLeccscc.canceneeensneases 50
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

CANS ea cnscecacasesnsee> “icetepodce 29
Rigor Mortis ......-seceeserserees 10
Trish Annelida .........- Aoeomoe 15
Catalogue of Crania.........-+. 50

Didine Birds of Mascarene

Tslands
Typical Crania Researches ...
Palestine Exploration Fund...

£1750 1

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Meteorological Instruments,

Palestine .......c.scccceesveesees 50 0
Lunar Committee ............06+ 120 0
Metrical Committee .........-.- 30 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100 0
Palestine Explorations ......... 50 0
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0
British Rainfall.............--+: see 0)
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0
Luminous Meteors ..........++ 50 0
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0
Steamship Reports Condensa-

TEOD as 020s Bo ncoueeoec ae Boo 100 0
Electrical Standards.........--+ 100 O
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25 0
Fossil Crustacea .........ses+++ 25 0
Sound under Water .........--. 24 4
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75 O

Do. Plant Beds 100 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture.. 25 0
Patent Laws w.sccceeeserreeese 30 0

£1739 4

ee

=

0
3

wooo oooo o oococo ooococo oococococo

ceo ogo o.S So OOO OOo ooo gco oO

-lOooo oococo f-) oscoo oococoo cooocoocoro x

xclx
1868.
2's, a.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 O
Lunar Committee ..........-.665 120 0 0
Metrical C»mmittee............ 50 0 0
Zoological Record........+...0+ LOOT TO" 4G
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Steamship Performances ...... 100 0 0
Bribisoratatelllr. sacesestonsse' 50 0 O
Luminous Meteors...........+66+ 50 0 O
Organic ACIDS ........0.seseeeee 60 0 O
Fossil Crustacea....2...s.ssceeeee 25 04.0
Methyl Series.........cecsceseeee 25 0 0
Mercury and Bile ..........-..+. 25 0 0
Organic Remains in Lime-

stone Rocks .......+eseeee PEE 15 KORY,
Scottish Earthquakes ........ eA) law O
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30 0 0

| British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ...........- ONO, 20
Greenland Explorations ...... 100 0 0
HosswlGHlOral Cressesccece see asics 25 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 O
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0:
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5 0 0

| Secondary Reptiles, &c. ...... 30 0 0
British Marine Invertebrate

Fauna ........ Rodreieeranssscqies 100 0 0

£1940 0 0
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee.............s0006 BOO 0
Metrical Committee.............+6 20910) 10
Zoological Record ............+6+ 100 0 0
Committee on Gases in Deep-

well Water ..... eatestem = ieee axe 2b) (7 #10
Britiehy Racal eens ccssecwnsnes 50 0 O
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

KG Hoseccastes SOOT CROHEH pdaceses CoO) OO
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 0 OU
Steamship Performances ...... 30 0 0
Chemical Constitution of

Cast Iron............ echtapeadoite so 0 0
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 0
Methyl Series. 2s..<.5.c:camsccemee 30 0 0
Organic Remains in Lime-

StOnEIROCKS.<...<:ssswaeegemerse 10 0° 70
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10 0 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30 0 0
FOssil@WlOta escns.casctruratesds 2 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 0
Underground Temperature... 30 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... By OMG
OTrganie AGIGS 4..<ss.cescerecdsve 2, 00:5 0
Kiltorcan Fossils ............. a 20) 70) C

£2

Cc REPORT—1894.

fo Bad:
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

GIONS: \ssceeemsitmvcintAsnedsejnses 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
‘Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ......... LO SROs 20

£1622 0 O
1870.
‘Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 O
Zoological Record.............+. 100 0 O
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 0O
ears sIOS HSS Assess se stcese=s- LO 0" 70
Chemical Nature of Cast

OR acee cathe tsleceseanestiscs acs SO 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 30) +0) 30
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
BritisiRaioball.: esse. saicscac.- 100 0 O
Thermal Conductivity of

PERO TUAGCE Ie cG tes cone asecce teeaene DOr). 20:
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 0
“Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Scottish Harthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ..... Sapanac 15 0 0
HOSSUMN OTA) Srccescnsees. meee 25 0 O
Tidal Observations ..... Peco Lk AD al 0)
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 9 0O
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3.0 «0
Mechanical Hquivalent of

TSIGEN Epos saqeesadaaaor inane easornign 50 0 O

£1572 0 0
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Monthly Reports of Progress

oR Chemistiyeeecesctsssstese css 100 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25°50 0
Zoological Record.............. 100 0 0
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 0
Fossil Flora ........ Sarah ateewe eye 2
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 25 0 0
Heat in the Blood.........,..... em 16
British Raintall.......ces..sscess 50 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ............0 « 25° 0 "0
Methyl Compounds ............ 25 0 0
Lunar Objects ......... acmanoEe 20 0 0

£ 8. d.
Fossil Coral Sections, for

Photographing ........-.2.+++ 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds_ ............ 20 0 0
Moab Explorations .......... 100 0 O
Gaussian Constants ............ 40 0 0

£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 75 0 0
Zoological Record.............+. 100 0 0
Tidal Committee .....,......0.5 200 0 O
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-

PICS Hip scewaee cheese eee saeee 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration.. 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
Fossil Crustacea, -.....6ss.en00e 105257 OO
Fossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 O
Lumar Ob] OCS tcnmeesmees ceca 20 0 O
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20 0 0
British! Raintalliecccwccsueceos 100 0 O
Poisonous Substances Anta-

PONISI) eeckesae sees seer eee 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

stitmtion,. dc Coseeeste.s.ceeeee 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Me-

Del SWreteetehecictansusexdonecsseenes 25 0 0

£1285 0 0

1873.

Zoological Record............00. 100 0 O
Chemistry Record............00. 200 0 0
Tidal Committee .............. 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants .........:..... 25 0 0
Wave-leneths ie isssuas-ceaene 150 0 0
British) Raintalily. ..seetecuetese 100 0 0
Hssential OWSi Wesesssccteeusetee 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .......... ve LOOK NO
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-

Fall oss eciccguneeoante ee neeeeeeee 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors..,..........+. 30 0 0

£1685 0 0

ee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1874

Ss Ge
Zoological Record ........sesee0 100 O O
Chemistry Record..........+..+ 100 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Elliptic Functions............+.. 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors ......... LO 0) 0
Thermal Conductivity of

PROGHS teoncacncsoascndsesrsesecnis 10 0 0
Anthropological Instructions,

RRM Cece ee ciocans Coan ccoceasscinsas 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... sy AD AY
British Raintall..........sesssons 100 0 0
Hssential Oils............ceceseees LOPIO) 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 O
Mauritius Meteorological Re-

BEAT COUR ss av slecs wnisneinaasel onens 100) 709
Maenetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms............... 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-

RETO eeiste iis cies ris snes =1s0'c «/Wajnis nase 210 0
Physiological Actionof Light 20 0 0
Trades Unions ...............+++ 25 00
Mountain Limestone-corals 25 0 0
Hirratic Blocks .........s.0..-+ss 10 0 0
Dredging, Durham and York-

shire Coasts TSOCUCTE BS GOs 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... Bony
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

THEASUTCS 5.500. .soecnsserwwees-- feos 0

£1151 16 O

1875.

Elliptic Functions ............. 10) 0 0
Maenetisation of Iron ......... 2940) /0
British Rainfall ................. 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Chemistry Record......... ..... 100 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... LOO O
Isometric Cresols ............... 20. 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Harthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... LO OGA0
Development of Myxinoid

INCH Ore ccssascsececcacencdeeses 20 0 0
Zoological Record.............+ 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0

£960 0 0

|

1876.

Ls) a:
Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British) Ramtec scccccsccessse 100 0 O
(OJomerive} BE yesenetce ceeneseeeacaroo 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Tsomeric Cresols ........0+2+0 10 0 O
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

EXBENE iG baeosenocuee -acerubebonnas 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... HEP AY
Exploration of Victoria Cave,

NEURON see mensladessanconacecnes 100 0 O
Geological Record............+«. 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

OCS Sup nacitececieeccesseee nae e's ¢ LOD One0
Underground Waters ......... 10° 0. 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record..........+..+. 100 0 0O
(Olay WlibsaeNe of Roonpeceoenosas. He 5 0 (0
Physiological Action of

fsteyeuats | eees ete aterdmeeede etacue 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 13.15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels ..........+- a 8. 0

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

Win Grallsi se sssecsinstesevasecras at 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS ieeresrnncantsrctossceencveses LE er
Zoological Record............. ~ 100 0 0
Kient’s(@averm ...s.ccn<s-cosacns 100 0 0
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ........... - 100 0 0
Dipterocarpez, Reporton ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

PUG ailieeaenane ts ssevcaere tus cee rds 35.0 .0
Double Compounds of Cobalt

PANG UNTCKE! oy tacccscdceeauee res SOO
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone ..............- 16 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACEUALC’ Wes vatcenedscons's Bl Borie 10 0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

CaS renee RantocbeuseRantonas 15,10), .0
oe 3 ae of Light from

Coalipaee cise cscsveses Bese 20 0 O

REPORT—1894,

Cll
Gy 18: ds
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid............+.- 118 0
Geological Record.............«+ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 O
Physiological Action of Phos-
PHOric ACIS SC... c.s0--.+5+-0° 15 0 0
£1128 9 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 O
Geological Record:.............. 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
ECOL eiesesseweersscsccnsssee. UGE On
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
VALET Steememenresstorcertssssuece 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
UU GUNCenaeeeneectewasiscssncts es 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th; Million (....c..s.s.-- 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less-known
PAU CAIOIOS = enceetns sna ene eevee 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record ...... ...... 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
OC cciwestincnisessstvsesuttancrs ore 416 6
Luminous Meteors..............+ 10” 07 10
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ss... scssescs 7 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ Lie 10" 10
Record of Zoological Litera-
ULE Gagdrcossnocsaceo HoccSerannen 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Caves in ’
IBOINED) Yeas sececetnesvedecenenn ee 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
GIEOLORIY Ss sieeacanccees cee re nee 100 0 0O
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts............... 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 6th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0

£3. ds
Underground Waters........... - 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-

mi cal CLOCKS) seserscsetsapmanere 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South

DGVOD! jaccssenete -laceontesgeece 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical

Equivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-

efficients’ -s.2. 20.1... -seeeneneee 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance

NULVEYjcs<-scetve-ceecncsstonpemae 10 0 0
Tables of Fundamental In-

variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob- -

servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0-0
Instruments for Measuring

the Speed of Ships ......... JEG Vile cot)
Tidal Observations in the

English Channel ............ 10 0 O

£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation

IRC YJiaeeosisscndecesvacetee reneertee 10 0 0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-

chanical Equivalent of

labia en sarewachaseccamensereee 8 5 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8. 6 0
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 O
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and Paraffines ............... aT
Report on Carboniferous

Poly 20a). :sscsacsestssnaes cores LO O O
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

SAULUS sc pasnsmeneecarcscseeteeet 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ............ 56 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-

GUNG sc ccaereseeeseeceeeece sesoseee LOO 0 O
Table at Zoological Station

at Naples, ccctccsecccssaseores 10 ONO

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£ 8. a.

Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 O
Anthropometry ........s.sse0ee. 50 0 O
Patent Laws .......scseesecscees 56 0 0
£731 7 7

1881.

Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
Electrical Standards........ ... 25 0 0
High Insulation Key............ 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 10 0 0
Specific Refractions ............ fier
HOSSU PolyZ0a ...2..s.ecesssssss 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
eniiaty OTA .csccesconss<ssey 20 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 75 0 O
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0

Anthropological Notes and
MEME SER ewes cvs ecisnsse=viaca’s « 9 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0

Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ............... 30 0 0
£476 3 1
eee

1882.

Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0

Fundamental Invariants of

Algebraical Forms ....,....
Standards for Electrical
Measurements .............0.

Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
MHOMICTETS Gow es ceceee' casiaesesy
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements...............
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra ...........0-+.
Geological Record...............
Earthquake Phenomena of
PUPAE co ccacinnciesaieceasnscsas sie
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
SMR csc ciasoiad ge a'se\e datos ees
Fossil Plants of Halifax ......
Geological Map of Europe ...
Circulation of Underground
WMEILCES cnveseteercsersicwaxios:
Tertiary Flora of North of
MBGIATIG® ssanossgadsssisadenceees
British Polyz0a ....:..ceesce0s.s0
Exploration of Caves of South
ORMINGLAN ocd scads ec swcnstaanwe
Exploration of Raygill Fissure
Naples Zoological Station ...
Albuminoid Substances of
Serum....... Segupasedesese easene

76
100

10

1 11
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

clil
£ 8. a.
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise...........040. OY 00)
Migration of Birds ............ 15; 01,0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 100 O O
Record of Zoological Litera-
UILBNGHIS 5 = hoggubepcen-ccee sens ebc e 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee 50 0 0
£1126 1 11
1883,
Meteorological Observations
on Ben NeViS ...5.....<0-.0s000 50 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
» RUIN SIS ea soocemaobcononamanbooasnc 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
DAPANME mencacmedieascaaadeeaie gels 50 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 0
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10 0 O
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIG ROCKS sseneeenserpascicen ss 25 0-0
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales ............0. 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground
\ WENO ponesetaccoosheo hanieacnce 150) .0)
Geological Record..,.........+.- 50 0 0
Exploration of Caves in South
Of incland iy esesacsapeceeasers 10 0 O
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 20 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0O
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise.............2. 38 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
MNA-NJATO....cecccesesesns case 500 0 0
Investigation of Loughton
Camp yiarenccrscctcsoncssdstestee 10 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0O
Screw Gauges.........scsseee Seo a EEO
£1083 3 3
1884.
Meteorological Observations
Onp Bens NEVIS) ...sccsuscsccssoee 50 0 O
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust.................. 20 0 O
Meteorological Observatory at
ChePStOW esi. ssevesecaccoatee rss 25 0 0
Tidal Observations............... LO 0% 0
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8 4 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
DAPAMN s. wseermedsattecatvacesees (oO 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 0 0
Hossil Poly Z0ai....s.s.sesesssedeses 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIGRGGES /, .sceanhdecayeds sian 15 0 0

civ

£ 8. d.
Circulation of Underground

\ WEEMS cgodnaccse-.congorrooyscacn i YY)
International Geological Map 20 0 0
Bibliography of Groups of

Envertebratial c.c.s0vesscesress 50 0 0
Natura] History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kili-

ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0 O
Migration of Birds............... 20 0 0
Coagulation of Blood............ 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 10 0 0

£1173 4 O
1885.
Synoptic Chart of Indian

OCCA, Sc rcosceceeceptoarstenes 50 0 O
Reduction of Tidal Observa-

TONS Sapewedeenesnebh sence ated «sav LOMORNO
Calculating Tables in Theory

OL INUMDERSeprtscessisisseevece 2 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

on Ben Nevis ....... Stsstees se 50 OPO
Meteorce Dust! ieessscacee.see 70 0 0
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt

SOMIUIONS -aevetterbatesweseteeess 25 0 0
Physical Constants of Solu-

ONS agence ace vuskaneateeseerbencns 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VIUS: -cuisnctnieressreuenedeeevtesee 25 0 0
Rayo Wissure) scnsdessdsn-ecees 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of

TaPan.,.s. tors szceaveseeadeasters s 70 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic

ROCKS We cecteseescctuamemarac cee 25 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds. 50 0 0
Geological Record ............... 50 0 0
Circulation of Underground

Wratierss cacvecnus sesccestesbennies 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ........... 30 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kilima-

NYALO! cs csvcecseecnedsaiee ner seee 25 0 0
Recent Poly zoa) ceeceseteeecseee MGs 0 (0)
Marine Biological Station at

Gramton., 2:0; .-cenethesteerients 100 0 O
Biological Stations on Coasts

of United Kingdom ......... 150 0 O
Exploration of New Guinea... 200 0 0
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100 0 0

£1385 0 0

1886.
Electrical Standards............ 40° 0 0
Solar Radiation ...............06 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 1010 O
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 0

REPORT—1 894,

| 8) ae
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... Dr Or 20
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

WAUS' scee ceca consis semeanne teens 30 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Palaeozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Biological Station, Granton... 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and

Invertebrataat St. Andrews 75 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine............... 10 0 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under

Sliding Scales ............... 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek

Tslamds}.c. ctodtertetec tude tusctes 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-

NAGAM. ...n.ceaveeosecee teen tiecee 50 0 0
£995 0 6
or

1887.
Solar Radiation «<5 ....2cssesses 18 10 O
WIECHTOLY SIS! « wasecies scvesinctaeinere 30 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75 0 0
Standards of Light (1886

(S320: 1) WAROREe PORER ECE RGaoea t= 20' OF 0
Standards of Light (1887

OTANI) oS oemeiapseeesanseae eee 10 0 0
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal

Observations! thx..tessecsceeest 150 0
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
Electrical Standards ............ 50 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20 0 0
Absorption Spectra ............ 40 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

Wills’... 5. ss vans tanstactstes eee 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan

(1886! grant): i.e. csc.. sess 50 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan

(C887 ewamit) ereanceacsea: weer 15} 0 OO)
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20 0 0
Hirratic Blocks) i.s-sss-ssseceeess 10° -0'=0
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax........ 25°" 020
Microscopic Structure of the

Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene

Beds of the Isle of Wight... 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 5 00
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
Provincial Museums Reports 5 0O 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0
Naples Biological Station ... 100 0 O
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0

_—

GENERAL STATEMENT.

: fg. od:
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Zoological Record .............+. 100 0 0
Mora OL CHING .........<0¥ ABoos a (ho) Ue (0)
Flora and Fauna of the

Cameroons .........- deasiettatenhs 75 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Bathy-hypsographical Map of

PRIHISHESIES cccssccccesesssees. Tinst -0
Regulation of Wages ......... TOM OMyO
Prehistoric Race of Greek

MAMAS 52 oles obec nawassjccen ts owaews 20 0 O
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 0

£1186 18 0

1888.

Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 2 6 4
Magnetic Observations......... 15 0 0
Standards of Light ............ (GS ire Ita)
MGEDEOLY SIS ..cerv-cesseesessoeee 30 0 0
Uniform Nomenclature in

IMIGGHHNICS “7. o.<cccrseceeseecee 10 0 0
Silent Discharge of Hlec-

HMI OUViase ss sees sinsisiadais'es e's das 9 11 10
Properties of Solutions ...... 256 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 0 O
Methods of Teaching Chemis-

IVE ctctnias aislenisiivas cies Sia aise 10,-,0,.0
Isomerie Naphthalene Deriva-

BIOS lc Sek ctcsicis «o's « nje'é atc’ a/sw alae 25 0 O
Action of Light on Hydracids 20 0 0
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20 0 0
Geological Record ............64 BO» (Oy 20
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10 0 O
Erosion of Sea Coasts .,....... 10.0 40
Underground Waters ......... BiniO, 10
Palwontographical Society ... 50 0 O
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.., 50 0 O
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-

cashire and West Yorkshire 25 0 O
Voleanic Phenomena of Vesu-*

EGOS ire chess ase a\)saihwe dsc baie 20 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

MUTANS Yeettivcicuicebiowie se ddswds 100 0 0
Flora of Bahamas. ............... 100 0 0
Development of Fishes—st.

PSUNGMIWS 3s .2<ccccadscccssaceoe ade 50 0 O
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30: 0. 0
PMGta Os CHINA .,.ivenssesevceas 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0
Biological Station at Granton 50 0 0
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50 0 O
Development of Teleostei 15 0 0
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar

IRBETONS) “sevacacaside annaessiaciess 5 0 0
Precious Metals in Circulation 20 O 0
Value of Monetary Standard 10 0 O
Effect of Occupations on Phy-

sical Development............ 25 0 0

CV
Bs, a
North-Western Tribes of

Canada eecccancvteesrssessecess 100 0 O
Prehistoric Race in Greek

MSIAMGSE. tesessseacee des scsaet sits 20 0 0

£1511 0 6
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0 O
Electrical Standards............ 1d) "OO
MG GhrolySisiccscsecsecscaesccserres 20 0 0
Surface Water Temperature... 30 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricity

GHIORY ECM wns cactecsenen cans 6 4 8
Methods of teaching Chemis-

DNV acta ct eecerdensmen ieee tas LOO > 0
Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record............... 80 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

WilSnoerscasdecdsacgadaceccqueeaes 2050" 10
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

Witla cotesessne-srtnerce ane LEO" 70
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
Blora oMChina: ooe.u:s-cu)eceses 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Physiology of Lymphatic

DV SUGINE hs seecseenniacence decane 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly

WlamGSerrcsnenanses dete setitscs oe 100 0 O
Geology and Geography of

AAS TO Cae cies tet torte 100 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

UGBISHUATICS W cersnccnisianssscese 100 0 O
North-Western Tribes of

Cantcihaine: ccmceewennnaenet gees s 150° 0! 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 80 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100 0 O

£1417 0) 11
ee
1890.
Electrical Standards............ 1 ae 0)
HC CUNOLVSIS) Pccaeens comsecracite ane 5 0 40
Hlectro-OptiCs,.......czerauvaansee BON OO
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 70. 0-0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15:0, 30
Properties of Solutions ...... LOO 0
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0O
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Electricity on

ORV SENT co ccasecpmsntpian tea.ae 200
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0
Recording Results of Water

ANALYSIS! tannaacs Nida scpnns ane 4.1.0

REPORT—1894..

re

FOOO oo o &

(=) oe ooo o

ococ

oo oS oo oo ooco l=) =} o o oo ooo

Cvl
ees
Oxidation of Hydracids in

Sunlight .........secsseseeseveee 15210
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VIUS cresccivsagatdecesiessnesioosse 20 O
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0
Circulation of Underground

IWALGIS. .cctecccresecusdasetnerer® 5 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa .........++. 10 0
Geological Photographs ...... 714
Lias Beds of Northampton-

SHTCUE esc se cenereitenuslateeen es 25 0
Botanical Station at Perade-

HUI f2), aose@ See eceadoosence Soo Seco 25 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 4 3
Naples Zoological Station 100 0
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 100 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0
Action of Waves and Currents

IN WSHUATICS ....c.scecceccesrs 150 0
Graphic Methods in Mechani-

CalU SCIENCE) gs rasnedataetcanc-s Le =o
Anthropometric Calculations 5 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0

£799 16
1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
ECHOLS Sse cecepesteecncsaecise cave 5 0
Seismological Phenomena of

Jinjozia Ga.eaensoacsectn aeeeesocd 10 0
Temperatures of Lakes ........ 20 0
Photographs of Meteorological

IPRETOMENA,.-acsenecanewsscss6 5 0
Discharge of Electricity from

IPOUMER teresa ceitesiaap iss onstesces 10 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar

Pe CUCU cert parscceseseres 50 0
International Standard for

Analysis of Tron and Steel... 10 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

HIVES Res teeters see teae nese c eae 25 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 25 '0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... Ups)
Geological Record.............. 100 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VOUS) deamanaecnuaocconspiscnassoiste 10 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 10 0
Photographs of Geological

RHE T ES yessescee sacs encase uss. Ss)
Lias of Northamptonshire 25 0
Registration of ‘I'vpe-Speci-

mens of British Fossils...... 5 5
Investigation of ElboltonCave 25 0
Botanical Station at Pera-

Bah 2) giceasednec sates sooo Iesese SOMO
Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0

SO Mes
Marine Biological Association 1210 0
Disappearance of Native
Plants ...c2tagstecdsedtess sence 5 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents
In Estuaries: -:.::2sis..ttseccn 125 0 0
Anthropometric Calculations 10 0 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0 0
North - Western Tribes of
Canada “Gisti.ciiiicscecneemene 200 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0
£1,029 10 Q
1892.
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 O
Photographs of Meteorological
Phenomenaiccssace<.s.a-eteneee 15 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0 0
Discharge of Electricity from
POINES .. .sisdcseecscsarescsstinees 50 0 O
Seismological Phenomena of
JAPAN ..s2csessdisses sesssesscebe 10 0 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 12 OtO
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 O
Action of Light on Dyed
Colours |) sh Pe. tescc eres 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks ..:.:ss.0se..... 15 0 0
Photographs of Geological
Interest *ai..tr-ecesenevesenaees 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... Gy FON 0)
Investigation of Elbolton
GAVElS.. ssdeieceeseeceetins soe 25 0 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 1710 0
Deep-sea Tow-net .............0+ 40 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West
India IslandSitsdecseeuessnees 100 0 O
Climatology and lite!
of Tropical Africa......... 50 0 0
Anthropometric Laboratory. sete (O) Olene),
Anthropological Notes and
Queries’ «sccccetivsszertie lade 20 0 0
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-
Shonaland) sccsicesereeceddes 50 0 0
North-Western Tribes of
Canadas s.socterssts osttectescee 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0
£864 10 O
1893.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 15 0) 50
Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Fal-
mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 0

,

Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
vatives
Erratic Blocks
Fossil Phyllopoda..............+
Underground Waters
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, &e. ......
Eurypterids of the Pentland
MUMS tee scereicancssescstevecceces
Naples Zoologicai Station
Marine Biological Association
Fauna of Sandwich Islands
Zoology and Botany of West
Gta USIANGS. ..5...sc0ssseces00
Exploration of Irish Sea ......
Physiological Action of
Oxygen in Asphyxia.........
Index of Genera and Species
PE PATIUIN ALS: cts be secliae «one tes

rer eer eer eee eee eee eee!

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 8. da.

20 0
10

aloe So ec oo o i) oo Sr ericaices o oooo

Exploration of Karakoram

MUSH GUATOS ot ce vsienssorcvcneoess 50
Scottish Place-names ......... 7
Climatology and MHydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50
Economic Training ............ 3
Anthropometric Laboratory 5
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25
North-Western ‘Tribes of

WUAMIAAH oscdncddacsascinesecdcoes 100
Corresponding Societies ...... 30

£907 J
1894.

Electrical Standards............ 25 0 O
Photographs of Meteorological

PHENOMENA...62.5.5c0.cesseecs 10 0 0

Tables of Mathematical Func-

ODI NER atemenanascttenseless de ecesa 15 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5
Wave-length Tables............ 10 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

ColOnisaiiessscenescessonseanesas 5 0
Hrratic BIOCKS ...2..s0ssc.00. soe dl
Fossil Phyllopoda ............+4+ 5 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clavay80C. csi edecsccsesseesaes 20 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

UU Se cena onscsisncesaeacesy eee 5 0
New Sections of Stonestield

SIBIIS: “ceocdeindooonondeoncesascoer 14 0
Observations on LEarth-tre-

HONS) crecnenecoonr onncbeeeneioncn 50 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole

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Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0
Marine Biological Association 5 0
Zoology of the Sandwich

JIGVGiOYG Ey sce pdecnoenodoerucnecone 100 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ 10 0
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0
Economic Training ............ 9 10
Anthropometric Laboratory

LADISHICS. eaccre seers aoe sennee 5 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... lv 0
The Lake Village at Glaston-

DUD Y sosteseticack- sean oes than toned 40 0
Anthropometrical Measure-

ments in Schools ............ 5 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0

£583 15

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cviil REPOKT— 1894.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, August 8, at 8 p.M., in the Sheldonian Theatre,
Professor J. S. Burdon Sanderson, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., resigned the office of President to the Most Hon. the Marquis
of Salisbury, K.G., D.C.L, F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of
Oxford, who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see

age 3.
On Thursday, August 9, at 8.30 p.m, a Soirée took place at the
Museum.

On Friday, August 10, at 8.30 p.m, in the Sheldonian Theatre,
Dr. J. W. Gregory, F.G.S., delivered a discourse on ‘Experiences and
Prospects of African Exploration.’

On Monday, August 13, at 8.30 p.m., in the Sheldonian Theatre,
Professor J. Shield Nicholson, M.A., delivered a discourse on ‘ Historical
Progress and Ideal Socialism.’
~ On Tuesday, August 14, at 8.30 p.m, a Soirée took place at the New
Examination Schools.

On Wednesday, August 15, at 2.30 p.m., in the New Examination
Schools, the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings
of the General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes
were explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Ipswich. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, September 11, 1895.]

—

a owe ae
nde epi yeep Alu

ADDRESS
BY
THE MOST HON. THE MARQUIS OF SALISBURY,
K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Oxford,

PRESIDENT.

My -functions are of a more complicated character than usually is
assigned to the occupants of this Chair. As Chancellor of the University
it is my duty to tender to the British Association a hearty welcome, which
it is my duty as President of the Association to accept. As President of
: the Association I convey, most unworthily, the voice of English science,
as many worthy and illustrious Presidents have done before me ; but in
representing the University I represent far more fittingly the learners
who are longing to hear the lessons which the first teachers of English
science have come as visitors to teach. I am bound to express on behalf
of the University our sense of the good feeling towards that body which
is the motive of this unusual arrangement. But as far as I am personally
concerned, it is attended with some embarrassing results. In presence of
the high priests of science I am only a layman, and all the skill of all the
chemists the Association contains will not transmute a layman into any
more precious kind of metal. Yet it is my hard destiny to have to address
on scientific matters probably the most competent.scientific audience in
the world. If a country gentleman, who was also a colonel of Volun-
teers, were by any mental aberration on the part of the Commander-in-
Chief to be appointed to review an army corps at Aldershot, all military
men would doubtless feel a deep compassion for his inevitable fate. I
bespeak some spark of that divine emotion when I am attempting to
discharge under similar conditions a scarcely less hopeless duty. At least,
however, I have the consolation of feeling that I am free from some of the
anxieties which have fallen to those who have preceded me as Presidents
in this city. The relations of the Association and the University are
those of entire sympathy and good will, as becomes common workers in
the sacred cause of diffusing enlightenment and knowledge. But we must

admit that it was not always so. A curious record of a very different
B2

A, REPORT—1894.

state of feeling came to light last year in the interesting biography of Dr.
Pusey, which is the posthumous work of Canon Liddon. In it is related
the first visit of the Association to Oxford in 1832. Mr. Keble, at that
time a leader of University thought, writes indignantly to his friend to
complain that the honorary degree of D.C.L. had been bestowed upon
some of the most distinguished members of the Association : ‘The Oxford
Doctors, he says, ‘have truckled sadly to the spirit of the times in
receiving the hodge-podge of philosophers as they did.’ It is amusing, at
this distance of time, to note the names of the hodge-podge of philosophers
whose academical distinctions so sorely vexed Mr. Keble’s gentle spirit.
They were Brown, Brewster, Faraday, and Dalton. When we recollect
the lovable and serene character of Keble’s nature, and that he was at
that particular date probably the man in the University who had the
greatest power over other men’s minds, we can measure the distance we
have traversed since that time ; and the rapidity with which the con-
verging paths of these two intellectual luminaries, the University and the
Association, have approximated to each other. This sally of Mr. Keble’s
was no passing or accidental caprice. It represented a deep-seated senti-
ment in this place of learning, which had its origin in historic causes,
and which has only died out in our time. One potent cause of it was
that both bodies were teachers of science, but did not then in any
degree attach the same meaning to that word. Science with the Univer-
sity for many generations bore a signification different from that which
belongs to it in this assembly. It represented the knowledge which alone
in the Middle Ages was thought worthy of the name of science. It was
the knowledge gained not by external observation, but by mere reflection.
The student’s microscope was turned inward upon the recesses of his
own brain ; and when the supply of facts and realities failed, as it very
speedily did, the scientific imagination was not wanting to furnish to
successive generations an interminable series of conflicting speculations.
That science—science in our academical sense—had its day of rapid
growth, of boundless aspiration, of enthusiastic votaries. It fascinated
the rising intellect of the time, and it is said—people were not particular
about figures in those days—that its attractions were at one time potent
enough to gather round the University thirty thousand students, who for
the sake of learning its teaching were willing to endure a life of the
severest hardship. Such a state of feeling is now an archeological
curiosity. The revolt against Aristotle is now some three centuries old.
But the mental sciences which were supposed to rest upon his writings
have retained some of their ascendency even till this day, and have only
slowly and jealously admitted the rivalry of the growing sciences of
observation. The subject is interesting to us, as this undecided state
of feeling coloured the experiences of this Association at its last Oxford
visit, nearly a generation later, in 1860. The warmth of the encounters
which then took place have left a vivid impression on the minds of those
who are old enough to have witnessed them. That much energy was on |

ADDRESS. 5

that occasion converted into heat may, I think, be inferred from the
mutual distance which the two bodies have since maintained. Whereas
the visit of 1832 was succeeded by another visit in fifteen years, and the
visit of 1847 was succeeded by another visit in thirteen years, the year
1860 was followed by a long and dreary interval of separation, which has
only now, after four-and-thirty years, been terminated. It has required
the lapse of a generation to draw the curtain of oblivion over those
animated scenes. It was popularly supposed that deep divergences upon
questions of religion were the motive force of those high controversies.
To some extent that impression was correct. But men do not always
discern the motives which are really urging them, and I suspect that in
many cases religious apprehensions only masked the resentment of the
older learning at the appearance and claims of its younger rival. In any
case there is something worthy of note, and something that. conveys
encouragement, in the difference of the feeling which prevails now and
the feeling that was indicated then. Few men are now influenced by the
strange idea that questions of religious belief depend on the issues of
physical research. Few men, whatever their creed, would now seek their
geology in the books of their religion, or, on the other hand, would fancy
that the laboratory or the microscope could help them to penetrate the
mysteries which hang over the nature and the destiny of the soul of man.
And the old learning no longer contests the share in education which is
claimed by the new, or is blind to the supreme influence which natural
knowledge is exercising in moulding the human mind.

A study of the addresses of my learned predecessors in this office
shows me that the main duty which it falls to a President to perform in
his introductory address, is to remind you of the salient points in the
annals of science since last the Association visited the town in which he
is speaking. Most of them have been able to lay before you in all its
interesting detail the history of the particular science of which each one
of them was the eminent representative. If I were to make any such
attempt I should only be telling you with very inadequate knowledge a
story which is from time to time told you, as well as it can be told, by
men who are competent to deal with it. It will be more suitable to my
capacity if I devote the few observations I have to make to a survey not
of our science but of our ignorance. We live in a small bright oasis of
knowledge surrounded on all sides by a vast unexplored region of im-
penetrable mystery. From age to age the strenuous labour of successive
generations wins a small strip from the desert and pushes forward the
boundary of knowledge. Of such triumphs we are justly proud. Itisa
_less attractive task-—but yet it has its fascination as well as its uses—to
turn our eyes to the undiscovered country which still remains to be won,
to some of the stupendous problems of natural study which still defy our
investigation. Instead, therefore, of recounting to you what has been
done, or trying to forecast the discoveries of the future, I would rather
draw your attention to the condition in which we stand towards three or

6 REPORT—1894..

four of the most important physical questions which it has been the effort
of the last century to solve.

Of the scientific enigmas which still, at the end of the nineteenth
century, defy solution, the nature and origin of what are called the
elements is the most notable. It is not, perhaps, easy to give a precise
logical reason for the feeling that the existence of our sixty-five elements
is a strange anomaly and conceals some much simpler state of facts. But
the conviction is irresistible. We cannot conceive, on any possible
doctrine of cosmogony, how these sixty-five elements came into existence.
A third of them form the substance of this planet. Another third are
useful, but somewhat rare. The remaining third are curiosities scattered
haphazard, but very scantily, over the globe, with no other apparent function
but to provide occupation for the collector and the chemist. Some of them
are so like each other that only a chemist can tell them apart : others differ
immeasurably from each other in every conceivable particular. In co-
hesion, in weight, in conductivity, in melting-point, in chemical proclivities
they vary in every degree. They seem to have as much relation to each
other as the pebbles on a sea beach, or the contents of an ancient lumber
room. Whether you believe that Creation was the work of design or of
inconscient law, it is equally difficult to imagine how this random collection
of dissimilar materials came together. Many have been the attempts to
solve this enigma ; but up till now they have left it more impenetrable
than before. A conviction that here was something to discover lay beneath
the persistent belief in the possibility of the transmutation of other metals
into gold, which brought the alchemy of the Middle Ages into being.
When the immortal discovery of Dalton established that the atoms of
each of these elements have a special weight of their own, and that con-
sequently they combine in fixed ponderable proportions from which they
never depart, it renewed the hope that some common origin of the elements
was in sight. The theory was advanced that all these weights were
multiples of the weight of hydrogen—in other words, that each elementary
atom was only a greater or a smaller number of hydrogen atoms compacted
by some strange machinery into one. The most elaborate analyses, con-
ducted by chemists of the highest eminence—conspicuously by the
illustrious Stas—were directed to the question whether there was any
trace in fact of the theoretic idea that the atoms of each element consist
of so many atoms or even of so many half-atoms of hydrogen. But the
reply of the laboratories has always been clear and certain—that there is
not in the facts the faintest foundation for such a theory.

Then came the discovery of the spectral analysis, and men thought
that with an instrument of such inconceivable delicacy we should at last
find out something as to the nature of the atom. The result has been
wholly disappointing. Spectral analysis in the hands of Dr. Huggins and
Mr. Lockyer and others has taught us things of which the world little
expected to be told. We have been enabled to measure the speed with
which clouds of blazing hydrogen course across the surface of the sun:

ADDRESS, 7

we have learnt the pace—the fabulous pace—at which the most familiar
stars have been for ages approaching to or receding from our planet,
without apparently affecting the proportions of the patterns which as far
as historical record goes back they have always delineated on the even-
ing sky. We have received some information about the elementary atoms
themselves. We have learnt that each sort of atom when heated strikes
upon the ether a vibration, or set of vibrations, whose rate is all its own ;
and that no one atom or combination of atoms in producing its own spec-
trum encroaches even to the extent of a single line upon the spectrum
that is peculiar to its neighbour. We have learnt that the elements
which exist in the stars and specially in the sun are mainly those with
which we are familiar upon earth. There are a few lines in excess to
which we can give no terrestrial name; and there are some still more
puzzling gaps in our list. It is a great aggravation of the mystery
which besets the question of the elements, that among the lines which
are absent from the spectrum of the sun, those of nitrogen and oxygen
stand first. Oxygen constitutes the largest portion of the solid and liquid
substance of our planet, so far as we know it ; and nitrogen is very far the
predominant constituent of our atmosphere. If the earth is a detached
bit whirled off the mass of the sun, as cosmogonists love to tell us, how
comes it that in leaving the sun we cleaned him out so completely of his
nitrogen and oxygen that not a trace of these gases remains behind to
be discovered even by the sensitive vision of the spectroscope ?

All these things the discovery of spectrum analysis has added to our
knowledge ; but it has left us as ignorant as ever as to the nature of
the capricious differences which separate the atoms from each other, or
the cause to which those differences are due.

In the last few years the same enigma has been approached from another
point of view by Mr. Newlands and Professor Mendeléeff. The periodic
law which they have discovered reflects on them all the honour that can be
earned by ingenious, laborious, and successful research. The Professor has
shown that this perplexing list of elements can be divided into families of
about seven, speaking very roughly : that those families all resemble each
other in this, that as to weight, volume, heat, and laws of combination
the members of each family are ranked among themselves in obedience to
the same rule. Each family differs from the others ; but each internally
is constructed upon the same plan. It was a strange discovery—strangest
of all in its manifest defects. For in the plan of his families there were
blanks left; places not filled up because the properly constituted elements
required according to his theory had not been found to fill them. For the
moment their absence seemed a weakness in the Professor’s idea, and
gave an arbitrary aspect to his scheme. But the weakness was turned
into strength when, to the astonishment of the scientific world, three of
the elements which were missing made their appearance in answer to his
call. He had described beforehand the qualities they ought to have ;
and gallium, germanium, and scandium, when they were discovered

8 REPORT—1894..

shortly after the publication of his theory, were found to be duly clothed
with the qualities he required in each. This remarkable confirmation has left
Mendeléeft’s periodic law in an unassailable position. But it has rather
thickened than dissipated the mystery which hangs over the elements.
The discovery of these co-ordinate families dimly points to some identical
origin, without suggesting the method of their genesis or the nature of
their common parentage. If they were organic beings all our difficulties
would be solved by muttering the comfortable word ‘evolution ’—one
of those indefinite words from time to time vouchsafed to humanity,
which have the gift of alleviating so many perplexities and masking so
many gaps in our knowledge. But the families of elementary atoms do
not breed ; and we cannot therefore ascribe their ordered difference to
accidental variations perpetuated by heredity under the influence of
natural selection. The rarity of iodine, and the abundance of its sister
chlorine, cannot be attributed to the survival of the fittest in the struggle
for existence. We cannot account for the minute difference which per-
sistently distinguishes nickel from cobalt, by ascribing it to the recent
inheritance by one of them of an advantageous variation from the parent
stock.

The upshot is that all these successive triumphs of research, Dalton’s,
Kirchhoff’s, Mendeléeff’s, greatly as they have added to our store of know-
ledge, have gone but little way to solve the problem which the elemen-
tary atoms have for centuries presented to mankind. What the atom of
each element is, whether it is a movement, or a thing, or a vortex, or a
point having inertia, whether there is any limit to its divisibility, and, if
so, how that limit is imposed, whether the long list of elements is final, or
whether any of them have any common origin, all these questions remain
surrounded by a darkness as profound as ever. The dream which lured
the alchemists to their tedious labours, and which may be said to have
called chemistry into being, has assuredly not been realised, but it has not
yet been refuted. The boundary of our knowledge in this direction re-
mains where it was many centuries ago.

The next discussion to which I should look in order to find unsolved
riddles which have hitherto defied the scrutiny of science, would be the
question of what is called the ether. The ether occupies a highly anoma-
lous position in the world of science. It may be described as a half-
discovered entity. I dare not use any less pedantic word than entity to
designate it, for it would be a great exaggeration of our knowledge if I
were to speak of it as a body or even as a substance. When nearly a
century ago Young and Fresnel discovered that the motions of an incan-
descent particle were conveyed to our eyes by undulation, it followed that
between our eyes and the particle there must be something to undulate.
In order to furnish that something, the notion of the ether was conceived,
and for more than two generations the main, if not the only, function of
the word ether has been to furnish a nominative case to the verb ‘to un-
dulate.’ Lately, our conception of this entity has received a notable

—Cmere

ADDRESS. 9

extension. One of the most brilliant of the services which Professor
Maxwell has rendered to science has been the discovery that the figure
which expressed the velocity of light also expressed the multiplier
required to change the measure of static or passive electricity into that of
dynamic or active electricity. The interpretation reasonably affixed to
this discovery 1s that, as light and the electric impulse move approximately
at the same rate through space, it is probable that the undulations which
convey them are undulations of the same medium. And as induced
electricity penetrates through everything, or nearly everything, it follows.
that the ether through which its undulations are propagated must pervade
all space, whether empty or full, whether occupied by opaque matter or
transparent matter, or by no matter at all. The attractive experiments.
by which the late Professor Herz illustrated the electric vibrations of the
ether will only be alluded to by me in order that I may express the
regret deeply and generally felt that death should have terminated pre-
maturely the scientific career which had begun with such brilliant promise
and such fruitful achievements. But the mystery of the ether, though it.
has been made more fascinating by these discoveries, remains even more
inscrutable than before. Of this all-pervading entity we know absolutely
nothing except this one fact, that it can be made to undulate. Whether,
outside the influence of matter on the motion of its waves, ether has any
effect on matter or matter upon it, is absolutely unknown. And even its
solitary function of undulating, ether performs in an abnormal fashion
which has caused infinite perplexity. All fluids that we know transmit
any blow they have received by waves which undulate backwards and.
forwards in the path of their own advance. The ether undulates athwart
the path of the wave’s advance. The genius of Lord Kelvin has recently
discovered what he terms a labile state of equilibrium, in which a fluid that
is infinite in its extent may exist, and may undulate in this eccentric
fashion without outraging the laws of mathematics. I am no mathema-
tician, and I cannot judge whether this reconciliation of the action of the
ether with mechanical Jaw is to be looked upon as a permanent solution
of the question, or is only what diplomatists call a modus vivendi. In any
case it leaves our knowledge of the ether in a very rudimentary condition.
It has no known qualities except one, and that quality is in the highest
degree anomalous and inscrutable. The extended conception which
enables us to recognise ethereal waves in the vibrations of electricity has
added infinite attraction to the study of those waves, but it carries its own
difficulties with it. It is not easy to fit in the theory of electrical ether
waves with the phenomena of positive and negative electricity, and as to
the true significance and cause of those counteracting and complementary
forces, to which we give the provisional names of negative and positive,
we know about as much now as Franklin knew a century and a half ago.

I have selected the elementary atoms and the ether as two instances
of the obscurity that still hangs over problems which the highest scientific
intellects have been investigating for several generations. A more

10 REPORT—1894.

striking but more obvious instance still is Life—animal and vegetable
Life—the action of an unknown force on ordinary matter. What is the
mysterious impulse which is able to strike across the ordinary laws of
matter, and twist them for a moment from their path? Some people
demur to the use of the term ‘ vital force’ to designate this impulse. In
their view the existence of such a force is negatived by the fact that
chemists have been able by cunning substitutions to produce artificially
the peculiar compounds which in nature are only found in organisms that
are or have been living. These compounds are produced by some living
organism in the performance of the ordered series of functions proper to
its brief career. To counterfeit them—as has been done in numerous
cases—does not enable us to do what the vital force alone can effect—to
bring the organism itself into existence, and to cause it to run its appointed
course of change. Thisisthe unknown force which continues to defy not only
our imitation but ourscrutiny. Biology has been exceptionally active and
successful during the last half-century. Its triumphs have been brilliant,
and they have been rich enough not only in immediate result but in the
promise of future advance. Yet they give at present no hope of penetrat-
ing the great central mystery. The progress which has been made in the
study of microscopic life has been very striking, whether or not the results
which are at present inferred from it can be taken as conclusive. Infini-
tesimal bodies found upon the roots of plants have the proud office of
capturing and taming for us the free nitrogen of the air, which, if we are
to live at all, we must consume and assimilate, and yet which, without
the help of our microscopic ally, we could not draw for any useful purpose
from the ocean of nitrogen in which we live. Microscopic bodies are
convicted of causing many of the worst diseases to which flesh is heir,
and the guilt of many more will probably be brought home to them in due
time ; and they exercise a scarcely less sinister or less potent influence on
our race by the plagues with which they destroy some of the most valuable
fruits of husbandry, such as the potato, the mulberry, and the vine.
Almost all their power resides in the capacity of propagating their kind
with infinite rapidity, and up to this time science has been more skilful in
describing their ravages than in devising means to hinder them. It would
be ungrateful not to mention two brilliant exceptions to this criticism.
The antiseptic surgery which we owe chiefly to Lister ; and the inocula-
tion against anthrax, hydrophobia, and perhaps some other diseases,
which we owe to Pasteur, must be recorded as splendid victories over the
countless legions of our infinitesimal foes. Results like these are the great
glory of the scientific workers of the past century. Men may, perhaps,
have overrated the progress of nineteenth-century research in opening
the secrets of nature ; but it is difficult to overrate the brilliant service it
has rendered in ministering to the comforts and diminishing the sufferings
of mankind.

If we are not able to see far into the causes and origin of life in our
own day, it is not probable that we shall deal more successfully with the

ADDRESS. 11

problem as it arose many million years ago. Yet certainly the most
conspicuous event in the scientific annals of the last half-century has been
the publication of Mr. Darwin’s work on the ‘ Origin of Species,’ which
appeared in 1859. In some respects, in the depth of the impression which
it made on scientific thought, and even on the general opinion of the
world, its momentous effect can hardly be overstated. But at this dis-
tance of time it is possible to see that some of its success has been due to
adventitious circumstances. It has had the chance of enlisting among its
champions some of the most powerful intellects of our time, and perhaps
the still happier fortune of appearing at a moment when it furnished an
armoury of weapons to men, who were not scientific, for use in the bitter
but transitory polemics of the day. But far the largest part of its
accidental advantages was to be found in the remarkable character and
qualifications of its author. The equity of judgment, the simple-minded
love of truth and the patient devotion to the pursuit of it through years
of toil and of other conditions the most unpropitious—these things en-
deared to numbers of men everything that came from Charles Darwin
apart from its scientific merit or literary charm. And whatever final
value may be assigned to his doctrine, nothing can ever detract from the
lustre shed upon it by the wealth of his knowledge and the infinite in-
genuity of his resource. The intrinsic power of his theory is shown at
least in this one respect, that in the department of knowledge with which
it is concerned it has effected an entire revolution in the methods of
research. Before his time the study of living nature had a tendency to
be merely statistical ; since his time it has become predominantly historical.
The consideration how an organic body came to be what it is occupies a
far larger area in any inquiry now than the mere description of its actual
condition ; but this question was not predominant—it may almost be said
to have been ignored—in the Botanical and Zoological study of sixty
years ago.

Another lasting and unquestioned effect has resulted from Darwin’s
work. He has, as a matter of fact, disposed of the doctrine of the im-
mutability of species. It has been mainly associated in recent days with
the honoured name of Agassiz, but with him has disappeared the last
defender of it who could claim the attention of the world. Few now are
found to doubt that animals separated by differences far exceeding those
that distinguish what we know as species have yet descended from common
ancestors. But there is much less agreement as to the extent to which
this common descent can be assumed, or the process by which it has come
about. Darwin himself believed that all animals were descended from ‘at
most four or five progenitors’—adding that ‘there was grandeur in the
view that life had been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms
or one.’ Some of his more devoted followers, like Professor Haeckel, were *
prepared to go a step farther and to contemplate primeval mud as the
probable ancestor of the whole fauna and flora of this planet.

To this extent the Darwinian theory has not effected the conquest of

i, REPORT—1894..

scientific opinion ; and still less is there any unanimity in the acceptance
of natural selection as the sole or even the main agent of whatever
modifications may have led up to the existing forms of life. The deepest
obscurity still hangs over the origin of the infinite variety of life. Two
of the strongest objections to the Darwinian explanation appear still to
retain all their force.

I think Lord Kelvin was the first to point out that the amount of time
required by the advocates of the theory for working out the process they
had imagined could not be conceded without assuming the existence of a
totally different set of natural laws from those with which we are
acquainted. His view was not only based on profound mechanical reason-
ing, but it was so plain that any layman could comprehend it. Setting aside
arguments deduced from the resistance of the tides, which may be taken to
transcend the lay understanding, his argument from the refrigeration of the
earth requires little science to apprehend it. Everybody knows that hot
things cool, and that according to their substance they take more or less
time in cooling. It is evident from the increase of heat as we descend into
the earth, that the earth is cooling, and we know by experiment, within cer-
tain wide limits, the rate at which its substances, the matters of which it
is constituted, are found to cool. It follows that we can approximately
calculate how hot it was so many million years ago. But if at any time
it was hotter at the surface by 50° F. than it is now, life would then have
been impossible upon the planet, and therefore we can without much diffi-
culty fix a date before which organic life on earth cannot have existed.
Basing himself on these considerations Lord Kelvin limited the period of
organic life upon the earth to a hundred million years, and Professor Tait
ina still more penurious spirit cut that hundred down to ten. Buton the
other side of the account stand the claims of the geologists and biologists.
They have revelled in the prodigality of the ciphers which they put at the
end of the earth’s hypothetical life. Long cribbed and cabined within the
narrow bounds of the popular chronology, they have exulted wantonly in
their new freedom. They have lavished their millions of years with the
open hand of a prodigal heir indemnifying himself by present extravagance
for the enforced self-denial of his youth. But it cannot be gainsaid that
their theories require at least all this elbowroom. If we think of that
vast distance over which Darwin conducts us from the jelly-fish lying on
the primeval beach to man as we know him now ; if we reflect that the
prodigious change requisite to transform one into the other is made up of
a chain of generations, each advancing by a minute variation from the
form of its predecessor, and if we further reflect that these successive
changes are so minute that in the course of our historical period—say
three thousand years—this progressive variation has not advanced by a
single step perceptible to our eyes, in respect to man or the animals and
plants with which man is familiar, we shall admit that for a chain of
change so vast, of which the smallest link is longer than our recorded
history, the biologists are making no extravagant claim when they demand

ADDRESS. 13

at least many hundred million years for the accomplishment of the stu-
pendous process. Of course, if the mathematicians are right, the biologists
cannot have what they demand. If, for the purposes of their theory, organic
life must have existed on the globe more than a hundred million years
ago, it must, under the temperature then prevailing, have existed in a state
of vapour. The jelly-fish would have been dissipated in steam long before
he had had a chance of displaying the advantageous variation which was
to make him the ancestor of the human race. I see, in the eloquent dis-
course of one of my most recent and most distinguished predecessors in this
chair, Sir Archibald Geikie, that the controversy is still alive. The mathe-
maticians sturdily adhere to their figures, and the biologists are quite sure
the mathematicians must have made a mistake. I will not get myself into
the line of fire by intervening in such a controversy. But until it is
adjusted the laity may be excused for returning a verdict of ‘not proven’
upon the wider issues the Darwinian school has raised.

The other objection is best stated in the words of an illustrious disciple
of Darwin, who has recently honoured this city by his presence—I refer
to Professor Weismann. JBut in referring to him, I cannot but give, in
passing, a feeble expression to the universal sorrow with which in this
place the news was received that Weismann’s distinguished antagonist,
Professor Romanes, had been taken from us in the outset and full promise
of a splendid scientific career.

The gravest objection to the doctrine of natural selection was expressed
by Weismann in a paper published a few months ago, not as agreeing to
the objection, but as resisting it ; and therefore his language may be taken
as an impartial statement of the difficulty. ‘ We accept natural selection,’
he says, ‘ not because we are able to demonstrate the process in detail, not
even because we can with more or less ease imagine it, but simply because
we must—because it is the only possible explanation that we can conceive.
We must assume natural selection to be the principle of the explana-
tion of the metamorphoses, because all other apparent principles of
explanation fail us, and it is inconceivable that there could yet be another
capable of explaining the adaptation of organisms without assuming the
help of a principle of design.’

There is the difficulty. We cannot demonstrate the process of natural
selection in detail ; we cannot even, with more or less ease, imagine it. It
is purely hypothetical. No man, so far as we know, has ever seen it at
work. An accidental variation may have been perpetuated by inheritance,
and in the struggle for existence the bearer of it may have replaced, by
virtue of the survival of the fittest, his less improved competitors ; but as
far as we know no man or succession of men have ever observed the whole
process in any single case, and certainly no man has recorded the obser-
vation. Variation by artificial selection, of course, we know very well ;
but the intervention of the cattle breeder and the pigeon fancier is the
essence of artificial selection. It is effected by their action in crossing,
by their skill in bringing the right mates together to produce the progeni-

14, REPORT—1894.

ture they want. But in natural selection who is to supply the breeder's
place? Unless the crossing is properly arranged, the new breed will never
come into being. What is to secure that the two individuals of opposite
sexes in the primeval forest, who have been both accidentally blessed with
the same advantageous variation, shall meet, and transmit by inheritance
that variation to their successors? Unless this step is made good, the
modification will never get a start ; and yet there is nothing to insure that
step, except pure chance. The law of chances takes the place of the cattle
breeder and the pigeon fancier. The biologists do well to ask for an im-
measurable expanse of time, if the occasional meetings of advantageously
varied couples from age to age are to provide the pedigree of modifications
which unite us to our ancestor the jelly-fish. Of course the struggle for
existence, and the survival of the fittest, would in the long run secure the
predominance of the stronger breed over the weaker. But it would be of
no use in setting the improved breed going. There would not be time.
No possible variation which is known to our experience, in the short time
that elapses in a single life between the moment of maturity and the age
of reproduction, could enable the varied individual to clear the field of all
competitors, either by slaughtering or starving them out. But unless the
struggle for existence took this summary and internecine character, there
would be nothing but mere chance to secure that the advantageously
varied bridegroom at one end of the wood should meet the bride, who by
a happy contingency had been advantageously varied in the same direction
at the same time at the other end of the wood. It would be a mere chance
if they ever knew of each other’s existence—a still more unlikely chance
that they should resist on both sides all temptations to a less advantageous
alliance. But unless they did so, the new breed would never even begin,
let alone the question of its perpetuation after it had begun. I think
Professor Weismann is justified in saying that we cannot, either with
more or less ease, imagine the process of natural selection.

It seems strange that a philosopher of Professor Weismann’s penetra-
tion should accept as established a hypothetical process the truth of which
he admits that he cannot demonstrate in detail, and the operation of which
he cannot even imagine. The reason that he gives seems to me instructive
of the great danger scientific research is running at the present time—the
acceptance of mere conjecture in the name and place of knowledge, in pre-
ference to making frankly the admission that no certain knowledge can
be attained. ‘ We accept natural selection,’ he says, ‘because we must—
because it is the only possible explanation that we can conceive.’ As a
politician, I know that argument very well. In political controversy it is
sometimes said of a disputed proposal that it ‘ holds the field,’ that it must
be accepted because no possible alternative has been suggested. In politics
there is occasionally a certain validity in the argument, for it sometimes
happens that some definite course must be taken, even though no course
is free from objection. But such a line of reasoning is utterly out of place
in science. We are under no obligation to find a theory, if the facts will

—— ss ~~

ADDRESS, 15

not provide a sound one. To the riddles which nature propounds to us the
profession of ignorance must constantly be our only reasonable answer.
The cloud of impenetrable mystery hangs over the development and still
more over the origin of life. If we strain our eyes to pierce it, with the fore-
gone conclusion that some solution is and must be attainable, we shall
only mistake for discoveries the figments of our own imagination. Pro-
fessor Weismann adds another reason for his belief in natural selection
which is certainly characteristic of the time in which we live. ‘It is in-
conceivable,’ he says, ‘that there should be another principle capable of
explaining the adaptation of organisms without assuming the help of a
principle of design.’ The whirligig of time assuredly brings its revenges.
Time was, not very long ago, when the belief in creative design was
supreme. Even those who were sapping its authority were wont to pay
it a formal homage, fearing to shock the public conscience by denying it.
Now the revolution is so complete that a great philosopher uses it as a
reductio ad absurdum, and prefers to believe that which can neither be
demonstrated in detail, nor imagined, rather than run the slightest risk of
such a heresy.

I quite accept the Professor’s dictum that if natural selection is rejected
we have no resource but to fall back on the mediate or immediate agency
of a principle of design. In Oxford, at least, he will not find that argument
is conclusive, nor, I believe, among scientific men in this country generally,
however imposing the names of some whom he may claim for that belief.
I would rather lean to the conviction that the multiplying difficulties of
the mechanical theory are weakening the influence it once had acquired.
I prefer to shelter myself in this matter behind the judgment of the
greatest living master of natural science among us, Lord Kelvin, and to
quote as my own concluding words the striking language with which he
closed his address from this chair more than twenty years ago: ‘I have
always felt,’ he said, ‘that the hypothesis of natural selection does not
contain the true theory of evolution, if evolution there has been in biology.
... I feel profoundly convinced that the argument of design has been greatly
too much lost sight of in recent zoological speculations. Overpoweringly
strong proofs of intelligent and benevolent design lie around us, and if ever
perplexities, whether metaphysical or scientific, turn us away from them
for a time, they come back upon us with irresistible force, showing to us
through nature the influence of a free wil], and teaching us that all living
things depend on one everlasting Creator and Ruler.’

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCH.

1894.

aTAOTMHEA

Sue 2

MOUMIOR TO WAT
a

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

Corresponding Socveties.— Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor R. MELDOLA (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Houmes (Secre-
tary), Mr. Francis GaLTon, Sir DouGLas Gatton, Sir Rawson
Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Jonn Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. WuitTaker,
Mr. W. Topuey, Professor E. B. Poutton, Mr. CuTHBERT PEEK,
and Rev. Canon H. B. TrisTRAM.

THE Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg
leave to submit to the General Committee the following report of the
proceedings of the Conferences held at Nottingham and at Oxford.

The Council nominated Dr. J. G. Garson, Chairman, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary to the Nottingham
Conference. These nominations were confirmed by the General Com-
mittee at the meeting held at Nottingham on Wednesday, September 13.
The meetings of the Conference were held on Thursday, September 14, and
on Tuesday, September 19, in University College, Nottingham, at 3.30 p.m.
The following Corresponding Societies nominated delegates te represent
them at the Nottingham meeting :—

Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A., F.G.S.
Field Club.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophi- Alexander Tate,
cal Society.
Birmingham Natural History and Micro- C. J. Watson.
scopical Society.
Birmingham Philosophical Society . . J. Kenward, F.S.A.
Bristol Naturalists’ Society . : . Dr. A. Richardson.
Burton-on-Trent Natural History and Horace T. Brown, F.R.S.
Archeological Society.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society . : . Prof. J. Viriamu Jones.
Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti- M. H. Mills, F.G.S.
tution of Engineers.

c2

20 REPORT—1894.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural His- W. Topley, F.B:S.

tory Club.
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian C. Hansford.
Field Club.
East Kent Natural History Society -]
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’ | A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.
Societies.
Essex Field Club. . ' ‘ . TT. V. Holmes, F.G.S.
Federated Institution of Mining En- M. H. Mills, M.Inst.C.E.
gineers.

Hampshire Field Club . : 5 W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society Dr. A. T. Brett.
and Field Club.

Leeds Geological Association . : . P. F. Kendall, F.G.S.
Leeds Naturalists’ Club . é : . Harold Wager.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical So- F.'T. Mott, F.R.G.S.
ciety.
Liverpool Geological Society . - . E,. Dickson, F.G.S.
Liverpool Engineering Society ; . H. P. Boulnois, M.Inst.C.E.
Malton Naturalists’ Society . : - M.B. Slater.
Manchester Geographical Society . - Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
Manchester Geological Society ‘i . Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.
North of England Institute of Mining Prof. J. H. Merivale, M.A.
Engineers.
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Dr. J. T. Arlidge.
Club.

Northamptonshire Natural History So- C. A. Markham, F.R.Met.Soc.
ciety and Field Club.
J. W. Carr, M.A.
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society . : i W. Stafford, M.B.
C. Hawley Torr.
Nottingham Technical Schools . . Prof. W. Robinson, M.E.
‘Paisley Philosophical Institution . . James Clark.
Perthshire Society of Natural Science . A.S8. Reid, M.A., F.G:S.
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society H.C. March, M.D., F.S.A.
‘Somersetshire Archzological and Natu- F. T. Elworthy.
ral History Society.
‘South London Microscopical and Natural F.W. Hembry.
History Society.
Tyneside Geographical Society : . G. E. T. Smithson, F.R.G.S.
Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archeolo- W. Andrews, F.G.S.
gists’ Field Club.
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club . . Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union . - . M. B. Slater.

NortrincHam, First Conrerencr, September 14, 1893.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Dr.
Garson (in the chair), Mr. Topley, Mr. Symons, and Mr. T. V. Holmes
(Secretary).

Dr. Garson, the Chairman, gave a hearty welcome to the delegates
present. He stated that these Conferences were begun at Aberdeen in
1885. At that time only twenty-four delegates were appointed, while
last year there were forty-two. The number of Corresponding Societies
had also increased. This was evidence that the attempt to bring to a
focus, as it were, the efforts of the various Corresponding Societies had met
with considerable success. But there was also evidence that the Societies
did not always sufficiently value their privileges. When the annual
returns were sent out from the office of the British Association the

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 21

majority of the Secretaries of the Corresponding Societies did not fill up
and return them until they were written to a second time. Again, ont
of more than sixty Societies, only forty-two thought it worth while to
nominate delegates, though it could hardly be a difficult matter to find
members able and willing to serve. It was a very great advantage to
the workers in the various local Societies to have the titles of their papers
printed and published in the Annual Reports of the British Association.
The Transactions of the various Corresponding Societies were bound and
kept available for reference at present in the Office of the Association at
Burlington House, whereas papers read before other local Societies
were not unlikely to remain unknown or unconsulted. It was most
desirable that the British Association should be brought into closer
communication with the Societies. It had been usual hitherto for repre-
sentatives from the different Sections to attend the Conferences and to
mention anything that had been done, such as the appointment of a
committee for some special purpose, in which the co-operation of the
Corresponding Societies would be advantageous. It would be a good
thing that there should be better means of communication between the
Corresponding Societies and the Secretaries of the various committees
appointed by the British Association. A good example of a committee
especially needing the assistance of the Corresponding Societies was that
nominated by Section H to make an Ethnographical Survey of the United
Kingdom. The first Report of this committee had just been presented to
the delegates, and Mr. Brabrook, the Secretary, would shortly call their
attention to it. At their last meeting at Edinburgh some delegates had
asked whether the Council of the Association might not be able to obtain
greater facilities from the railway companies for members travelling to
and from these meetings. The Council consequently appointed a com-
raittee, of which Sir Frederick Bramwell was an active member, to see
what could be done, The result, however, could not be deemed satis-
factory. The Clearing House authorities considered that the ordinary
tourists’ tickets met the requirements of the case, and reminded them
that return tickets were issued to members at a single fare for distances
not exceeding fifty miles from the place of meeting. The local authorities
had placed the room in which they then were at the disposal of the
delegates, and in it they might meet to discuss matters at any time.

The Secretary read a letter from Sir Douglas Galton, expressing his
regret at being unable to attend the Conference.

Tbe Chairman proposed to take the Report which was in their hands
as read. He would be glad to hear any remarks from delegates on the
work done during the past year.

Section A.

Meteorological Photography.—Mr. Symons was much indebted to the
delegates for the number of photographs of clouds sent in to the Com-
mittee up to the present time. He did not press for more, as the
Committee appointed by the British Association for the ‘ Elucidation of
Meteorological Phenomena by the Application of Photography’ had the
very considerable collection of 467 to deal with. They proposed to
select the typical ones, reduce them to a uniform scale, and print perhaps
a hundred copies of them. They hoped to publish the atlas during the

22 REPORT—1894..

year, and would be glad if the meteorologists would take copies. They
would be pleased to have additional photographs of lightning.

Mr. Kenward remarked that through the agency of the standing
Meteorological Committee of the Birmingham Philosophical Society com-
plete weather statistics for Birmingham had been obtained from the
observatory in Monument Road. It was believed that the periodical pub-
lication of these records would supply a great want.

Section C.

Mr. A. 8. Reid said that the Geological Photographs Committee of
the British Association were publishing their fourth Report this year.
During the year they had received more than forty new photcgraphs,
making the total collection 846: they were all British. Their appeal
to the Corresponding Societies had been more successful than in any
previous year, but there was still much to be done, and he hoped the
delegates would stir up their Societies on this point. As to the best
camera, the most portable was to be preferred. He had also to report
that many prints had been sent in without the name of the Societies
sending them, that of the photographer, or that of the place photographed.
They had decided not to lend any more photographs to the Societies,
unless such photographs were sent in duplicate. Mr. Jeffs, the Secretary
of the Geological Photographs Committee, had unfortunately been ill
during nearly the whole of the year, and this had seriously hampered
their work.

Mr. Tate said that, with reference to geological photographs, many of
those sent in were probably of little value. He trusted that some day
the Geological Photographs Committee would be able to select typical
examples and place them where they would be of use to the Corresponding
Societies. Some had been sent from Belfast, the district he represented.

Mr. P. F, Kendall remarked that few of the Corresponding Societies
during the past year had given any information to the British Associa-
tion Committee appointed to record the Character and Position of Erratic
Blocks, though appeals for help had been made.

The Chairman hoped that the delegates present would note this
omission.

In reply to a question from Mr. Eli Sowerbutts Mr. Kendall said that
though the Erratic Blocks Committee had been in existence twenty-one
years, there were whole counties abounding in erratic blocks from which
not asingle report had ever been sent. There were thus great gaps in
their information which could only be filled by photographs and reports
from the quarters which had hitherto not responded to the appeal. Most
admirable work had been done in Warwickshire.

Mr. Topley inquired whether any Society had made researches, like
those brought before the Conference last year by Mr. Watts, as to the
quantity of material brought down streams in flood in the neighbourhood
of Rochdale.

Mr. Mark Stirrup thought the work, so far as it had gone, had been
brought before the Manchester Geographical Society.

Mr. Symons said that the work had been confined to the Rochdale
district. It was desirable that results in other districts should be noted,
and all persons wishing to do similar work should consult Mr. Watts at
Strines Dale, Oldham.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. = 26

Section D.

Mr. Slater recorded the interesting fact that a member of the York-
shire Naturalists’ Union recently found the wild maidenhair fern on
the northern portion of Morecambe Bay. It would not be desirable that
the exact spot should be given. He would also remark that it was better
to obtain seeds from these rare plants than to take the plant itself.

Section E.

Mr. Sowerbutts remarked that their member, Mr. Crook, went before
the departmental committee appointed to consider the state of the
Ordnance Survey in order to give evidence. He had suggested to Mr.
Crook that he should write a report on what had been done by the
departmental committee, which might be presented at the next year’s
meeting of delegates. The examination on Yorkshire mentioned in the
report of the Conference of Delegates at Edinburgh did not take place.
They would, however, conduct some examinations next year, and he
would be glad if the delegates would make their intentions widely
known. It was his opinion that there was no cheap book in existence
giving a fairly good account of Yorkshire. The examinations were open
to all public and private schools. There would be one on Canada for
secondary school children. They had been found to know nothing about
geography last year, and he looked for some improvement next time.

Mr. Hembry had learned that in a certain county children attending
schools were not taught geography in any way. He would like to know
if this was the case anywhere else.

Mr. Andrews remarked that, acting on the advice of Mr. Whitaker,
he had forwarded a list of thirteen ancient earthworks in Warwickshire
to the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton, ten of which had since
been inserted in the map.

Mr. Hembry thought that geography should certainly be a class
subject. In secondary schools they absolutely ignored it; but he had
been astonished to find that an immense advance had been made in the
teaching of geography in primary schools. In many of the latter museums
of commercial products were now being formed.

Section G.

Professor Merivale had nothing to report about Flameless Explosives.

Section H.

Mr. Brabrook made some remarks on the progress made by the
Committee appointed to make an Ethnographical Survey of the
United Kingdom, whose first report was in the hands of the delegates.
The Committee had, he said, obtained, by communication with the
Corresponding Societies, a list of nearly 300 villages, with some account

24 KEPORT—1894.

of their leading features and peculiarities, all of which were worthy of
special examination by the Committee. For this result, which was much
beyond their anticipations, the Ethnographical Committee gave their most
hearty thanks to the members of the Corresponding Societies who had
helped them so efficiently. The next step taken by the Committee had
been to draw up a brief code of directions for the guidance of those who
had been kind enough to offer assistance. This code would be found
at the end of their Report.

Mr. Kenward said that almost all traces of the past had been destroyed
in the Birmingham district. They had, however, established a Folklore
Sub-committee.

Mr. Brabrook thought that delegation to sub-committees greatly
facilitated the work.

Mr. Kenward remarked that in Birmingham they were carefully
noting the physical condition of individual children in Board schools,
also that of factory hands. Next year they hoped to present a Report on
the subject to the Association.

The Chairman said that the Sectional discussions being now ended,
he would be glad to hear remarks of any kind that might be of genera}
interest to the delegates.

Dr. Arlidge suggested that a tabular list should be prepared of the
Committees of the Association with which it was desired that the
Corresponding Socicties should co-operate.

Mr. Mark Stirrup said that each year a list of the whole of the
British Association Committees was printed and distributed, the names
of the members and the objects of the committees being given. He
always brought this list before his Society, and asked members to note
anything in which they might like to assist.

Mr. T. V. Holmes stated that, when writing in the ‘Essex Naturalist ”
an account of the Edinburgh Conference for the Essex Field Club last
autumn, he added to his remarks a list of the ten or eleven Committecs
in which the Corresponding Societies were specially interested.

NotrincHam, SeconD ConreRENCE, SEPTEMBER 19, 1898.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Dr.
Garson (inthe chair), Mr. F. Galton, Mr. Symons, and Mr. T. V. Holmes
(Secretary).

The Chairman thought it would ke best to take first any discussions
upon the committees appointed in the various Sections.

Secrion A.

Mr. Symons said that the work of the Earth-tremors Committee
was going on under the care of Mr. Davison, and he did not think
that there were other committees connected with Section A that bore
upon the work of the delegates. With regard to the Report of the Earth-
tremors Committee, he should like to hold it in suspense for a while,
in the hope of future co-operation with some of the Corresponding
Societies.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 25

Mr. M. H. Mills thought that earth-tremors was one of the subjects
in which members of the Federated Institute of Mining Engineers could,
assist.

Mr. Symons inquired if it would be possible to place instruments
underground at a depth of 100 feet.

Mr. Mills did not think there would be any difficulty.

Mr. Mark Stirrup said that some mining engineers thought that it
would be useless to place apparatus in mines because of the vibration
caused by the workings.

Mr. Symons said that fortunately no difficulty would arise from that
cause, as the instruments, though extremely delicate, were not sensitive
to vibrations of short period.

Mr. Kenward thought that he knew of a colliery in which instruments
could be placed.

Section C.

Mr. A. S. Reid said he had been asked by the Sectional Committee
to make some remarks. The Underground Waters Committee would
present their final Report next year, and would be glad to receive further
information up to the date of publication. The Geological Photographs
Committee thought that the size of photographs should be left to the
donors. As to the best camera further comments from practical]
photographers were invited; also remarks as to the best methods of
printing. With regard to publication, negotiations respecting the pro-
posed album of representative photographs were then in progress.
The Erratic Blocks Committee had presented a Report, and they were
going to publish as much as they could as soon as possible. The Coast
Erosion Committee had not sent in a Report, though they had plenty of
material in hand. The Committee on Type Specimens in Museums were
making arrangements for the registration of those specimens, and in-
formation was required as to where they were housed.

Mr. Tate inquired, with regard to geological photographs, if smal}
photographs taken with a good lens were not preferred.

Mr. Reid replied that the Committee were ready to receive any good
photographs.

Section D.

Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs.—Mr. Slater thought it was high time
something was done to protect the eggs of wild birds. Influence might
be 2h to bear upon boys. He also deprecated the wanton shooting
of gulls.

The Chairman stated that the Committee had been reappointed, and
that the delegates would in due time receive a final communication on
the question.

Mr. C. H. Torr (Nottingham) said that a valuable suggestion had
been made that County Councils, and through them Board schools,
should put up notices during the season asking boys not to take eggs. It
was of little use to talk of legislation, as the eggs would be gone before
it could be obtained.

The Chairman remarked that at Edinburgh much had been said
about the number of rare eggs in the possession of collectors.

26 REPORT—1894.

Mr. Andrews recently visited a small village inn in North War-
wickshire, where he saw cases of birds’ eggs arranged in the form of
crowns. These crowns were sold for £5 each.

Mr. Kenward thought it would be better to appeal to the common-
sense and humanity of the collector than to put up notices in Board
schools.

Mr. Symons thought an appeal to the common-sense of the people
would have a good effect, and that it was useless to trust to legislation.
People who made crowns of eggs were irreclaimable.

Mr. Torr said, on behalf of Nottingham, that he woald undertake
that the matter should be brought before the School Board.

Museums.—Mr. Holmes read a letter from Mr. W. Cole, Hon. Sec.
Essex Field Club, on the maintenance of local museums. Mr. Cole
thought that if an annual sum for the maintenance of local museums
could be obtained from the Technical Education Grants in each county
there would be no great difficulty in obtaining substantial sums towards
buildings and fittings. The fear that a museum might not be permanent
often kept back subscriptions. Donations, both of money-and of specimens,
would rapidly come in when once the public felt that the museum would
be permanent ; and in no way could a portion of the Technical Educa-
tion Grant be better expended than in placing on a satisfactory footing
the local museum of the county.

Mr. Symons thought the idea of getting a grant from the source
suggested a very good one.

The Chairman hoped that members of the Corresponding Societies
would occasionally read papers on the specimens in their local museums,
each writer keeping to a certain department. ‘These papers, if published,
would be catalogued in the Association’s list, and brought before the
notice of many workers in the same subject elsewhere. They would also
be available for reference at headquarters in London.

Mr. Stirrup believed that something had been done in that way. A
Museums Association had been started, and had met that year in London.
In the report from the Owens College Museum there was a paper dealing
with the subject of type specimens.

The Chairman thought that the object of the Museums Association
was rather to discuss the best kinds of general arrangement than to
describe the contents of museums.

Mr. Stirrup and Mr. Tate both expressed an opinion that descriptions
of type specimens would be very valuable.

Section H.

The Chairman said that, as representative of Section H, he had
to draw the attention of the delegates and the Corresponding Societies
to the—

Hthnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—The first Report of
the Committee had been placed in the hands of the delegates at their
first conference, and he hoped they would bring it before their respective
Societies, as the kind of work required is essentially local and such as
would give great scope for investigation to the members of their Societies.
It includes observations on (1) the physical types of the inhabitants, to be
ascertained by photographing and recording the characters and measure-

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 27

ments of the people; (2) folklore; (3) peculiarities of dialect ; (4) monu-
ments and other remains of ancient culture ; (5) historical evidence as to
continuity of race. The Report contains minute directions as to how the
investigations are to be made.

Exploration of Ancient Remains.—The Committee of Section H had
passed the following resolution, to which they desired the attention of
the Corresponding Societies to be drawn :—‘ That in the opinion of this
Section it is desirable that the attention of archeologists and others be
particularly called to the great importance of preserving with the utmost
care all human remains found in ancient dwellings, graves, tumuli, and
other burial places. It is equally as important to preserve the limb-
bones and pelvis as the skull. The information yielded by human and
animal remains is equally as important as that derived from pottery,
implements, coins, &c. When any difficulty occurs in obtaining com-
petent aid in examining such remains, explorers are requested to com-
municate with the Secretary, Anthropological Institute, 3 Hanover
Square, London, W.’ He said that it was much better not to attempt to
excavate barrows, &c., unless it was done thoroughly.

After some remarks on a proposed excursion of the delegates a vote
of thanks to the Chairman closed the proceedings.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, in accordance with the an-
nouncement made to the General Committee, present the following Report
of the Oxford Conference :—

The Council nominated Professor R. Meldola Chairman, Mr. Cuth-
bert E. Peek Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes Secretary to the
Conference. These nominations were confirmed at the meeting of the
General Committee held at Oxford on Wednesday, August 8.

The meetings of the Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding
Societies were held on Thursday, August 9, and on Tuesday, August 14,
in the New Examination Schools, at 3. "30 P. mM. The following Correspond.
ing Societies nominated delegates to represent them at the Oxford
meeting : —

Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A.,

Field Club. F.G.S.
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club : - W. Gray, M.R.I.A.
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club : . G. P. Hughes.

Birmingham Natural History and Philo- J. Kenward, F.S.A.
sophical Society.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society . Dr. A. Richardson.

Burton-on-Trent Natural History and James G. Wells.
Archeological Society.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society . E. Seward, F.R.I.B.A.

Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti- M. H. Mills, F.G.S.
tution of Engineers.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of . Howard Fox, F.G.S.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural His- Thos. Cushing, F.R.A.S.

tory Club.

Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Rey. O. P. Cambridge, M.A., F.R.S.
Field Club.

East Kent Natural History Society . A. 8S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.

East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’ Robert Brown, R.N.
Societies.

Essex Field Club , P ° . . TT. Y. Holmes, F.G.S.

28

REPORT—1 894.

Federated Institution of Mining Engi-
neers.

Glasgow Archzological Society -

Glasgow Geological Society

Glasgow Philosophical Society

Hampshire Field Club

Hertfordshire Natural History Society
and Field Club.

Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.

Leeds Geological Association .

Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific
Association.

Liverpool Geological Society .

Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society.

Manchester Geographical Society

Manchester Geological Society :

Midland Union of Natural History Socie-
ties.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society

North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers.

Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety and Field Club.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field
Club.

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society

Perthshire Society of Natural Science

Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society

Somersetshire Archzological and Natural
History Society.

South London Microscopical and Natural
History Society.

Tyneside Geographical Society °

Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archexo-
logists’ Field Club.

Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club

Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society.

Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union .

OxrorD, First CONFERENCE,

M. H. Mills, M.Inst.C.E.

‘| J./Bl Murdoch:

Prof. J. G. McKendrick, M.D.,
F.R.S.

T. W. Shore, F.G.S.

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.

His Honour Deemster Gill.

B. Holgate, F.G.5.
Harold Wager, F.L.S.

O. W. Jeffs.
R. T. G. Abbott.

Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.
W. E. Collinge.

Clement Reid, F.G.S.
Prof. J. H. Merivale, M.A.

C. A. Markham, F.R.Met.Soc.
Dr. J. T. Arlidge, M.A.

W. Bradshaw.

H. Coates, F.R.S.E.

J. Reginald Ashworth, B.Sc.
F. T. Elworthy.

F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.S.

G. E. T. Smithson.
W. Andrews, F.G.S.

Rev. J. OQ. Bevan, M.A.
Thos. Tate, F.G.S.

M. B. Slater, F.L.S.

Aveust 9, 1894.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Professor
R. Meldola (Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Sir John Evans, Sir
Douglas Galton, Dr. Garson, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, Sir
Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. Topley, Mr. W. Whitaker,
and Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary).

The Chairman remarked that as this was their tenth Conference it
had been suggested to him that it would afford a good opportunity for a
review of the work done during that period. On the whole, however, he
thought that a review of that kind might form a dangerous precedent, as
tending to the delivery of an annual address which would occupy time
more profitably spent in discussing topics in which the delegates were
specially interested. Hitherto, owing to a bye-law enacting that the
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee should be presented to the

SY saw ee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 29

General Committee of the British Association, the Reports of these Confer-
ences had always been a year behind ; that held at Edinburgh in 1892, for
example, appearing in the British Association volume giving an account of
the proceedings at Nottingham in 1893, Steps had been taken, however,
to prevent this delay in future, and in the Oxford Report of the British
Association the account of the Nottingham Conference and that of the
Oxford Conference would appear together. In order that there should be
no want of material for discussion at these Conferences, their Secretary
and he had written to the Recorder of each Section asking him to bring the
existence of the Conference of Delegates under the notice of investigators
in those departments of science of which the work might be aided by the
co-operation of local observers. They had also taken a new departure in
announcing beforehand that some special subject would be discussed at
the Conference. On this occasion they had been fortunate enough to
secure the attendance of Mr. Cuthbert Peek to open a discussion on Local
Museums.

Mr. Cuthbert Peek, after stating that he was under great obligations
to that admirable organisation, the Museums Association, said that he
proposed to deal with the subject under the following headings :—

. Methods of registration and cataloguing.

. The protection of specimens from injury and dust.

. The circulation of specimens and type-collections for educational
purposes.

. Central referees for nomenclature and classification.

. The most satisfactory methods of making museums attractive.

. Museum lectures and demonstrations.

. The relations between museums and County Councils.

“IS Ol > whe

1. Methods of Registration and Cataloguing.—Having examined several
systems before arranging a small general museum of his own, he had come
to the conclusion that for small museums the card catalogue was the most
convenient on account of the ease with which changes and additions
could be made. Sectional letters distinguished the various classes of
objects. Each specimen when received had a number allotted to it under
the letter assigned to the Section. In order that the number might remain
attached to the specimen, he painted the letter and number on the speci-
men with red or white paint, and gave them when dry a coat of oil
varnish. When practicable it was a good thing to paste a photograph
showing the locality at which the object was found at the back of the
card. Labels were often displaced by the careless cleaner, but if the exact
dimensions of a specimen, with a rough outline of it, were entered on the
back of a card, identification would always be possible.

2. The Protection of Specimens from Injury and Dust.—On this subject
it was necessary to remind them that every closed case was practically
acted upon by changes in the pressure of the atmosphere (in the same
way as the cistern of a mercurial barometer), and that it drew in or gave
out air and dust with every change of pressure. Professor Miall, at the
Yorkshire College, had a rectangular hole cut in the top of each case and
covered with damiette. This filters the air passing in. He (Mr. Peek)
felt inclined to use a tube filled with cotton-wool for this purpose. It
must be remembered that enough air should be admitted at the authorised
entrance to prevent supplies from being sucked in through the inevitable
joints and cracks elsewhere.

30 REPORT—1894.

3. The Circulation of Specimens and Type-collections for Educational
Purposes.—The importance of educating the eye was now generally recog-
nised and the London scientific societies are more and more introducing the
optical lantern at their evening meetings. The advantage of the circula-
tion of loan collections illustrating the subjects taught in elementary
schools was therefore obvious. At Liverpool a system had been elaborated
by which loan collections were prepared and circulated among a large
number of schools. Experience had shown that the collections should be
arranged in cabinets, each containing some special class of objects, such as
food products, woods, &c. Those wishing to organise a plan for the circu-
lation of collections of this kind should consult a Paper by Mr. J. Chard
in the Report of the Museums Association for 1890.

The educational advantages of a museum were much increased by a
liberal use of pictorial illustrations placed as near as possible to the objects
illustrated. In the case of minute objects drawings on a larger scale were
of the highest value, while models and casts were often of the utmost
service. Labels should be clear, and should indicate the most important
points in plain language. When specimens could be replaced without
difficulty a certain amount of handling might be permitted. It was most
desirable that overcrowding should be avoided, and that the utmost care
should be taken in the selection of type-specimens. Much economy of
space would result from the adoption of an American invention which he
would briefly describe. The side of the cabinet, instead of having one
slide for each drawer, has a series of slides, one inch apart, all the way up
the side, the bottom of each drawer having a tongue to fit into one of
these slides. It was clear from this that the drawers might be made in
multiples of an inch and arranged in any order desired.

4. Central Referees for Nomenclature and Classification.—One of the
greatest difficulties which the average curator of a small museum had
to deal with was the nomenclature of the varied specimens under his
charge. An organisation of specialists who would for a small fee allow
specimens to be forwarded to them for identification would be of the
greatest possible value. Certain abstruse questions might not even then
be easy to answer ; but if nine-tenths of our museum specimens could be
accurately catalogued a great step in the right direction would be taken.

5. The most satisfactory Method of making Museums attractive-—To
those who know the museums at South Kensington, or some of the equally
well-arranged local museums, this heading might seem unnecessary.
But many present might be able to call to mind some collection in a
country town containing many most valuable local specimens, the very
existence of which was unknown to the majority of the inhabitants.
This state of things was yearly becoming rarer ; but many persons could
point out some museum almost as much fossilised as the fossils it con-
tained, with labels either illegible from age or invisible from displacement.
Those who casually entered such museums seldom revisited them. It
was most desirable that the English as well as the Latin name of a
specimen should be given. Much might be done to allow of comparisons
between creatures of different families or genera, Thus, at the Natural
History Museum, South Kensington, the skeletons of a man and of a
horse in the attitude of running had recently been placed the one in front
of the other, so that the relations of the two, bone for bone, could be dis-
tinctly seen. The surgical, ordinary, and veterinary names of the bones
were added throughout

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 31

6. Museum Lectures and Demonstrations.—While the great value of
case-to-case explanations was invariably admitted, the difficulty attending
any attempt to make a museum demonstration useful to any large number
of persons was equally obvious. One most experienced demonstrator had
stated that the largest number that can receive real benefit from a case-
to-case demonstration is about a dozen, and had recommended that the
lecture, illustrated by specimens and lantern slides, should be given in an
ordinary lecture-room, and a demonstration afterwards in the museum to
the smaller number seeking further information. In any case it was most
desirable that the demonstrator should be placed on a temporary stand, so
that he might see and be seen by his audience.

7. The Relations between Museums and County Councils.—It having
always appeared to him that demonstrations in museums should take a
very prominent part in technical education, especially in rural districts,
he had been surprised that so little assistance had been given in aid of
local collections by County Councils. In order to ascertain what had been
done in that direction he had sent out a circular to county council
technical education committees, and found that local museums and free
libraries had been assisted only in nine cases. The County Council of
Cumberland had been the most liberal, having made a grant of 600/. per
annum during the last three years for the purpose of aiding the Corpora-
tion of Carlisle to erect a museum, free library, and art school. A grant
had also been made to a free library at Whitehaven for the purchase of
text-books for the use of students at technical instruction classes, and a
grant of 200/. per annum had been given to the local board of Millom in
aid of the free library and technical school at that town. In Westmor-
land a grant of 100/. had been made to the Kendal Free Library, and a
similar sum had been given for the purchase of books on scientific sub-
jects at other centres in the county. In Northumberland 50 per cent. of
the cost of technical books for village and other libraries had (under
certain’ conditions) been defrayed. At Leeds grants had been made to
the Free Public Library Committee of the Corporation for the purchase
of pictures and books. In Hertfordshire money had been given to free
libraries for the purchase of technical books, and in Montgomery grants
had been made in two cases. In Surrey no aid had been given to free
libraries, but it was proposed to found a museum in connection with
buildings for technical education and a reference library. The London
County Council had a proposal to aid a certain museum under con-
sideration ; and in Dorsetshire the museums at Poole, Dorchester, and
Sherborne had all received aid. From some counties no information had
yet been received, but enough had been stated to show that there was no
insuperable obstacle to the application of money intended for technical
education to the development of museums. A leading object with the
Government was the development of local activity, and he felt convinced
that any grants made to local museums and free libraries would tend more
than anything else to further that object.

In conclusion Mr. Peek drew attention to the magnificent museum
founded at Oxford by General Pitt-Rivers, the arrangement of which was
unique.

The Chairman thought they were much indebted to Mr. Peek for his
paper, and invited remarks thereon.

Sir John Evans said that Mr. Peek had left little for anyone to add.
The card catalogue would commend itself to everyone on account of the

32 REPORT—1894.

facility with which it could be consulted, but it was a question whether
the American system of having a perforated card through which a wire
passed, so that the card could not be disturbed, was not preferable. The
suggestion that a slight sketch of the object should be made on the back
of the card was a valuable one. In the British Museum the date at
which an object was received was generally painted upon it. He would
‘be glad if anyone could suggest any means by which the ordinary cabinet
could be kept free from dust. It exhaled air when the day was warm,
and inhaled it in the cooler evening. He had tried a lining of cotton-
wool, but did not think the result was perfectly satisfactory. He thought
a cabinet constructed on the American principle, alluded to by Mr. Peek,
would be liable to dust unless its door was extremely close-fitting, but he had
applied the principle in a somewhat different manner. As regards referees
for nomenclature and classification, an association like that suggested
would, no doubt, be useful but at the present time any curator might
consult the keepers of the various departments of the British Museum,
either at South Kensington or at Bloomsbury, with a certainty of prompt
and valuable assistance. He doubted whether grants to museums would
be permitted to pass by the Government auditors, though a grant of
technical books to a local museum might be allowed. In thanking
Mr. Peek for the manner in which he had brought this subject before
them, he was sure that he gave utterance to the feeling of all present.

The Rev. O. P. Cambridge believed that in some cases County Councils
had made grants which they were not altogether legally entitled to make,
‘but which, from the good work done, were not likely to be called in ques-
tion. As regards the obliteration of labels, he had a large collection of
specimens in spirits of wine, and had been in the habit of gumming labels
on the outside. In the course of years he had found that these labels soon
became spotted and indistinct, and had consequently written new labels
on good paper with a pencil and placed them inside the glass jars with the
most satisfactory results.

Sir Rawson Rawson, whose experience had been partly tropical, had
not always found pencil marks indelible.

The Rev. O. P. Cambridge wished to add that some care was necessary
in selecting a pencil, which should neither be very hard nor very soft.

Dr. Garson could corroborate what had been said as to the advantages
of using pencils in spirit preparations. No kind of ink would answer, but
a pencil mark would remain a very long time after immersion in spirit.
Tt was an advantage to use a rough paper.

Mr. W. Gray thought they were all much indebted to Mr. Peek for
the admirable way in which he had handled the subject. It was first
necessary to stir up an interest in a locality in order to get a museum ;
secondly, to have the specimens properly housed ; and thirdly, to make
the museum attractive. To be attractive it must be educational, and
arrangements should be made for the circulation of some of the cases
through the country. Aid may then be fairly demanded from the County —
‘or City Council. The circulation of specimens did away with the dull,
dusty monotony so characteristic of some museums, and which usually
prevented them from being visited more than once or twice. Variation in
the aspect of a museum constituted a most important element of attraction.
In Belfast, through the agency of the Society he represented, they had
established the Belfast Central Museum, Art Gallery, and Library. Sir
John Evans had given the museum three or four thousand valuable

se oe

_—

—-

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 33

specimens. But they were still wanting in a proper organisation of their
local museum for educational purposes, and the sentiments expressed at
that meeting would enable him to urge the matter with additional
emphasis before the Town Council.

Mr. T. W. Shore stated that three years ago he had moved a resolu-
tion, at the Cambridge meeting of the Museums Association, pledging
the Association to do what it could to obtain aid for museums from
County Councils. He hoped that the gathering before him might be able
to aid the movement in some way. Mr. Peek had mentioned that the
clerks of many County Councils expressed doubts as to the legality of
grants to museums, but Mr. Cambridge had shown how the difficulty
might be overcome. It was clear that grants could be made by County
Councils to defray the expense of lectures and demonstrations in museums.
He would therefore suggest that circulars might be sent to County
Councils pointing out that, in the opinion of that meeting, grants in aid
of lectures and demonstrations in museums might be made with excellent
educational results and without any risk of going beyond the law.

Mr. Sowerbutts remarked that, though County Councils might be
subject to the Government Auditor, County Boroughs were (he thought)
not so controlled. In Lancashire they did not trouble the auditors, but
when the councillors became extravagant they turned them out at the
next election.

Mr. Kenward said that in Birmingham the Corporation had established
an excellent museum and an art gallery which were entirely supported by
the rates. They had never sought aid from the County Council.

Mr. T. V. Holmes had in his hands a letter from Mr. William Cole,
Secretary to the Essex Field Club, who was intimately acquainted with
the system of technical education as it was carried out in Essex. Mr.
Cole lamented that nothing had been granted by the County Council to
aid museums, but thought that to do so was probably beyond their legal
powers, and hoped for an amendment of the Act. He would doubtless be
cheered by Mr. Peek’s observations on that point, which showed that
grants to museums were by no means unquestionably illegal—to say the
least. Mr. Cole’s experience had given him a very low notion of the
efficiency of mere lecturing, especially in rural districts. Of course a
lecturer usually brought specimens with him, but with the departure of
the lecturer the specimens also departed, and scarcely any real interest in
the subject was aroused. What was really wanted was a permanent central
museum which was continually sending forth loan collections to the remoter-
districts, and which allowed them to remain there for a certain time
after the lectures, illustrated by these collections, had been given. Mr.
Cole, however, did not think that museums should be entirely worked by
County Councils, as that would greatly weaken the interest taken in
museums by the naturalists and field clubs who had usually originated
them. But the funds of almost all societies of naturalists were so small
that the greatest hindrance to the development of a museum was a want.

of money, which suggested a want of permanence. By a small grant

towards the expense of a curator, or for some similar purpose, obtainable
only while the museum remained efficient, a County Council might do
very much to render a museum permanent and efficient without diminish-
ing the interest of individual naturalists in its development.

Dr. Brett said that, in order to bring the matter to a_ practical

conclusion, he would like to propose that their Secretary should write to

1894. D

34 REPORT—1894..

all the County Councils in Great Britain, urging upon them the importance
of giving aid to their own local museums.

After some discussion, in which Dr. Brett, Sir Douglas Galton, Mr.
Gray, Sir John Evans, Mr. Cushing, and Mr. Whitaker took part, the
following resolution was proposed by Sir Douglas Galton, who remarked
that in his county it was held to be contrary to the law for a County
Council to give directly to a museum :

‘That in the opinion of this Conference it is desirable that local
natural history societies, and those in charge of local museums should
place themselves in communication with the technical instruction com-
mittee of the county or borough in which they are placed with the view
of obtaining pecuniary grants towards extending technical knowledge by
means of lectures or by demonstrations in museums.’

Dr. Brett seconded the resolution.

Mr. Coates stated that at Perth they were building a large addition
to their museum, and had applied for aid both from the Town Council
and the County Council. They had obtained a grant from the County
Council on the condition that they should provide specimens suitable for
agricultural teaching. These specimens would be used for lectures and
demonstrations. They had been advised that they could not otherwise
obtain the grant.

Mr. Elworthy said that a difficulty under which many of them
laboured had not yet been touched upon. They needed the services of an
expert who would visit a museum, and, for a certain fee, pronounce with
authority ‘this is rubbish’ in the case of worthless specimens. A
Secretary who would not venture to get rid of rubbish on his own re-
sponsibility would do so at once if backed by the opinion of a dis-
interested expert.

Sir John Evans thought that the opinion of the Secretary ought to be
deemed sufficient. In answer to a suggestion that the word ‘specimens’
should be added to ‘lectures and demonstrations’ in the resolution, he
remarked that County Council money could not be spent in acquiring
specimens.

The Chairman then put the resolution to the meeting, and it was
unanimously adopted. He then asked if any delegates had other points
connected with museums to bring forward.

Mr. Seward, as representing the County Borough Council of Cardiff,
was most anxious to learn, if possible, what things bought for a museum
with the view of making it more attractive and useful to the poorer
classes could be legally purchased under the Act.

Sir John Evans replied that it seemed to him that the last resource in
these cases was the Science and Art Department at South Kensington.
If the Borough Committee wished to purchase specimens to illustrate
lectures for the advancement of technical education, the Clerk of the
Council should write to South Kensington to inquire as to the legality of
the proposed grant. If the specimens were required simply to increase
the efficiency of the lectures, they would probably be regarded as part of
the lecture apparatus, and the vote sanctioned.

Mr. Gray remarked that at Belfast they always got assistance from
South Kensington in acquiring proper specimens for the museum.

The Chairman thought that the Conference could not possibly attempt
to decide the point raised by Mr. Seward. He felt sure that they were
all most grateful to Mr. Peek for having introduced this discussion on
museums, which he believed would lead to most useful results.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 3)

Seconp Cunrerence, Auaust 14, 1894.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Professor
R. Meldola (Chairman), Dr. Garson, Mr. Hopkinson, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Mr. Symons, Rev. Canon Tristram, Mr. Whitaker, and Mr. T. V. Holmes
(Secretary).

The Chairman said that with reference to the discussion at the last
Conference, he hoped that those delegates who were situated in places
where there were local museums would do their best to further the
resolution then passed, and report progress at the Conference next year.
They had now to consider work done in connection with the various
Sections, beginning with Section A.

Section <A.

Meteorological Photography.—Mr. Clayden remarked that two years ago
he had asked to be put into communication with gentlemen willing to
photograph clouds and other meteorological phenomena. He had been put
into communication with photographers, but the number of photographs
sent had been very small. Nevertheless, an almost suflicient collection
had been received. He would, however, be grateful for photographs of
lightning showing anything abnormal. Now and then he read of the
remarkable results of a whirlwind in some district, when it was too late
for him to take steps to have the effects photographed. But if, in such
cases, the secretary of a local society would get photographs taken at once,
and send them to him, such records would be most valuable.

Sir Rawson Rawson inquired if Mr. Clayden had the photographs of
storms and lightning recently exhibited at the Royal Society, and Mr.
Clayden replied that he thought he had a considerable number of them.

Mr. Holgate thought that if Mr. Clayden wrote to the secretary of a
local society, the latter would always be able to obtain information as to
the existence of photographs showing the results of a whirlwind or other
abnormal occurrence. Mr. Clayden replied that he had often tried that
plan, but had usually found that the damage had been cleared away, and
that he was too late. It was therefore desirable that the secretaries of
the local societies should arrange for photographs.

_Mr. Hembry inquired whether Mr. Clayden had received photographs
showing the results of a thunderstorm a few weeks ago in which a church had
been struck and two men killed. Mr. Clayden replied that he had not.

Mr. Symons remarked that much help could be given by local societies
if they would send in reports promptly. The difficulty was that individual
members did not feel personally responsible in the matter. Everybody’s
business was nobody’s business.

Remarks on the advantages to be derived from, and the means of securing
increased co-operation between British Association committees and local
societies were made by Mr. Kenward, Mr. Gray, and Mr. Symons.

Earth Tremors.—Mr. Davison said that in the last Report of the
FKarth-tremors Committee there was a description of a bifilar pendulum
invented by Mr. Horace Darwin. It had been tried for a year at
Birmingham, and in consequence of experiments made there a new form of
instrument now exhibited was being constructed. Its cost would be about

D 2

36 REPORT—1894..

60/7. The local societies were so distributed over the country that most
places where it was desirable that one of these instruments should be
placed were within the area of one of them. Instruments placed on the
course of great lines of fault (or dislocation of the strata) would yield
results of much value.

Mr. Horace Darwin exhibited and explained the construction and use
of the bifilar pendulum. He said it was not affected by the rapid, com-
plicated movements which took place during an earthquake, or by the
slight tremors caused by passing carts or trains. The movements which
it would measure were such as would make a factory chimney or a
vertical post fixed in the ground lean over to one side. Extremely small
movements of this kind could be measured and recorded on photo-
graphically prepared paper. A full account of the instrument was giver
in ‘ Nature,’ July 12. It is made by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument:
Company.

Mr. Symons, as Chairman of the Earth-tremors Committee, explained
how the work of the Committee had grown and in what direction they
needed additional help. In the first place, the attention of the Committee
had been directed to a solution of the question why certain vibrations
were recorded by an instrument which had been placed at the bottom of
one of the deep coal-mines of the district of Newcastle-on-Tyne. Instead
of a straight line a series of pulsations had been obtained. They were
traced to two causes—one the gradual settlement of the ground in conse-
quence of the removal of the coal, the other the beating of the waves on
the coast. They had since been looking for traces of earthquake tremors,
Mr. Davison, on one occasion, watched his instrument for some time, as he
found pulsations were taking place. These pulsations eventually turned
out to have been produced by the earthquake then going on in Greece.
They wanted information as to the changes going on in connection with
the faults in geological strata, and, if possible, to get records of the altera-
tions in the earth’s crust caused by tidal waves. When the ocean was
piled up at one part of the earth’s surface it was quite possible that the
elastic surface of the earth bent slightly under it. Observations of that:
kind should be made at more than one station. The work was now
going on at Birmingham under Mr. Davison, but they hoped that the
Association would give them a grant for a second instrument. They
wished to make sure that they were recording, not merely local phenomena,
but the great general phenomena of the earth’s crust. He was glad to be
able to record that one instrument had been established at an observatory
south of Biarritz by M. Antoine d’Abbadie, who had kindly presented
a duplicate instrument to the new observatory at Edinburgh. They were
anxious to see two or three instruments of this kind established in different
parts of the British Isles, and hoped that some of the wealthy friends of
the societies represented at that Conference might co-operate in finding
the money for the instruments.

Mr. Tiddeman asked whether the instrument could be placed in an
ordinary house, or whether it required a special place in a separate
building.

Mr, Symons replied that Mr. Davison had placed it on the cellar floor.
AA separate building might be preferable, but was more expensive.

Mr. Mills did not think the instrument would be of much use to
persons without a special knowledge of it.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 37

Mr. Symons remarked that Mr. Darwin had undertaken to give all
the necessary information, and so had Mr. Davison.

In answer to a question from Mr. Mills, he added that it was not
essential that an instrument should be placed in a mining district, but it

was desirable that they should be scattered throughout the country.

Mr. Seward said that he would try to get one placed in one of the
deep mines of South Wales.

The Chairman hoped that by next year some of the Corresponding
Societies would have something to report on this question. Mr. Darwin
had kindly offered to explain, after the termination of the Conference,
the mechanical details to any persons interested.

Section B.

Pollution of Air in Towns.—Dr. G. H. Bailey said that for three or
four years they had been engaged in Manchester, in connection with the
Manchester Field Naturalists, in examining the air of towns with the
wiew of ascertaining the extent to which it was polluted. This was a
question of much practical importance, for the amount of the pollution was
a pretty good indication of the death rate. Those times of the year at
which the air was most polluted were those at which the death-rate was
highest. Hitherto there had been very little attempt to ascertain the
nature and degree of the pollution, and it had been their endeavour to
examine the methods by which the pollution of town air could be detected,
and to determine its nature and amount. They had almost perfected a

method for determining the amount of sulphur compounds in the air, and

one for measuring the amount of sunlight in towns. They had found that,
whilst in extreme cases of pollution carbonic acid gas varied between four
and seven parts in 10,000, the sulphur compounds varied from less than
one up to fifty per million parts. The pollution varied practically as did

the amount of the sulphur compounds. The work was hardly yet in so

complete a state that he could recommend its adoption at a large number
of other towns, but it would interest the delegates to know what had been
done. They were at that time working at a method for determining the
nature and amount of the pollution of different districts of large towns.
The work already done had been chronicled in the ‘Journal of the
Manchester Field Naturalists’ for 1893. They had come to the conclusion
that about 50 per cent. of the daylight was cut off by the smoke of a town,

speaking of that form of light which could be registered, viz., the actinic
rays. They had found that the centres of large towns sometimes showed

a diminution, as compared with the suburbs, of about 50 per cent., the

diminution of light in the centres of large towns as compared with the

open country amounting to about 75 per cent. When their methods:
were more fully perfected they hoped to have the co-operation of members
in more rural districts. They had been working at the indoor as well as

the outdoor pollution of the air.

Mr. Slater remarked that the plants of very smoky districts were

_ either destroyed or injuriously affected by the smoke.

The Chairman said that it was well known to London naturalists that
lichens were once common on tree trunks in Epping Forest, but few
if any were to be found there now. It is too near London for them to
flourish.

Mr. Symons remarked that Dr. Bailey had apparently employed the

388 REPORT—1894..

photographic process for measuring the amount of sunlight, as he spoke of
the actinic rays. He (Mr. Symons) would point out that the burning
sunshine recorders showed exactly the same result for the other end of
the spectrum.

The Chairman thought the matter one of the greatest importance to
all dwellers in large towns, and Sir Rawson Rawson remarked on its
special interest to medical men.

Mr. Holgate inquired whether they were to understand that the pro-
portion of sulphur in the air of a town was an indication of the amount of
its death-rate.

Dr. Bailey said that he had been driven to the conclusion that the
amount of the death-rate of a district was closely connected with the
amount of pollution in its air. While they had in Manchester, in ordi-
nary weather, a death-rate from respiratory diseases of four or five per
thousand, in foggy weather, when the air was most polluted, there was a
mortality of twenty or more per thousand from diseases of that class.
Plants suffered even more than human beings from air pollution. That part
of the work had been undertaken by Prof. Oliver, of University College,
London, who had already published a long account of the work he had
done in connection with the Royal Horticultural Society. Dr. Bailey
added that the method he had used for recording sunlight was not photo-
graphic, but was that originally suggested by Mr. Angus Smith. It gaye
a relative not an absolute record, and recorded the amount not only of
sunlight but of daylight. Delegates would find a full account of the
methods employed in the ‘Journal of the Manchester Field Naturalists ’
for 1893.

Section C.

Mr. Whitaker (representing Section C) said that the first subject to
which he would refer was ‘ Coast Erosion.’ The final report on this sub-
ject was to have been made this year, but it would, he hoped, be made
next year. After the publication of the Report the subject would be
handed over to the Corresponding Societies, and those which have coast
borders could continue the work by recording changes on 6-inch maps,
or, still better, on 25-inch maps. The other subject was the ‘ Circulation
of Underground Waters.’ The committee dealing with this matter should
have ceased to exist this year, but the final report would not appear till
next year. In this case also the local societies would be able to continue the
investigation. He took the opportunity of telling the representatives of
the Corresponding Societies that they wanted records of wells and borings,
the nature of the beds passed through, and the exact site ; also the water-
levels and the effects of pumping on them, the temperature, an analysis of
the water, and any other useful information. It was suggested that the
twenty reports of the Committee should be published, but in that case the
information about any particular district would be scattered through several
of these reports. But the Committee thought that if these reports were
arranged topographically, and possibly condensed, many local societies.
would be glad to possess the volume. He hoped the local societies would
be able to encourage the Committee in the publication of the work by
subscribing for a copy of it. It would probably form a book of 250 to 300
pages, and the cost would not exceed 10s.

Mr. Slater said that water had been obtained from a deep well at:
Malton hut the Local Government Board had objected to its quality.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 39

They were trying to adopt the remedies suggested, and when a report
was issued he would hand it to Mr. Whitaker.

Mr. Holgate remarked that in the neighbourhood of Leeds they had
Coal-Measures, and had found a different kind of water at each level.
This was the case throughout the coal-basin.

Erratic Blocks.—Mr. Murdoch said that it seemed a pity that the
labours of the Erratic Blocks Committee were confined to England and
Ireland. The work in Scotland had been by no means so completely
done as was commonly supposed.

Mr. Gray said that in Ireland they had issued their first report on
erratic blocks.

Professor Blake wished to inform the representatives of the local
societies that, being engaged in examining the microzoa of clays, par-
ticularly of Jurassic clays, he would be much obliged if they could send
him samples of fossiliferous clays from various parts of the country. He
would be glad to report to the sender on the general character of these
clays and their microzoa. There was another matter he should like to
take the opportunity of mentioning to them. For the past three years
he had published a book (‘Annals of British Geology’) which contained
abstracts of the geological papers read before the local as well as the
London societies. It had not hitherto been self-supporting, though the
loss was decreasing. He had failed to get a grant from the British
Association, and could no longer afford to publish at a loss, so, though
the manuscript for the fourth volume was ready, he could not publish it
unless he received additional promises of support. As this state of things
was, in all probability, unknown to most of the local societies and their
representatives, he had taken this opportunity of mentioning it.
Mr. Whitaker trusted Mr. Blake’s remarks would cause an increased
sale to that most useful work, the ‘ Annals of British Geology.’

Geological Photographs.—Mr. Jeffs stated that they had received
1,055 photographs. Some districts were totally unrepresented, possibly
from want of photographers. The Geological Photographs Committee
had passed a resolution recommending the Council of the British Asso-
ciation, whose property the collection was, to deposit it in the Museum
of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, London. As to the question of
publication, they. had not yet found a publisher who would take the
matter up.

The Rev. H. H. Winwood had found great difficulty in getting
an amateur to photograph geological sections. Professional men were
sometimes worse.

Section E.

Mr. Sowerbutts remarked that last year he had promised to give
a report of the examination in geography at the primary schools of
Cheshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire. Every delegate had received a
copy of that report. They had come to the conclusion that geography
would never be taught satisfactorily unless it was made a compulsory
subject. It was disgraceful that geography was so badly taught, or
utterly neglected, in the schools of a country which had territory in
every part of the world. They had been pleased, however, to notice
that much progress had been made in some of the primary schools by
the institution of school museums. It was a singular fact that in

40 REPORT—1894.

Yorkshire the girls won all the prizes, and in Lancashire the boys. The
council of the Manchester Geographical Society thought that next time
they would test the secondary schools. His society had, for the last two
or three years, published an analysis of the chief geographical papers
which had been published in English and foreign journals, a necessary
though expensive work. He hoped that some day there would be an
international committee to deal with that matter. The report on the
Ordnance Survey was a very interesting and important one, and he hoped
the delegates would read it.

Mr. Whitaker said that the report referred to had not reached
members of the Corresponding Societies Committee, and Mr. Sowerbutts
regretted having forgotten them.

Section H.

Ethnographical Survey.—Mr. Brabrook remarked that the delegates
had shown so much interest in this question, and so many had given
assistance, that he need only give some account of the progress made
since their last Conference. During the past year they had their list of
suitable villages considerably increased: there were now 367, a much
larger number than they had expected would be suggested as places
suitable for examination. It had taken much time to draw up the forms
of schedule, of which each delegate had received a copy, but he thought
the work well worth doing. He might mention that at Ipswich, where
they would meet next year, a sub-committee had been formed to assist
them, which had already been of much use ; while at Liverpool, where
they would meet in 1896, the keeper of the museum, Dr. Forbes, had been
kind enough to undertake that his assistant in the ethnographical
department should set to work on the lines we propose to adopt. Many
gentlemen engaged in special observations at particular places might
obtain much Assistance from the additional facts which had been collected
by Dr. Forbes. In Wales their sub-committee had met, and had formu-
lated some proposed regulations for action which the Central Committee
thought very wise, and they hoped that work would soon be begun in
Wales on the lines indicated by Mr. Allen. In Treland Professor Haddon
had drawn up a report of the work done there, which was of great im-
portance. In combination with Dr. C. R. Brown he had prepared a great
number of papers resembling the schedules of instructions issued by the
Central Committee. He hoped that his Honour Deemster Gill would
become interested in the matter, because they had two excellent corre-
spondents in the Isle of Man already—Mr. Moore and Mr. Kermode—and
it appeared to him that those three gentlemen would form an admirable
sub-committee for that quarter. In Scotland they had a promise of
assistance from gentlemen representing the Glasgow Archeological Society.
He had lately presided at a congress of archeological societies, and had
made a statement on the subject of the Ethnographical Survey. The
organisers of the congress were good enough to ask him as to the cost of
an explanatory statement which could be circulated among their own
members with their transactions. He had answered that he would be
willing to pay for the setting-up of the statement, if the various societies
would pay the cost of printing off the number of copies required. He
would be pleased to make a similar arrangement with any of the corre-
sponding societies, and would be glad to receive suggestions of any kind
from any of the delegates present. He wished to make one additional

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 41

remark. They had been told that their instructions with regard to photo-
graphing were too minute. But those instructions had been drawn up by
Mr. Francis Galton with reference to his system of composite photographs,
and any departure from them would make the application of that system
comparatively difficult. At the same time they did not wish to lose any
photographs which might come in useful, even if, in their case, the instruc-
tions had not been followed.

Mr. Sowerbutts stated that with regard to photographs the old people
in his district objected to be photographed and measured, apparently from
a notion that to allow it would be to render themselves subject to witch-
eraft. They had found a difficulty in providing the necessary apparatus
for their ethnographical work.

Dr. Garson wished to say that as regards the photographs it was not
necessary to get all the appliances Mr. Galton had mentioned. A very
simple arrangement could be made by means of three sticks set up so as
to give the exact notion of a person’s height, the top of his head coming
across the transverse stick. The seat could be raised or lowered like that
of a piano-stool, so that each person sitting on it would have his head in
the same place, whatever his height might be. It was well also to have
chalk lines on the floor at right angles to each other, the sitter being
directed to look along one or the other of them. They did not want the
measurements of very old people, or indeed of persons more than fifty
years old.

Mr. Brabrook added that, as regards the supply of apparatus, the price
of the cheaper kind of instrument for taking measurements was 1/. 6s.,
but there was a better one at 3/. 3s.

Dr. Garson remarked that the one at 1/. 6s. was quite good enough.

The Chairman said that in his opinion they had held a very useful
Conference, and in concluding it he wished to express the hope that the
delegates would bring its proceedings under the notice of their respective
societies in as forcible and complete a way as possible. The custom of
the Essex Field Club was to ask their delegate to send in a report of
what had been done, and to publish it as soon as possible in the ‘ Essex
Naturalist.’ He hoped other Corresponding Societies would act in a
similar manner.

A vote of thanks to the Chairman was proposed by Mr. Symons,
seconded by Dr. Garson, and carried unanimously. The proceedings then
terminated.

The Committee recommend the retention of all the Societies at present
on the list, with the exception of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland,
the Bedfordshire Archzological and Natural History Society, and the
Liverpool Geographical Society, which have not complied with the regu-
lations.

The Committee have pleasure in reporting that the Berwickshire
Naturalists’ Club, the Glasgow Archeological Society, and the Norfolk and
Norwich Naturalists’ Society have been added to the list of Corresponding
Societies,

1894.

REPORT

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64 REPORT—1894

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics.
By G. H. Bryan.

Part IJ.—Tue Laws oF DistrRiBuTION OF ENERGY AND THEIR LIMITATIONS.
(With an Appendix by Prof. Lupwie Botrzmann.)

INTRODUCTION.

1. Tuts Report deals primarily with the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law and
Maxwell’s Law of Partition of Kinetic Energy, which form the basis of
the Kinetic Theory of Gases. One of the main points kept in view has
been to show where to draw the line between dynamical systems which
do and dynamical systems which do not satisfy the laws in question.

Since the appearance of the first Report! several papers have appeared
which have thrown a somewhat different light on certain aspects of the
subject, and have thus materially assisted in crystallising our knowledge
of this branch of Thermodynamics into a definite form. In order to pre-
vent unnecessary controversy, I have, as far as possible, avoided drawing
conclusions from arguments of a vague and theoretical nature. Where,
however, results are based on purely mathematical calculations they must
be understood to be liable to modification should further examination
show the calculations to be faulty or inaccurate. It is necessary to
mention this, as one of the investigations cited in Part I. has subse-
quently been found to be incorrect, with the result of very materially
altering our views on the question at issue.”

A great advance in the present subject is due to the extension of the
use of generalised co-ordinates, by which greater generality has been given
to results and the analysis much simplified, as a comparison of Boltzmann’s
early papers with modern writings abundantly testifies. A further sim-
plification has been effected by the use of the Jacobian notation.

For convenience I have in places written exp—/E forexp(—/E) or e

The present Report is divided into three sections. In Section I.
Maxwell’s Law of Partition of Energy is regarded in the aspect of a general
dynamical theorem, without reference to any particular applications, and
without taking into account the effect of collisions. Section II. treats of
the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law for a system of bodies colliding with one
another indiscriminately, and partaking of the nature of gas molecules.
Section ITT. deals briefly with certain researches connecting the Boltzmann-
Maxwell Law with the Theory of Probability, the Virial Equation, and the
Second Law of Thermodynamics.

-hE

Section I.—NoN-coLnIDING SyYsTEMs.

Clerk Maxwell's Investigations.

2. Clerk Maxwell’s investigations? have played such a prominent part
in the literature of the Kinetic Theory that I think it desirable to
recapitulate his paper briefly, so as to show more clearly what assump-
tions he made and how much he actually proved.

1 Cardiff Report, 1891, pp. 85-122.

2 The results stated in the first twelve lines of Part I. Section III. § 44 are now
known to be erroneous. See also §§'36, 37 below.

3 «On Boltzmann’s Theorem of the Average Distribution of Energy ina System
of Material Poin's, Tran:. Camb. Phil. Soc., xii. 1879.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS, 65

It may be safely asserted that a large portion of our progress in the
present subject has been made, first, by showing that Maxwell’s demon-
strations are faulty and unsatisfactory, and subsequently by discover-
ing fresh methods of proof, which, while leading to the same general
conclusions, show more clearly the limitations and conditions under which
these conclusions hold good. In this process of destruction and recon-
struction a large amount of literature has accumulated, and I shall
endeavour in the present Report to unearth from the general mass the
main results to which these papers tend.

3. Maxwell claims that his theorem is applicable to any dynamical
system whatever. ‘The material points may act on each other at all
distances and according to any law which is consistent with the equation
of energy, and they may also be acted on by any forces external to the
system, provided these also are consistent with that law. The only
assumption which is necessary for the direct proof is that the system, if
left to itself in its actual state of motion, will sooner or later pass through
every phase which is consistent with the equation of energy.’!

4. Instead, however, of a single system, Maxwell considers a large
number of independent dynamical systems, similar in every respect,
each defined by its 1 co-ordinates (q),... g,) and the corresponding
m momenta (p,,.-.- p,). Hach system is capable of passing through
every phase which is consistent with the equation of energy, and it is
thus assumed that all the systems have the same energy. In the case of a
free system unacted on by external forces, the six components of linear
and angular momentum remain constant, and Maxwell assumes that these
are the same for all systems.

5. Taking the ‘action’ of the system during any period of the motion,
he employs this function to establish the determinantal relation between
the multiple differentials of the co-ordinates and momenta at the beginning
and end of any interval, and thus establishes the relation

O(p1', A Dr's CAR £ 9
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from which he deduces that, if the energy E be kept constant, so that p,,
can be expressed as a function of the »—1 other p’s, then

a) (po', seas i ie n' EAs In ) qi’
=! ne ag (2
O (Pa, se Pu Vin ses Qn) val

6. Hence it follows that, if the systems are so distributed that the
number which initially have their co-ordinates and momenta within the

limits of the multiple differential dp, . . . dp, dq, . . . dg, be
NC
iy dp, . »» py dqys « «dd, . : A) sta)

their total energies being all equal and C a constant, then the same
expression gives the law of distribution at any subsequent time. Maxwell
says: ‘We have found one solution of the problem of finding a steady
distribution ; whether there may be other solutions remains to be inves
tigated.’

1 Loe, cit., p. 548
1894. P

66 REPORT—1894.

7. He next assumes that the momenta (now denoted by a, ... a,)
may be so chosen as to reduce the kinetic energy to a sum of squares, or

T=3 > 4,0, ° . . . : (4)
With this assumption, he integrates (3) with respect to the momenta, and
finds by Dirichlet’s method

|b" dag 22 + don) 27T(3n) (E—V—4$p,4,2)1"- ,
[eo day ste da, ~LEB)l[$(~—1)] (E— V)i) Pn

where 6,=,a,. Hence he infers that if 4,=}y,a,2 is the part of the
kinetic energy arising out of the momentum a,, then the number of systems
in a given configuration, in which k, lies within limits differing by dk,, is
T(bn) .., (EVE)

rOTEe—h) Evy
and that since this expression only involves &,, therefore the law of distri-
bution of the kinetic energy is the same for allthe momenta. Multiplying

the above expression by 4,, and integrating from k,=0 to 4,=T=E—V,
we find that the mean value of &, is

K=)(E-V)="T fe Be . (6)

Bog heli. ile Slade: QB)

the maximum value being of course equal to T, because the portions of
the kinetic energy due to the other momenta cannot be negative. Hence
Maxwell infers ‘ that the average kinetic energy corresponding to any one
of the variables is the same for every one of the variables of the system.’
This result is commonly called Clerk Maxwell's Theorem.

8. In Part II. of the paper Maxwell deals with a free system, con-
sisting of m particles not acted on by external forces. For such a system
not only the energy but also the velocity-components of the centre of mass
and the components of angular momentum round this point in any three
fixed directions will be constant throughout the motion. Maxwell therefore
assumes them the same for every system. Under these circumstances the 37
momentum-components of the system are not all independent, but seven
of them can be expressed in terms of the rest by means of the seven
equations of condition, and the law of permanent distribution is expres-
sible in terms of the multiple differential of the 3n co-ordinates and 3n—7
of the velocity compcnents of the particles. The algebra is very long
and laborious, and need not be examined in detail here. The objections
to Maxwell’s investigations can be much more easily discussed and
criticised with reference to the simpler case considered in Part I., and
the law of distribution in a free system can be treated more simply by
alternative methods (vide §§ 16-18, § 45, and appendices A, B below).

The Assumption that the System passes through every Phase consistent
with the Equation of Energy.

9, This assumption probably presents greater difficulties than any
other part of the Kinetic Theory, and it is therefore advisable to com-
mence by stating under what circumstances it requires to be made

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 67

The whole of Maxwell’s demonstration, and most of the investigations
of Boltzmann,! Watson,” and other writers on the same subject, are based
on the consideration of an infinitely large number of independent systems,
similar in every respect, whose co-ordinates and momenta at any instant
are distributed according to a fixed law, and the object is to find what
this distribution must be in order that it may be independent of the
time and unaffected by the motions of the systems. I cannot see that
these investigations anywhere assume that each individual system passes
through every possible phase. At each instant there must be some
systems in every possible phase ; but a distribution would obviously be
permanent—and very much so indeed—in which each system always
remained in the same phase, and never passed into any other phase.

10. The assumption first confronts us when we attempt to pass from
the consideration of a large number of systems to that of a single system,
2.e., if, having investigated the result of averaging the distributions of
energy at a’ given instant over the different systems, we wish to infer
similar properties for the corresponding time-averages for any one of the
systems.

It is easy enough to suggest systems to which the assumption is
inapplicable. Most of the ‘ test cases’ which have been suggested as dis-
proving the law, and which will be considered later on, are instances of
such systems. Lord Rayleigh* has suggested as another instance an
elastic ball moving on a table having a circular boundary, at which it is
reflected. If, instead of taking a single particle, Lord Rayleigh had sup-
posed the table covered with such particles initially distributed uniformly
over its area, and projected in such a manner that at any point as many
particles were moving in one direction as in another, he would find these
same conditions satisfied at any subsequent time, and this is, to my mind,
all that Maxwell proves.

11. It is far less easy to suggest any simple system which does satisfy
the assumption. The tracing point of a Lissajous’ pendulum curve-tracer,
considered by Boltzmann,‘ or in other words a particle whose equations
of motion are

é+a°x=0, j+b'y=0,

possesses when a, 6 are incommensurable the property of passing sooner
or later through every point within a certain rectangle, but it does not
possess the other necessary property of passing through any point in every
possible direction in succession. This may be easily seen for the simplest
case when a is nearly but not quite equal to 6: here the path is nearly
elliptical, and there are only two possible directions at any point. Hence,
in order to satisfy the assumption, Boltzmann requires a thin elastic
cylinder to be placed perpendicularly to the plane of motion, so that the
particle may have its direction of motion changed each time it strikes and
rebounds from the cylinder. And this introduces collisions into the
problem.

'*Ueber die Higenschaften monocyklischer und anderer damit verwandter
Systeme,’ Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik, xcviii. p. 68.
‘ Analogien des zweiten Hauptsatzes,’ ibid., c. pp. 206, 207, and other papers.

* Kinetic Theory of Gases, new edition, p. 23.

% Phil. Mag., April 1892, p 357.

* ‘Ueber die mechanischen Analogien des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermo-
dynamik,’ Journal fiir die Mathematik, c. p. 203.

F2

68 REPORT—1894.

To discover, if possible, a general class of dynamical systems satisfying
the assumption would form an interesting subject for future investigation.
It is, however, doubtful how far Maxwell’s law would be applicable to:
the time-averages of the energies in any such system. We shall see, in
what follows, that the law of permanent distribution of a very large
number of systems is in many cases not unique. Where there is more>
than one possible distribution it would be difficult to draw any inferences
with regard to the average distribution (taken with respect to the time)
for one system.

Thus the proof of Maxwell’s Law of Partition of Energy furnishes no
general conclusions with regard to the average distribution of energy in a
single conservative dynamical system with a finite number of degrees of
freedom, independently of initial circumstances, except by making as-
sumptions which are nearly tantamount to assuming the law. It may
reasonably be inferred that no such conclusions exist. We shall therefore
assume in future, unless otherwise stated, that we are dealing with the
distribution at any instant in a large number of systems.

12. It is probable that the molecules of a gas in the ‘special’ or equi-
librium state, in consequence of their frequent collisions, satisfy the
assumption, which Boltzmann! has employed to give a simple proof of the
e® law of distribution. But he was careful to point out that no proof
had been given that the assumption either was satisfied or could be
satisfied by gas-molecules, and he therefore referred for an alternative
verification of his results to an independent but longer proof ? based on a
consideration of the collisions between molecules. Similar questions are
raised by Boltzmann in his Appendix to this Report.

The Evaluation of the Functional Determinant.

13. Watson has raised an objection to Maxwell’s evaluation of the
functional determinant on the ground that the result takes the form
0(py', : mila! Fa) _A

O( Diy cuaneeee).,

where A and A’ are separately zero; and, therefore, the investigation
leaves the value of the determinant undeterminate. This, he shows,
follows from the fact that the condition E constant supplies no independent
relation between the initial and final states.

Both Watson? and Lord Rayleigh® have therefore given an inde-
pendent proof based on the substitution of Hamilton’s ‘ principal function ’
8, for the ‘ action’ A, where

t/
s=| (T—V)dt
t
and

») 1 OS 2 = — dS (7
i DS dq, {) Pr dq, . e e . é

~a-

1 «Hinige allgemeine Siitze tiber Wirmegleichgewicht,’ Sitzungsberichte der
h. Wiener Akademie der Wissenschaften, xiii. (part ii.), pp. 707, 711.

2*Ueber das Wirmegleichgewicht zwischen mehratomigen Gasmolekiilen,’ Sitzber.
der k. Wiener Akad., xiii. (ii.), p. 397.

8 Nature, May 12, 1892; Kinetic Theory of Gases, new ed., p. 22, footnote.

4 Kinetic Theory of Gases, § 8.

5 Phil. Mag., April 1892.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 69

Whence they show that if the motions all occupy a fixed time, so
that the initial and final states are connected by the assumed relation
é’—t=constant, then

0 (p's Ue Pa Gis - « Qn) —]
0(Pis ae - Pw Gin e+ Yn )

ae ec)

14. There is another Jacobian relation similar in form but entirely
different in meaning, of which the importance seems to have been hardly
fully appreciated, if we may judge from the absence of references to it in
most writings on the Kinetic Theory. In order that the Boltzmann-
Maxwell Law may be definite, it must be independent of the choice of
variables as co-ordinates of the systems considered, and for this it is
necessary for the multiple differential

dp, dp, .. ~. dp, dq, dqz . +» Udn

to be independent of the particular co-ordinates q,, qo, . . . Y, chosen to
specify the configuration of the system of each instant of time, provided
that p,, po, . - - p, are the corresponding momenta.

The proposition may be stated and proved as follows :—

Let q,, 42, - - - Y, be any generalised co-ordinates defining a dynamical
system,with n degrees of freedom ; p,, P., - - - P, the corresponding gene-
ralised momenta. Let Q,,Q., ... @, be any other set of co-ordinates,
P,, P., . . . P,, the corresponding momenta. It is required to prove that
the relation

0(Qi, Qs, Ce ne Q. ie ce, a 6 Pe)
0( G1 Ye see In Pi sss Pn)

=1 = . : (8)
holds good at any instant of the motion.
Let the new co-ordinates be connected with the old by the relations
Q\= 1 (V5 Ja, + + + Yn t); &e.
Then by differentiation

QF a4 PGs 5 calor +h

og q
_0Q;, 9Qo, of
3900 eae eo fe ta
whence
(ey — Qn
09, t, 94,19 + + + Ty const. Odn

Again, a m —(),"since"the equations of relation do not depend on the
Pr A

velocities or momenta.

From the last relations the terms in a quarter-square of the Jacobian
vanish ; and, therefore, the Jacobian

MEOH rman CAE

O(N: a O(Pis - ++ Pa)

70 REPORT—1894.

Now, supposing that ¢,¢,, . . . g, are kept constant during differen-
tiation, we have
pe oT _ oT 0g, OT 0G

@Q, 04, 0Q, * O42 8Q,
On, 09
= Piicue + nk... + ee @

Res O(P,, Ps, ooekd i Pe) _ O(n, q2 se Se In) — O(d» I ers Qn)

O(P15 Pr ++. Pn) 0(Q), Q> Cait Cs Q,.) 0(Q:, Qs Paps Q,.)

CP aes Deties Ea) 0 (Qi; Qe, Seis Q,) 7 Q.E.D
i O(P1y Pos phoans: Pn) 4 O(%: J25 + © © An

The Most General Law of Permanent Distribution for
Non-colliding Systems.

15. The possible laws of permanent distribution of the co-ordinates
and momenta among a large number of such systems may now be esta-
blished thus :—

We know that for any one system the total energy is independent of
the time or

E=constant,

and the determinantal relation shows that the multiple differential
dp; dp,... dq,

is also independent of the time.
Therefore, if the law of distribution be such that the number of
systems included within the multiple differential at any instant of time

(t) is
J (E) dp, ... dq : ‘ ° - (9)

where f denotes any function whatever, the same law will hold good at
any subsequent instant of time (¢’).

16. The above proof depends only on the fact that E=constant is an
integral of the equations of motion of the system and not on any other
property peculiar to E. But the equations of motion may have other
integrals as well. In such cases (3) does not represent the most general
law of permanent distribution.

For if the integrals in question be

h,==const. h,=const., &ec.

then any distribution expressed by the formula
J (ESR hig. -\ydpp . ova k dgn : . (10)

will also be independent of the time, and therefore permanent.

This is the most general form of the law of permanent distribution in
a system of non-colliding bodies. It is applicable in particular to the free
systems considered in Part II. of Maxwell’s paper, where h,, hy . . . may
denote the velocity components of the centre of gravity, and the component
angular momenta about the centre of gravity.

17. Again, take the case of a number of particles distributed unifornily
throughout infinite space and moving uniformly in straight lines under no

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 71

forces without ever colliding with one avother. If u, v, w be the velocity
components of any particle, these are constant throughout all time, and
therefore the theorem asserts that any law of distribution of the form

S (u,v, w) du dv dw dx dy dz

is permanent ; a conclusion which is obviously correct.

18. In Maxwell’s paper f is to be taken constant for one particular
value of E, and zero for all others.

In the Kinetic Theory of Gases f is proportional to e~””.

The question as to how far this law is unique has been raised by
Messrs. Watson and Burbury,! who quote Boltzmann’s demonstration of
the proposition, but admit that there may be exceptions to its truth.
That demonstration is, however, based on a consideration of the collisions
between the molecules of a gas, and has no application to a problem like
the present, where all the systems considered are independent conservative
systems, and no transference of energy takes place between the bodies
of one system and those of the other. It will be considered fully in
Section IT. § 42.

19. Since for a conservative system E is always constant, there will
always exist possible laws of permanent distribution, for which / is any
function of E ; but the possibility of other distributions will depend on the
nature of the system and the existence of other integrals of the equations
of motion.

The Reduction of the Kinetic Energy to a Sum of Squares.— Maxwell's
Law of Partition of Energy.

20. Objections have been raised to this step in Maxwell’s work by
myself? on the ground that the kinetic energy cannot in general be
expressed as the sum of squares of generalised momenta corresponding to
generalised co-ordinates of the system, and by Lord Kelvin * on the ground
that the conclusion to which it leads has no intelligible meaning. Boltz-
mann ‘ has put the investigation into a slightly modified form which meets
the first objection, and which imposes a certain restriction on the generality
of the result. Under this limitation the result is perfectly intelligible,
and the second objection is therefore also met.

21. Boltzmann reduces the kinetic energy to the form

but he does not assume the quantities a; to be generalised momenta. He
calls these quantities ‘momentoids.’ They are linear functions of the
generalised momenta of the system, and calling these latter p,, ps, . .

Tat
the momentoids are supposed chosen so that the determinant

Pe: (a), Q@g es» Mn) Z
4
O(Piy Po + + + Pr)
1 Nature, June 2, 1892, p. 101.
2 Report on Thermodynamics, Part I. § 44.
3 Nature, August 13, 1891. ‘
4¢On the Equilibrium of Vis Viva,’ Part III. Phil. Mag., March 1893. The
original is in the Sitzungsberichte of the Academy of Munich (not Vienna), and forms
the third part to the author’s ‘Studien tiber das Gleichgewicht, &c.’ ( Wiener Sitzb.,
lviii. (ii.), Oct. 1868), and his ‘ Weitere Studien’ ( Wiener Sitzb., Ixvi. (ii.), Oct. 1872).

{fe REPORT—1894.

an assumption which is convenient but not essential, because © can only
be a function of the generalised co-ordinates, and the investigation applies
only to systems in a given configuration for which these co-ordinates are
therefore constant. Boltzmann supposes with Maxwell that the energy
is the same for all the systems, and with these premises he proves that the
mean value of each of the terms

2
3 PG

has the same value. He concludes : ‘ Instead of the law of Maxwell that
the mean vis viva has the same value for every co-ordinate, we now obtain
the law that the mean value of the vis viva belonging to all momentoids
is the same.’

From this Boltzmann concludes that ‘the mean kinetic energies of
two given parts of the system are in the ratio of their respective degrees
of freedom,’ provided that the kinetic energy contains no products of a
generalised momentum of one of the given parts into a generalised momentum
not ee, to that part.

Now in Appendix A I have shown that for non-colliding rigid bodies
nee re permanent distribution exist in which the mean kinetic energies
due to the rotations about the three principal axes are wnequal. This
test case shows, therefore, that Maxwell’s result is not always true for every
possible law of distribution. The following method is shorter than
Boltzmann’s and Maxwell’s, and shows under what circumstances the mean
kinetic energies belonging to the momentoids may be unequal.

Let the law of distribution be given by the formula (9),

SFA DB Gant Oe Mgt -. <.' 3 Ons

and let kh), ky, . . . k, be mlinear functions of p,, po, . . . Pr, Such that the
kinetic energy is of the form

as ate Te Wegta acs «Pau ky?) 4 ij (11)

Then, since these functions are linear, the determinant

9 (hy, hy - 2 + An
ae (Pi, Po a ee Pee Pu)
is a function of the co-ordinates q,, . . . g, alone, and since we are dealing

only with those systems which happen. to be in a given configuration at
the instant considered, ® is constant, the Ppa: energy V is constant,
and so is the multiple differential dq, . . . dq, The mean value of 4h, 2
for these systems is therefore

f FA(bP+h 2+... ky)+VERRdp, . 2. dp, .

Lp P= =
7 [ra 2 het t . .\ ky*)+ Vi dp, ..... dp,

(ki2+ ... +,2)4+V} hb 2dh, ... dh

eres
ISs 8
pe

[ras viel BE, VI} dk, ee dy

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 73

and this is obviously the same for all the co-ordinates /,, thus

Le tabhot= ... =e... (12)
Also by addition * Bebe ie
hy +hh2+ ... =T;

therefore each of the above mean values is one nth of the mean value of T.

If there exist other possible permanent distributions given by (10) for
which the function / involves other integrals of the equations of motion
besides the energy, the argument will still hold good provided these
integrals only involve the co-ordinates of the system, and not its velocities or
momenta, because these co-ordinates are kept constant during integration.
Such integrals may, for example, depend on the equations of the paths of
the particles forming the system.

But if f involves any function of the momenta or velocities other than
the energy, the integral in the numerator will assume different forms for
different 4’s, and the mean values of the different squares forming the
kinetic energy will, in general, be unequal.

I would propose that the name Maxweti’s Law or PartiTIon oF
Kiyetic Evercy be in future applied exclusively to the statement that
if the kinetic energy of a given system be expressed as a sum of squares,
the mean values of these several squares taken over a large number of
systems distributed in a given manner are equal.

Hence Maxwell’s Law of Partition of Kinetic Energy is only true
under the conditions stated above.

Test Cases of the Law.—-Motion of a Particle in a Plane.

23. The test cases suggested by Lord Kelvin as apparently contra-
dicting Maxwell’s Law of partition will be found, on examination, to
afford a valuable confirmation of all that has been said above regarding
the restrictions to which the law is subject.

It is rather remarkable that the motion of a particle in a plane has
been employed by Boltzmann ! to furnish an illustration of the law, and
by Lord Kelvin? to furnish an apparent contradiction of it, which has,
however, since been met by Boltzmann.

Lord Kelvin shows that it is impossible to give a general proof that for
a single particle moving in a plane the time-averages of i? and ¥? are equal.
This confirms what has been said in §$ 10-12 as to the impossibility of
applying Maxwell’s law of partition to a single conservative dynamical
system. If, instead of a single particle, Lord Kelvin had covered the
plane with particles, and had projected them so that their co-ordinates
and velocities initially satisfied any law of distribution given by the
formula

J (E) dx dy du dv,

he would have found the same law to be satisfied at any subsequent time,
and the average values of w? and v? to be equal.

1 *Hinige allgemeine Satze iiber Wirmegleichgewicht,’ Sitzb. der k. Wiener
Akad.’ xiii. (ii.) (1871), p. 700.

‘ Losung eines mechanischen Problems,’ idid., lviii. (ii.)

? Nature, August 13, 1891.

* Phil. Mag., March 1893. See footnote to § 20 above.

74 REPORT—1894..

24. To prove this, Boltzmann has given (loc. cit.) a highly artificial
and laborious verification of the Jacobian relation
/
Sen OEE ee ee * cay
O(a, y, 0)
where @ is the angle the direction of motion makes with the axis of , and 6’
its value after a time ¢’, which Boltzmann takes to be a small interval, dé.
As Boltzmann’s proof is not easy to follow, it may be interesting to obtain
the same result much more simply and without imposing restrictions on
the magnitude of the time-interval ¢’ by considering the Jacobian

ees _O(2',y', uw »v') 0 (x', y!, & we’, y’)
0 (a, Y, U, v)_ 0 (a, Y, t, yy
We have, keeping the initial time constant,
a A985 89) OCH, BH) OY 9) 4 OS Y's HH)
O(a, y, ty) O(@, y, & ¥) O(a, y, ty) Oe, y, &, y)

The first two Jacobians evidently vanish. And by the equations of
motion

fe ov’ So ov’
“u=S=— 7) yY =—-+ <
El. Oy!’
Hence #’, y’ are functions of x’, y’, and the quantities in the numerators of

the last two Jacobians are not all independent : therefore these vanish.
Therefore integrating with respect to ¢’ :

A= constant = 1, (its initial value) . . « (14)
iby

g=u'?+v’, tan 0=v/u
we have by the transformation from Cartesian to polar co-ordinates
Ano (@'s y's vee a)
(x, ys 39°, 4)
In virtue of the equations of energy
4q°=E—V’, }¢?=E-—V
a ue — 9(59°)
dE
_O(a', y’, 0’, BE) _ O(a’, y’, 6”)
O(a, y, 9, BE) ~ O(a, Y, 9)

O(a’, y', 0’) _ =
O(a, y, 9)

whence (13)

as was to be proved.
25. And assuming the law of distribution

f(E) de dydudv. . . « . (13)

we have evidently

Is ie J (gu? +4v?+V) wdude= |" ie S (Bw? +40? + V) v'dudu,

—co

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF. THERMODYNAMICS. 75

and therefore
average value of wu? = average value of v? . f . (16)

in accordance with Maxwell’s Law. The same thing would also be true
if, the equations of the orbits of the particles being

(x, y)=constant,

f were a function of ¢ as well as of E, or indeed of any integral of the
equations of motion other than E, involving co-ordinates only and not
velocities.

Lord Kelvin’s ‘ Decisive Test Case,

26. The test case by which Lord Kelvin claims to have ‘effectually
disposed of’ Maxwell’s law of partition’ really confirms all that has
been said about the law in this Report. It shows the impossibility of
drawing general conclusions as to the distribution of energy in a single
system from the possible law of permanent distribution in a large number
of systems. In other words, it tells us once more that the mean value of
any portion of the energy obtained by integrating with respect to the
multiple differential of the co-ordinates and momenta is not necessarily
equal to the mean value obtained by integrating with respect to the time
for a single system.

This test case has been criticised in a general sort of way by Mr. E. P.
Culverwell,? and the following investigation will, I think, accord with his
views :—

27. The equal masses A and C are supposed to be separated by a
‘simple vibrator’ B with which they can collide, and Lord Kelvin assumes
that in the course of a large number of collisions this vibrator will equalise

K F A H B Cc L

and keep equal the average kinetic energies with which A and C rebound
from B. C is reflected by a fixed wall at L; but A, in addition to being
stopped by a fixed reflecting wall at K, is acted on by a repulsive force
from K while it lies within a certain space, KH. Part of the energy with
which A left B then becomes potential while the energy of C always
remains kinetic, and Lord Kelvin infers that the average kinetic energy
of A is less than that of C.

Now it is not obvious that the vibrator at B will actually always
equalise the average kinetic energies of rebound of A and C. If KB is
much greater than BL, C will collide with B much more frequently than
A, and I should be inclined to think that without investigation no definite
relation could be assumed between the average energies of rebound of
AandC. But this is quite irrelevant to the point. Accordingly, let us
assume the vibrator to be possessed of the property in question, so that
the average energies of A and C are equal. Let x, x’ be the co-ordinates
of A and C, w, w! their velocities, y the potential energy of A, so that x
vanishes when A is outside the region KH. Take each particle of unit
mass.

Then the law of distribution as stated and proved in this Report asserts

1 Phil. Mag., May 1892, p. 466; Wature, May 5, 1892. p. 21.
2 Nature, May 26, 1892, p. 76.

76 REPORT—1 894.

that if there are a very large number of systems exactly like the one de-
scribed, and if the proportion of these systems in any given phase is
measured by an expression of the form

ST (xt+3huw +hu) du du! dx da! P ; 2 HGL7)

the same law of distribution will hold good at any subsequent time. Also
the mean kinetic energies with which the two particles pass simultaneously
through two given configurations are

[fr octae +4u'?) Su?du du’ [| 70+ gu? +4u") Sud du!

and

|)7oce3e +t!) du du’ |[soctbe +3u!?) du du’

and are therefore equal.

28. The test case derives an additional interest because it forms a sort
of transition between those systems in which the form of / is indeter-
minate and the systems of colliding bodies with which we have to deal in
the Kinetic Theory of Gases where f=e”.

For in general (17) will represent a law according to which the dis-
tribution of the A particles depends on the energies of the corresponding
C particles in the systems to which they belong. If, however, the dis-
tribution of the A particles is independent of that of the C particles, their
separate laws of distribution being

Sidu dx and fodu' da’,

SX Fo=F (xt au? + gu),
the most general solution of which assumes the well-known form

: ede Gaene . : . : (18)
h being any constant whatever. In that case the mean kinetic energy of
all the A’s in the neighbourhood of a given point irrespective of the corre-
sponding position of the C’s is

Oo. 2
| eh-iw (Lu?) du
—co

2 2
| e7h tw dy
—co

as in the Kinetic Theory of Gases. This accords exactly with the re-
marks of Mr. Culverwell already mentioned. The <A’s do not all reach K
every time, those that are moving slowly only penetrating a small distance
into the region KH, and the depth of penetration increasing with the
velocity at H or B. Hence the density of distribution of the A’s diminishes
as we approach K, but out of the whole number at any point the propor-
tion having kinetic energies within certain limits will be the same every-
where.

then we must have

ted
a

Summary.

29. The conclusions so far arrived at may be summed up as follows :—
(i) If there exist a very (infinitely) great number of independent conser-
wative dynamical systems, the equations of motion of each system having

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 77

in addition to the equation of energy, any number of integrals h,=const.,
h.=const., &e., and if at any given instant the systems are so distributed
that the number of them whose co-ordinates and momenta lie within given
small limits is proportional to any function whatever of E, hy, ho. . .,
then the distribution will be permanent, the systems being similarly distri-
buted at every subsequent instant of time. :

(ii) If the kinetic energy be expressed as the sum of squares, and if
the frequency-function involves no integrals of the equations of motion
containing velocities or momenta with the exception of the energy, then
the mean values of the different squares are all equal to one another.
[Maaxwell’s Law of Partition of Kinetic Energy. |

|
Section II.—Sysrems or Cotiipinc Mo.ecu es.
Applicability of the Preceding Investigations to Gases.

30. Before considering in detail those investigations in which col-
lisions and encounters between the molecules of a gas are taken specially
into account, it may be well to examine briefly how far the general results
established in Section I. can be applied to the problem of the Kinetic
Theory of Gases (see also Boltzmann’s Appendix, infra).

The ‘independent systems’ considered above may be chosen in several
different ways.

(i) We may take each ‘system’ to represent a single molecule of gas
moving about freely or in a field of external force. The above investi-
gations will apply so long as the molecules considered do not encounter
or collide with other molecules, and we conclude that in the absence of
such encounters any distribution determined by the expression (14) of
§ 15 will be permanent if the 2” quantitiesp,, . . . g, represent the
nm momenta and 7 co-ordinates of a single molecule.

This is most important. It is not sufficient in the Kinetic Theory
to investigate a law of distribution which is unaffected by collisions or
encounters any more than it is sufficient to investigate a law which is.
permanent in their absence. It is necessary to satisfy conditions of
permanence in both cases.

(ii) We may take each ‘system’ to represent a pair of molecules or a
group of several molecules in the course of a binary or multiple encounter,
it being assumed that the intermolecular forces remain finite during
encounter, and that at each instant there are sufficient encounters of the
same kind to give rise to a law of permanent distribution among the
encountering sets of molecules. Here the quantitiesg,, . . . 4g, will
have to include all the co-ordinates of all the molecules in the group.
considered. Then any distribution determined by (8) will be permanent
so long as the molecules of any one group do not encounter any molecules.
not in that group.

But in a gas each molecule will encounter various molecules in suc-
cession, so that the same set of molecules cannot be considered perma-
nently as a system apart from the rest. From this we find at once that
af the frequency of distribution f£ is a function of the energy alone! it

1 This is not the case if the mass of gas has a perceptible motion of translation
or rotation (see § 45 and Appendix B).

78 REPORT—1894,

must be of the well-known form
eWNE,

For before two molecules encounter each other the frequency of
distribution of the co-ordinates and momenta of one cannot depend on
the co-ordinates and momenta of the other. Hence if /, f, denote
the frequencies of distribution of the two molecules just before the

encounter
J Xfr=S (E).

Now the same law must hold just before the encounter as during it,
and just before the encounter the mutwal potential energy of the molecules
is zero, so that

E=E,+E,,

where E,E, are the separate energies of the molecules ; and the resulting

relation
Ai x fox (Ey +E,) . . . . (20)
can only be satisfied by

Hence before and after the encounter the molecules have their
co-ordinates and momenta distributed with frequencies proportional to
e~"™: and e~"™: respectively. But during an encounter the frequency of
distribution of a// the co-ordinates and momenta of the pair or group is
proportional to e~"”.

For a pair of molecules we may write the function

fa 9 Th (T +x, + Ta + xX2 + X12)

=e "Ti x e ht: x ela txatxi2) . ° . (21)

where x, x. are the potential energies of the molecules due to the field,
Xi their mutual potential energy. This shows that for any given con-
figuration the momenta of the molecules denoted by the suffixes 1, 2 are
separately distributed with frequencies proportional to e“"™ and e~"™
respectively. The distribution of the co-ordinates of one molecule is not,
however, independent of the position of the other owing to the presence
of the factor e~’*, When the encounter is over x), vanishes, so that this
factor disappears, and the distributions of the co-ordinates of the two
molecules become independent of each other.

Similar reasoning holds good for encounters involving any number of
molecules provided that these encounters are sufficiently frequent to have
a law of distribution.

(iii) If either the molecules act on each other at all distances, or they
cannot be divided into independent isolated groups, a ‘system’ must be
taken to represent nothing short of the whole mass of gas—or other
matter—under consideration. We therefore require the distribution in
a single system, and this brings us face to face with the difficulties con-
sidered in $$ 10-12. Maxwell certainly contemplated the applicability of
his investigation to cases of this kind (see $ 3) ; but the assumption required
for this generalisation is at variance with the inferences drawn from the
test cases of $$ 23-28, whatever may otherwise be said in its favour.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 79

The Functional Determinants for Encounters and Collisions.

31. The reasoning of Case II. of the last article cannot be regarded as
conclusive without further investigation if the forces of encounter become
impulsive as in the case of a collision. For Watson ' has pointed out that
the determinantal relation (1)

0 (p's = ORE Yn’) =},
0(pis bien RS Qn)

with the total time ¢ constant is inapplicable, and, moreover, the S func-
tion used in proving it becomes discontinuous in the case of impacts.

The difficulty can be overcome by regarding impulsive forces as the
limit of finite forces, and supposing the initial and final states separated
by a small constant interval of time during which the impact occurs ;
but it is certainly highly desirable to treat the problem separately.

32. According to Watson, the objections will be avoided if, instead of
supposing the time constant, we assume the initial and final states to be
connected by a geometrical relation between the co-ordinates which can be
expressed in the form

In Fn. = u.
and that in that case the functional Jacobian
O(pis $5 i5es8 Guat) noe 99

Eos" 4 sade aie, hosinbad MDGS IC

This relation is verified by Watson for the case of a projectile in his
letter in ‘Nature.’ But in his ‘ Kinetic Theory of Gases’ he derives it
from the relation (1) with ¢ constant, so that his method applies only to
finite forces.

Tf, however, in the course of an encounter between molecules, impulsive
action takes place owing to the energy-function changing discontinuously
when the geometrical relation

WIn=e

is satisfied, we will now show that the states before and after the impulse
are connected by the relation

O(Pr'y + = + Pris QM! +s + Mv‘) 9G
. = a ‘ geetia
OP s+ + Po Mess Mai) dn cay
provided that the principle of Conservation of Energy is satisfied.

For if \ be the instantaneous increase of potential energy when g, passes

through the value c, then the initial and final kinetic energies satisfy the
relation

Pe Se a Ee ee Ce)

where \ may be a function of g, «+ - Qn-1-
Now since no impulsive action takes place through the variation of
the co-ordinates g,; . . » Gn-1 we have

Pi'=P 1) Po’ =P + + + Po-\’=Pn-1s
and therefore
dp,'=dp,, dp,'=dp, . . « dp,»-\'=adp,-1-

1 Nature, May 12, 1892, p. 29.
2 Kinetic Theory of Gases, p. 37.

80 REPORT—1894..

Hence the remaining differentials are connected by the relation

oT OTussay Y
OP, “Ps Op, 2 ey $
1.0.5
a? GnUPn oe Gn Op »= 0 5)
or
dp,!| Gp
dpy Gn

Moreover, since the impulsive action takes place instantaneously, the
co-ordinates do not vary, and therefore

dgq'=dq), dqo'=dqy « - © Mn—y'=An-y 5

dp! ore En Ady’ oye: Uy 1 In . QED.
dp; et Cae apy dq, dai AQn-| Gn

This form of the Jacobian is applicable to the hypothetic law of
molecular force, often assumed in the Kinetic Theory, where, when two
molecules (regarded as material points) reach a certain distance, c, their
mutual attraction becomes infinite. Their directions of motion undergo
refraction towards the line joining them at the beginning of the encounter
and away from that line at the end of the encounter, and each refraction
must be treated separately, Watson's relation (22) being used for the motion,
of the moiecules between the two refractions.

33. In the case of a collision unaccompanied by loss of kinetic energy,
such as occurs between perfectly smooth elastic bodies, the Jacobian
relation between the velocities or momenta just before and just after the
collision is easily found. For Burbury has shown! that in a system or
pair of colliding systems with » degrees of freedom, »—1 linear functions
of the velocities, which he calls §,,8,, ...8,_,, are unaltered by the
collision, and one linear function R has its sign changed. Therefore,

d8,'d8,' ... dS’,_,dR/=—d8, dS, ... dS,_,dB,

and by the properties of Jacobians it follows at once that, since the
co-ordinates of the system are unaltered, the initial and final momenta,
specified by any co-ordinates whatever, are connected by the relation

O(P1'sPa'y = + = Pn)
2 r/——] |, . 7 BD
0 (215 Pay a pe) ( )

In a collision between smooth bodies, R is the relative velocity of the
points which come into contact resolved along the common normal, and
Burbury has given examples of the functions §,, . . . S,_,, R in several
simple cases, viz., a pair of unequal smooth spheres, a sphere colliding
with a spheroid, and a system of two spheres loaded at one side of their
centres.

The same argument could probably be extended to multiple collisions,
for if ~—r linear functions of the velocities were unaltered and the remain-
ing r had their signs changed, the functional determinant would be equal
to(—1)". Again, for a collision between two ‘ perfectly rough bodies’ with
a coefficient of ‘ frictional restitution ’ equal to unity the three components
of the relative velocity of the points of contact would be reversed, so that
r have the value 3.

1 «On the Collision of Elastic Bodies,’ Phil. Trans. R.S., 1892, A, p. 408.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 81

Statement of the Boltzmann-Maawell Law.

34. It is highly desirable that some definite understanding should be
agreed on as to what precisely constitutes the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law.
I would suggest therefore—

(i) That the distribution of a large number of molecules or other
dynamical systems of the same or different kinds in which the co-ordinates
(q) and momenta (p) of each system are so arranged that the number of
systems in the neighbourhood of any given state is proportional to

OS dp) << «i Op dgy ah «i AG 4 ; . (26)

i, being the same for all the kinds of molecules or systems, be called TE
BoirzMANN-MaxweE.LL DIstTRIBUTION.

(ii) That the law which asserts the permanency of the Boltzmann-
Maxwell distribution in any particular case be called Tue Botrzmann-
Maxweti Law.

(iii) That in future these names be not applied to any corollaries such
as that which asserts the equality of the average value of the squares
into which the kinetic energy can be split up. That corollary I have
called Maxwell's Law of Partition of Kinetic Energy.

I trust that the adoption of these names will be of assistance in

securing that uniformity of nomenclature which is always so desirable
in all branches of science.

Verification for Particular Cases.—Spheres and Circles.

35. It is not necessary to consider in detail the law of distribution in
smooth colliding spheres whose centres of mass are at their centres of figure
or, what is the same thing, material particles which rebound when they
approach within a certain distance of one another. The truth of
Avogadro’s law, according to which the mean translational kinetic energies
of the molecules of two mixed gases are equal, is now universally admitted.
Even Tait does not deny it, but contents himself with maintaining that
the law cannot be established without making certain assumptions, and
these assumptions are discussed at great length by Boltzmann,! who,
however, places more implicit confidence in Maxwell than is warranted
by Section I. of this Report. It seems to me that Tait’s three assump-
tions,” which are quoted in my first Report,? actually require little beyond
the assumption that there is a law of permanent distribution. At any
rate, this is all that is necessary for showing that Avogadro’s law is a
possible permanent law. The question as to how far the general law of
distribution is unique can be much better discussed in connection with
other applications (see § 45 below).

36. The next cases are those of spheres in which the c.m. is at a small
distance from the centre of figure, 2.¢., having a ‘bias’ as in the game of

1 «Ueber die zum theoretischen Beweise des Avogadro’schen Gesetzes beforder-
lichen Voraussetzungen,’ Sitzber. der k. Wiener Akad., xciv. (ii.), Oct. 1886.

2 «On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases,’ Zrans. R.S.Z., vol, xxxiii.
Part I. (1886), p. 77.

$ Cardiff Report, 1891, § 41, p. 113.

1894, G

82 REPORT—1894.

bowls, and the two-dimensional problem of circles in a plane having the
same property. Both these cases have been fully investigated by means
of long and complicated integrations by Boltzmann,! who has also extended
his treatment to bodies of any shape, provided they are convex outwards
and have no sharp corners.

The case of circular discs is also worked out fully by Watson,? who,
however, takes the trouble of evaluating the functional determinant step
by step by expressing the final in terms of the initial velocities ; a process
which is obviated by the method of § 33 above. The frequency of col-
lisions of any kind is proportional to the relative velocity of the points of
contact in that kind of collision. It is found that the condition of
permanence. will be satisfied if the number of discs whose three velocity
components lie within the multiple differential du dv dw is proportional to

Ne" du dv dw or N exp—3iM (u? +0? +)?w?) . dudvdw . (27)

whether the discs in collision are similar or belong to two different sets.
This is the Boltzmann- Maxwell Law.

37. The case of lop-sided spheres formed the subject of a faulty
demonstration by Burnside, the result of which—quoted in my first
Report, § 44, third to twelfth line—was in contradiction to the Boltzmann-
Maxwell Law, and is now known to be incorrect. This has been shown
by Watson,’ by Burbury,‘ and also in his aforementioned paper by Boltz-
mann. The correct result is that if the velocities and angular velocities
about the principal axes be arranged according to the Boltzmann-
Maxwell distribution

Ne~"" du dv dw dn, dw, dws « : . - (28)
that is
Nexp—jh {M (u?+v?+ w?) + Aw,?+ Bw? +Cw3?} . du dv dw dw, dw, dw,

this distribution will be unaffected by collisions. From Appendix A we see
that it will also be unaffected by the free motion of the spheres between
collisions, and therefore it satisfies all the necessary conditions of perma-
nence. The mean values of Muw?, Mv?, Mw?, Aw,?, Bw”, Cws?, are
equal. The other distribution of Appendix A, in which the mean kinetic
energies due to the three principal rotations are unequal, is, in general, no
longer permanent when collisions take place. In fact, Boltzmann starts
by assuming a distribution of the form

a aes ky ks exp—h (uw? +0? +w?} —h,w,?—hywo? —haw,? du. . . dwg
TT

and deduces that

Now evidently this conclusion does not necessarily hold good if each
molecule is symmetrical about the line joining its centres of inertia and of
figure, because the angular velocity about this line will be unaffected both

1 “Ueber das Gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft zwischen progressiver und
Rotations-Bewegung bei Gasmolekiilen,’ Sitz. d. k. Ahad. zu Berlin, Dec. 1888.

* Kinetic Theory of Gases, p. 15.

% Nature, vol. xlv. March 31, 1892, p, 512.

“ Tbid., vol, xlv. April 7, 1892, p. 533.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 83

by collisions and by the free motion of the molecules. This angular velocity
might, therefore, follow any law of distribution whatever, and that law
would be permanent. Neither does the conclusion hold good if the
centres of mass and of figure coincide.

The arguments of Boltzmann might have been rather more conclusive
if they had shown at what stage of the process these exceptional cases had
to be excluded. Burnside did worse than this, for he said: ‘Hence the
three equations’ (now known to be wrong) ‘are @ solution ; and, there-
fore, must be the solution of the problem of the special state.’

The cases of perfectly rough spheres or circular discs having both their
normal and tangential coefficients of restitution unity furnish interesting
examples for solution. We may imagine the spheres and discs covered
over with perfectly elastic fine teeth, or minute projections by whose
action the tangential components of the relative velocity are reversed at
impact, and it is no longer necessary to suppose the molecules to have a
‘bias’ in order to have a transference of energy between the translational
and rotational kinds.

The Functional Equation for Colliding Bodies in General.

38. The earliest investigation of the law of distribution for molecules
other than point-atoms (or smooth hard spheres, whose centres of mass
and figure coincide) seems to be that of Boltzmann in 1871.!

At the present time the simplest and best treatment of the general
problem for colliding bodies with any number of degrees of freedom is that
given in Burbury’s paper ‘On the Collisions of Elastic Bodies.’ The
methods there used are perfectly general, and include Watson’s proofs for
lop-sided circles and spheres as particular cases without the attendant
complications in the formule, which arise from writing down in full the
special forms of the various expressions assumed in those investigations.

39, The assumptions involved in proving the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law
for colliding bodies seem to me to resolve themselves into the following :—

(i) That the law is not meaningless. The expression (26) or

BNE Ny «cess Ope COE aries On, : » (29)

must represent a definite number of molecules.

Hence in a volume element so small that x may be considered constant
over it, there must be a very large number of molecules moving about
with all possible momenta, and out of these a large number must have
their remaining co-ordinates and momenta distributed within the corre-
sponding small multiple differential. The law will obviously not hold
at points where x, the potential of the field, becomes infinite or discon-
tinuous. Moreover, the collisions must be sufficiently frequent to admit
of a similar law being applicable to the colliding molecules.

(ii) That any molecule has a chance of colliding with any other mole-
cule. Hence the frequency of distribution of the molecules must depend
on their actual state, and not on their past history or future prospects of
colliding with any particular set of other molecules. As Burbury has just

1 “Ueber das Wiirmegleichgewicht zwischen mehratomigen Gasmolekiilen,’ Sitzber.
der kh. Wiener Akad., \xiii. (ii.), p. 397.
* Phil. Trans. R.S., 1892, pp. 407-422.

a2

$4: REPORT—189-+.

written in a letter to me: ‘To take conventional elastic spheres as the
simplest case we always assume as fundamental that if f(a) denotes the
chance of sphere A having velocity a, and f(b) the chance of sphere B
having velocity b, then the chances are always independent, whether A
and B collide or not.’

(iii) The demonstration is based on the hypothesis that in the per-
manent distribution the collisions of any one particular kind are balanced
by an equal number of the opposite kind in which the initial and final
states are simply reversed, so that the change in distribution produced
by the former is exactly balanced by the latter. In other words, ‘the
numbers of direct and reverse collisions are equal.’ This is obviously a
sufficient if not a necessary condition of permanency.

40. From this it follows that if f, F denote the frequency function of
distribution for two bodies, p,,...p, and P,,... P, their velocities
or momenta, and accented letters refer to the state after collision, then,
remembering that the frequency of collisions is proportional to R, the
relative velocity of the point of contact, we have

PP Riap, .<. dp, tly... Ob, = Bf Rap. 2 dp? gee ee
Remembering that R’/=—R and applying (25) we have
1 ee : : : ; . (30)

This is the functional equation that must be satisfied if the distribu-
tions determined by the functions F, f are to be unaltered by collision be-
tween the two sets of bodies to which they apply, and a similar condition
must hold for collisions between bodies of the same kind. In this investi-
gation, since the forces of collision are impulsive, the co-ordinates of the
bodies are unaltered by collision, and do not enter into the multiple differen-
tials, and for the same reason p,, ... P, may be either generalised
momenta or generalised velocities or linear functions of them sufficient to
specify the motions of the colliding bodies.

I think that it could be similarly proved that for collisions each involving
three bodies the functional equations would be of the form

Si PofsSHhi hi fi!
provided, of course, that such collisions were numerous enough to have a
law of distribution.
41. Natanson ' has deduced the functional equation (30), which in his
notation becomes
M4=N1N, . : : : - (31)

from the law of Gibbs relating to the chemical equilibrium in gas mixtures,
assuming for the thermodynamical potential of the temperature and pressure
the form

=> Hy; 9; . . ° © © (32)
where
RT N
ey geal ee ( ‘) ee
By de

Here m denotes the mass of any one of the gases, »; the number of

1 L, Natanson, ‘Thermodynamische Deutung des Maxwell'schen CGesetzes,’ Zeit-
schrift fiir physikalische Chemie, xiv. 1, 1894.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 85

molecules, »; the mass of a molecule (so that m=pn,), ¢; a function of T
and P, but not of ”, and Ra constant. The investigation is instructive
and suggestive ; unfortunately, however, the method of demonstration does
not appear to be ‘ perfectly reversible,’ but it is much to be hoped that

Natanson will succeed in solving the converse problem of deducing (32),
(33) from (31).

Boltzmann’s Minimum Theorem.

42. The property that the functional equation (30) is a necessary as
wellas a sufficient condition of permanence was first proved by Boltzmann
for a single monatomic gas in 1872,! for a mixture of two gases in 1886,”
and both by Lorentz and by Boltzmann for a polyatomic gas in 1887.3

A similar investigation based on Boltzmann’s was given by Bur-
bury in 1890.4 In his paper ‘On the Collisions of Elastic Bodies,’
Burbury has adapted the proof to colliding systems in general, and a
similar generalisation is given in a better form by Watson.? Burbury’s
specification of the states of the systems by generalised co-ordinates and
velocities, instead of momenta, is, to say the least, unfortunate, for the
complete investigation involves considerations not only of collisions, but
also of the free motions between collisions. Now, as we have seen in § 13,
the multiple differential of the co-ordinates and momenta is an invariant in
such motions. But the same is not necessarily true of the multiple
differential of the co-ordinates and velocities ; and even if the validity of
the argument in § 13 of Burbury’s paper be admitted, it only applies to
rigid bodies under no forces. Watson obviates the difficulty by the use of
generalised momenta, and arrives at the following result,

43. Let one of the co-ordinates q,, of one of the bodies be so chosen that
a collision occurs whenever g, attains its maximum value zero. Let H
denote the function

[F (og BSD GP ok 4Q,.+ [7 (los $1) Yr Sane ey
Then it is shown that

1 E :

ae (er-E/) log Fy GP edna «das Gn» (35)
and the latter integral is essentially negative ; hence H diminishes with
collisions until F’/’/—F/=0. Also H is constant in the absence of colli-
sions, because the conditions of permanency then require F, f to be in-
dependent of the time. Moreover, the multiple differentials dP, . . . dQy
and dp, . . . dq, are not affected by the choice of co-ordinates (§ 14 above),
and therefore no restriction is imposed on the generality of the conclusions

by choosing q, to vanish for any particular collision under consideration,
nor does this choice affect the value of H.

1 ‘Weitere Studien tiber das Wirmegleichgewicht unter Gasmolektilen,’ Sitzber.
der hk. Wiener Akad., \xvi. (ii.) (Oct. 1872), p. 275.

2 «Ueber die zum theoretischen Beweise des Avogadro’schen Gesetzes erforder-
lichen Voraussetzungen,’ Sitzber. xciv. (ii.), Oct. 1886.

8 «Ueber das Gleichgewicht der lebendigen kraft unter Gasmolektilen, ‘Neuer
Beweis zweier Siitze,’ Sitzber. der k. Wiener Akad., xcv. (iii.), Jan. 1887, pp. 115, 153.

4 «On some Problems in the Kinetic Theory of Gases,’ Phil. Mag., October 1890.

5 Kinetic Theory of Guses, p. 42.

86 REPORT—1894.

Also H cannot become minus infinity ; therefore H diminishes to a
minimum, and in the ultimate state of the system when H attains this
minimum we have (30)

Fi =E/,

The quantity H has been called Boltzmann’s minimum function,' and
the above theorem may therefore be called Boltzmann’s minimum theorem.

Rate of Subsidence of Disturbances.

44, Equations (25), (26) have been applied to calculate in certain cases
the rate of subsidence of a disturbance in which F’/” is initially unequal
to Ff. In the paper already referred to Burbury has employed them to
investigate the rate of subsidence of disturbance in the case of a medium
of two sets of elastic spheres, the masses and numbers of spheres per unit
volume of the two sets being M, m and N, x respectively, and the disturb-
ance consisting in an initial small difference between the / constants in
the two sets. He arrives at the result

D oc eit, d oc mss
16 /Mm 78?
SS SQN EE) UNE oe c : . (36
3Ja ai a+ m)t Vh mw)

Here the / constants for the two sets are supposed to be (1+ D) and
h (1+d) : their arithmetic mean is /, and s is the sum of the radii of two
spheres.

The same results had been previously found by quite independent
methods by Tait ? and Natanson,* both working under different assump-
tions.

Watson‘ has applied the same method to a number of lop-sided dises
in one plane, supposing that in the disturbed state the average kinetic
energy of rotation differs slightly from the two components of translational
energy, so that the law of distribution is

M 2m
= h(u?+02+ who")
Aye Foe au de. de
where p is different from unity. The result is given by

1 ea
where
__6CNs
es iinet

a

. : wee)
and
K=N log Qu+])i
eg
= \2
=N ee Wy + higher powers of p—1 \
C being a known numerical quantity.

1 Burbury, Nature, Dec. 14, 1893.

2 Trans. R.S.E., 1886, pp. 82, &c. See my first Report, §49, for his numerical
results.

3 L. Natanson, Wied. Ann., xxxiii. 1888, p. 683.

* Kinetic Theory of Gases, p. 49.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 87

Is the Boltzmann-Maxwell Distribution unique ?

45. We have now found the necessary and sufficient conditions for a
permanent or ‘special’ state to be—
I.) f, F independent of time in the absence of collisions.
(I1.) F/=F'/’ for all collisions between two molecules.
Under these circumstances the principle of Conservation of Energy at
once establishes the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law, which asserts that

F=Aexp—lE, /f=Bexp—hHk,

always give a solution of the problem.

Whether the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution is wnique depends on
the possibility of finding other functions satisfying the above conditions,
and it becomes necessary to discuss particular cases separately.

Case I.— When no forces act, the conservation of momentuin parallel
to any line chosen as the axis of x gives for masses M, m

MU + mw =MU!+mvw!
and therefore the conditions are satisfied by
FocexpkMU foexpkmu.
Combining this with the solution
F oc exp —ATy, J «x exp —hT,,
and writing k=hu, where w, is any constant, we obtain the solution

F=A exp ipa ale {(U —u)?+ V?+ W?} ) 38
S=B exp —35hM {(u—m)? +v? + w?} yes z (38)

This is the law of distribution in a gas having what Burbury calls a
‘motion of simple translation’ and Boltzmann a ‘ progressive motion ’ of
velocity w along the axis of «; a result agreeing with those found by
Burbury,! Boltzmann,” and others. Here the average molecular kinetic
energies of the relative motion, taken with respect to a point moving with
velocity w%, are equal, so that the quantity which represents temperature
is, as it should be, independent of w, the velocity of translation.

Case IIl.—When the field is symmetrical about a fixed axis, the
constancy of angular momentum about this axis leads in a similar way
to the distribution of co-ordinates and velocities among the molecules of a
mass of rotating gas—such as that forming the atmosphere of a planet.

This case I have worked out in detail in Appendix B, and in
couformity with the nomenclature of Case I. the gas may be said to have
a motion of simple rotation.’

It is remarkable that in the paper last referred to Boltzmann,’ while
working out a number of problems on the motion of gases in a field
of force, specially considers the case in which the gas has no initial
motion of rotation. Maxwell, in the second part of the paper, discussed

1 Phil. Mag., October 1890, p. 305.

2 ‘Ueber das Wiirmegieichgewicht von Gasen auf welche aussere Kriifte wirken,’
Sitzber. der hk. Wiener Ahkad., \xxii. (ii.), Oct. 1875. ‘Ueber die Aufstellung und
Integration der Gleichungen welche die Molecularbewegung in Gasen bestimmen,’
Thid., \xxiv. (ii.), Dec. 1876.

3 « Ueber die Aufstellung,’ &c., Wiener Sitzb., Dec. 1876.

88 REPORT—1894.

above in Section I., gives a long and laborious investigation relating to a
free system of particles with constant linear and angular momenta ;! but
the formule, which are very long and complicated, do not appear to be
applicable to the present problem, since they take no account of collisions
between the various systems.

Casz III.—When each molecule has an axis of symmetry the angular
velocity Q, or w3 about this axis is constant and unaltered by collisions,
provided the molecules be regarded as perfectly smooth. Hence the law
of distribution is independent of Q, and w;, and these angular velocities
may be distributed according to any law. This is not inconsistent with
general conditions, for the collision formule 0;’=Q,3 and w;'’=w3 show
that F/=F’/’ is satisfied by any functions whatever of ws, Qs.

This case has already been alluded toin § 37 as furnishing an exception
to the law obtained for lop-sided spheres. But its chief interest lies in
the fact, pointed out by Boltzmann,” that since partition of energy only
takes place among five of its six degrees of freedom, the ratio of the
two specific heats

2 2
1+ Sltpel + : : . - (39)
agreeing closely with the value found for air and most gases.

46, Except in the above cases and the still simpler case of smooth
elastic spheres whose c.m. is at the centre, it will, I think, be found
impossible to devise any form of rigid bodies in which the conditions
of permanency are satisfied for all geometrically possible collisions other-
wise than by the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution. For example, the
alternative distributions for non-colliding rigid bodies worked out in
Appendix A cannot remain permanent unless the surfaces of the bodies
are spherical, so that the line of collision always passes through their
c.m. [This I have roughly verified by a process of ‘exhaustion,’ the
details of which are uninteresting. |

In his aforementioned paper on the nature of gas molecules, Boltz-
mann considers the number of degrees of freedom of molecules generally
in relation to the ratio of their specific heats, and arrives at the following
conclusion : that ‘the entire aggregate which forms a single gas molecule,
and which can consist, not only of ponderable atoms, but also of ether
atoms bound with them, probably behaves in its progressive motion and
its collisions with other molecules nearly like a rigid body.’

The case of a polyatomic molecule, whose atoms are capable of vibrating
relative to one another, affords an interesting field for investigation and
speculation. Is the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution still unique, or do
other permanent distributions exist in which the kinetic energy is unequally
divided between the momentoids ?

Steady States under Permanent Disturbing Influence.

47, The important and highly interesting applications of the Kinetic
Theory to disturbed states of a gas in which, by the action of external forces,
a steady state differing from the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution is main-
tained fall outside the scope of this Report. These include the problems

1 Camb. Phil. Trans., 1879.

2

2 ‘Ueber die Natur der Gasmolekiile,’ Sitzb. der hk. Wiener Ahad., \xxiv. (ii.),
1876. He mentions this also in his paper translated in the Phil. Mag., March 1893.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 89

of steady flow of gases, viscosity, diffusion, heat conduction, chemical
action, &c. Such questions form the subjects of investigations by Boltz-
mann,! Tait,? Burbury,*? Natanson,* and other writers too numerous to
mention. A complete list of papers would probably require a Report to
itself, but the references in the accompanying footnotes may be of some
assistance to those specially interested in the subject.

48, An entirely different class of problems has been treated by Lord
Rayleigh in illustration of the properties of colliding bodies in general,
considered especially with reference to the Kinetic Theory.? He con-
siders the law of distribution of energy in a number of large masses, each
of which is bombarded by streams of projectiles of much smaller mass
moving in both directions in a straight line. If the projectiles are all
moving with the same speed v, Lord Rayleigh finds that the velocities wv
of the bombarded masses will assume the Boltzmann-Maxwell distri-

bution
F(u)=he™

where the mean kinetic energy of the masses is one half that of each pro-
jectile.

If, however, the velocities of the projectiles themselves are distri-
buted according to the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution, the same is true
of the bombarded masses, and the mean kinetic energies of the masses
and projectiles are equal. Hence the whole system, consisting of the pro-
jectiles and masses, satisfies the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution as
defined in § 34. Lord Rayleigh goes on to consider the case when the
free masses are replaced by pendulums under a one-sided or two-sided
bombardment, and also gives an interesting investigation of the rate of
progress towards the ‘special’ state, the motion in every case being one-
dimensional.

Collisions replaced by Encounters.

49. Boltzmann has pointed out © that the effect of a collision between
material points or monatomic molecules may equally well be represented
by an encounter in which only attractive forces act. When the particles
are at a certain distance apart he supposes a very great impulsive attrac-
tion to act on them, so that their directions of relative motion are refracted
very nearly into the straight line joining them. When, after passing close
together, they again come to the same distance, they undergo a second re-
fraction under an impulsive attraction equal and opposite to the first, and the

1 «Zur Theorie der Gasreibung,’ Sitzber. der k. Wiener Acad., 1xxxi. (ii.), January
1880; lxxxiv. (ii.), June 1881, December 1881. ‘ Zur Theorie der Gasdiffusion,’ ibid.,
lxxxvi. (ii.), June 1882; Ixxxviii. (ii.), October 1883. ‘Bemerkungen iiber die
Warmeleitung der Gase,’ ibid., Ixxii. (ii.), October 1875. Other papers are in the
Sitzungsberichte, lvi. (ii.), November 1867, Ixxv. (ii.), January 1887, xevi. (ii.), October
1887; Annalen der Physik und Chemie, vol. xxii. 1884, p. 39.

2 «On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
1886. See also my first Report for fuller references.

3 Phil. Mag., October 1890, p. 306, &c.

‘ «Sur l'Interprétation cinétique de la Fonction de Dissipation,’ Comptes Rendus,
le 23, 18938, &c.; Bulletin de 1 Acad. des Sciences de Cracovie, December 1893,
p. 348.

5 «Dynamical Problems in Illustration of the Theory of Gases, Phil. Mag.,
November 1891.

® «Ueber die Méglichkeit der Begriindung einer kinetischen Gastheorie auf
anziehende Krifte allein,’ Annalen der Physik und Chemie, xxiv. (1885), p. 37.

90 REPORT— 189-4.

effect of both refractions on the ultimate motion is the same as that of a
collision in which the line of centres is perpendicular to the direction of
relative motion between the two refractions. And by making the relative
velocity between the refractions very great, the duration of the encounter
may be made very small. Boltzmann points out that an encounter involving
three or more particles will sometimes have the effect of leaving two (or
more) particles permanently entangled together, and the number of such
double molecules will increase as the temperature and volume are decreased,
thus suggesting an explanation of the phenomena of dissociation and lique-
faction.

In the case of polyatomic molecules specified by generalised co-ordinates,
the collision formula of § 33 cannot be directly applied to an encounter of
this kind, owing to the changes of position of the molecules between the
two refractions. But there would be no difficulty in here proving the
Boltzmann-Maxwell Law by taking separate account of the two refractions
and the free motion between them as explained in § 32.

50. The effect of double, treble, and multiple encounters in relation to
the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law has been investigated by Natanson.! He
arrives at conclusions entirely in accordance with what has been said
above in § 30, and shows that the translational velocities of the c.M.’s of
two or more molecules during an encounter follow the Boltzmann-Maxwell
distribution. This may be readily verified as follows.

If the frequencies of distribution among two sets of molecules of
Masses 7, 7 are proportional to

ea Titx) and ea Tatxa)

then, as in $ 30, the frequency of distribution of pairs of such molecules in
the course of an encounter is proportional to

en MTA Tabeteatxia) . . (40)
where x,» is the mutual potential energy due to the encounter, so that y,»5
vanishes when the molecules are beyond the range of their mutual influence.

Now let 1 1,v),20), Uo,Vo,#. be the translational velocities of the mole-
cules, 1, v, w those of their c.M., w,, v,, wv, the components of relative velocity.
Then from

MU, + Moty=(m, +129) w
Uy, ~U,=U,

we have total kinetic energy of translation of two molecules parallel to x
MMs

=} (MU)? + Mg 9") =F (mM +9) Uw? +3
M +My

We . (41)
whence it readily follows from (40) that the mean energy of translation of
the whole mass m, +z, collected at the c.m. is equal to 3/2h, and is equal
to the mean translational energy of either of the separate molecules. And
by combining the translational energy of the pair with that of a third
molecule the result can be extended to any number of molecules.

In my first Report, § 43, I alluded to some difficulties raised by Tait
regarding the question of temperature, but the present conclusions show
that no such difficulties arise in connection with the Boltzmann-Maxwell

1 ¢Ueber die kinetische Theorie unvollkommener Gase,’ Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, xxxiii. (1885), p. 685.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 91

Law at any rate. For, taking 3/2h as the measure of the temperature,
we see that it is—

(i) The mean kinetic energy of translation per free molecule.
(ii) The mean kinetic energy of translation of the molecules in an
encounter for any given configuration of the system.
(iii) The mean kinetic energy of the c.m. of two or more encountering
molecules found by supposing their whole mass concentrated
at this C.M.

If the volume of the gas be increased, the number of encountering mole-
cules will be decreased, but their mean kinetic energy will still be equal
to that of the free molecules.

51, The proof of the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law thus presents little
difficulty when collisions are replaced by encounters lasting only a limited
time, so that the molecules are sometimes free and sometimes in the
process of an encounter, even though these encounters be multiple. But
it fails when the molecules act on one another at all distances, because we
cannot then consider any group of molecules apart from the rest. More-
over, unless collisions or encounters take place to a certain extent indis-
criminately between molecules, the frequency of distribution for any
particular molecule may depend on other circumstances besides its actual
state, and the assumptions made in proving the equation F/=F'/' (§ 39)
are no longer necessarily true. Hence, none of the above arguments now
afford any evidence that in such cases the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribu-
tion is the distribution which a gas naturally tends to assume, even though
the possibility of such a distribution may not be capable of disproof.

Thus, in the test case of molecules attracting one another according to
the law of the direct distance, they will if initially arranged according
to the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law remain so distributed ; but this law of
permanent distribution is not unique, nor is there any tendency among
the molecules to attain this law.

In dealing with such forces as that due to gravitation, as in the case
of a gaseous nebula held together by the attraction of its parts, it is clear
that the attraction of the more distant portions of the gas can be repre-
sented by a field of external force whose potential is the gravitation
potential of the mass. Thus no difficulty will be introduced into the proof
of the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law, except when we come to take account of
the attractions of those molecules that are very near any given molecule.
These-are probably feeble, except in an encounter. The problem, however,
requires fuller treatment than can be given in the space of this Report.

Section IJJ.—TuHe Botrzmann-MAxweELt LAw CONSIDERED IN
RELATION TO OTHER THEORIES.

The Connection with the Theory of Probability.

52. The application of the Theory of Probability to the determination
of the law of distribution among gas-molecules forms the subject of several
very interesting and suggestive papers in the hands of Boltzmann and
Burbury.

I have ventured, on my own responsibility, to introduce the well-
known terms ‘a@ priori’ and ‘a posteriori probability’ in the following

92 REPORT—1894.

accounts, as, personally, I think they make the matter clearer. They are
not Boltzmann’s.

In his first paper! Boltzmann starts by taking a finite number 1
of molecules, and supposing that the kinetic energy of each molecule must
have one or other of a discrete series of values ¢, 2e, 3s, ... pe. Taking
the total energy T of the system as equal to Xz, he investigates the
probability that it should be divided between the molecules in a given
manner, each value of the energy being @ priori equally probable for a
given molecule. If wo, w,, wo, . . . w, be the numbers of molecules having
energies 0, ¢, 2e, . . . pe, the number of permutations of molecules satis-
fying this distribution or ‘complexion’ is

n!
te ; : . (42
? wo! w,l.. wp! (#2)
subject to the conditions
Wot wet... +0, =n. , : . (48)
wo, +lwot ... +pu,=A . ; : . (44)

The @ posteriort most probable distribution is that for which the number
of permutations is greatest. Taking M to be the logarithm of the denomi-
nator of 9), or

M=log (wo !)+log (w, !)+. ‘ : . (45)

we have, therefore to make M a minimum subject to the conditions (43)
(44). To simplifiy the calculation, when w is very great, w! may be
replaced by its approximate value

V (27) (2) eer eacied Mos 3015

Passing to the case in which the energy is capable of continuous
variation, if f (a) dw denote the number of molecules with energy between
x and x+dx, we have to put w= f (0), w= f (+)... 0 eter and
to make «=dx in the limit, so that the problem reduces to finding the
minimum of

m'=("/ (2) logs (a)’ae 2 DP, ted
0
subject to the conditions

nas (a) de. 1) iia hotiuhives aeaada
T=[ “xf (x) de ee me)

where M’ differs from M by a constant, and is what Boltzmann calls the
‘measure of permutability.’
The solution is

Pip ge—ce da... ; , ; ~ (50)

This, therefore, is the & posteriori most probable distribution of the
energy among the molecules on the hypothesis that the a priori pro-

1 «Ueber die Beziehung zwischen dem zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen
Warmetheorie und der Warscheinlichkeitsrechnung respective den Satzen tiber
das Warmegleichgewicht,’ Sitzber. der k. Wiener Akad., \xxvi. (ii.), Oct. 1878.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 93

babilities of all energies are equal for any one molecule. If m is the
mass of a molecule, the most probable number of molecules with speeds
between w and w+dwu is

Cetin? mudu : : : . (51)

This is the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution of speed for a system of
monatomic molecules moving in one plane.

53. To obtain the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution for molecules
moving in three dimensions, Boltzmann finds it necessary to make a
different assumption with regard to the ¢ priori probabilities. He assumes,
in fact, that if w, v, w be the velocities along the axes of co-ordinates, all
values of w, v, w are a priori equally probable. The problem of deter-
mining the @ posteriori most probable distribution therefore reduces to
finding the minimum of

{[[/rss- du dv dw= —Q suppose . ‘ ~ (52)

subject to the conditions

na|{ | / dude dw PAUL OLE. fs eae

T=Jm|{[ (u2+v24+w) dudvdw . . . (54)

For the general case of molecules with 7 degrees of freedom in a field
of force, he assumes that all values of the co-ordinates and momenta p are
& priori equally probable.

This is the assumption that would be fulfilled if the values were
selected by drawings from an urn containing tickets, each ticket having a
set of values of p, . . . q, inscribed on it, and the number of tickets in
which these values lie between the limits dp, . . . dg, being measured by
the product of the multiple differential dp, . . . dy, into a constant. In
the case of a mixture of gases there would have to be a number of urns
equal to the number of gases, and the number of tickets drawn from each
urn would have to equal the number of molecules of the gas in question in
the mixture.

The final result is that the & posteriori most probable distribution is
that for which the function

—9= 5 flog CA ae) Re Bae Oy

is a minimum, & referring to the different kinds of molecules in a mixture
of several gases.

The expression —Q. differs by a constant from Boltzmann’s Minimum
Function.

We have seen in § 43 that, when there are collisions between the
molecules, this function always tends to a minimum until the Boltzmann-
Maxwell distribution is attained, and the present investigation therefore
shows that the gas tends to pass from distributions of lesser probability
to distributions of greater probability, until it attains the most probable
distribution of all—namely, the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution.

Finally, Boltzmann proves that the function Q is proportiona! to the
entropy (plus a constant), thus affording a verification of the theorem that
the entropy of a system tends toa minimum. The identification of Boltz-

94. REPORT—189+4.

mann’s minimum function with the entropy is established more briefly by
Burbury in his recent paper, to be discussed shortly.!

54, The particular assumption as to the law of & priori probability
precludes the above investigations from furnishing a complete proof of
the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law. In a subsequent paper? Boltzmann has
removed this restriction, and has considered the @ posteriori probabilities
corresponding to any assumed law of @ priori probability. In other
words, we start with a large number (N) of molecules having a given
distribution of energy, and from them a smaller number (7) are selected,
and their mean energy is found to have a certain value which may be
either the same or different from that of the original N. It is required to
find the most probable law of distribution in the 7 selected molecules, or,
generally, the probability of any given distribution.

Boltzmann first considers the case where the original molecules follow
the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law for two dimensional space, and points out the
necessary modifications for space of three dimensions. In the general
case, supposing fj, fo, . - + jf, to denote the @ priori probabilities of a
molecule having energies ¢, 2¢,. . . pe, the @ posteriori probability of a
combination in which the numbers of molecules having these energies are
Wo, @1; + + + W, respectively is proportional to Q, where

@ !
Oeayie Fe ote Sa" Wiles T : . (56)
where as before
So=n Siw=r.

The approximate expression for w ! now gives
log Q=$ o, log fF, —$ w; log w;+ constant

and Boltzmann finds the following results.

If the mean energy of the selected molecules is equal to the mean
energy of the original N, the most probable distribution of energy in the
latter is identical with the distribution in the former.

If, however, the mean energy of the smaller number is unequal to that
of the larger, the most probable distribution is that given by the form

oy om Pm huabma ret (5

Boltzmann’s investigation was probably an attempt to arrive at the
Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution as the ultimate result of a number of
successive processes such as the above, independently of the initial dis-
tribution. This has recently been actually accomplished by Burbury by
the application of a different method as follows :—

55. Burbury ® bases his investigation on a generalisation of the theory
of Least Squares, which asserts that if we regard the variations of a series
of m quantities 2, #,..., as being each the result of an infinite number
N of independent simultaneous increments divided each by /N, then the

1 «On the Law of Distribution of Energy,’ Phil. Mag., January 1894.

2 «Weitere Bemerkungen tiber einige Probleme der mechanischen Wiirmetheorie,”
Sitzb. der k. Wiener Akad., \xxviii. (ii.), June 1878. The second part of the paper
deals with the equilibrium of a gas under gravity, and is less interesting.

3 Phil. Mag., January 1894.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 95

chance that the values of x, x, ... shall lie between c, and c,-+de,,
¢, and c,+dcy, &c., is proportional to an expression of the form

nS

@ 2 de, dc, eee de,, . . . . (58)

where S is a certain homogeneous quadratic function of the c’s, and T a
constant. This result, which for a single variable leads to the well-known
error-law, is independent of the original law of distribution of the incre-
ments, provided that positive and negative values of these increments are
equally probable.

Taking 8S as proportional to the kinetic energy of a system, and sup-
posing the number of such systems to be very great, Burbury next shows
that if a redistribution of S among the systems is effected in a certain
way, the ultimate result will be the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution, and
this will remain unaffected by any further redistribution. The method of
redistribution is such that energy is conserved in the final result, but not
in the intermediate processes, and Burbury suggests that the process of
redistribution of energy between the molecules may be effected by waves
transmitted through the ether. The proof requires us to assume that these
waves satisfy the principle of superposition, otherwise the law cannot be
permanent. The author, however, claims that the method is applicable to
systems in which no group of molecules is ever free from the action of
other parts of the system, and for which those proofs of the Boltzmann-
Maxwell Law treated in Sections I., II. of this Report fail.

Burbury then finds the expression for Boltzmann’s minimum function,
and calling this B he verifies that the entropy of the system is equal
to —2B/n (plus a constant). The whole treatment is very powerful
and suggestive, and the paper opens up a wide field for discussion and
speculation.

56. The assumption in the first place that each molecule is capable of
assuming only a discrete instead of a continuous series of different states,
the number of these states being made infinite in the limit, forms the basis
of Boltzmann’s proof of his Minimum Theorem for polyatomic gas-mole-
cules.!_ Natanson,? taking Boltzmann’s starting-point of a number of
systems whose energies can only have one of a series of discrete values

5p DE gen shea HIE

and employing equations (43) (44) above, has worked out the final dis-
tribution of energy among the molecules on the supposition that inter-
change of energy takes place by collisions, and he has also determined
the rate at which the system approaches the Boltzmann-Maxwell
distribution. He gives a complete solution of the problem for the
particular case where p=3, and shows that only analytical difficulties
prevent the method from being applied to higher values of p. When,
however, p is made infinite, the results agree with those found by Boltz-
mann and by Tait ($ 44).

1 ‘Neuer Beweis zweier Siitze,’ Sitzber. der k. Wiener Akad., xcv. (ii.), Jan. 1887,
p. 153.

2 “Ueber die Geschwindigkeit mit welcher Gase den Maxwell’schen Zustand
erreichen,’ Annalen der Physik und Chemie, xxxiy. (1888).

96 REPORT—1894.

The Connection between the Virial Equation, the Second Law, and the
. Boltzmann: Maxwell Law.

57. The virial equation cannot be used to prove the Second Law.
When applied to a perfect gas it leads to the equation

po=Ra : : : ‘ oi fB9)

From this equation, combined with the Second Law, certain properties of
perfect gases, with which we are all familiar, are deduced in treatises on
thermodynamics. These are that the latent heat of expansion is equal to
the pressure, that the difference of specific heats is equal to R, and so on.
Hence corresponding conditions must hold good in molecular thermo-
dynamics in order that the Second Law may be consistent with the virial
equation.

A general condition under which the Second Law is true was originally
found by R. C. Nichols,! and has recently been put into a somewhat
different form by Burbury.? If x or U denote the potential energy, this
condition may be written
l(d. dx d dx
la Se ena othe (60)
where the bar denotes average values.

Burbury * has rightly pointed out that the methods of Clausius and
Szily 4 require such a condition to be satistied in order that they may give
the Second Law. The condition comes in when we try to assign a mean-
ing to the ‘quasi-period 2,’ without which meaning the result is unin-
telligible. Burbury shows that if we assume

i=v'T ? (i.e., a definite time),

then x must be a function of v only, so that

d d
pit Xx ix 3 e 61
dv dv (61)

and this is a special case of Nichols’ condition.

It is also to be observed that in the Clausius-Szily method the
averages are time-averages. This, if not an objection, is at least a
disadvantage, since it does not show the relation between the Second
Law and the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law, in which averages are taken over a
large number of molecules in a ‘ special state’ of permanent distribution.

58. That relation forms the subject of a very recent paper by Burbury,”
which is a development of his second letter to ‘ Nature.’ ®

The proof of the Second Law on the assumption of the Boltzmann-
Maxwell Law has long been known, and was given by Boltzmann as early

1 On the Proof of the Second Law of Thermodynamics,’ Phil. Mag., 1876 (i.),
p. 369.

2 Nature, December 14, 1893; January 11, 1894.

3 Tbid., December 14, 1893.

4 «Report on Thermodynamics,’ Part I. Section 1, Cardiff Report, 1891, p. 88.

5 «The Second Law of Thermodynamics,’ Phil. Mag., June 1894, p. 574.

6 Nature, Jan. 11, 1894.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 97

as 1871,! and by Burbury in 1876.2 Burbury now treats the converse
problem of determining the law of distribution from the Second Law.
He finds that if the law of distribution of the co-ordinates «,, x,... 2, be
given by the expression

Nf (Gj, Xa «+ 2 Setar, . «. dz, or Nida,

and if the law of distribution of co-ordinates and velocities be given by

Fdo do’ where do’=de, .. . din,
then 0Q/T will be a complete differential if either
(i) F=function of (-—U)/T=¢{(r-U)/T} say . (62)

(which does not vanish for infinite values of the variables), or
at 7+U U
(ii) F=9(“"), f=0(7) enh tly dood Bashers yess

where 7 is the kinetic energy, and U the potential energy of a molecule.
Burbury says: ‘And since F and f must vanish for all infinite values

of the variables, we are led to

F=C exp —dr Saar

Ab

where } is some positive numerical quantity... .

59. Now this is obviously a solution, but it is not the only solution,
and I think the real inferences are slightly different from those he has
drawn. They are sufficiently interesting to be treated in detail, and they
are intimately connected with another point which at first suggests an
objection to the proof, namely, that dz ds’ is the multiple differential
of the co-ordinates and velocities, and is therefore not in general an
invariant like the multiple differential of the co-ordinates and momenta.

In § 15 of his paper Burbury states that this does not matter. ‘If
they’ (z.e., do and do’) ‘do vary, that is, in effect, if the limits of integra-
tion vary, the assumption F=¢@ {(U +7)/T} will still make 0Q/T a complete
differential.’

Now if y,, . . . y, denote the generalised momenta corresponding to
the co-ordinates x, . . . «,, the Jacobian

U
=C’' == S34
f=C' exp ,

?

O(a,» - - tn) (ee x x,) Suppose
: Ws ars Yn) ( pes ) =
will in general be a function of the co-ordinates x, . . . x,, and its form
will depend on the choice of co-ordinates.
Hence, if Burbury’s proof be correct, we have really shown that the
Second Law will be satisfied if the distribution be determined by any
expression of the form

6(OR) Fee Tetley rs oa dass lili nin Gene ae (64)

where by suitable choice of co-ordinates the form of J may be varied
quite arbitrarily. And by § 22 this expression represents, not necessarily
the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution, but a distribution satisfying the

1 « Analytische Beweise des zweiten Hauptsatzes,’ &c., Sitzber. der k. Wiener Akad.,
Ixiii. (ii.), 1871, p. 712.
2 Phil. Mag., January 1876, p. 61.
1894, H

98 REPORT—1894.

condition that if the kinetic energy be reduced to a sum of 7 squares,
the mean values of these squares are equal. Hence the conclusion may
be stated thus :—

If the necessity for making 0Q/T a complete differential can be
established as a substantive law by independent evidence, the investiga-
tion affords an independent proof of Maawell’s law of partition of kinetic
energy between the momentoids for such a system.

Conclusion.

60. The conclusions arrived at in the present Report are to be regarded
as superseding the statement of Clerk Maxwell’s Theorem in §40 and the
greater part of §$ 41, 42, 43 of Section III. of my first Report. The rest
of that Report is not, so far as it goes, materially affected by any results
now established, although several important questions connected with the
Boltzmann-Maxwell Law have now received a definite answer.

The proof of the law and the assumptions involved in it are fairly satis-
factory for gases whose molecules collide with each other to a certain
extent at random, but in a medium in which the molecules never escape
from each other’s influence the subject still presents very great difficulties.

Even should it be shown that the law cannot be disproved for such a
medium, there still remains the question as to whether the distribution is
the wnique one satisfying the conditions of permanence. The general
question of uniqueness, even in some of the cases where the law admits of
more or less satisfactory proof, still suggests some questions for investiga-
tion. Intimately connected with this is the difficult question of stability 'Y.
For example, when a gas is condensed, its density at any point at first
remains proportional to e~”* in accordance with the Boltzmann-Maxwell
Law ; but when a certain stage is reached, instability sets in, and part
of the gas liquefies. If the Second Law be true, the new distribution
satisfies Maxwell’s law of partition of energy. Does it likewise satisfy
the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law ?

The connection with the Theory of Probability still suggests subjects
for research. The relations of electrical and optical phenomena to the
Kinetic Theory open up an almost unexplored field.

61. It only remains for me to thank all those who have assisted me in
collecting materials for this Report. JI am particularly indebted to
Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann for his kindness in sending me copies of nearly all
his writings, and for several valuable suggestions that have helped to
clear up difficulties in the work. My thanks are also due to Mr. Burbury,
Dr. Ladislaus Natanson, Professor Sydney Young, and others for similar
help, which has very materially lightened the work of consulting and
examining the large mass of existing literature relating to this most
interesting branch of Mathematical Physics.

APPENDIX A.
The Possible Laws of Partition of Rotatory Energy in Non-colliding
Rigid Bodies.
The motion of a rigid body about a fixed point or about its centre of

mass under no forces SHoris one of the best test cases bearing on Maxwell’ Ss
law of partition of kinetic energy.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 99
The equations of’ motion réferred to the principal axes are of the form

AG (BC) wyws=0 Peruge “BY (as)

and the kinetic energy is

Let ©), Qs, Q3, be the initial angular velocities about the principal
axes, and let
. 0 (04, Woy Wy)

| 89 (0), O2, Qs) * ShoE gala
Then
dA_o (@), wo, wa) d (w 1, @gy w) ) (#1, Wy, 3)
PG (O)f/M5, 03) 0(Ohy Dey Hig’ OO), 05, 2)
But by (i)

) (a, Wo) 3) eh Dry (yl a 0 (3; 9, 3) ae 0 (wo, 9 3)
Oe ae GRE GaSe SRCET ORE

= )

since each of the two determinants has two rows or columns equal.
Therefore

and
A=const.=1, (its initial value) . . . (68)
Since T=constant for any body, it follows that if a very large
number (N) of such rigid bodies have their angular velocities initially

so distributed that the number with angular velocities between Q, and
2,+d9,, OQ, and X,4+dQ,, Q; and 0,4 dO; is

Nf(T)dQ,d2.dQ,
the distribution of any subsequent time will be given by
N/(T) dw dwodws . > 2%) « (69)

and therefore distribution will be permanent.
With this distribution it is easy to see that at any instant the average
values of

gAw 15 3 Bu "5 3Cuw;?

over the different bodies are equal to one another, so that Maxwell’s law
of partition of kinetic energy is satisfied.

But the equations of motion have a second integral expressing the
constancy of resultant angular momentum, namely,

A?w)?+ Bw,? + C?w,2?=G2=const. , . Mi 41) f
Hence any distribution given by
N/f(G) dw dw dus ° . es s es (71)

will (in the absence of collisions between the bodies) be permanent.
H 2

100 REPORT—1894.

And it can now be shown precisely in the same way as before that
the mean values of

Aw”, Bw Ree Crw,?

are equal to one another.
Therefore the mean values of

1 2 1 2 1 2
pAw, $Bw, ) $Cw3

are now inversely proportional to A, B,C, and Maawell’s law of partition
of energy does not hold good.

It is only when the distribution of velocities or momenta is deter-
mined by a function f of the energy alone that we can assert that the
mean values of the different squares forming the kinetic energy are
equal.

APPENDIX B.

On the Law of Molecular Distribution in the Atmosphere of a
Rotating Planet.

Suppose a mass of gas-molecules to be situated in a field of force that.
is symmetrical about a fixed axis—for example, the field due to the
attraction of a spheroidal planet.

Let this axis be chosen as the axis of 2, and, in the first place, let the
molecules be monatomic, so that they may be regarded as smooth homo-
geneous spheres or material points.

Let m,M be the masses of two molecules, E,,, Ey, their total energies,
p, P their angular momenta about the axis of z, so that

p=m(va—uy) P=M(VX—UY) . ~ (72)
Then, since the field is symmetrical, the angular momenta p, P are constant
in the absence of collisions, and at a collision the total angular momentum

is unaltered, so that
pt+P=p'+P’

Also similar relations are satisfied by the energies E,,, E,,.
Therefore, if the distributions of co-ordinates and velocities be given
hy the expressions

J dx dy dz du dv dw and FdX dY dZ dU dV dW,
the conditions of permanence between collisions, and the functional equation
for collisions
SF = ’
are satisfied by
S=n exp —(hE,,—kp) F=N exp —(hE,—P)

where h, & are any constants whatever. Putting k=AQ, we have, if y be
the potential energy of m,
: J=n exp —h (T—Op+ x)
=n exp—h {4m (wu? + v?+ w?)—m0 (vax — uy) + x}
=nexp—h {im [(w+Oy)?+(v—On)?+0!] +y— Im? (x? +y")} (73)

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS 101

Take axes of £, n, £ rotating about the axis of z with angular velocity 2
and instantaneously coinciding with the axes of a, y, z.
Then the relative velocities of a molecule referred to these moving
axes are
=u+Oy, q=v—Ox, f=w
and we at once find $ihy’.
0, 7,5) =!
0 (u, v, w)
Hence the distribution may be written
nexp—h {im (2 +72+2) +y—$m0?(E? + n’)} . dS dn dz dz di dé . (74)
Therefore the velocities relative to the moving axes follow the Boltz-
mann-Maxwell distribution, and in addition to this the molecules have a
superposed motion of rigid-body-rotation with angular velocity 2. And
the density at any point is the same as if the gas were acted on by ‘centri-
fugal force’ having a potential —}0? (é?+7?), and the reversed angular
velocity —Q were applied to every molecule.

Hence the Kinetic Theory may be applied to the atmospheres of planets by

reducing the planets to rest and applying centrifugal force to the atmospheres
in the usual way.

It is interesting to notice that the temperature 3/2h is the mean

kinetic energy of the translational motion relative to the planet and not the
total mean translational energy.

The results can evidently be generalised for the case when the mole-
cules are rigid bodies of any kind. Let w,, »,, w, be the angular velocities
of such a molecule about axes through its c.M. parallel to the axes of
2, y, 2, and let w,, ws, v3; be its angular velocities about its principal axes.
By Appendix I., dw, dw, dw; is independent of the time, and evidently

0 (w,, @,,.) __ { determinant of the direction cosines | =

0 (w, Wo. w3) |. between the two sets of axes J

Hence the permanent distribution is of the form
nm exp —h(T—OQp+ x) . dx dy dz du dv dw dw, dw, dw,

Now if A,B,C, D,E, F denote the moments and products of inertia,
the kinetic energy of rotation of the molecule is

ee B, C, ma D, —E, —F {»,, Wyy w,)*
also p=m (va—uy)+ aT, ? d , . (75)
dw
therefore
T—Op + x=}m [(u + Qy)? + (v —Qzx)? + w?|—FmO0? (a? + y’)
+4 (A, B, C,—D,—E,—F t Wz) Wy w,—Q)? = $400? +x
and since evidently

0,=0 0,=0,, 0,—-Q=wo,

therefore
=n exp—h {hm (2+7°+2°) +4 (A, B, C,—D,-E,—F Le w,)”
—dmQ? (P4+7°)—ICN*+y} . : . . (76)

102 REPORT—1894.

Here the potential energy of centrifugal force is
— hm? (&? + 9?) —$ C0?
and therefore the law of distribution
f=nexp—hiT,+x+V,} . ‘ : TD

where T,. is the kinetic energy of the relative motion ;
x is the potential energy due to the field ;
Y, is the potential energy due to centrifugal force,

Hence, as before, the Boltzmann-Maxwell Law holds for the system
obtained by applying the reversed angular velocity —Q and the centrifugal
force whose potential is — $0? (a*+y’) at every point of the gas.

It would not be difficult to extend the proof to the case of a rotating
ellipsoidal planet with three unequal axes, where the field of force is not:
symmetrical about the axes of rotation, but the investigation would
hardly be sufficiently interesting to be worth giving in detail. It will also
be admitted, without difficulty, that similar conclusions must hold good
when the planet and atinosphere besides rotating have a common motion
of simple translation.

In a communication read at the Nottingham meeting of the Associa-
tion! I worked out certain results of applying the Boltzmann-Maxwell
Law to the atmospheres of planets ; but in these calculations no account.
was taken of axial rotation, as I did not at that time see how the effect of
this rotation could be determined. The numerical results there obtained
hold good, without modification, at points along the polar axes of the
various bodies considered. The effects of centrifugal force on the dis-
tributions now furnish a promising subject for future investigation, about
which I hope to say more shortly,

APPENDIX C.

On the Application of the Determinantal Relation to the Kinetic Theory of
Polyatomic Gases. By Professor Lupwic BottzMann.

We shall consider a gas whose molecules are compound (or poly-
atomic), but are all similarly constituted. Let a, b,c, . . . be the co-or-
dinates which determine the position and configuration of a molecule of
such a gas ; and let p, g, 7,.. . be the corresponding momenta. Let us
suppose that the time during which any one molecule acts upon or is acted
upon by other molecules is short in comparison with the whole time of its
motion. Let the gas be contained in a vessel of invariable form, After
a certain time the state of the gas will become stationary, and the ques-
tion is, what is then the probability that the co-ordinates and momenta of
any one molecule lie between certain limits? To express the probability
by means of a number let us suppose the stationary state to last for a long
time, ®. Divide this time into infinitely small parts, $. We shall call

1 <The Moon’s Atmosphere and the Kinetic Theory of Gases,’ Nottingham Report,
p. 682.

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 103

the beginning of the first of these parts the time zero; the beginning of
the second ¢,, the beginning of the third ¢,, dc. ; the end of the last of the
m parts t,. After the whole time @ has elapsed, let another series of times
of length $ begin. Denote the end of the first part after ¢, by ¢,4,; the
end of the next following part ¢,,,, &c. Assume for a moment that we
have separate vessels, all exactly similar to the one containing the gas ;
that each of these 7 vessels contains the same gas, and that the motion of
the gas is the same ineach. The beginning, however, is different. For
example, let the gas in the second vessel at time zero be in the same con-
dition in which the gas of the first vessel is at the time ¢, ; in the third
vessel let the gas at the time zero be in exactly the same condition as it is
in the first vessel at the time ¢,, and so on. We have now in the different
vessels all the different states of the gas existing simultaneously which in
the first vessel exist successively during the whole time interval @.

The probability dw that the co-ordinates and momenta of a molecule
may lie between the limits

aanda+da,bandb+db...pandp+dp,qandqg+dq... . (1)

can be defined in two ways. If we consider a single vessel containing gas,
we must observe it for a long time ®; if + be the fraction of the time
during which the co-ordinates and momenta of a molecule lie between the
limits (1)—which we shall call the condition (1)—then 7 /@ is the probability
required. The limits (1) differ only infinitesimally from one another. No
two molecules of the same gas can be in the condition (1) at the same
time. On the other hand, if we consider the above series of vessels at
any single instant of time, we can define the probability dw to be dz/n, where
dz is the number of vessels in which a molecule is in the condition (1).
Evidently dw will have different values for different values of the co-ordi-
nates and momenta. It will also be proportional to the differentials
da, db... We may therefore put

Leds (a by. 3s prgpee dado. Hdpdgey .o°-F 9°)

To find the condition for a stationary state we may consider one gas
at successive instants, or the series of vessels at one instant. In the
first case the values of dw for the stationary state will be the same,
whether we consider the gas from time 0 to time ¢,, or from time ¢, to
time ¢,,,, or in general from ¢, to ¢,,, Evidently the converse is true ;
that is, if dw has the same values for all these cases, the state is
stationary. By the second method we must remember that at the time 0
we have in our vessels all the states which appear in the first case from
time 0 to time ¢,; at the time ¢, we have in these vessels all the states
which appear in the first case from ¢, to ¢,,;.... The above statement,
that +/@ has the same values in all cases, whether we consider the time
from zero to ¢,, or from ¢, to ¢,4;, or from ¢, to ¢,,,, becomes in this second
case identical with the statement that dz/n has the same value, whether
we consider the 7 vessels at time zero, or time ¢,, or time f,, &c. That
is, since the difference between ¢, and zero, ¢, and ¢,...can be made
infinitely small, the above statement amounts to saying that for the
stationary state dz/n has the same values at all times. We shall next prove
that dz/n has this property under the following conditions :—

We define a free molecule to be one which is not acted upon by any
other molecule. For each free molecule let the values of f (a,b... p,q -. +)

104 REPORT—1894.

=He-"” at time 0, where g is the total energy of this molecule ; H and h
are constants ; therefore at time 0 the number of vessels in which a free
molecule is in the state (1) is

ndW=nHe“dadb...dpdq... . : “hy ©)

Similarly the number of vessels in which a free molecule appears with
co-ordinates and momenta between

a’ and a’ +da’,b' and b'+db’... p' and p’+dp’, q' and q'+dq'... (4)

(condition 4) is
ndW!=nHe-""' da'db' ...dp'dq'...

where g’ is the total energy of this second free molecule. Finally, the
number of vessels in which one free molecule is in condition (1) and a
second one in condition (4) is

n dW dW'=nH?e"9*9" da db... dpdq...da'db'...dp'dq... (5)

Let a’, 6”, ... a", b'", . . . be values of the co-ordinates such that a
molecule with the former co-ordinates acts on or encounters a molecule
with the latter co-ordinates. And let us assume that at the time 0 the
number of vessels which contain a pair of molecules whose co-ordinates
and momenta respectively lie between

a'and a''+da'', b! andb'’ +db"’,...p" andp” tap", g” and g''+dq" 6
a anda’ +da'", band b'" +. db'"'",...p'" and p'"’ + dp", G Gt anda" taal ' ( )
is

mine Madatdol:, nt. dpdg?: dal adh!" 2. ap ag eee SD

where / is the total energy of the two molecules. We proceed to prove
that a stationary state is defined by these formule. Consider a duration
of time ¢ long enough to permit of encounters between a finite number of
molecules, but not so long as to permit of many molecules colliding more
than once. We must demonstrate that after this time ¢, the number of
vessels in which the state of a molecule lies between certain limits is
exactly the same as before this time. We distinguish between four kinds
of molecules :—

(i) Molecules which are free at the beginning and at the end, and during
the whole time ¢. For any of these molecules let the co-ordinates and
momenta lie at the time 0 between

AandA+dA, Band B+dB,... PandP+dP,QandQ+dQ... (8)
and at the time ¢ between
aanda+da,bandb+db,...pandp+dp,qandq+dq... . (9)

Let G and g represent the energy of such a molecule at the times 0
and ¢ respectively ; G, 7 being equal. According to equation (3) the number
of vessels in which at the time 0 the co-ordinates and momenta of a
molecule lie between the limits (8) is nHe~"°dA dB,... dP dQ. ... But,
by hypothesis, the co-ordinates and momenta of these same molecules lie
between the limits (9) at the time ¢; hence the above expression gives
also the number ¢ of vessels in which, at the time ¢, co-ordinates and
momenta of a molecule lie between the limits (9). But we have G=g,

,

ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 105

and by a weli-known theorem (¢f. Watson, ‘Kinetic Theory of Gases,’
2nd edition, p. 22)

dadb...dpdqg...=dAdB...dPdQ
Therefore the number @ is equal to
nHe dadb...dpdq...

But this last expression gives at the time 0 the number of vessels for
which the co-ordinates and momenta of a molecule lie between the limits
(9) (according to formula 3). We see that this number remains con-
stant during the time ¢ ; and since the same is true for all values of a,
b,...p,q,... the theorem holds good for all molecules of the first kind.

(ii) We call all those molecules ‘ molecules of the second kind’ which are
free at the time 0, but which are in process of encounter at the time ¢.
For a pair of such molecules let the co-ordinates and momenta lie at the
time 0 between the limits

A, and A,+dA,, B, and B,+ dB, ... P,and P,+dP,, Q,andQ,+dQ,.. =| (10)
and A,andA,+dA,, B,and B,+d@B,... P,and P,+dP,,Q,andQ,+dQ,...J

respectively, and at the time ¢ between the limits

a, anda, + da,,b, and b,+db,...p,andp,+dp,,q,andq,+dq,.. al (11)
and @,and a,+ du,,b,andb,+db,...p,and p,+ dp», q,and q,t+dq,...J *
respectively. Because these molecules were free at the time 0, the
number of vessels in which at time 0 a pair of molecules fulfils the
condition (10) is, according to formula (5),

nH’e"G.+) JA dB, ...dP\dQ,...dA.dB,...dP,dQ,...

G, and G, are the energies of the molecules at the time 0. But the
above-mentioned vessels are identical with the vessels for which at the
time ¢ a pair of molecules fulfil the conditions (11). The number of the
last kind of vessels is therefore also given by the above expression. It is
easily seen that this expression is equal to

nHe“da,db, ...dp,dq,...da.db,...dpodqy...

where / is the whole energy of the two molecules at time ¢. Compari-
son with formula (7) shows that the last formula gives also the number of
vessels in which at time 0 a pair of molecules fulfilled the condition
{11). Therefore the theorem also holds good for the molecules of the
second kind.

(iii) Molecules which are in process of encounter at time 0, but are
free at time ¢ ;

(iv) Molecules which are free at times 0 and ¢, but which have been
encountered by another molecule between these two instants of time.

It is easily seen that our theorem can be proved in the same way as
before for every pair of molecules of the third or fourth kind.

To calculate the mean vis viva T of a molecule we put
Ly =k pthyqt ..4 to=hypthoog..., &e.

The coefficients 4 may be chosen to be functions of the co-ordinates such
that T acquires the form 4 (m,x,?+m,a,2+ ... m,x,"), where f is the
number of degrees of freedom of a molecule. The probability that for a

106 REPORT—1 894.

molecule the co-ordinates and the values of « may lie between a and
a+da, band b+db...«, and x,+da,, x, and x,+da,...is, according
to formula (3),

Heh seme alte dO. . te (Orie te

where D=

It is evident that each momentum, and therefore, also, each of the
variables x, can assume all values from —co to +co. We easily obtain
the value 1/2 for the average value of each term of the form }m,.
Therefore the average vis viva of a molecule is f/2h, the average vis viva of
the centre of mass of a molecule is 3/2, and the ratio of these two
quantities is /: 3,

The Best Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation.—
Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. STOKES
(Chairman), Professor A. ScHusTeR, Mr. G. JoHNSTONE STONEY,
Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain W. pe W. Abney, Mr. C. CHREE,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. E. Witson, and Professor H. McLeop.
(Drawn up by Professor McLeop.)

Very little has been done with Balfour Stewart’s actinometer during the
past year. It will be remembered that in the last Report it was stated
that an attempt had been made to replace the thermometer by a thermo-
couple of copper and iron. From the preliminary experiments it appears
that this arrangement is extremely sensitive, and using the instrument
as a dynamical actinometer, in which the rate of change of temperature
is recorded, a complete observation may be made in from two to three
minutes. It was mentioned last year that a D’Arsonval galvanometer
had been tried ; the Committee have now purchased an Ayrton-Mather
galvanometer specially wound for thermo-electric currents : this instru-
ment has been examined by Professor Ayrton, and to him and his pupil,
Mr. Arnold Philip, the Committee are indebted for much useful informa-
tion. ‘The instrument is not yet in a very satisfactory condition, for, in
order to make it sufficiently sensitive, the suspending wire has to be
unusually fine, and it takes a permanent set, which causes an alteration of
zero. Endeavours are being made to overcome this inconvenience. The
thermocouple of copper and iron does not give currents quite proportional
to the difference of temperature, and it might be preferable to replace the
iron by some other metal or alloy. Copper is, of course, one of the
essential metals, and it appears difficult to find any other material to
replace the iron which will give proportional currents of sufficient strength
to be useful.

The Committee ask for reappointment and for the unexpended portion
of the grant.

UNDERGR)IUND TEMPERATURE. 107

Underground Vemperature.—Twentieth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. D. Everett, Professor Lord KELvin,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Sir A. GerxieE, Mr. J. GLAISHER, Professor
Epwarp Hutu, Professor J. Prestwicu, Dr. C. LE NEvE Foster,
Professor A. S. HrrscHen, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. A. B.
Wynne, Mr. W. Gattoway, Mr. JosepH Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. E. WerHEreED, Mr. A. STRAHAN, and Professor
Micuiz Surin. (Drawn up by Professor EverErt, Secretary.)

Tue Committee were appointed for the purpose of investigating the rate
of increase of underground temperature downwards in various localities of
dry land and under water.

The nineteenth Report contained the results of observations taken in.
1891 by Mr. Hallock, of the Smithsonian Institution, at depths extend-
ing to 4,462 feet in a nearly dry well at Wheeling, Virginia.

Mr. Hallock, who now dates from Columbia College, New York, has
recently furnished the Secretary with printed copies of a paper, contributed
by him to the American Association for the Advancement of Science last
year, containing further observations in the well, made at the expense of
the U.S. Geological Survey.

When the observations of 1891 were finished, an oak plug was driven
into the top of the casing to protect the hole. In July 1893 the plug was
withdrawn, and the well, instead of being dry as before, was found to be
full of fresh water to within 40 feet of the top. This water is believed to
have leaked in at the lower end of the innermost casing—that is, at
1,570 feet below the surface.

By means of inverted Negretti maximum thermometers, protected
against pressure by sealing them in stout glass tubes, careful observations
were taken at various depths from 1,586 feet to 3,196 feet, two thermo-
meters being employed to check one another at each depth. The results
were practically identical with those obtained two years previously, when
the well was full of air, the greatest certain difference being only one-fifth
of a degree. An obstruction at 3,200 feet prevented observation at
greater depths ; but this obstruction will probably be removed, the well
pumped dry, and the drilling continued.

In making the observations, four thermometers were lowered at a time,
two of them being in an iron bucket 3 feet long and 3 inches in diameter
at the end of the wire, and the other two in an open wire frame 260 feet
from the end of the wire, the diameter of the bore being just under
5 inches.

The temperatures at 103 feet, 206 feet, and 300 feet were also observed
with suitable thermometers, the temperature at 103 feet being 52°°53,
which is 1°2 higher than the true temperature of the soil at that depth,
as determined by other observations in the immediate neighbourhood.

The smallness of the disturbance of temperature by convective circu-
lation in this well, both when dry and when filled with water, is very
remarkable, and renders the well specially suitable for determinations of
the increase of temperature downwards.

The Committee have to record with deep regret the loss of their
valuable member, Mr. Pengelly.

108

REPORT—1894.

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren (Chairman), Professor A. CRUM
Brown (Secretary), Dr. Joun Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER BUCHAN,

Hon. RaLtpH ABERCROMBIE, and Professor COPELAND.

by Dr. BucHaN.)

(Drawn up

Tue Committee were appointed as in former years for the purpose of co-
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making observations
on Ben Nevis at the two observatories situated respectively at the top and

bottom of the mountain.

During the year the hourly eye observations by night and by day
have been uninterruptedly made by Mr. Omond and his assistants ; and
the continuous registrations and other observations have been carried on
at the Low Level Observatory at Fort William with a like fulness of
detail as in previous years.

Owing to frequent storms and heavy snowfalls, which lay long and
deep, the climatic conditions at the top of the mountain were very severe ;
but the Directors have the greatest satisfaction in reporting that the
health of the observers has notwithstanding been good. The Directors
tender their best thanks to Messrs. Charles Stewart, B.Sc., Craig, Shand,

Herbertson, and Rankin.

TasLe I.—Showing Monthly Mean and Extreme Pressures, Temperatures,
Rainfall, Sunshine, and Clouds.

)
|
|

1893 Jan. | Feb. |March| April May | June} July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year |
Mean Pressure in Inches.

Ben Nevis Ob- | 25°336| 24*936) 25°373| 25°580) 25-493) 25-491) 25°37] 25-437) 25°225| 25°171) 25°360) 25-101) 25-324
servatory

Fort Wiliiam | 29:991| 29°503) 29972) 30°151| 30018) 29-974] 29-842| 29-902] 29°718) 29°699] 30-004) 29-682] 29°871:

Differences .| 4°655| 4°567| 4°599| 4°571| 4°525| 4°483| 4-465] 4°465| 4°493| 4:528| 4-644] 4°581| 4°547

Mean Temperatures.

BenNevisOb-| 23-2 | 23:8 | 285 | 399 | 37-4| 43:5 | 430) 436| 361 | 31:8 | 258] 267 | 380
servatory

Fort William | 37°6 | 39°9 | 43:5 | 49:2 | 536) 57:5 | 59:0 | 59:5 | 52:6] 47:7 | 39:1 | 424] 485

Differences . | 144 | 161 | 15°0 | 143 | 162 | 15:0 | 17:0 | 15:9] 165 | 15:9 | 133 | 15:7 | 15°5

Extremes of Temperature, Maxima.

Ben NevisOb-| 35:7 | 349 | 39°9| 52:5 | 521| 626) 57-2 | 62:2 | 57-3 | 48:0 | 302) a7-6| 6S6
servatory

Fort William | 52:1 | 55:0 | 60:8 | 71°3 | 69:8} 74:1 | 79:3 | 832 | 687] 584 | 53:8 | 53:5 | 83-2

Differences .| 164 | 201 | 20:9] 188 | 17:7 | 11°5 | 221 | 210 | 11-4 10-4 | 146 | 15:9 | 20°6

Extremes of Temperature, Minima.

. ° ° ° ° ° °o °o ° ° ° ° °o °

Ben NevisOb-| 6:4 | 13°0 | 10°3 | 2u:2 | 22:7] 29:8 | 33:1 | 32:0] 184] 17:0] 102] 72] 64
servatory

Fort William | 139 | 248 | 25°0 | 32:7 | 36:0 | 41:2 | 42:0 | 41:3 | 32:0 | 32:8 | 265] 21-6] 13:9

Differences .| 75 | 118 | 147] 125 | 133] 114] 89| 93] 136] 158] 163] 144] 7:5

Rainfall in Inches.

Ben NevisOb- | 12:23] 10°33] 12°57 5:99] 5:48| 5:88| 12°32| 14:79] 19:25 | 22°84) 18-43) 25°66 |165°77
servatory

Fort William | 5:40] 8-47/ 4:44 3:12) 2:73] 1:89] 3:95) 6:55] 9:35| 12:75) 8-03] 1686] 83:54

' Differences 6°83, 1:86| 813 2:87, 2:75; 3:99| 837| 824| 9:90| 10:09; 10°40] 880} 82:23

ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 109

TABLE I.—continued.

1893 | Jan. | Feb. |March| April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct.

Nov. | Dec. | Year

Number of Days of no Rain.

BenNevisOb- 6 5 11 14 11 13 10 4 4 0 ll 0 89
servatory |
Fort William 9 10 11 16 16 18 12 9 9 3 15 2 120

Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.

BenNevisOb-| 3 4 3 1 1 1 3 3 7 7 6 12 51
servatory
Fort William 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 3 12
Hours of Sunshine.

BenNevisOb-| 29 15] 83 151 73.) 134| 57 34 39 14 50 1 680
servatory

Fort William 25 54 | 107 174 | 128 186 | 110 92 | 108 45 30 6 | 1,065

Differences .| —4 39 | 24 23 55 52 | 53 58 69 31 | —20 5 385

Percentage of Cloud.

Ben Nevis Ob-| 87 92 75 61 88 74 92 92 88 95 71 98 84
servatory

Fort William | 68 82 74 56 68 60 82 80 68 80 68 84 72

Differences .| 19 10 1 5 20 14 10 12 20 15 3 14 12

For the year 1893 Table I. gives the monthly mean and extreme
pressures, temperatures, hours of sunshine, amounts of clouds and rainfall,
and number of days of no rain on the one hand, and on the other of days
when the rainfall was not less than one inch at the two observatories, the
mean pressures at the top being reduced to 32° only, while those at Fort
William are reduced to 32° and sea level.

The mean temperature of the year at Fort William was 48°-5, being
3°-2 greater than that of the previous year, and 1°-3 in excess of the mean
annual temperature of the place. The mean at the top of the mountain
was 33°-0, which is 3°°3 in excess of the previous year and 2°-2 greater
than the mean annual temperature deduced from all the observations
made since 1881. The following show the deviations of the monthly
results from their respective means :—

Top of Bea Nevis Fort William

January . C 2 : : Z —15 —17
February . : 2 ° - - —0O1 +0°7
March 4 : F b F F +59 +3°5
April. F ; F - : * +86 +38
May. : s - : E +52 +36
June. . é 2 = F 4 +40 +17
July . : 5 - - 2 - +1°9 +17
August . ° ° 2 - +41 +25
September . : . : : —1°6 —06
October . 5 ; : : 7 + 0:3 —O1
November 5 3 F ‘ y —2:2 —2°6
December . : . f F F +20 + 2°4

Year. 2 : c : - +2°2 +13

Thus the outstanding feature of the meteorology of the year was the
abnormally high temperature which prevailed during the six months from
March to August. The mean temperature at the top for the six months
was then 5° above the mean, whilst at Fort William it was only 2°°8, or
but little more than half the excess at the top of the mountain. The
reason for this extraordinary difference is the remarkable and prolonged

110 REroRT—1894.,

continuance of anti-cyclonic weather during the time when, as has been
often referred to in our Reports.to-the British Association,-the tempe-
rature at the tcp is frequently much higher, absolutely, than it is at
Fort William.

The lowest mean monthly temperature at Fort William was 37°°6, for
January, and at the top 23°-2 in the same month, these being respectively
1°-7 and 1°-5 under the average of the month. The warmest month was
August at both stations, where the means were 59°-5 and 43°°6, or 2°°5 and
4°-] in excess of their averages.

The maximum temperature at the top was 62°°6 on June 18, and at
Fort William 83°°2 on August 9. The minimum at the top was 6°:4 on
January 2, and at Fort William 13°°9 on January 6 As compared with
previous years the minima for the five months from April to August were
relatively high reading at both stations, showing that the temperature
was during these months not only high as regards the means, but was
marked by a singular absence of such low temperatures as usually occur.

At the top the registrations of the sunshine recorder show 680 hours
out of a possible 4,470 hours, being 122 hours fewer than during the
previous year, and 228 fewer than during 1891. The following months
exceeded the averages : March by 20 hours, April by 60 hours, November
by 23 hours, and January by 6 hours. The maximum was 151 hours in
April, and this is also longer than any previous recorded April. All other
months fell short of the averages, and during the whole of December only
one hour’s sunshine was recorded, and on the following month, viz., January:
1894, only three hours’ sunshine occurred. At Fort William the number
of hours of sunshine were 1,065, which is respectively 114 and 155 hours
fewer than during the previous two years. The maximum was 186 hours
in June, and the minimum 6 hours in December. At these stations, in
common with a large surrounding district, 1894 was characterised by a
singular deficiency of sunshine, which is remarkable in view of the high
temperature of the year. At the top of the mountain the proportion of
the actual to the possible sunshine was only 15 per cent., and at Fort
William the percentage was 30, or double that at the top.

At the top the percentage of cloud covering the sky was 84, being the
average of previous years. It varied greatly in the different months,
being above 90 per cent. in February, July, August, October, and December,
which were characterised by a marked deficiency of sunshine, and reached
98 per cent. in December, when, as already stated, only one hour of sun-
shine was recorded. On the other hand, the minimum 61 per cent.
occurred in April, the month of the absolute maximum sunshine, being
66 per cent. above the maximum of the month.

The following table shows the lowest humidities of each month :—

TaBLr IT.— Lowest Hygrometric Readings each Month.

1 ’
== | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Aprit| May eas July | Aug.

Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
ee ee Se tie, oi ao | C) | ° ° ° ° | o | o
Dry Bulb. a . | 246) 228) 14:8} 35:2] 328) 481] 52°3| 47-1] 51°6| 37-7) 27:8) 17:0
Wet Bulb ~ . | qot) 20:6] 120! 25:4} 262) 35°9) 42°6| 33-8] 37-2 | d9-0| 99-2! 14-6
Dew-point . .|—12:2| 65| —98/ 9:7] 12°3| 225) 328] 18:7] 29°3| 168] —1:°3| —3°6
Elastic Force . : 424 058!) “026! 067 | *075| 120} °186} °101} 122 093) 041 037
Relative Humidity | 18 47 BL | 33 | 40 36 | 47 31 32 41 27 39

As compared with the similar table in last year’s Report the following

ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 111

results are interesting for 1892 and 1893 : Lowest dew-point, —27°:8 and

—12°-2, highest dew-point 21°-2 and 32°:8 ; lowest elastic force 0-010 inch
and 0-024 inch ; highest elastic force 0:114 inch and 0-122 inch; and
lowest relative humidity 7 and 18, and highest 47 and 47. These results
point to a large excess of aqueous vapour in the air at the Ben Nevis
Observatory during 1893.

The rainfall for the year at the top was 165-77 inches, being 18-00
inches above the mean annual rainfall. At Fort William the amount was
83:54 inches, which is 10°37 inches above the mean.. These amounts are re-
spectively 12 and 14 per cent. above their averages. The maximum monthly
rainfall at the Ben Nevis Observatory was 25:66 inches, in December, and
the minimum 5:48 inches, in May. The minimum monthly fall for 1892
was 5°42 inches in March, and these two years show the largest minimum
falls of any of the years since the Observatory was opened. Hence, at
this high level situation the rainfall was not only considerably above the
mean, but it continued to be relatively large through all the months of
this year, which will be long remarkable for an unprecedented drought
over a large portion of the British Islands. On the other hand, at the
Low Level Observatory the amount of the rainfall was short of the average
for each of the five months from March to July, the deficiency amounting
to 5:12 inches.

At Fort William the rain fell on 235 days, and at the top on 260 days,
being respectively 3 days under and 26 days above their averages. The
maximum number of days on which rain fell was 31 days at the top and
29 at Fort William in December, and the minimum number 16 days in
March and 12 days in June respectively.

The maximum daily rainfall at the top was 4:29 inches on Novem-
ber 28, and at Fort William 3:25 inches on October 24. At the former
station instances of one inch a day or upwards occurred during each of
the twelve months, whereas at Fort William, during the five months from
March to July, the rainfall on none of the days reached an inch. During
the year the rainfall amounted to an inch or upwards on 51 days, but at
Fort William the number of days was only 12, being a lower proportion
at Fort William, as compared with the top, than has previously been
recorded. Thus, while during the spring and early summer of 1893 Fort
William participated in some degree in the prevailing drought, the rainfall
and moisture at the Ben Nevis Observatory were above their average, a
result probably occasioned by the stronger ascending currents from the
superheated surface of the earth carrying to higher levels than usual the
moisture of lower levels.

Auroras are reported to have been observed on the following dates :—
January 5, 9, 10, and 11; February 15; March 26 and 29; April 3, 11,
12, 26, and 27; May 9; August 12; September 11 ; October 4 and 17;
and November 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14.

St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on February 9; April 6 and 20; August 15;
October 25 ; and December 8.

Thunderstorms occurred on April 6; May 19 and 21; June 8, 12,
and 13; July 7, 8, 10,and 11; August 15; September 8 ; and Decem-
ber 11. On May 21 the thunderstorm passed below the level of the
summit, being very severe, with much lightning and exceptionally heavy
rain and hail at Fort William, while on the summit there was no lightning
and only a slight shower of rain. On June 13 the thundercloud enveloped
the summit for some time, and the lightning, entering the Observatory,
damaged the telegraph cable, and greatly interrupted communication

112 REPORT—1894.

during the rest of the month, so that on several nights the usual daily weather
report could not be wired to the newspapers. The thunderstorm of July 7-8,
though very severe, was fortunately unaccompanied by any damage.

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure at 32° and sea level
was 29:871 inches, and at the top 25°324 inches, the difference being thus
4:547 inches. The lowest pressure at the top for the year was 23-888
inches in December and the highest 26°003 inches in April, the difference
being 27115 inches, being considerably above the average difference. This
large difference was due to the low reading in December, which was an
altogether exceptional month as regards the almost continuous saturated
state of the atmosphere, and to the high readings which accompanied the
anticyclonic weather of the spring and early summer. In truth, the
monthly means were uninterruptedly above the average for the six months
from March to August, the mean excess for the half-year being so much
as 0°101 inch above the average, an excess only exceeded in 1887, the
Jubilee year, when the mean monthly pressure was uninterruptedly above
the average from February to July, the mean excess being 0144 inch.
This period was also strongly anticyclonic.

The important hygrometric research carried on at the High and Low
Level Observatories and described in the Committee’s last two Reports
to the British Association has been continued. During the past year
Mr. Herbertson has conducted the observations with the assistance of
Mr. Angus Rankin, First Assistant at the Observatories, and of Mr. F. J.
Hambly, F.C.8., F.1.C., Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry at University
College, Dundee ; and of Mr. Marr, Demonstrator of Botany in the same
College.

An Assmann aspiration psychrometer was read for dry and wet bulb
temperatures, in addition to the thermometers in the Stevenson screen.
The dust particles in the air were counted, and the general weather con-
ditions of each experiment were noted. Nearly 100 experiments were
made at both observatories, of which 57 were synchronous.

A comparison of the readings of the ventilated thermometers with
those of the screen only shows that in calm, or virtually calm, weather
the wet-bulb in the Stevenson box is much nearer the dry-bulb reading
than in the Assmann aspiration psychrometer. When no measures are
taken for causing an air current to pass the thermometer bulbs, all
readings made in calm or light airs require to be neglected in hygro-
metric work. Under ordinary conditions, the total amount of water
vapour in the air does not vary much in a fine day.

A discussion of the simultaneous observations at high- and low-levels
brings out some very interesting results. On September 11, 1893, with a
normal temperature gradient between the two observatories, the water-
vapour remained fairly constant at both places all day, there being an
excess of about 1:5 gramme per cubic metre at the lower station. On
September 4 the summit temperature was only from 2° to 7° lower than
at Fort William, instead of 16°°0 the normal difference ; and on this
occasion the difference between the quantities of water-vapour was as great
as from 6°67 to 4-60 grammes per cubic metre. This great variation was
almost entirely due to changes in the amount of water-vapour in the
upper air, since there was a steady increase of vapour from 9°15 grammes
per cubic metre at 9 a.m. to 10°56 at 2 p.m.,and 11°40 at 7 p.m. at the low-
level station ; whereas the vapour at the summit was 2°72 at 9 a.m., 5°96
at 2 p.m., 3°92 at 5 p.m., 5°55 at 7 p.m., and 5°89 at 9 p.m. ; the maximum
at the summit at 2 p.m. being evidently caused by an uprush of moister

ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 113

air from the valleys. Thin cirrus clouds floated above the hill all day,
and detached masses of fog were in the valleys. The next day the hill-
top was enveloped in mist, and thick cumulus clouds were observed over
Fort William with a smaller hourly variation both of temperature and
water-vapour.

Mr. Marr continued the work at Fort William at Christmas, and
Mr. Herbertson in May, the latter having carried on the experiments
in the drier air of Montpellier during the early months of this year.
These data have served to extend the curves drawn from the figures
already obtained, the Montpellier results being found to agree well with
those made at Fort William where they overlapped.

It is Mr. Herbertson’s intention to continue these investigations in the
coming autumn and winter, more special attention being then given to
secure an increased number of simultaneous high and low determinations
of water-vapour.

The inquiry into the hourly variation of pressure and temperature at
the observatories during days of clear weather on the one hand, and days
of fog or mist throughout on the other, has been prosecuted during the
year. On completing the hourly variations of pressure during each of
these two distinct types of weather at the Low Level Observatory at Fort
William on the same days at the top of the mountain, it was seen that
substantially the same sets of curves obtained in both situations. In
particular at both places the same extraordinarily high pressure from
about 6 p.M. to 2 A.M. occurs during days of fog or mist, or completely
clouded days, thus demonstrating the important réle played by the
aqueous vapour of the atmosphere in the diurnal meteorological changes.
The point was considered to be of such importance as to warrant the
extension of the inquiry to another place where the climate, as regards
moisture, resembles in some degree that of Fort William. Trieste, at the
head of the Adriatic Sea, was selected for examination, particularly since
the hourly values for pressure and sunshine are published for this place.
The results for the three observatories are giver in Tables III. to VIII.
of this Report. The times over which the inquiry extends are three years,
from August 1890 to July 1892 for the Ben Nevis Observatories, and the
three years 1888 to 1890 for Trieste. The results have been ‘ bloxamed,’ as
explained in our last Report (p. 284).

The results of the investigation, so far as it has been carried, are,
broadly stated, these :—During fine cloudless weather the hourly curves.
of the three places are virtually congruent with their curves for the
whole of the observations, clear and clouded alike, except that the diurnal
phases of maxima and minima are more strongly pronounced, and the
evening maximum is continued for a shorter period. During foggy and
clouded weather each of the three places shows in the colder months
of the year the ordinary double maxima and minima of pressure fairly
well marked. It is quite otherwise in the warmer months, when at the
Ben Nevis Observatories the morning maximum is virtually obliterated,
and Trieste very greatly reduced. It is, however, the evening maximum
which shows the most surprising results. This is at all seasons at the
low-level stations, but in the warmer months it is the outstanding feature
of the curves. For May, June, and July the mean at the top is 0-018
inch, at Fort William 0:023 inch, and at Trieste also 0-023 inch. In
these months the maximum of this phase of the barometric curve occurred
either at midnight or shortly before it.

The temperature curves for the Ben Nevis Observatory have also been

1894. 1

114 REPORT—1894.

calculated, with the result that on clear days the diurnal range of tempera-
ture is only very slightly in excess of that of foggy days. But in summer
the difference between the mean coldest and warmest hour is 1°1 ; but
on clear days the difference is 2°-9, or nearly three times greater.

The further prosecution of this inquiry and examination of the
cyclones and anti-cyclones of North-Western Europe will engage the
attention of your Committee next year, when a large portion of the time
of Dr. Buchan and Mr. Omond will be given to this work.

TasLe III.—Showing at the Ben Nevis Observatory the Mean Hourly
Variation of Pressure, in thousandths of an inch, during clear days,
The minus sign means under the average.

| |
Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April) May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. } Oct. | Nov. | Dec. Year |
1 AM. —13 |}y—10 | — 8 | — 7) — 7 | —-9| —10 | —11 | =13 | —16 | —17 |) —17.))—12 |
= —15 | —12 | —10 | —10/] —11} —12 | —13 | —13 | —14 | —16 | —17 | —18 | —13
3B) Sy —14} —13 | —14} —14| -—15 | — 6 | —18} —16 | —16 | —17 | —18 | —17 | —16
nee —16 | —15 | —16 | —17 | —18 | —17 | —20 | —18 | —17 | —17 | —18 | —18 | —17
5 55 —16 | —14 | —15 | —17 | —18 | —17 | —19 | —17 | —16 | —15 | —18 | —19 | —17
Gina —11} — 9] —10} —13 | —13 | —13 | —16 | —14 | —12 | —12 | —15 | —15 | —12
“5 —6|—6/—7|—9|—9|—9]/-11}—9]/—7/—6|/—8]-—9]|-8
8 5 -—-0O}/-—-1/—-1/-—3)/-—4/-—5;);—6/—3/4+1]/+4+4/4+3/41]-—-1)
ies +10} + 6)/+5/+1/+0/+4+0/—1) +2/+4 6) 41L] +12] +11] +5!
10) 35 +14] +10) + 9} 4+ 5/4 4/4 3)+4 3) + 6) + 9] +15 | +18) +16] + 9
Ls +17 | +13 | +12) +9) +7) 4+ 6) 4+ 7/4 9] 412] +18 | +22) 421 | +13
Noon +15 | +13 | +14 | +12 | +11 | +11 | +11 | +13 | +15 | +20 | +22 | 419] +415
1 PM. 412) +12 | +14} +14 | +12} +12) +13 | +15 | +16 | +18 | +17] 414] +14}
D453 + 8} + 8} +10} +13 | +13 | +14 | +14 | +14 | +12 | +13 | +13 | 411} 412
Boo +5) +5) +5/ + 9] +11 | +13} +13 | +13 | +11} 4+ 9/4+ 8)4+ 7/49
4%; +4/43)+2/+4+6)] + 8] +11! +11) +10) +6) +5/4+6/4+7/4+7)
Die ins +5/+5/)/+3/+5/+6/+4+8/410)+8/+5/+5/4+6/4+8/4+6,
bs +7/4+ 6/4 4/4 4/4 4/4+6/)/4+8/4+6/4+5/4+4/4 7/49/46
Tits +7) 4+6/4+4/)4+4/4+3/4 4.47) 4+6/45/)/4+4/4+6)4+8/4+5
855, +6/+5/4+4/+5/4+5)/4+5/4+7/4+7/4+5)/4+3)4+4)/4+6/4+5
Ds +A SE OO Fe BT) + 8) + 6 2 | — 3) — 0] Fs) 4 |
10 ,, +0) +0/4+40)/4+3/44)/45)/46]/4+2)/—2}/—7-p>—4]—2]/ 41)
0 —5)/—4/-—2;—-—0/;—0/+1]+1]-—2]—-— 8] —13| —11} —9]|— 4)
Midnight —-1ll1|}/-—9/—5/~4]—65/]—65]—5]—7] -—12] —16] —15 | —14/] — 9 |
|

TaBLE TV.—Showing at the Ben Nevis Observatory the Mean Hourly
Variation of Pressure, in thousandths of an inch, during days of fog or
mist. The minus sign shows the means wnder the average.

Hour Jan, | Feb, | Mar. | April} May | June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
1 AM. +4/+8/+6/+8/+7/410/+7|/4+6/+4/4+8]/+6/+6|) 47}
Nay +0;/+1;)-—2/-—2)—4)/—1)—2])-—0/—3/—0]—1]+4+2)]-1
3 — 3) —6]—10) —11 | —11 | — 9] -—10| — 8] -10/ —~5|] —5]—1]— 8!
Ces — 9|—12 | —14} —17 | —17 | —16 | —16 | —15 |} —15 | — 9|— 8] —7)| —15 |
ars —11 | —14 | —15 | —21 | —20 | —20 | —20 | —18} —16 |} —10 | — 9 | —11 |) —15
Biers, —15 | —18 | —16 | --20 | —20 | —20 | —19 | —17 | —16 | —11 | —10 | —13 | —16 |
i —14 |} —16 | —13 | —17 | —17 | —18 | —17 | —146 | —14 | — 8] — 8] —11 | —14!
8 ,, — 9| —10} — 7) —11 | —12 | —15 | —14 | —13 | -10] —- 3}-—2]/—6]—9
9555 —5|/—8]— 4) — 9/ —10} -13} —11 | —11) — 8] —1] +3] —1] —7|}
1Ol. —1})—4]/—0)|]—5|—6]-10}/—8/—8/—6]}]—1]+3]+1]-— 4}
1a +3/40/+3)/—2/—3/—7|/—-4/—4/—3]/-—1]+3]43]-—1
Noon +4/+2/)/4+5);)+0;);—1}/—4;/—0}/—1]—0|/—2/)}+0/+1/41
1 PM —O/}—-1/43/43/+3/4+1)/4+3/4+4/4+1]/—5]/—4]—4]/ 41)
iiss —-3)/—4/4+1/4+4/4+5/4+4/4+4/4+4/4+1/-—-7/-—-6]/—7]-1
Sis —4/—5;—0/+4+4/4+6/+3/45/4+3/+0}]—8|]-—8/]-—8]|—-1
4503, —2)/—4/—3/4+2)/+6)/4+7/4+7/4+4/4+1/-—8]/-—7]—6] +0)
Biss +1)/+1/4+,0) #2)/4+5/)+6/4+6/+4)43)]-—4)/—5]—4/] +2]
6 ,, +4) 4+ 5/42) +4) 47/4 9/4+7)/45/+4)/—1]/-—-2}/-1]4 4}
aap: +8) +9) +5) + 8} 410} +14] +12] +410} 4+ 9/4+4/44/4+4/4 8)
Sie +11 | +12 | + 9| +12 | +13 | 416 | 415 | +15] +13] +8] 4+7/ + 8] +12
9) +4; +12) +14) +10 | +14 | +15 | +20 | +19 | +18 | +16 | +13 | +11] +12] +14
10 ,, +11 | +14 | +10} +15 | +16 | +22 | +21 | +20 | +17] +15 | +12] +13] +16
i Is Bees +10 | +14} +10 | +15] +16 | +22 | +21 | +20] +16] +15 | +12] 412] 415
Midnight +10) +15 | +11 | +15 | +14 | +22} +19] +18 | +13 | +14] +11 |] 413] 415

ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 115

Taste V.—Showing at Fort William Observatory the Mean Hourly Varia-
tion of Pressure, in thousandths of an inch, during clear days. The
minus sign shows means under the average.

| |

Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May | June! July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
1 AM. —14/=7/—0/+6)+7|/+6)+4+3|— 3) — 9} —16| —20/ —19| - 6
8 ihe -13|—6|/—0/+6/+8/+6|/+3]—2]|—6)—12| —17| -17| —4
35 S44 = 8) = Si sa13.N) Che P42 fe 2 = Si Sia 18") 139). 6
ls S15 7 fae DT eae bt 8 eT sy) — Th 6) 10 KIT | 38) = 4
BTS -15/—6/—0|+7] +410} +9/+4/—1]— 4; — 8] —16/ —18| — 3
S| —9/—2)+7| +13) +17} +16 | +11) + 8} +4)—0)—9] —12|)4+ 4
Ts —2| +3) +11} +16} +19] +17 | +13 | +12] +10); +6)}—1}/—5/4+8
8) + 9| +12 | +18 | +18 | +20 | +18] +16 | +18 | +19 | +18] +13 | +10 | +16
‘o7 416 | +15 | +18 | +16 | +16 | +15 | +14] +37 | +20 | +23) +21 | +17] +17
10715 422 | +18] +18 | +14] +11 | +11 | +12} +16 | +19 | +26 | +28) +24) +18
De Ss 496) +17| +14) +7) 4+ 3/4 4]/4 5] +9] +14|{ +23 | +29) +26 | +15
Noon 421] 412/49/+2|/—2]—0]/+4+2)/+ 6) +11] +19) +24) +25) +11
1PM. +10} +4/—0]—6]—-10}—8]—5|]—1] +43] +11] +16 | +14| + 2
as +6|—2|—8|—12| -14]-12}—9]/—5/—2]44)/+7/+7]-—838
18 oP — 3]—7]|—15| —19 | —20 | —16 | —14| —12} —9}—4]—1] + 2] —10
a5 —2]—s8]| —18| —22 | —23 | —20] —17] —15 | —12/ —6]—1) + 3| —12
5a. —1]—9]| -—19 | —24 | —25 | —23 | —19} —18| —15| —9]|—1]| + 4] —13
6 +5/—3|—13| —)9 | —2t | —20} —16 | —15| -10| —5|/+3|)/+7/—-9
Wet as 4+4]/—1/—9]—14! —17] —17| —13| —-l11] -—7|/—4/+2|]+6]—6
BY +5/+2/—-2/—5|/—-7]/—7]/—5|/—2/—0|/—1/+2]/+4+5/-1
Bt 3s SOPo1l)H—1lp+eiieip+roleiy+o0p—1),—4)—-3)-1)—1
1) —2?/—1/41])+4/4+6/4+5/+5/+2)/—2);—8|—8|—5;-0
i 4 —~s/—4/—2/+4/+6]+6]+ 5] + @ — 6] —15| —15| —11| —3
Midnight | -12/—6/—1,/+5,)+7]/+6|+4/-—3 —10 | —19 | —21 | -—18| — 6

Taste VI.—Showing at Fort William Observatory the Mean Hourly
Variation of Pressure, in thousandths of an inch, during days of fog or
mist. The minus sign shows means under the average.

Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April| May | June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year
1AM. +9} 413 | +11] +14} +15 | +16 | +12] +10| + 9 | +11] + 9] +11] +12
2 145 4+6)4+9/4+5/+7)+7)/4+8)/4+4)/4+3/4+1)+5/4+4)/4+8/+6
S55 —2)—2/—6|/—5|/—5|/—4;)—6|/—6]}—8|—4/—-3;+1]-—4
4 ss —7|/—7)—8]|-—10|] — 9] —10] —12] —12| -12} -—6|—6/-4/—-—9
iy —10 | —10 | — 9 | —14 | —14 | —15 | —15 | —16 | —16 |} —10] — 9/ — 9 | —12
Git, —12 | —13 | — 9} —11 | —11 | —13 | —13 | —14] —13] — 8| — 6] — 8} —1l
fd ss —13 | —13 | — 8| —11 | —11] —13 | —12 | —12 | —11} — 7} —7j)| —10) —11
aes — 9] -10} —3/—6|]—7]-—10}—9|]—9|—7]—2]—0|—5|—6
Bi) —6|/-—8|—2|—5]— 8| —12} -—10; —9}]—8|—1]+2|-—2)]—6
O15 +2/—-1/4+4]—3]—7]-12}-—9})/—6;—5,/+2)+6]+5]—-2
AL i,j +4/—1/+4+1]-—6|—8]} -—1l|—8)—7]/-—7,-—2)+5)/+6|]—3
Noon +1}/—2})4+1}]—4]}/—6}]—8]—5)—3,;—5;—4/+0]+4+1]|—-—3
1 PM. —4/—8s8]—4|]-—-7}/-—6|—7]/-—-4}]—4;—6,—8;—5/-—-6|]-6
2455 —9]-11/-—-7}/—5|]—4]—5/]—2]—3]— 4] —10/—8]-10}—7
3453 —1l1 | —12 | —13 |} -10} — 8| —7| —5| — 6/| — 6} —12 | —12]| —12]| —10
Je | —7|-10| -12/—-9]/-—-8|-—7|—4]—4/—4)]-10}/-—8]-—7]—8
Dt —3/—5/—8s8/]—8/—6|]—4/—4/—4|]—3)—7)]—6|)-—6;—5
Bite +3/42)/—-1})/—1})/—1})/4+1)/+0)4+1)+4)4+1)4+0;);-—1]/4+1
le +6) +5) +2) +2) +3) 4+4)/4+3)/4+5)+8)/+4/4+2)/4+1)/+4
Sis +9] +11} +10] +11 | +11 | 412] +11 | +13 | 417) +11) 4+ 7) 4+ 5) +1
O° +10 | +12 | +10} +15 | +17 | +19 | +17 | +17 | +18] +12 | + 8} + 7| 414
TO ts +12 | +16 | +15 | +20] +22 | +24 | +22] +22 | +21 | +16 | +10 | +11 | +18
1 ae +11 | +13 | +14] +19 | +21 | +24 | +22 | +20! +19] +16 | +11 | +12] +17
Midnight +15 | +22] +19 | +23 | +22] +25 | +22) +19 | +17 | +18 | +13 | +17] +19

=
to

116 REPORT—1894.

Taste VII.—Showing at Trieste the Mean Hourly Variation of Pressure,
in thousandths of an inch, during clear days. The minus sign shows
means under the average.

Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| April| May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year
1 AM. a6) Bes Pe 0 0 |e 0 ee Dee Dee 6 error) -FrGaer 3s
Pye EO Ve oa: fe =a ee eI nV a +3/)+5/]+ 2
Baees 44144/40]/—3]}/—4]/-4/—5}/—3|—4/-1]/—0|/4+4]-1
ee +1/42/—3/—5/—6]/—6}/—6/—5|—5|—2/—2]/4+1)-—838
Bis —2}/—o0}/—4/—5|—6|—4]/—3|—4|/—4|]—38|-—4]/-—2]-3
65 = 9) =O} = 1) =] Py Hb fe Ye 0 eS 2 Th ne) — a 8 |)
7s +0/44/4+6/4+7/4+7/4+7/4+6)/+4)/4+5/4+38)/4+1)/—1/4+4
3 5 4+ 4] +9] 413 | +12 | +15 | +12 | +12 | +10] +11 | +10) + 8} + 5] +10
ees +10 | +14 | +16} +19 | +17 | +16 | +16 | +16 77 | 416) See) eS
30) 5,5 +11 | +14 | +15 | +18 | +16 | +16 | +16 +16 | +16 | +14] 413 | +11 | 415
UES + 8| +11 | 413} +15 | +15 | +15] +15 | +13 | +13 | +11 | +10] + 8 | +12
Noon +2] 47 +10] +12) +11 | +12] +12} +9)4+ 8/+4/+4+3)/+ 9) 4 8
1 P.M. —8}/—5}/4+1/+5/+6/+5/+6/+3/+1)—8)}—6/—9]—0
ies —l6|—14/—7|/—3]/—0]—0]+1]|]—2]|—6] —11}] —-13|}—6]-—7
ois —16| —17] —11] —-9|—6|]—5|—3]— 6] —11 | —16| —15 | —17 | —11
CN —15 | —18 | —15 | —14] —11 } —11 }] —10 | —12 | —16 | —19 | —16 | —17 | —14
5, —13 | —18 | —16}| —17 | —16 | —17 | —15 | —16 | —17 | —18 | —15 | —14 | —16
ee —9|—14] —15 |] —18 | —18 | —19 | —19 | —18 | —15 | —14 | —10 | —10 | —15
ee —3/—8]—9]|—12] —13 | —16| —17| —15 | —11|-—7|—4|— 4] —10
S35 +1]/—3]/—4/—6]—8]-11]-1l}-—7/—3]/—1]/4+1)+2)-4
Oe. 4+6}/+4/4+2/4+1/4+0/—2)/—2/4+2),44/4+6)+6)/+7)4+3
URS 4+81/4+6/4+3/4+3)/4+3/4+2/4+2)+5/4+6/4+8/+8/4+ 9/45
hers 49147143) 42/4+3/4+4/4+3/4+5);4+4/4+7) 4 8/ +11) 45
Midnight oleae) eoPHll +1) +43)/4+2)44)/+42)4+ 6) 4+ 6) 410) 4+ 4

Taste VIII.—Showing at Trieste the Mean Hourly Variation of Pressure,
in thousandths of an inch, during completely clouded days. The
minus sign indicates means above the average.

Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April} May | June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year
1 AM. +9} 411] +14] +18 | +21] +15] +5) —i1/] + 6/ +15 | +16] +13 | +12
hee +7} +8] +8) 410) +10) +4)—2)—7)/4+1)/ + 8) +12} +10) + 6
Be +6}/+3/—1|]—3|]—2|]—6] —10/ -13|—7|/+1]/+6|+8]-—2
Lae —~1/—3]—s8s]-—10/—9]|—12]} —16|/ —19] —16|—8]—4|]—0|]-—9
Be ss —6|]—7]|—15|—17 | —14 | —13 | —13 | —18 | —15 | —13 | — 9] — 5} -12
aes — gs} —10 | —17 | —19 | —15 | —14 ] —11 | —15 | —13 | —15 | —13 | — 8 | -—138
7 As —6|—9]|—15| —17} —183}—9}]—3]— 6] —10] —14] —12} — 7] —10
Bee —~o0/—1}]—8]-—-1l1}/—8|/—4]/—2;—3]/—5]—6/—6]—-1]—5
ee 4+7/4+6]/—1]/—4]/—1]+ 4] +12] 410)4+7)-—2|/—2)+4)43
10 ,, 410] +10} +2/—1]—0]/ +4] +15] +15) +13) +2/+1)/+6/47
TH +8 | 410} +4]/—1]/—3] +1] +16] +20] +18/+2/—1/4+2]/46
Noon +0/4+4/4+0)/—3/-—7] +0] +9) 415) +11]—-—3}-—9|—-—7}41
1PM —9|/—5|/—4]—8]-10|}—4]+3]/+8]+2]|— 9] —15| —-16|]—-—6
oi. 16 | —13| — 8} —10 | —11| —6| — 6} — 2 | —10 | —13 | —19 | —21 } —11
ae es _17| —16 | —11 | -12 | —13 | — 8] —10] — 6 | —13 | —11 ] —15 | —18 | —12
te —17 | —16 | —11 | —12 | —14 | —11] —14] — 8 | —13] — 7] —11} —15] —12
NESS —13 | -14] —8]—9]|—12] —10] —15 | — 8 | —12] — 5| — 8} —11] —10
fee —9|/—9|/—5]/—3|—6|]—7]|—16| —10| —-11}—2]—4|—7]-—8
Moss —~2)/—2!142/4+5/4+1)/-—2|—3|,+2)4+4/4+4/4+3)/4+1]/41
Sts 4+3/4+3]/4 9] 412/+ 8/+3/+2)+ 6) 4+ 9] +10) +9) +6/4+6
ays 410 | + 8] +14 | +18 | +18 | +13 | +13 | +13 | +15 | +14] +15 | +12] 414
10 7 413 | 413 | +17 | +22 | +21 | +17 | +12 | + 8 | +10] +15] +20] +17 | +16
TS 415 | +15 | +21 | +27 | +27) +21 | +14] + 9 | +13 | +18] +23) +19] +18
Midnight | +16 | +16] +21 | +28 | +31 | +22 | +17 | +11 | +18 | +21 | +24 |) +20] +21

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 117

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements——Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor CaREY Foster (Chairman), Lord KEtvin, Professors
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Apams, and Lord RAYLEIGH, Drs. O.
J. Loner, JOHN HopKInson, and ‘A. MUIRHEAD, Messrs. WH,
PREECE and HERBERT TAYLor, Professor J. D. EvERETT, Professor
a Scauster, Dr. J. A. FLEMING, Professors G. F. FirzGErap,

CarystaL, and J. J. THomson, Messrs. R. T. GLAZEBROOK
ccion Y); amd We N. SHaw, Rev. T. C. Firzpatrick, Dr. J. T.
Borromuey, Professor J. Vir1aMu JONES, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE
STONEY, Professor S. P. THompson, and Mr. G. ForBEs.

APPENDIX PAGE

Report of the American Delegates at the Chicago Conference to the
Secretary of State at Washington. - 119
Tl. Experiments on the Value of the Ohm. By J. VintaMU JONES . 123

IIL. Comparison of the Standards employed by Professor Jones mith the
Standards of the Association. By R.T, GLAZEBROOK . 128

IV. Comparison of Some of the Standards of the Board of Trade with
those of the Association. By J. RENNIE . 130

V. Values of Certain Coils belonging to the Indian Government. By
E.O. WALKER . “als

VI. On the Specific Resistance of Copper and of Silver. "By Rev. T. C.
FITZPATRICK. 131

VII. Final Report of the Electrical Standards Committee of the Board of
Trade, and Order in Council pewee Standards for Electrical
Measurements : : . : - 136

Tue work of testing resistance tle at the Cavendish Laboratory has
been continued. A table of the coils tested is given.

Tasie I.
Ohms.

No. of Coil Value of Coil | Temperature |
Nalder, 3876 . &, No. 376 -99916 14°00
Nalder, 4320 .@, No. 381 99922 1401
Nalder, 4322 -@, No. a82 99743 15°-6
White .@, No. 383 1-00095 15°15
Nalder, 4087 .@, No. 384 10-0079 17°35 |
Paul . ©, No. 385 99993 13°-7
Paul . . ©, No. 386 10:0041 13°-7
Paul . . &, No. 387 100 (1 —-00059) 13°-7
Paul . -@, No. 388 | 1000 (1-00197) 149-2
Nalder, 4274 : ¢, No. 389 “100050 15°2
Nalder, 4275 : ¢ No. 390 ‘100053 Teo

118

REPORT—1894:.

TABLE I.— Ohms—continued.

No. of Coil

Nalder, 4051
Nalder, 4333
Nalder, 4339
Nalder, 4302
Nalder, 4303
Nalder, 4304
Nalder, 4273
Nalder, 4555
Nalder, 4562
Nalder, 4556
Nalder, 4559
Nalder, 4563
Nalder, 4557
Nalder, 4569
Nalder, 4564
Nalder, 4565
Nalder, 4558
Nalder, 4561
Nalder, 4566
Paul, 15
Paul, 27
Paul, 13
Paul, 19
Paul, 30
Paul, 29
Burstall
Elliott, 307
Nalder, 4346
Paul, 20
Paul, 32

Elliott, 87.
Muirhead .

| Value of Coil

; C, No. 391 99988
- @, No. 393 -99902
: D, No. 394 “99916
; G, No. 395 99925
; ©, No. 396 99933
: ©, No. 397 -99932
; 6, No. 398 -99908
- Wy, No. 399 99923
- @, No. 400 99938
A WD, No. 401 99929

- &, No. 402 9:9924

- ©, No. 403 99935

@ No. 404 100 (1—-00097)

100 (1 —-00113)

100 (1—-00093)
"hy No 407 100 (1 —-00003)
‘0. No. 408 1000 (1—-00126)
a |

1000 (1—-00092)
1000 (1—-00007)

-@, No. 411 ‘99950
© No. 412 1:00016
; G, No. 413 9:9973
No. 414 10-0038

100 (1 —-00091)
1000 (1 —-00094)

| &, No. 417 1:00026
. ©, No. 418 ‘99971
D, No .419 1-00009
. Gf, No. 420 -99760
. “iy No. 421 9:9997
B.A. Units.
. &, No. 81 1-00080
-@, No. 392 -99996

Temperature

13°+4
13°6
13°-7
14°-8
14°6
14°6
13°55
13°9
13°-9
13°-8
13°8
13°-8
14°
14°-2
14°-1
14°-2
13°9
14°-0
13°9
14°-7
16°-4
14°-8
14°-75
14°-75
14°
13°4
13°4
16°85
16°-4
16°5

16°°7
13°7

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECIrRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 119

The Committee regret that the insulation of some of the coils referred
to in their last Report, which had been selected for the new standards of
resistance, as defined by the resolutions adopted at Edinburgh, has proved
defective. Traces of acid have been discovered in the paraftin with which
the coils were filled. The two one-ohm standards of the Association,!
as well as two of the one-ohm standards of the Board of Trade,? were
found in January last to have so low an insulation resistance between the
coil and the case as to be useless.

Thus the labour spent in the testing of these coils has been wasted ;
much of it will need to be done again. The insulation of some of the
other standard ohm coils is not satisfactory. The single ohm standards
have therefore been remade, and the others are being refilled with carefully
selected paraffin. The original B.A. units have not, so far as comparisons
between them can show, changed their values during the year, and one
set of new ohm standards also has shown no sign of change.

The Committee print, as an appendix to the Report, the report of the
proceedings at the International Congress at Chicago, presented to the
Secretary of State at Washington by the American delegate to the
Conference.

During the year Professor J. V. Jones has determined, by the aid of
his Lorenz apparatus, the absolute resistance of certain wire coils of
about ‘1 ohm. These have been compared with the standards of the
Association by the Secretary. An account of these experiments is con-
tained in Appendices II. and ITI. The resistance standards of the
Association have been compared with those of the Board of Trade by
Mr. Rennie and the Secretary. Details of this comparison will be found
in Appendix IV., while in Appendix V. is given, by Mr. E. O. Walker,
an account of a comparison between five coils belonging to the Indian
Goyernment, which have been for twenty-four years in India, and Dr.
Muirhead’s standards. Mr. Fitzpatrick has continued his work on the
specific resistance of copper, and has drawn up a table (see Appendix
VI.) reducing to the same units experimental results recently obtained
by various observers. Appendix VII. contains the Final Report of the
Electrical Standards Committee of the Board of Trade and the Order in
Council relating to Standards for Electrical Measurement.

' In consequence of the difficulty met with in the insulation of some of
the coils, it was thought well to defer the purchase of other coils for
which the grant of 25/. was obtained last year. The Committee are of
opinion that it is desirable to complete their set of standards by obtaining
from Germany certified copies of the standards of the Reichsanstalt.
They recommend, therefore, that they be reappointed, with the addition
of the name of Mr. Rennie, and with a grant of 25/.; that Professor G.
Carey Foster be Chairman and Mr. R. T. Glazebrook Secretary.

APPENDIX. I.
Report of the Action of the International Electrical Congress held in
Chicago, August 1893, in the Matter of Units of Electrical Measure.
WASHINGTON, D.C.: Movember 6, 1893.
Tue Hon. W. Q. Gresuam, Secretary of State, Washington, D.C.

Str,—The undersigned, having been designated by you on May 12,
1893, as delegates to represent the United States in the International

} Report, 1893, p. 129. 2 Thid., 1892, p. 134.

120 REPORT—1894.

Electrical Congress to be held in August at Chicago, beg to submit
herewith a brief report showing the definitive action of said Congress in
the matter of defining and naming units of electrical measure. The
consideration of this important subject was left to what was known as
the ‘Chamber of Delegates’ of the Congress, consisting only of those
who had been officially commissioned by their respective Governments to
act as members of said Chamber. After conference and correspondence
with the leading electricians of Europe, it had been agreed that the
maximum number of such delegates to be allowed to one nation should be
five, and this number was allotted to the United States, Great Britain,
Germany, and France. Other nations were allowed three or two, and in
some instances one.

Delegates present and taking part in the discussions and action of the
Chamber were as follows :—

Representing the United States.

Professor H. A. Rowland, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, Superintendent of U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey, and of Standard Weights and Measures, Washington, D.C.

Professor H. 8. Carhart, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Professor Elihu Thomson, Lynn, Mass.

Dr. E. L. Nichols, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

Representing Great Britain.

W. H. Preece, F.R.S., Engineer-in-Chief and Electrician, Post Office,
England ; President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London.

W. E. Ayrton, City and Guilds of London Central Institution,
Exhibition Road, London.

Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the City
and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury, London.

Alex. Siemens, 12 Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, London, S.W.

Representing France.

E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut, 176 Rue de l Université, Paris.

T. Violle, Professeur au Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, 89 Boule-
vard St. Michel, Paris.

De la Touanne, Telegraph Engineer of the French Government,
13 Rue Soufflot, Paris. :

Edouard Hospitalier, Professeur a l’Ecole de Physique et de Chimie
industrielle de la Ville de Paris ; Vice-Président de la Société internationale
des Electriciens, 6 Rue de Clichy, Paris.

Dr. 8. Leduc, 5 Quai Fosse, Nantes.

Representing Italy.

Comm. Galileo Ferraris, Professor of Technical Physics and Electro-
technics in the R. Museo Industriale, Turin, Via Venti Settembre 46.

Representing Germany.

H.E. Hermann von Helmholtz, Prasident der physikalisch-technischen
Reichsanstalt, Professor a. d. Universitit, Berlin, Charlottenburg bei
Berlin. .

Dr. Emil Budde, Berlin N.W. Klopstockstrasse 53.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 121

A. Schrader, Regierungsrath, Mitglied des kaiserl. Patentamts, Berlin.

Dr. Ernst Voit, Professor an der technischen Hochschule, Minchen,
Schwanthalerstrasse 73-3.

Dr. Otto Lummer, Mitglied der physikalisch-technischen Reichsanstalt,
Charlottenburg, Berlin.

Representing Mexico.
Augustin W. Chavez, city of Mexico.

Representing Austria.
Dr. Johann Sabulka, Technische Hochschule, Wien.

Representing Switzerland.

A. Palaz, Professeur, Lausanne.
René Thury, Ingénieur, Florissant, Geneve.

Representing Sweden.
M. Wennman, Byrichef i Rougle Telegrafstyrelsen, Stockholm.

Representing British North America.

Ormond Higman, Electrician, Standards Branch, Inland Revenue
Department, Ottawa. ,

His Excellency Dr. H. von Helmholtz was made Honorary President
of the Congress; Dr. Elisha Gray, of Chicago, was Chairman of the
General Congress; and Professor H. A. Rowland, of Baltimore, was
President of the Chamber of Delegates.

Meetings of the Chamber continued during six days, at the end of
which its members unanimously agreed in the adoption of the following
resolution :—

Resolved, That the several Governments represented by the delegates
of this International Congress of Electricians be, and they are hereby,
recommended to formally adopt as legal units of electrical measure the
following: As a unit of resistance, the international ohm, which is based
upon the ohm equal to 10° units of resistance of the C.G.S. system of
electro-magnetic units, and is represented by the resistance offered to an
unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of
melting ice 14-4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area
and of the length of 106°3 cm.

As a unit of cur rent, the international ampere, which is one-tenth of
the unit of current of the C.GS. system of electro-magnetic units, and
which is represented sufficiently well for practical use by the unvarying
current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in
water, and, in accordance with accompanying specifications! deposits
silver at the rate of 0:001118 of a gramme per second.

‘ In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the arrange-
ment of apparatus by means of which an electric current is passed through a
solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver voltameter measures the total
electrical quantity which has passed during the time of the experiment, and by
noting this time the time average of the current, or, if the current has been kept
constant, the current itself, can be deduced.

In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about one ampere the
following arrangements should be adopted :—

The kathode on which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a

122 REPORT—1894.

As a unit of electro-motive force, the international volt, which is the
electro-motive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance
is one international ohm, will produce a current of one international
ampere, and which is represented sufficiently well for practical use by
+234 of the electro-motive force between the poles or electrodes of the
voltaic cell known as Clark’s cell, at a temperature of 15° C., and
prepared in the manner described in the accompanying specification.*

As a unit of quantity, the international coulomb, which is the quantity
of electricity transferred by a current of one international ampere in one
second.

As a unit of capacity, the international farad, which is the capacity
of a condenser charged to a potential of one international volt by one
international coulomb of electricity.

As a unit of work, the joule, which is equal to 107 units of work
in the C.G.S. system, and which is represented sufficiently well for
practical use by the energy expended in one second by an international
ampere in an international ohm.

As a unit of power, the watt, which is equal to 10% units of power in
the C.G.S. system, and which is represented sufficiently well for practical
use by the work done at the rate of one joule per second.

As the unit of induction, the henry, which is the induction in a
circuit when the electro-motive force induced in this circuit is one inter-
national volt, while the inducing current varies at the rate of one ampere
per second,

The Chamber also voted that it was not wise to adopt or recommend
a standard of light at the present time.

A more complete report of the operations of the Chamber will shortly
be forwarded. This brief réswmé of its definite action in reference to the
matter of units is now submitted to facilitate the prompt dissemination
among representatives of foreign Governments of the important results of
a congress of whose success and fruitfulness the United States may justly
be proud.

H. A. Rowranp. Exinu THomson,
T. C. MENDENHALL. K. L. Nicnots.
H. 8S. Carwart.

platinum bowl not less than 10 centimetres in diameter and from 4 to 5 centimetres
in depth.

The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 sq. cm. in area and 2 or 3 mm.
in thickness,

This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the solution by a
platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at opposite corners. To prevent
the disintegrated silver which is formed on the anode from falling on to the
kathode, the anode should be wrapped round with pure filter paper, secured at the
back with sealing-wax.

The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate, containing
about 15 parts by weight of the nitrate to 85 parts of water.

The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current passes. To
prevent these changes having too great an effect on the current, some resistance
besides that of the voltameter should be inserted in the circuit. The total metallic
resistance of the circuit should not be less than 10 ohms.

‘ A committee, consisting of Messrs. Helmholtz, Ayrton, and Carhart, was ap-

pointed to prepare specifications for the Clark’s cell. Their report has not yet been
received,

iw)
oo

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, |

APPENDIX II.

On a Determination of the International Ohm in Absolute Measure. By
Professor J. V. Jones, /.R.S., Principal of the University College of
South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff:

The apparatus for the absolute measurement of electrical resistance
in my laboratory at Cardiff was completed in 1890, and I first used it
for the determination of the specific resistance of mercury in absolute
measure,’ This determination was made by direct measurement on a
mercury column contained in a trough of paraffin wax. The results of
five complete sets of observations were as follows :—

94103
94074
94093
94045
94021

The mean of these is 94067 ; and the extreme variation from the
mean is 46, or about four parts in 10,000.

I suspected that much of the variation was due to the paraftin trough,
the temperature of which varied slightly (about half a degree) during
the observations, and was not accurately measurable owing to the low
conductivity of the material. With variation of temperature there was
variation of breadth, and the breadth of the trough entered as a primary
factor into the calculation of the specific resistance.

When I proceeded to use the apparatus for the measurement of low-
resistance standards of solid metal this was conclusively shown to be the
case. I brought a set of measurements made on such a standard under
the attention of the Section last year at Nottingham, in which the extreme
variation from the mean was only about one part in 12,000.

This may be taken to be the normal performance of the apparatus ; and
seeing that it is an instrument of such precision, it seemed to me of
interest to determine by the use of solid metal standards the relation
between its indications and the results obtained by other observers for the
value of the ohm.

With this end in view I obtained four coils from Messrs. Nalder
Brothers—two platinum-silver ten-ohm coils and two manganine tenth-
ohm coils. Mr. Glazebrook has measured them in terms of the inter-
national ohm ; and I am much indebted to him for the pains he has been
kind enough to take in making the determination. The following table
gives their resistances and temperature coefficients :—

: I Resistance in International Ohm Temperature Coefficients
Coil Number (Glazebrook) (Nalder)
3873 9°9919 at 14°°8 C. 000300
3874 9°9926 at 14°°9 C. 000276
4274 100050 at 15°-2 C, 000013
4275 100053 at 15°°2 C. 000013

These coils were arranged in manner similar to that adopted by Lord

1 Phil. Trans., 1891, A.

124 REPORT—1 894.

Rayleigh in his determination of the ohm by the method of Lorenz (see
fig. 1).

"If there is no current through the galvanometer, there is equality
between the E.M.F. due to the rotation of the disc in the field of the
standard coil and the E.M.F. due to the current through R,; and we

ErGt ed

R,, B,, 10-ohm coils.
R,, R,, *l-ohm coils.
B, Battery.
G, Galvanometer.
D, Rotating disc.
KK, Standard coil. ”
have, if R,, Ry, R;, R, are the values of the four resistance coils in
international ohms, and if x is the value of the international ohm in
absolute measure,
R,R,x
R,+R,+R,+R,

where M=the coefficient of mutual induction of the standard coil and
the circumference of the disc, and n=the rate of rotation of the disc.

The resistance coils are of B.A. pattern. They were immersed in
water, and the temperatures of thermometers within the coil frames were
read before and after each observation. A wooden box surrounded the
four cans containing the coils.

The method of making the observations was the same as that described
in the paper I read before the Section last year (vide Electrical Standards
Committee Report, 1893).

The results are as follows, the figure in each case giving the value of
the international ohm in true ohms.

July 7.—Standard coil carefully adjusted. Three-minute tapes.

“999703

“999761
“999807

MAS in. 097,

July 9.—No readjustment of standard coil. One-minute tapes.
‘999757
“999711

999683
“999782

Mean 999733

= Mn,

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 125

July 10, Morning.—Standard coil readjusted. One-minute tapes

“999734
“999818
*999726

Mean “999759

July 10, Afternoon.—No readjustment of standard coil. Three-minute
tapes.

999708
999742
999764

Mean : *999738

July 11, Afternoon.—Standard coil readjusted. Three-minute tapes.

"999693
‘999692
-999679

Mean 5 *999688

July 12, Morning.—No readjustment of standard coil. Resistance
coils reversed.

999713
‘999711
"999692

Mean : *999705

July 12, Afternoon.—Standard coil readjusted. Resistance coils re
moved from the mercury cups and replaced. Three-minute tapes.
‘999774

‘999787
“999759

Mean - ‘999773

July 13.—Standard coil readjusted. Resistance coils removed from
mercury cups and replaced. Three-minute tapes.
"999847
999809
999782
-999842 (morning of the 14th)

Mean P *999820

July 14, Morning.—Standard coil readjusted. Resistance coils re-
moved and replaced. Three-minute tapes.
"999695

"999692
999717

Mean "999701

July 14, Afternoon.—Standard coil readjusted. Resistance coils re-
moved and replaced. Three-minute tapes.
“999853

“999866
“999875

Mean ; ‘999865

126 REPORT—1894.

It is clear that in the above series the chief variations are duc to
changes consequent on readjustment of the standard coil, and the re-
moval and replacement of the resistance coils in their mercury cups.
Counting as independent only those of the observations before which
there was readjustment of the standard coil or removal of the resistance
coils from the mercury cups, the general mean is

“99976.

The maximum variation from the mean is 000106, or about one part
in 10,000.

Assuming that the international ohm is the resistance of a column
of mercury at 0° of 1 sq. mm. sectional area, and 106-30 cm. long, we
have as a result of the above measurement that the true ohm is the
resistance of a column of mercury of the same sectional area and
106°326 cm. long.

The figure I arrived at in 1890, working direct on mercury, was
106°307, with a probable error of +°011. The new result is therefore
a little larger than I was prepared for. The accuracy of the result
depends primarily on—

(i) The accuracy with which the resistance coils are known in terms
of the international ohm.

(ii) The accuracy with which their temperatures are known at the
times of observation.

(iii) The accuracy with which the coefficient of mutual induction of
the coil and disc has been determined.

Upon the first point I can say little. Mr. Glazebrook knows better
than anyone to what figure the values of the resistances may be
relied on.

The effect of error in estimation of the temperatures of the coils can
be but slight. The observations have been made in two ways, viz., with
one-minute tapes, the current being put on only during the time of ob-
servation, and with three-minute tapes, the current being kept on con-
tinuously, whether observations were being made or not. During the
last few days of the observations the current was kept passing through
the coils night and day. I have calculated the effect that would be
produced on the result obtained with one-minute tapes if all the heat
generated by the current were to remain in the coils—an extreme case,
obviously less favourable than the actual conditions. It is something
less than two parts in 100,000. The smallness of the effect is due to the
fact that if y is the main current, a current equal to 3) y passes through
the tenth-ohm manganine coil with its small temperature coefticient, and
only 34, y through the platinum-silver coils ; while the etfect of under-
estimating the temperature of the manganine tenth-ohm coil is to produce
an error in the result opposite in sign to that produced by underesti-
mating the temperature of the platinum-silver coils.

There cannot, then, in the case of the one-minute tape observations be
an appreciable error due to underestimation of the temperature. But
the first four sets of observations show that the results of the one-minute
tape observations and the three-minute tape observations are practically
the same. Hence it follows that to the degree of accuracy aimed at
our results are unaffected by error due to underestimation of the

temperature.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 127

Tt remains to consider the accuracy with which the coefficient of
mutual induction of the coil and disc is known.

To calculate this coefficient we must know the radius of the disc and
the mean radius of the coil. The circumference of the disc is a suf-
ficiently true circle, the disc having been ground true in place. The
measurement of its diameter presented no difficulty. It was determined
on my Whitworth measuring machine to the ten-thousandth of an inch.

The mean radius of the coil cannot be determined with the same
accuracy ; but I believe that it is known to the thousandth of an inch.
The coil consists of a single layer of silk-covered wire wound in a screw
thread cut on a brass frame. It was measured along eighteen diameters
in the Whitworth machine with the following results :—

Diameter Measurement Diameter Measurement
0°-180° 21-0898 90°-270° 21:1038
10-190 21:0929 100-280 21°1056
20-200 21:0951 110-290 21:1041
30-210 21-0933 120-300 21:1014
40-220 21:0960 130-310 21:0979
50-230 21-0998 140-320 21:0945
60-240 21:1017 150-330 21:0924
70-250 21:1026 160-340 21-0900
80-260 21:1044 170-350 21:0910
Max., 21:1056
Min., 21:0898 Mean, 21:09757
iT C):
“0158

These measures clearly show that the coil is elliptical in section, the
difference between the major and minor axes being about ‘008 inch, or
about one part in 1,300.

In considering the possible effect of this ellipticity on the result, it
must be borne in mind that the formula R=M~y implies that the coil is
circular. The true formula is

R=2rn [Hida

Io

where a, and a, are the distances from the centre of the dise at which
the internal and external brushes are applied, and H is the magnetic force
at a distance a from the centre when unit current is passing through the
coil.
This is an unpleasant integral for an elliptical coil, and it has not yet
yielded to persuasion. It is, however, satisfactory to note that as in my
apparatus the brush radius makes but a small angle with the minor axis
(about 15°), I am, in so far as the ellipticity of the coil affects matters at
all, underestimating the integral, and hence underestimating the inter-
national ohm. Any correction for ellipticity hereafter calculated will
make the value of the international ohm deduced from my observations
nearer to and not further from the true ohm.

It is further to be noticed that the formula R=Mn applies only if
there is exact coincidence of the axes of the disc and coil. It has been
customary to consider the adjustment for centre as of secondary import-
ance in Lorenz’s method. It would be so if the formula R=Mn were
applicable when the centres of coil and disc do not coincide, for a slight
displacement only affects the coefficient of mutual induction to a secondary

128 REPORT—1894.

degree. But we are not concerned with the coefficient of mutual induc-
tion in this case. We are concerned with another integral, viz.,

Saf Hide

and the adjustment for centre is in truth of primary importance. Special
attention should therefore be paid to this in designing apparatus for the
abgglute measurement of resistance by this method.

One other point remains to be noticed in this connection, viz., the pos-
sible effect of the difference of the temperature of the coil and disc when
measured and when in use. On calculating the correction to be applied
for this cause I find it negligible.

Again, I would say, as I said last year, that the chief value of these
observations consists in the proof they afford of the precision with which
the absolute measurement of resistance may be made by this method. A
well-constructed apparatus of the kind in a national laboratory—say the
Laboratory of the Board of Trade—will, I believe, prove to be the best
ultimate standard of electrical resistance.

APPENDIX III.

Comparison of the Standard Covls used by Professor Jones with
the Standards of the Association. By R. T. GLAZEBROOK.

The tenth-ohm standards of manganin wire whose value in absolute
measure was determined by Professor Jones by means of the experiments
described in Appendix II. were compared with the standards of the
Association in the following manner. A Wheatstone’s bridge was formed
in which the arms were the tenth-ohm to be tested, two single-ohm coils
and a ten-ohm coil ; if the coils had these values exactly, there would of
course always have bez2n a balance ; since, however, the coils were not.
accurately correct, there was usually a small current through the galva-
nometer ; the balance, however, could be obtained by placing a large re-
’ sistance as a shunt either to one of the one-ohm coils or to the ten-ohm
coil : this resistance, which varied from 10,000 to 20,000 ohms, was taken
from a good box of coils. The resistance of the ten-ohm and of the two one-
ohm coils being known, that of the tenth-ohm coil could readily be found.

The four coils dipped into four mercury cups cut in an ebonite block ;
the bottoms of these cups were copper pieces some 3 to 4 mm. thick.

Binding screws screwed into these copper pieces and rising above
the mercury served to connect the bridge to the galvanometer and the
battery.

The mercury cups were somewhat large—about 2°5 cm. in diameter—
and it was found on January 16 that distinct differences could be observed
by moving the tenth-ohm coils slightly so as to bring their terminals
either close to or as far as possible from the feet of the one-ohm coils
which dipped into the same cups. After this date then two sets of
measurements were made for each coil at each observation : in the one
the terminals of the coils in any cup were put as close together as possible,
in the other the terminals of the tenth-ohm coils were placed at some distance
from those of the other coil in the same cup.

Both sets of values are given in the table as a means of showing the
delicacy of the observations and the error arising from this cause. The

ON STANDARDS FOR,.USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 129

tenth-ohm coils were weighted so as to press firmly on to the copper
bottoms. No variation was produced by shifting the ten-ohm coil in
its cup.

One or two Leclanché cells were used in the various experiments : the
coils were in water-baths and the temperatures read by a standardised
Kew thermometer.

The standard coils used were—

Elliott 264= 1+4-000312 (¢-—15-45).
Nalder 3715= 1 +:000260 (t—14-95).
Elliott 289=10+4-002600 (¢—15-40).

The results of the experiments are given in the following table.

In the results of the experiments made after January 15 the two
values given correspond to the two positions of the coil in the mercury
cup. They are included to show the magnitude of the error, which may
be due to the resistance of the copper bottoms of the cup.

Tables giving Values of Nalder No. 4274 cy No. 389 in terms of the Ohm
Standards of the Association.

Date Temperature Value of resistance

December 29,1893. 144 "100052
January 13,1894. : 15:2 "100051

x 155 8 eos : 3 14:8 “100056

& i ears : : 15°5 *100051 “100056

x Se ee ; : 16-4 "100049 "100058

4 ils, 99 ’ : 16°9 *100057 “100066
February 20, ,, : : 14:1 "100036 "100041
March 17, F ; : 14:1 100045 ‘100046

Mean . : 5 15:2 "100050 "100054

Values of Nalder 4275 &, 390.

Date Temperature | Value of cesistance

December 29,1893... 146 ‘100059
January 13,1894. i 15 "100053
a we 53 : : 15 "100058

” Gs) 53 2 F 15°8 “100055 “100061

= Wi oes ‘ 5 16-4 *100051 *100059

is PAC oe E F 166 100058 *100065

February 20, ,, F 14:1 *100043 “100047

March 17, Pe 5 , 13°8 *100051 ‘100051

Mean . ; F 15:2 "100053 1100057

Thus, the values of the coils at 15°-2 are respectively for
@, 389 . . 100050 ohm,

and for

¢, 390 . . 1100053 ohm,

while in each case the resistance introduced by placing the contact pieces

of the tenth-ohm coils at some distance from those of the other coils is
‘000004 ohm

1894, x

130 REPORT—1894,

APPENDIX IV,

Comparison of certain Ohm-Standards of the Board of Trade.
By J. RENNIE.

In the accompanying table are given the results of comparisons which
were made on May 29 and 30, 1894, at the Cavendish Laboratory, between
the three unit coils :—

Elliott’s No. 261,
Elliott’s No. 263,
Nalder’s No. 3876,

belonging to the Electrical Department of the Board of Trade, and the
B.A. standards, Flat, F, G, and H.

The bridge was of the Carey Foster pattern, constructed for the
Department by Nalder Bros. and Co., and the slide wire used was the
one marked B, having a value of -000,050,9 ohm per division.

A 100-ohm coil, Elliott’s No. 291, was placed in parallel with the
Board of Trade coil for each comparison, this being effected by a large
mercury-in-paraffin bath.

Temperatures were measured by a mercury-in-glass thermometer, which
had been standardised at Kew.

; Temp. of | Temp. of B. ri here f Difference,
B.A. Coil B.A. Coil | of T. Coil Observed Value | Chart * alueV | Chachobeerned
| | | |
No. 261 Coil.
Flat : 12°54 12°58 “999156 “999142 — 000014
1 12°53 12°45 -999064 “999106 + 000042
Gx 12°90 12°97 “999217 “999262 +°000045
No. 263 Coil.
Flat : 12°50 12°53 *999136 -999140 + 000004
ees ; 12:60 12:48 -999074 "999124 + 000050
cane - 12°80 12°98 *999217 *999271 +°000054
13 ae - 12°85 13-08 *999299 “999304 + "000005
No. 3876 Coil.
Flat : 12°60 12°45 ‘998808 “99879 —°000018
HL 5 12°50 12°36 “998727 “99876 + 000049
G . 3 12°70 12°23 “998697 “99874 +°000043
13 Oe 4 12°40 12°30 “998768 ‘99876 —°000008

* The chart referred to, for No. 261 and No. 263 coils, is one supplied for these
coils by Mr. Glazebrook, and is dated March 1892. The chart referred to in the case
of No. 3876 was constructed from comparisons made by Nalder Brothers between it
and their ‘ master coil,’ No. 3717. The coils Nos. 263 and 261 were compared on
May 29, 1894, before beginning the above-mentioned series of comparisons. They
were found’ exactly equal, when the temperatures were—No. 263, 12°65 C.;
No. 261, 12°62 C. The chart values at these temperatures are—No. 263, 0°999175;
No. 261, 0:999156; showing a difference of 19x10~® ohms. The corresponding dif-
ferences deduced from the above table are—from Flat, 18x10-® ohms; from
F, 8x 10- ohms; from G, 9 x 10-§ ohms. The comparison No. 261—H is omitted, as
the difference obtained was obviously much too large, and must have been caused
by some undetected interference. It is evident from the eleven results given in the
table that the difference between the coils Nos. 263 and 261 as deduced from
comparison with H must be something like 10x10-*ohms. [Note added October 5,
1894.]

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 131

APPENDIX V.

Table showing Values of five Standard Coils B.A. Units belonging to the
Indian Government as compared with Dr. Muirhead’s Standard at his
Laboratory, By EK. O. Watxer, C.LE., MIELE, Late Superin-
tendent in the Government Telegraph Department in India.

Standard used, No. 78, marked right at 15°-7 C., taken as correct.
This standard, tested April 27, 1893, against a No. 68 Glazebrook, gave a
ratio °°! _ of 1-00015 at 16° C., and 1-00018 at 15°-4.C

standard
Temperature of water, 20°-2 C.

Number Marked right at Difference Correct at
106 15° 1 C. +°023 per cent. 14°-0 C.
108 15°°3 C. +126 53 T1937.
110 1593 C, —'028 - 16°°6 C.
111 15°°5 C. +:055 * 13°'9 C.
114 15° 1 C. | #004), 15°-6 C.

Apparatus used, one metre bridge of platinum-iridium wire with a sup-
plementary coil at each end of 20,012 millimetres. Suspended coil galvano-
meter, resistance 15 ohms (Muirhead and Co.’s). Trough, 45 x 74 x 5 inches ;
depth of water 2% inches ; quantity of water, 6} gallons; battery used,
1 Hellesen’s Dry Cell, No. 3; E.M.F., 1-4 volt.

The interest attaching to these tests lies especially in the fact that the
standard coils have been exposed to the climate of Calcutta for twenty-
four years. They were made, I understand, by Dr. A. Muirhead when in
Dr. Matthiessen’s laboratory, under the supervision of the latter.

In reducing the observations from 20°-2 to the temperatures given, it
has been assumed that all the coils have the same temperature coefficient.

APPENDIX VI.

On the Specific Resistance of Copper and of Silver.
By Rev. T. C. Frrzparrick.

As lately several observers have published the results of measure-
ments made on the specific resistance of copper, it may be worth while to
collect these results together in tabular form.

The resistances of metals may be expressed in terms of equal weight or
of equal volume ; that is, as the resistance of a wire of the given material
such that one metre of it weighs one gramme, or as the resistance between
opposite faces of a cube of the material each face of which is one square
centimetre. I have pointed out that Matthiessen ! considered the first as
the most satisfactory mode of expressing resistances, and for these results
alone did he make all the actual experiments ; the results for specific
resistances were calculated from these with the help of specific gravity
values obtained in many cases from tables, and not determined directly
for the wires used.

1 B.A. Report, 1890, p. 129.
K 2

132 REPORT—1894.

Only in cases where considerable masses of the material are used
can the specific gravity, and from this the cross-section of the wires, be
accurately determined. There is, therefore, an evident advantage in
expressing results in terms of weight, as then the determination of the
cross-section of the wires becomes unnecessary, and there is no reason
why an accuracy of one in two or three thousand should not be attained.

Again, it is found that different samples of copper have different
densities, according to the method by which they have been prepared ; in
a table’ which I published on a previous occasion the variation is from
3°86 to 8:95. Mr. Swan? gives a value as high as 8:9587.

From samples of copper of the same quality I have had wires drawn
which differed in density ; it was always found that the denser the copper
the less is its resistance, and the difference affects much more the results
expressed as specific resistances than when expressed as the resistance for
a gramme per metre.

This is another reason for expressing the results in these terms, at least
as well as specific resistances, and for actual practical purposes it is a
question of weight rather than volume.

In the following tables the results are given for a temperature of
18° C. in C.G.S, units :—

TasLe A.—Hard-drawn Copper Wires.

Resistance of wire such that the Specific resistance per
metre weighs one gramme cubic centimetre Observer
| 1550 x 105 | 1743 Matthiessen *
| 1720 Swan and Rhodin *
| 1550 1726 Fitzpatrick ° )
1527 | 1708 | z= (copper sup- |
plied by Messrs. Bolton),

TABLE B.—Annealed Wires.

Resistance of wire such that the Specific resistance per
metre weighs one gramme cubic centimetre Observer

1516 x 105 1704 Matthiessen *
1681 Fleming and Dewar ®
1680 Swan and Rhodin *

1488 1665 Fitzpatrick * (copper sup-

plied by Messrs. Bolton) |
1488 (Wire sent by Mr. Swan)

From Table A it will be seen that Messrs. Swan and Rhodin obtained a
value rather lower than that which I got for copper, prepared by myself,
and which, expressed as the resistance of a wire one metre long weigh-
ing one gramme, is identical with the value that Matthiessen obtained ; but
the resistance of all these specimens is distinctly greater than that of the
copper kindly sent me by Messrs. Bolton—which seems to bear out the

1 B.A, Report, 1890, p. 125. 2 Nature, vol. 1. p. 165.
3 B.A. Report, 1864. 4 Nature, vol. 1. p. 165.
° B.A, Report, 1890, p. 125 § Phil, Mag , vol. xxxvi. p. 287.

—

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 133

statement, which I have previously made, that it is impossible to prepare
wires on the small scale which are of the same quality, 7.c., probably due
to density, as the best specimens specially prepared by large manufacturers.

In Table B are given the results of measurements on. three specimens
of copper prepared by Mr. Swan: one was given to Profs. Dewar and
Fleming ; a second was examined by Mr. Swan himself, and a third
specimen he kindly sent to me; the quality of the copper in the three
cases may therefore be expected to be the same.

The results of Profs. Dewar and Fleming and Messrs. Swan and
Rhodin are expressed only as specific resistances, whilst the result of my
measurement is only given for a wire one metre long weighing one gramme.
The weight of the copper wire, as measured, was only three grammes, and
that does not allow the accurate determination of the specific gravity of the
sample. The value I obtain for its resistance is identical with that for the
sample of annealed copper wire sent me by Messrs. Bolton.

If it be considered to have the same specific gravity as that sample
(8-94) its specific resistance in C.G.S. units is 1665; a value distinctly
smaller than that obtained by Messrs. Swan and Rhodin, whose result is
practically identical with that of Profs. Dewar and Fleming.

Not only may wires drawn from the same specimen of copper have
different densities and different resistances, but the variation of that
resistance with change of temperature may be also different.

In the following table are given the temperature coefficients of various
specimens of copper :—

R,=R,y (1 +at).

Ro a Observer
= 00387 Matthiessen.!
1561 00428 Dewar and Fleming.”
1603* “00408 Swan and Rhodin.$
1563 00417 —
1592* 00405 Fitzpatrick.
= 00406 Kennedy and Fessenden.‘
— 00364 Benoit.®

* Hard-drawn wires.

Influence of Annealing.—As is well known, annealed wires have a
less resistance than hard-drawn wires, but the variation of resistance
according as the wires are annealed or hard-drawn differs considerably
for different materials. For silver it is as much as 10 per cent., whereas
for copper it is less than 3 per cent.

I have made observations from time to time on the resistance value
of specimens of hard-drawn copper wire, all pieces of the same coil, which
were sent me in 1889 by Messrs. Bolton and Son. From the results of
these measurements it will be seen that a hard-drawn wire seems to fall
in resistance with lapse of time. The coil of wire has been left hanging
in the laboratory, and has not been treated with any special care.

1 B.A. Report, 1864. 2 Phil. Wag., vol. xxxvi. p. 287,
3 Nature, vol. 1, p. 165. 4 Electricity, vol. v. p. 165,
5 Comptes Rendus, \xxvi. p. 345.

134 REPORT—1894.

Resistance of wire 1 metre long

Date Temperature weighing 1 gramme
July 1890. ‘ - ‘ 18° 1528 x 10°
August 26,1891 . 5 : 18° 1525
March 7, 1892 - Fi : 18° 1522
January 1894 ‘ 4 5 18° 1520
July 1894. é : : 18° 1519

The fall in resistance is small, and for the period of nearly five years
does not amount to more than 4 per cent.

I have, for the sake of comparison, made a measurement of the resist-
ance of a specimen of annealed copper wire sent me by the same firm, and
for this the resistance value is identical with that obtained at a previous
date :—

Resistance of wire 1 metre

Date Temperature | long weighing 1 gramme
October 1889 " e i 18° 1488 x 105
July 1894 : 5 2 E 18° 1487°8

This, on the whole, is what one would expect. In the case of wires of
other material the change would probably be greater, as the difference in
resistance between annealed and hard-drawn copper wires is less than that
for wires of other materials.

In my previous communication a method! of annealing was described
which gave satisfactory results. The wire was packed in asbestos and fine
carbon in a copper vessel and heated for twenty-four hours. The follow-
ing results amongst others were obtained :—

Hard-drawn 18° Annealed 18° Difference
1527 x 10° 1489 39
1526 1488 38

Matthiessen’s values are :—
1550 1516 34

Messrs. Swan and Rhodin give for the values of the specific resist-
ance :—
Hard-drawn 18° Annealed 18° Difference
1720 1680 40

I have recently been annealing copper wires by heating them in
boiling paraffin (220°); and after slow cooling the wires seem to be
completely annealed :—

Hard-drawn 18° Annealed 18° Difference
1526 1486 40

A wire sent me as annealed gave the result :—
Annealed 18°, 1488

This wire was then hardened, and, reannealed as above described,
gave the value:—
Annealed 18°, 1489

1 B.A. Report, 1890, p. 126.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 135

Either of these two methods seems to give satisfactory results. For
completely annealing silver wires the temperature of the paraffin bath
is not sufficiently high, but from the results of my measurements for
silver, for which the influence of annealing is very considerable, it can be
seen that the first method is quite satisfactory,

SILVER.

Many of the older measurements for resistances and conductivities are
expressed in terms of the resistance of pure silver : this was the case with
Matthiessen’s earlier results.

Some measurements therefore made on silver wires are given, together
with the results obtained by Matthiessen and Profs. Dewar and Fleming
for the sake of comparison.

Several samples of silver wires were supplied by Messrs. Johnson and
Matthey : one of these was stated to be absolutely pure.

The results are expressed for wires weighing one gramme per metre.

— Ilard-drawn Annealed |

Silver I.. = : « 1816 x 10° 1739 x 10°

FA ‘ F é ; 1814 1741

7 z ‘ : - 1816 1721
Silver II. . . ‘ 1799 1722
Silver III., pure. : : 1777 1666

op - n 3 1773 1666

5 3 ‘ : 1767 _—

The difference between the values for the hard-drawn wires is probably
due to the fact that they had to be further drawn down after I had
received them to enable me to measure them on my bridge.

For wire 1 metre long

weighing 1 gramme Resistance per c.c.

Matthiessen’s value |

Hard-drawn J . ; 1779 x 10° 1694!
Annealed . 1639 1561

Profs. Dewar? and Fleming give as the value for an annealed pure
silver wire 1468 C.G.S. at 0° C. with the temperature coefficient of -004 ;
the value at 18° is therefore for the specific resistance 1574,

For most of the wires which I measured the specific gravities were
determined ; for the wires Silver I. there is practically no difference between
the values obtained for the annealed and hard-drawn wires, the values
varying from 10-496 to 10°511.

For the wires Silver III. the values varied from 10°49 to 10:50 ;
using the mean value 10-495 I get for the specific resistances the following
values :—

— Hard-drawn wire Annealed

Specific resistance in C.G.S. 1689 1587
units at 18°

1 Using the value 10:5 as the specific gravity of silver.
2 Phil. Mag., vol. xxxvi.

136 REPORT—1894.

In the case of copper! with increase of purity there is a decrease in
the difference in resistance between annealed and hard-drawn wires.
With silver the reverse is the case.

Silver I.—Difference
re II.—Difference : 5 A :
» ilI.—Difference : = - e LOT

The value that I obtained for the bie: ine wire is very nearly the
same as that given by Matthiessen, but he obtained a greater decrease in
resistance on annealing. He states ? that for different pieces of the same
wire there was a variation of from 6 to 10 per cent. ; so that the dif-
ference between his value and that which I have obtained for a sample of
pure silver is not greater than might be expected.

The considerable variation in all the values given above makes it clear
that the values of the specific resistance depend not simply on the purity
of the material, but on a number of other factors, which will be different
in the cases of different wires of the same material, and that therefore
we cannot expect to attain to any great degree of accuracy in the
determination of specific resistances as distinguished from the accurate
measurement for some particular wire.

APPENDIX VII.
Final Report of the Electrical Standards Committee of the Board of Trade.

To the Ricut Hon. James Bryce, M.P.,
President of the Board of Trade.

Since the date of our last Report the Board of Trade have laid before
us a résumé of the action of the International Electrical Congress held
in Chicago in August 1893 to determine the units of electrical measure-
ment. We were also informed by the Board of Trade that her Majesty’s
Government had been invited by the United States Ambassador in
London to take steps to adopt the recommendations of the Congress.

These recommendations, so far as they refer to the units of electrical
resistance, electrical current, and electrical pressure, are substantially the
same as those suggested for adoption in our previous Reports.

We see no reason for further delay in the legalisation of standards of
the above-mentioned units, and we have prepared and attach a revised
Draft Order in Council,? which we advise may be submitted for her
Majesty’s gracious approval.

The accompanying notes ‘ to the specification for the Clark’s cell have
been communicated by Mr. Glazebrook, and will be found of great
assistance in the preparation of this form of cell.

(Signed) CourTENAY Boy e. KELVIN.
Francis J. S. Hopwoop. P. CarDEw.
W. H. PREECE. RAYLEIGH.
G. Carey Foster. R. T. GLAZEBROOK.
J. HopxKInson. W. E. Ayrton.

T. W. P. BLoMEFIELD, Secretary.
August 2, 1894.

1 B.A. Rep , 1890, p. 126. 2 Phil. Trans., 1862, p. 7
3 The Order in Council is printed in the form in which it has since received her
Majesty’s approval. 4 For the notes see p. 141.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 137

Order in Council regarding Standards for Electrical Measurements.

At the Court at Oshorne House, Isle of Wight, August 23, 1894.
Present : The Queen's Most Excellent Majesty in Council.

Whereas by ‘The Weights and Measures Act, 1889,’ it is among other
things enacted that the Board of Trade shall from time to time cause such
new denominations of standards for the measurement of electricity as
appear to them to be required for use in trade to be made and duly
verified.

And whereas it has been made to appear to the Board of Trade that
new denominations of standards are required for use in trade based upon
the following units of electrical measurement, viz.—

1. The ohm, which has the value 10° in terms of the centimetre and
the second of time, and is represented by the resistance offered to an
unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of
melting ice 14-4521 grammes in mass of a constant cross-sectional area
and of a length of 106°3 centimetres.

2. The ampere, which has the value ,!, in terms of the centimetre,
the gramme, and the second of time, and which is represented by the
unvarying electric current which when passed through a solution of
nitrate of silver in water in accordance with the specification appended
hereto, and marked A, deposits silver at the rate of 0001118 of a gramme
per second,

3. The volt, which has the value 10% in terms of the centimetre, the
gramme, and the second of time, being the electrical pressure that if
steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm will produce
a current of one ampere, and which is represented by 6974 (122°) of the
electrical pressure at a temperature of 15° C. between the poles of the
voltaic cell known as Clark’s cell set up in accordance with the specification
appended hereto, and marked B.

And whereas they have caused the said new denominations of stan-
dards to be made and duly verified.

Now, therefore, her Majesty, by virtue of the power vested in her
by the said Act, by and with the advice of her Privy Council, is pleased
to approve the several denominations of standards set forth in the
schedule hereto as new denominations of standards for electrical measure-
ment. C. L. PEEt.

ScHEDULE.
I.—Standard of Electrical Resistance.

A standard of electrical resistance denominated one ohm being the
resistance between the copper terminals of the instrument marked ‘ Board
of Trade Ohm Standard Verified, 1894,’ to the passage of an unvarying
electrical current when the coil. of insulated wire forming part of the
aforesaid instrument and connected to the aforesaid terminals is in alk
parts at a temperature of 15°-4 C.

II. Standard of Electrical Current.

A standard of electrical current denominated one ampere being the
current which is passing in and through the coils of wire forming part of
the instrument marked ‘ Board of Trade Ampere Standard Verified, 1894,’
when on reversing the current in the fixed coils. the change in the forces

138 REPORT—1894.

acting upon the suspended coil in its sighted position is exactly balanced
by the force exerted by gravity in Westminster upon the iridio-platinum
weight marked A and forming part of the said instrument,

III.—Standard of Electrical Pressure.

A standard of electrical pressure denominated one volt, being one
hundredth part of the pressure which when applied between the terminals
forming part of the instrument marked ‘ Board of Trade Volt Standard
Verified, 1894,’ causes that rotation of the suspended portion of the
instrument which is exactly measured by the coincidence of the sighting
wire with the image of the fiducial mark A before and after application
of the pressure and with that of the fiducial mark B during the applica-
tion of the pressure, these images being produced by the suspended
mirror and observed by means of the eyepiece.

In the use of the above standards the limits of accuracy attainable
are as follows :—

For the olim, within one hundredth part of one per cent.
For the ampere, within one tenth part of one per cent.
For the volt, within one tenth part of one per cent.

The coils and instruments referred to in this schedule are deposited at
the Board of Trade Standardising Laboratory, 8 Richmond Terrace,
Whitehall, London.

SPECIFICATIONS REFERRED TO IN THE FOREGOING ORDER IN COUNCIL.
SPECIFICATION A.

In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the
arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is passed
through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver voltameter
measures the total electrical quantity which has passed during the time of
the experiment, and by noting this time the time-average of the current, or if
the current has been kept constant the current itself, can be deduced.

In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about
1 ampere the following arrangements should be adopted. The kathode
on which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum
bow] not less than 10 centimetres in diameter, and from 4 to 5 centimetres
in depth.

The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square centimetres
in area and 2 or 3 millimetres in thickness.

This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the solution
by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at opposite corners.
To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed on the anode from
falling on to the kathode, the anode should be wrapped round with pure
filter paper, secured at the back with sealing-wax,

The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate,
containing about 15 parts by weight of the nitrate to 85 parts of water.

The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current
passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the
current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be inserted
in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit should not be
less than 10 ohms.

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 139

Method of making a Measurement.

The platinum bowl is washed with nitric acid and distilled water, dried
by heat, and then left to cool in a desiccator. When thoroughly dry it is
weighed carefully.

It is nearly filled with the solution, and connected to the rest of the
circuit by being placed on a clean copper support to which a binding
screw is attached. This copper support must be insulated.

The anode is then immersed in the solution so as to be well covered
by it and supported in that position ; the connections to the rest of the
circuit are made.

Contact is made at the key, noting the time of contact. The current
is allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and the time at which
contact is broken is observed. Care must be taken that the clock used is
keeping correct time during this interval.

The solution is now removed from the bow] and the deposit is washed
with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours. It is then
rinsed successively with distilled water and absolute alcohol and dried in
a hot-air bath at a temperature of about 160° C. After cooling in a
desiccator it is weighed again. The gain in weight gives the silver
deposited.

To find the current in amperes, this weight, expressed in grammes,
must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has
been passed, and by 0:001118.

The result will be the time-average of the current, if during the
interval the current has varied.

In determining by this method the constant of an instrument the
current should be kept as nearly constant as possible, and the readings of
the instrument observed at frequent intervals of time. These observa-
tions give a curve from which the reading corresponding to the mean
current (time-average of the current) can be found. The current, as
calculated by the voltameter, corresponds to this reading.

SPECIFICATION B.
ON THE PREPARATION OF THE CLARK CELL.
Definition of the Cell.

The cell consists of zinc or an amalgam of zinc with mercury and of
mercury in a neutral saturated solution of zinc sulphate and mercurous
sulphate in water, prepared with mercurous sulphate in excess.

Preparation of the Materials.

1. The Mercury.—To secure purity it should be first treated with acid
in the usual manner, and subsequently distilled a vacuo.

2. The Zine.—Take a portion of a rod of pure redistilled zinc, solder
to one end a piece of copper wire, clean the whole with glass paper or a
steel burnisher, carefully removing any loose pieces of the zinc. Just
before making up the cell dip the zinc into dilute sulphuric acid, wash
with distilled water, and dry with a clean cloth or filter paper.

3. The Mercurous Sulphate.—Take mercurous sulphate, purchased as
pure, mix with it a small quantity of pure mercury, and wash the whole

140 REPORT—1 894.

thoroughly with cold distilled water by agitation in a bottle ; drain off the
water, and repeat the process at least twice. After the last washing
drain off as much of the water as possible.

4, The Zinc Sulphate Solution.—Prepare a neutral saturated solution
of pure (‘ pure recrystallised’) sinc sulphate by mixing in a flask distilled
water with nearly twice its weight of crystals of pure zine sulphate, and
adding zinc oxide in the proportion of about 2 per cent. by weight of the
zinc sulphate crystals to neutralise any free acid. The crystals should
be dissolved with the aid of gentle heat, but the temperature to which
the solution is raised should not exceed 30° C. Mercurous sulphate
treated as described in 3 should be added in the proportion of about
12 per cent. by weight of the zinc sulphate crystals to neutralise any free
zinc oxide remaining, and the solution filtered, while still warm, into a
stock bottle. Crystals should form as it cools.

5. The Mercurous Sulphate and Zinc Sulphate Paste.-—Mix the
washed mercurous sulphate with the zinc sulphate solution, adding
sufficient crystals of zinc sulphate from the stock bottle to ensure satura-
tion, and a small quantity of pure mercury. Shake these up well
together to form a paste of the consistence of cream. Heat the paste,
but not above a temperature of 30° C. Keep the paste for an hour at this
temperature, agitating it from time to time, then allow it to cool ; con-
tinue to shake it occasionally while it is cooling. Crystals of zine sul-
phate should then be distinctly visible, and should be distributed throughout
the mass. If this is not the case add more crystals from the stock bottle,
and repeat the whole process.

This method ensures the formation of a saturated solution of zinc and
mercurous sulphates in water.

To set up the Cell.

The cell may conveniently be set up in a small test-tube of about
2 centimetres diameter and 4 or 5 centimetres deep. Place the mercury
in the bottom of this tube, filling it to a depth of, say, °5 centimetre.
Cut a cork about ‘5 centimetre thick to fit the tube ; at one side of the
cork bore a hole through which the zine rod can pass tightly; at the other
side bore another hole for the glass tube which covers the platinum wire ;
at the edge of the cork cut a nick through which the air can pass when
the cork is pushed into the tube. Wash the cork thoroughly with warm
water, and leave it to soak in water for some hours before use. Pass the
zinc rod about 1 centimetre through the cork.

Contact is made with the mercury by means of a platinum wire about
No. 22 gauge. This is protected from contact with the other materials
of the cell by being sealed into a glass tube. The ends of the wire project
from the ends of the tube ; one end forms the terminal, the other end and
a portion of the glass tube dip into the mercury.

Clean the glass tube and platinum wire carefully, then heat the
exposed end of the platinum red-hot, and insert it in the mercury in the
test-tube, taking care that the whole of the exposed platinum is covered.

Shake up the paste and introduce it without contact with the upper
part of the walls of the test-tube, filling the tube above the mercury to a
depth of rather more than 1 centimetre.

Then insert the cork and zinc rod, passing the glass tube through the
hole prepared for it. Push the cork gently down until its lower surface
is nearly in contact with the liquid. The air will thus be nearly all

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 141

expelled, and the cell should be left in this condition for at least twenty-
four hours before sealing, which should be done as follows.

Melt some marine glue until it is fluid enough to pour by its own
weight, and pour it into the test-tube above the cork, using sufficient
to cover completely the zinc and soldering. The glass tube containing
the platinum wire should project some way above the top of the marine
glue.

The cell may be sealed in a more permanent manner by coating the
marine glue, when it is set, with a solution of sodium silicate, and leaving
it to harden.

The cell thus set up may be mounted in any desirable manner. It
is convenient to arrange the mounting so that the cell may be immersed
in a water-bath up to the level of, say, the upper surface of the cork. Its
temperature can then be determined more accurately than is possible when
the cell is in air.

In using the cell sudden variations of temperature should as far as
possible be avoided.

The form of the vessel containing the cell may be varied. In the
H form the zinc is replaced by an amalgam of ten parts by weight of zinc
to ninety of mercury. The other materials should be prepared as already
described. Contact is made with the amalgam in one leg of the cell and
with the mercury in the other by means of platinum wires sealed through
the glass.

Notes TO THE SPECIFICATION ON THE PREPARATION OF THE
CLARK CELL.

The Mercurous Sulphate.—The treatment of the mercurous sulphate
has for its object the removal of any mercuric sulphate which is often
present as an impurity.

Mercuric sulphate decomposes in the presence of water into an acid
and a basic sulphate. The latter is a yellow substance—turpeth mineral |
—practically insoluble in water; its presence at any rate in moderate
quantities has no effect on the cell. If, however, it is formed, the acid
sulphate is formed also. This is soluble in water, and the acid produced
affects the electro-motive force. The object of the washings is to dissolve
and remove this acid sulphate, and for this purpose the three washings
described in the specification will in nearly all cases suffice. If, however,
a great deal of the turpeth mineral is formed, it shows that there is a
great deal of the acid sulphate present, and it will then be wiser to obtain
a fresh sample of mercurous sulphate rather than to try by repeated
washings to get rid of all the acid.

The free mercury helps in the process of removing the acid, for the
acid mercuric sulphate attacks it, forming mercurous sulphate and acid
which is washed away.

Pure mercurous sulphate when quite free from acid shows on repeated
washing a faint primrose tinge, which is due to the formation of a basic
mercurous salt, and is distinct from the turpeth mineral or basic mercuric
sulphate. The appearance of this primrose tint may be taken as an
indication of the fact that all the acid has been removed, and the washing
may with advantage be continued until this primrose tint appears. Should
large quantities of this basic mercurous salt be formed, the sulphate should
be treated as described in the instructions for setting up Clark’s cells

142 REPORT—1894..

issued from the Physical Technical Institute of Berlin, ‘ Zeitschrift fir
Tnstrumentenkunde,’ 1893, Heft 5.

The Zine Sulphate Solution.—The object to be attained is the pre-
paration of a neutral solution of pure zinc sulphate saturated with
Zn8O,7H,0.

At temperatures above 30° C. the zinc sulphate may crystallise out in
another form; to avoid this, 30° C. should be the upper limit of tem-
perature. At this temperature water will dissolve about 1°9 time its
weight of the crystals. If any of the crystals put in remain undissolved
they will be removed by the filtration.

The zinc sulphate should be free from iron, and should be tested before
use with sulphocyanide of potassium to ascertain that this condition is
satisfied. If an appreciable amount of iron is present it should be re-
moved by the method given in the directions already quoted, ‘ Zeitschrift
fiir Instrumentenkunde,’ 1893, Heft 5.

The amount of zine oxide required depends on the acidity of the
solution, but 2 per cent. will, in all cases which will arise in practice with
reasonably good zinc sulphate, be ample. Another rule would be to add
the zinc oxide gradually until the solution became slightly milky. The
solution when put into the cell should not contain any free zinc oxide ;
if it does, then, when mixed with the mercurous sulphate, zinc sulphate
and mercurous oxide are formed ; the latter may be deposited on the
zine and affect the electro-motive force of the cell. The difficulty is
avoided by adding as described about 12 per cent. of mercurous sulphate
before filtration : this is more than sufficient to combine with the whole
of the zinc oxide originally put in, if it all remains free. The mercurous
oxide formed, together with any undissolved mercurous sulphate, is
removed by the filtration.

The Mercurous Sulphate and Zine Sulphate Paste.—Although, after
the last washing of the mercurous sulphate, as much water as possible

Fia. 2. may have been drained off, sufficient water
generally remains to necessitate the addition
of a very considerable quantity of crystals of
zine sulphate from the stock bottle, in order
to insure saturation, when the washed mer-
curous sulphate is added to the zine sulphate
solution as described in No. 4 of Specification
B appended to the Order in Council.

If the sides of the test tube above the
cork be soiled by the introduction of the
paste, the marine glue doos not adhere to
the glass; the liquid in the cell rises by
capillary action between the glue and the
glass, and may damage the cell.

The form of the vessel containing the cell
may be varied. In the H form devised by
Lord Rayleigh and modified by Dr. Kahle the
zinc is replaced by an amalgam of zine and
mercury. The other materials should be prepared as already described.
Contact is made with the amalgam in one leg of the cell and with the
mercury in the other by means of platinum wires sealed through the glass.

The amalgam consists of about ninety parts of pure mercury mixed
with ten parts of pure redistilled zinc. These are heated in a porcelain

ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 143

erucible to about 100° C., and gently stirred until the zine is completely
dissolved in the mercury. The amalgam is liquid while warm, and must
be poured into the cell before it becomes solid on cooling.

The vessel containing the element consists of two vertical tubes.
These, as shown in the figure, are closed below and open above into a
common neck, which can be closed by a ground stopper of glass. The
two tubes should be 2 cm. in diameter and 3 cm. in length. The neck
should be at least 1:5 cm. in diameter and 2 cm. long. A short length
of platinum wire is sealed through the bottom of each tube.

The end of the wire in one tube is covered by a small quantity of
pure mercury, that in the other tube by the zinc-mercury amalgam.

Above the mercury a layer about 1 cm. thick of the mercurous
sulphate paste is placed ; above this, and also above the amalgam, a layer,
also about 1 em. in thickness, of zinc-sulphate crystals, and the vessel is
filled up with the saturated zinc sulphate solution.

The zinc-sulphate crystals are obtained by evaporating at a tem-
perature of less than 30° C. some of the zinc-sulphate solution prepared
as in 4 of the specification.

The stopper is then inserted, leaving a small air bubble above the
liquid, and sealed on the outside with shellac dissolved in alcohol.

The ends of the platinum wires outside the cell form the two poles,
and should be connected to suitable terminals.

The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological
Phenomena.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
G. J. Symons (Chairman), Professor R. MeEtpota, Mr. J.
Hopxinson, and Mr. A. W. CLaypEn (Secretary). (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)

Ty presenting their report on the work of the last year your Committee
have but little to say on the subject of the representation of clouds and
lightning by photography. They consider that their collection is nearly
complete so far as the different varieties of cloud form are concerned, and
it is only likely to be increased slowly and at long intervals by photo-
graphs of scarce forms of clouds or by particularly interesting series.
During the year the Secretary has secured many new negatives ; but
since the collection already includes satisfactory examples of the same
types, it has not been thought desirable to add more duplicates, and the
offers of co-operation from other photographers have not been fulfilled.
With regard to photographs of lightning also the collection has not been
increased, for your Committee have not been made aware of any such
photographs which show any features not already familiar, and no
opportunity has occurred for the Secretary to make any observations for
the further elucidation of the known phenomena.

Your Committee propose to invite the Royal Meteorological Society
to take charge of such photographs from their collection as are not likely
to be required for further investigation.

The attention of the Committee has been drawn to another application
of photography which seems to open up a possibility of very valuable
work ; this is in the measurement of cloud altitudes. This is a question
which has become more important since the acceptance by the Munich

144 REPORT—1894.

Congress of the system of cloud nomenclature devised by Hildebrandsson
and Abercromby, and it is remarkable that so few actual measurements
have been carried out.

So far as your Committee are aware, the only measurements of the
kind which have been systematically organised, at least in this country,
are those which were begun some years ago at Kew.

Now it is not only important to have more observations, but it is
especially desirable to have them from other places than the vicinity of
London for comparison, and in the residence of the Secretary at Exeter
such an opportunity is presented.

In the course of experiments on methods of cloud photography it has
been found easy to secure well-defined images of clouds even when the
sun is in the middle of the field of view. If, then, two such photographs
are taken simultaneously by a pair of cameras at some distance apart,
there will be a displacement of the image relatively to that of the sun.
The amount of this displacement will depend upon a number of things,
but it will be increased by adding to the focal length of the lens and by
increasing the distance between the two cameras. By knowing these
values and the altitude and azimuth of the sun, the distance of the cloud
and its height above the ground may be calculated without difficulty.

The azimuth and altitude of the sun at the time of exposure may be
ascertained by direct observation, or it may be found by calculation from
the known time at which exposure was made. There seems to be a
manifest advantage in thus using the sun asa fixed point of reference,
since it provides a means whereby any error in the observation of altitude
and azimuth may be effectively checked.

Your Committee have therefore prepared a pair of cameras so con-
structed that they may be easily directed towards the sun. They are
provided with lenses of 18 inches focus covering a plate of whole plate
size, thereby giving a large displacement and allowing room for a displace-
ment of several inches. The lenses are provided with adjustable shutters,
which can be simultaneously freed by an electrical attachment. They are
placed on stands, which serve as cupboards for them when not in use.

At present for purely trial purposes they are placed in the Secretary’s
garden ata distance of 35 yards, yet even that short distance gives a
displacement of half an inch with clouds 3,780 feet distant. This, of
course, is too small for very accurate measurement, and would be far
smaller with high-level clouds, the determination of the altitudes of which
is most important.

The intention of your Committee is to place them on a plot of level
ground by the side of the London and South-Western Railway near
Exeter. There is available a strip of waste ground, just over a quarter of
a mile in length, commanding an uninterrupted view of the sun from
sunrise until nearly sunset. The ground is level, and the cameras can be
placed due east and west, thereby greatly simplifying the reduction of
the observations. The directors of the London and South-Western Rail-
way have kindly consented to allow the ground to be used under conditions
which seem to your Committee quite satisfactory, but which involve the
payment of a nominal rent of 1/. per annum ; and the cameras would
have been placed in position by the present time had it not been necessary
to get another meeting of the Committee to sanction the agreement. The
method is easy to apply, and promises to yield results at leasf as accurate
as any which have yet been tried ; so your Committee ask for reappoint-
ment, with a grant of 101.

ON EARTH TREMORS. 145

Earth Tremors—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. C. Davison (Secretary), Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Pro-
fessor G. H. Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewine, Dr. Isaac Roserts,
Mr. THomas Gray, Sir Jonn Evans, Professors J. PRESTWICH,
K. Hutz, G. A. Lesour, R. MeLpoua, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. M.
Watton Brown, Mr. J. GuaIsHER, Professor C. G. Knorr, Pro-
fessor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. Horace Darwin, and Dr. R. CopeLanp
(drawn up by the Secretary), appointed for the Investigation of Earth
Tremors in this Country.

APPENDIX PAGE
I. Account of Observations made with the Horizontal Pendulum at Nicolaiew.

By Professor 8. KoRTAZZI . : ; - - . é - - - 155
Il. The Bifilar Pendulum at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. By Professor
R. COPELAND. : : : F ° . . . : : - 158

Mr, H. Darwin's Bifilar Pendulum.

Tue preliminary trial of the bifilar pendulum last year led to the dis-
covery of one or two possible sources of error, chiefly resulting from altera-
tions in the distribution of temperature near the instrument. In order to
eliminate these as far as possible, Mr. Darwin has made several changes in
the latest form of the pendulum.!

When the gas-jet was kept burning for some time, it was found
that the expansion of the tube produced an apparent tilting to the east,
1.€., away from the source of heat. As soon as the flow of heat through
the instrument became nearly steady, a far more considerable movement
of the mirror in the opposite direction became evident, which was perhaps
due to the action of convection currents in the surrounding oil.

The expansion of the tube is greatest on the side towards the gas-jet.
Its disturbing effect is therefore a maximum when the gas-jet is in a plane
at right angles to that in which the silver wire lies. In the new instrument
the mirror is held in a frame so that the plane of the mirror is perpendicu-
lar to that of the silver wire, and the principal effect of the expansion is
merely an inappreciable change in the.sensitiveness of the pendulum. At
the same time we should expect that this method of mounting the mirror
would diminish the disturbing action of convection currents, as the surface
exposed to them lies chiefly in a plane at right angles to that in which the
movements of the ground are being measured.

In order to avoid any straining of the tube the lever used in deter-
mining the angular value of the scale divisions is prolonged above the
tilting-screw. To this upper portion is attached a movable weight, which
can be adjusted so that the centre of gravity of the lever coincides with
the axis of the tilting-screw. The lever is moved by a rocking-arm worked
from a distance by a pair of pneumatic bellows.

The instrument rests on three foot-screws, two of which are in a line
parallel to the plane of the silver wire. A tangent-screw is connected
with these two, so that one can be raised and the other depressed by an
equal amount, and so enable the sensitiveness to be varied. A second
tangent-screw is attached to the third foot-screw, or ‘ back-leg,’ by means

* For the account of these improvements I am indebted to notes supplied by Mr.
Darwin. See also a paper, ‘ Bifilar Pendulum for Measuring Earth-tilts,’ Nature,
vol. 1. 1894, pp. 246-249,

89

4, 1

146° _ REPORT—1894.

of which the pendulum can be tilted in the plane perpendicular to that of
the silver wire, and the spot of light readjusted to the centre of the scale
or photographic paper. Both screws are worked from a distance by long
wooden rods.

A bifilar pendulum, with the changes above described, was erected
early this year at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. The instrument is
also further protected by a cover from heat effects. Dr. Copeland, As- _
tronomer Royal for Scotland, informs me that, with these arrangements,
it is not at all affected by momentary changes of temperature.

The Greek Earthquake Pulsations of April 1894,

On April 20 a severe earthquake took place in north-east Greece,
causing much damage in several towns and villages. Soon after the news
of its occurrence was published I made frequent observations with the
bifilar pendulum at Birmingham, and was fortunate enough to watch the
greater part of the remarkable series of pulsations proceeding from the
second great disturbance, that of April 27. An account of these move-
ments is given in its proper place below.

A few weeks later I received from Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz a list of
the records of the same pulsations made by the horizontal pendulum at
Nicolaiew. As these gave a somewhat greater velocity for the pulsations,
it seemed possible that conclusions of some interest might result from an
endeavour to trace the pulsations as they spread outwards from their
origin. I accordingly wrote to the directors of the leading magnetic and
geodynamic observatories on the Continent and in this country, and I am
indebted to their courtesy for much information, a summary of which is
given below. Additional details relating to the Italian observatories have
been extracted from the valuable ‘ Bollettino Meteorico’ (Supplementi 104
and 105) of the ‘ Ufficio Centrale di Meteorologia e Geodinamica’ of Rome.

The total number of shocks belonging to this earthquake series must
amount to several hundred. The strongest were those, already mentioned,
on April 20 and 27. Both were felt over the whole of Greece. The
epicentral areas seem to have been situated in the eparchy of Locris, and
probably not far distant from its capital, Atalante. In the estimates of
the velocity which follow I have supposed the earthquake pulsations to
start from this town, the position of which is 38° 39’ N. lat., 23° 0’ E. long.,
and about 98 kilometres from Athens. For convenience the recorded
times have all been reduced to Greenwich mean time.

Athens (Dr D. Eginitis), 57° 58’ 20” N., 23° 43'48” E. The earth-
quakes were registered by Brassart seismoscopes. These are well regulated,
so that the times may be regarded as very exact. April 20, 5h. 17m. 5s. P.M.,
duration 4 seconds ; followed by a second shock at 5h. 17m. 35s. P.m.,
duration 7 seconds. April 27, 7h. 46m. lls. p.m., a very strong shock,
‘luration 12 seconds.

Catania! (Professor A. Ricco), 37° 28’ N., 15° 4’ E. April 20,
5h. 23m. 8s. p.m. April 27, 7h. 47m. 19s. p.m. The photographic record
of the normal tromometer shows six series of decreasing oscillations,
lasting for about 18 minutes.

Benevento (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 41° 8’ N., 14° 45’ E. April 20, 5h. 19m. p.m.,
a very distinct trace indicated by the Cecchi seismograph. April 27,

1 The observatory is situated at a short distance from Catania, but I have been

unable to find its exact position. In several cases, the positions of the Italian,
observatories are only approximate.

ON EARTH TREMORS. 147

7h. 45m. p.m. On both occasions the tromometer oscillated so much that
it was not possible to determine the amplitude.

Mineo (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 37° 15’ N., 14° 42’ E. April 20, 5h. 26m.
(+ some seconds), p.m. April 27, 7h. 53m. P.M.

Portici (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 40° 50’ N., 14°19’ E. April 27, 7h. 51m. 9s.
P.M., movement indicated by a Brassart seismograph.

Velletri (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 41° 41’ N., 12° 47’ E. April 20, 5h. 26m. p.m.

Rocca di Papa (Dr. A. Cancani and ‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 41° 54’ N.,
12° 29’ E. April 20, 5h. 20m. p.m., the beginning of the pulsations indi-
cated by the ‘ tromometro avvisatore.’ The Brassart seismograph displaced
at 5h. 22m. + 20s. April 27, 7h. 45m. p.m., the arrival of the pulsa-
tions announced by the ‘tromometro avvisatore.’ The great seismograph
(7 metres in length and 100 kilogrammes in mass) shows the beginning of
small earthquakes in the S.E._N.W. component at 7h. 47m. 30s. At
about 7h. 49m. 30s. the large oscillations in the 8.E._N.W. component
began, and at 7h. 49m. 49s. in the N.E.-S.W. component. These large
oscillations had a period of 7:2 seconds, and present a principal maximum in
the N.E.-S.W. component at 7h. 50m. 40s., that of the other component not
being well defined. This great undulatory movement ceased at 7h. 57m. 20s.
in the N.E.-S.W. component, and at about 8h. 2m, 20s. in the S.E.-N.W.
component.

tome (Professor Tacchini and ‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 41° 54’ N., 12° 29’ E.
April 20, beginning of the movement about 5h. 20m. 20s. p.m. in the
N.W.-S.E. component, about 5h. 22m. 0s. in the N.E.-S.W. component.
The movement gradually increased until the following maxima were pre-
sented: 5h. 25m. 35s., 5h. 26m. Os., 5h. 26m. 55s. (principal maximum),
5h. 28m. 20s., 5h. 29m. Os., after which the traces irregularly and slowly
decreased, the end of the movement taking place at about 5h. 33m. 15s.
in the N.W.-S.E. component, and about 5h. 35m. 10s. in the N.E.-S.W.
component. April 27, the beginning of the movement in both components
at about 7h. 47m. 50s. p.m. ; a series of maxima, first increasing and
then decreasing, at 7h. 50m. 55s., 7h. 51m. 40s. (principal maximum),
7h. 52m. 10s., 7h. 52m. 25s., Th. 53m. Os., 7h. 53m. 45s, Th. 55m. 55s., and
7h. 57m. 10s. ; the end of the movement in both components may be taken
at about 8h. 6m. 20s., but not improbably it was prolonged still further.

Siena (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 43° 19’ N., 11° 20’ E. April 20, 5h. 23m. 40s.
(= about 10s.) p.m., beginning of the movement in the N.N.E.-S.S.W.
component, as registered by the Vicentini seismograph ; the oscillations
gradually increased in amplitude until they attained the following
maxima: between 5h. 25m. 40s. and 5h. 26m. 40s. (two principal
maxima), at 5h. 26m. 58s., 5h. 28m. 4s., and 5h. 28m. 40s. ; the
oscillations then slowly disappeared, the total duration being about fifteen
minutes. During the first seven minutes the average period of the oscil-
lations in the E.S.E.-W.N.W. component was about five seconds, and in
the other, during the first ten minutes, about four seconds. At about
5h. 49m. 40s. there was a group of fourteen small oscillations, lasting for
one minute. April 27, about 7h. 47m. 40s. p.m., beginning of the oscil-
lations, which increased suddenly in amplitude; the tirst maximum at
7h. 51m., after which there were four others, the principal maximum
being at 7h. 53m. 6s. During an interval of 552 seconds sixty-five oscil-
lations were counted in the N.N.E.-S.8.W. component, and sixty-one in
the E.S.E.-W.N.W. component, giving an average period of eight anda
half seconds for each complete oscillation.

L2

148 REPORT—1 894.

Florence (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 43° 46’ N., 11° 15’ E. April 20, from
5h, 23m. 5s. (£ 15s.) to 5h. 28m. 51s. p.m. April 27, 7h. 49m. 2s.
to 7h. 50m. 11s. p.m. ; movement indicated by the Cecchi seismograph.

San Luca, near Bologna (‘ Boll. Meteor.’). April 20, 5h. 25m, p.m, a
very slight movement indicated by the Bertelli tromometer. It was also
indicated by the De Rossi microseismograph.

Spinea, near Mestre- Venezia (‘ Boll. Meteor.’). April 20, 5h. 25m. 17s,
P.M., a movement of about five seconds in duration. April 27, 7h. 49m. 7s.,
a movement of about four seconds in duration.

Padua (‘ Boll. Meteor.’),45° 24’ N.,11°52’E. April 20, 5h. 25m. 15s. p..,
a very slight movement, followed by others at 5h. 26m. 15s., 5h. 27m. 55s.,
5h. 29m, 25s., and 5h. 30m. 50s. Microseismic movements were indicated
by the more delicate apparatus until 5h. 40m. 30s. At 5h. 26m. 15s. the
‘ Agamennone seismographic pendulum ’ was started. April 27, shocks at
7h. 50m. 30s., 7h. 51m. 5s., 7h. 51m. 45s., and 7h. 53m. 25s. p.m. The tro-
mometer continued agitated until 10h. 40m. p.m.

Piacenza (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 45° 3’ N., 9° 40’ E. April 20, 5h. 28m.
(+£10-15s.) p.m.

Pavia (‘ Boll. Meteor.’), 45°11’ N., 9°9’ E. April 20, about 5h. 28m. P.m.,
movement, lasting for 150 seconds, indicated by the Brassart seismograph.

Nicolaiew (Professor Kortazzi, details communicated by Dr. E. von
Rebeur-Paschwitz), 46° 58’ 51’ N., 31° 58’ 28” E. From April 20 the hori-
zontal pendulum was constantly disturbed by the Greek earthquakes.
Strong disturbances occurred at the following times :—April 20,
5h. 42m. p.m. ; April 21, 4h. 18m. a.m., 8h. 12m. p.m. ; April 22, 10h. 32m,
A.M.; April 24, 2h. 47m. a.m. ; April 25, Oh. 41m. a.m. ; April 27, 7h. 49m.
P.M. (very strong) ; April 30, 4h. 24m. a.m. ; May 1, Oh. 55m. a.m.

Charkow (Professor G. oe 50° 0' 10" N., 36° 13/40” E. From
April 20, 5h. 23m. p.m. to April 22, 3h. 5m. a.m. the horizontal pendulum
was disturbed ; April 20, 5h. 25m. p.m. , beginning of the strongest move-
ments ; April 21, 4h. 21m. A.M, maximum of a shock ; 8h. 13m. P.M., be-
ginning of a strong movement ; April 27, 7h. 48m. p.M., beginning of the
movement. The disturbed state of the pendulum, with a few weak shocks,
lasted until April 28, 8h. 23m. a.m.

Potsdam (Dr. Eschenhagen), 52° 22'55” N., 13°3'59" E. The magnetic
curves on April 20 and 27 show distinct traces of the pulsations :—

b. m. 8. h, m. s.
April 20, Declination from 5 30 53 to 5 31 41 p.m., Ampl. Y
Horizontal intensity » 53159 ,,53529 ,, a.

Vertical intensity
First shock 0 DBO! 29 aa DEOL OON vss

Second ,, » 568459 ,, 53629 ,, 3) | toe
April 27, Declination —
First slight shock, 7 5350 P.M., oe ee
Second principal _,, » 75560to81850 ,, oO Or

Swingings on the whole gradually diminishing, but from time to time again
increasing.
h. m, 8. h. m. s.
Horizontal intensity—

First shock 7 54 20 Ampl. 1-2’
Second ,, from 7 5620to8 150 ade
Swingings until 8 6 20 9 0"'8

Vertical intensity—
First shock from 7 54 50 to 7 58 50
Second ,, » 8 020,, 8 320

—

ON EARTH TREMORS, 149

I am indebted to Dr. Eschenhagen for copies of the six curves. Two
of these (those of the declination and horizontal intensity on April 27) are
shown in figs. 1 and 2.

Fie. 1.—Potsdam: Declination, April 27, 1894.

Wilhelmshaven (Dr. C. Borgen), 53° 31’ 52’ N., 8° 8’ 48” E. The traces
on the magnetic curves consist of a slight broadening of the curves. The
times read off are those of the beginning of the disturbance in each case.

h. m.
April 20, Declination : : Z : . 5 30 P.M.
Bifilar : 5 : : : - no trace.
Lloyd’s Balance : ; 5 30 P.M.
April 27, Declination (| pers
Bifilar ; mn Oe
Lloyd’s Balance mol”,

Pare St. Maur (M. Renou and M. Moureaux), 48° 4834! N., 2°29/ 38” E.
No trace of any disturbance exists on the magnetic curves on April 20.
On April 27 two pulsations are perceptible on the declination curve, the
first very feeble at 7h. 54m., the second more marked at 7h. 59m. P.M.
The curves of the two components of magnetic force are apparently undis-
turbed. Two bars of copper with bifilar suspension, orientated N.S. and

150 - REPORT—1894.

#.W., show not the least sign of any disturbance. ‘The movement,’
M. Renou remarks, ‘ is therefore magnetic and not mechanical.’

Fic. 2.—Potsdam: Horizontal Intensity, April 27, 1894.

Utrecht (M. M. Snellen), 52° 5’ 9” N., 5° 7’ 55’ E. April 27, the
magnetic diagrams show unmistakable traces. For copies of them I am

Fiq@. 3.—Utrecht : Declination, April 27, 1894.

indebted to M. Snellen. That of the declination is reproduced in fig. 3.
The following are the times of the beginning of the oscillations :—

ON EARTH TREMORS. 151

h. m. 8.
April 27. Declination. . ° - ; . 7167 13PM
Horizontal intensity ’ . 756 34 5,
Vertical intensity ; ; 7 56-108 5,

Kew (Mr. C. Chree), 51° 38’ 6’ N., 0° 18° 47" W. ‘ There is a very
small but unmistakable movement in the horizontal force curve, and a
simultaneous extremely slight suggestion of a movement in the declina-
tion curve. Careful measurements give 8h. Om. p.m. as the mean Green-
wich time of the middle of the movement on the horizontal force curve,
and 7h. 59m. p.m. as that for the declination curve. There is not the
faintest trace of movement in the vertical force curve.’

Birmingham, 52° 28’ N., 1°54’ W. The pulsations were first seen on
April 27 at 7h.59m.P.m. Between $h. Im.and 8h. 3m. 20s. the image passed
the cross wire twenty times, giving an average duration of 14 seconds for
each oscillation. Between 8h. 8m. and 8h. 10m. 2s. the same number of
oscillations was completed, the average duration of each being 12-2 seconds.
The amplitude was determined by adjusting the image of the dise of light
so that at one limit of its movement its edge coincided with the cross-
wire of the telescope. At 7h. 59m. the range was equal to three-quarters
of the diameter of the disc. The whole diameter, it was afterwards found,
is equivalent to 0°98 inch of the scale, so that the trace of the disturbance
on a photographic recording apparatus in the same position as the scale
would have been 18 mm. in breadth. As the angular value of the scale-
divisions had not been ascertained since the beginning of August 1893 a
new determination was made on the evenings of May 16-18. The mean
of twenty-four pairs of tilts of 2’ is 6-66-08 inches of the scale. Thus,
at 7h. 59m. the range was 0-22. After this I believe it slightly increased
until 8h. 2m. or 8h. 3m. At 8h. 5m. it was 016. It then rapidly and
almost continually diminished, being 0:11 at 8h. 55m., 0-08 at 8h. 7m.,
0-05 at 8h. 8m., and 0/03 at 8h. 12m. The movement then became so
small that it could only be estimated. It was about 0/01 at 8h. 14m.,
0-005 at 8h. 16m. At Sh. 17m. there was a single oscillation of 0'’:015.
From 8h. 18m. to 8h. 19m. the image was steady, but at the latter time
the range suddenly increased to 0’-03, but diminished after a few oscilla-
tions, until at 8h. 28m. the image was steady again. After this time no
movement so great as 0/’-003 could with any certainty be detected.'

In addition to the above records it should be stated that the magnetic
curves on April 27 have been examined at the following observatories
with a negative result: Coimbra, Greenwich, Lisbon, Madrid, Nantes,
Nice, and Stonyhurst.

The difference between the distances of Athens and Wilhelmshaven
from Atalante is 1,910 km., and the difference between the recorded times
at the same places is about 12m. 55s. on April 20, and about 10m. 9s. on
April 27. Assuming that these times correspond to the same phase of
the disturbance, we obtain 2°46 and 3:14 km. per second respectively for
the average velocities on these days. These give : >—

Time at epicentrum on April 20=5h. 16m..25s. P.M., G.M.T.
6 co » 27=Th. 45m. 40s. P.M. - ,,
Using these values of the initial time, we have the following table :—

' Owing to the lag of the mirror through the oil these estimates are probably
less than the actual amounts. When the frame of the pendulum is tilted suddenly
through an angle of 2'', the image at first moves quickly, but during the first
15 seconds not more than half its total deflection is accomplished.

2 Since the duration of the disturbance at Athens on April 27 was only 12 seconds,

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154 REPORT—1894..

The values of the velocity in this table have been obtained on the
supposition that all phases of the disturbance left the origin simul-
taneously at the initial times given above. This is of course in the
highest degree improbable, but it was so taken in the absence of any
certainty as to which phase corresponded to these times. It is evident
that the discordances between many of the above results must in a great
measure be due to this assumption. For instance, on April 27, the
beginning of the pulsations was registered at Charkow one minute sooner
than at Nicolaiew, though the former place is 460 km. further from the
epicentrum. Both stations being observatories, the explanation appears
to be that the pendulum at Charkow was affected by earlier pulsations of
smaller amplitude.!

The most probable estimate of the velocity is, I believe, that derived
from the epochs of the beginning of the larger pulsations. Including
those obtained from magnetographs, which are not disturbed by the small
initial movements, we have the following results? for the mean velocity :—

April 20. 2°08 + -08 km. per sec.
3, ke. ool 07 km. a

Future Work of the Committee.

The grant of 50/. awarded last year to the Committee has been spent
in providing for the foundation, &c., of the bifilar pendulum at Bir-
mingham, and (in part) for one of the improved pendulums with photo-
graphic recording apparatus, to be placed in that city under the charge of
the Secretary.

The Committee consider that it would be desirable to test the working
of the pendulum by placing another of similar construction at a short
distance from it. The comparison would probably be made for a year,
and the second instrument would afterwards be available for use else-
where. They accordingly request that they be reappointed, with a grant
of 1007.

it follows that either (1) the instrument there was only affected by the larger
oscillations, or (2) that the rapid vibrations which constitute the earthquake shock
were distinct from the pulsations, and that the former -alone were registered. The
initial times above given were obtained on the supposition that the former alterna-
tive is correct. It seems possible, however, that the pulsations are not merely the
distant equivalent of the shock, but that they may travel with a different, and pro-
bably greater, velocity. If this be the case, the estimates of the velocity may be
a little too great.

‘ If the velocity of the pulsations is independent of their amplitude, these
small pulsations must have left the origin more than six minutes before the larger
ones (as if the earth’s crust slowly quivered before giving way), and might possibly
be utilised for giving earthquake warnings (see Professor Milne’s suggestion in
Seismol. Journ., vol. i. 1893, pp. 10-15).

* The first of these is calculated from six observations (Nos. 11, 14, 25, 27,
31, 33), the second from thirteen observations (Nos. 8, 11, 14, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33,
36, 37, 38, 41).

ON EARTH TREMORS. 155

APPENDIX I.

Account of Observations made with the Horizontal Pendulum at Nicolaiew.!
By Professor 8. Korrazzi.

More than a year has elapsed since I began to make observations
with the pendulum of M. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz installed in the cellar
of the observatory, but I have notas yet published any detailed reports on
this subject, with the exception of a brief account given at one of the
meetings of the Astronomical Society at St. Petersburg. . . . The more
or less regular oscillations of the pendulum, as well as the abrupt per-
turbations which it often experiences, depend on several physical agents,
and I find it necessary to continue the series of observations for several
months to be in a position to obtain from them more or less sound results.

For the present I can only draw some general conclusions :—

(1) The horizontal pendulum may be used as a very sensible and very
trustworthy seismograph, which does not fail to record all the oscillations
of the ground and tremors of the earth’s crust, even in the case of very
distant earthquakes. Comparing the results obtained here with those at
Strassburg during the first three months of this year, we find more than
a dozen disturbances registered at the same time by both instruments.

(2) Different seismic disturbances produce extremely varied move-
ments of the pendulum. On the enclosed copy of the photograph, which
registers the positions from April 3, 8h., to April 9, 7h., are shown two
feeble disturbances on April 4 at 22h. 40m. and April 6, 5-5h., and a
very strong one on April 8 at 4-0h. The latter corresponds to the earth-
quake which took place at this time in Servia and Southern Hungary.
For three-quarters of an hour the pendulum was very strongly disturbed ;
it even changed abruptly its normal position ; and it was only at 6h. that
it became steady, whilst no one in the whole country felt then the least
movement of the ground. On August 17, however, at 4%h. mean time,
a rather pronounced earthquake occurred at Nicolaiew itself, and was
observed by a great number of the inhabitants, whilst the pendulum only
experienced a feeble disturbance similar to that shown on the curve on
April 6 at 10:5h. (but much more feeble), when the pendulum was
purposely disturbed by a feeble current of air under its cover.

(3) The pendulum is subject to periodic diurnal and annual oscilla-
tions. The amplitude of the former does not on an average exceed 0/1,
whilst that of the latter attains 3 or 4”. These last changes may be
explained by the inclination of the upper layers of the ground produced
by the annual changes of temperature at the depth of the pillar ; whilst
the diurnal oscillations, it seems to me, cannot be explained in the same
way, because not only the ground at the depth of 15 feet, at which the
pillar of the pendulum is founded, but even the air of the cellar, does not

* Communicated in two letters (dated August 31, 1893, and July 10, 1894) to the
Secretary, the second being an abstract of a report to be presented to the Société
Astronomique Russe.

156 REPORT—1894..

experience any changes of temperature throughout the day. On the
enclosed copy the diurnal oscillations are shown very distinctly.

In my letter of August 3§, 1893, I pointed out the three principal
kinds of movement which the horizontal pendulum experiences : (1) the

Fia@. 4.—Earthquake Disturbances of
March 21-22, 1894.

{i ag

|

’

annual or long-period deviations
which M. de Rebeur-Paschwitz
calls ‘ Nullpunctbewegungen ;’ (2)
the diurnal deviations; and (3)
seismic disturbances. To these must.
be added (4) disturbances during
storms, probably arising from the
movement of the building, produc-
ing tremors in the ground; and
(5) periodic deviations of short
period, in all probability of seismic
origin.

The deviations (1) are shown
in the continual movement of the
pendulum in the same direction,
with slight digressions, lasting
several months, apparently during
the transition from winter to sum-
mer, and vice versd. In the present
position of my instrument the pen-
dulum inclines towards the south in
spring and summer, and towards.
the north in winter. ... Here I
must remark that the amplitude of
the annual changes of temperature
in the cellar where the instrument
is placed does not exceed 6° R.
(13°°5 F.), whilst the changes of the
diurnal period are quite insensible.

In fig. 4 are seen two seismic
disturbances on March 21-22, 1894.
The second of these (beginning at
Oh. 43m. Nicolaiew mean time)
coincides with the disturbance ob-
served at all the Italian seismic
stations, and also registered by the
magnetographs of Pola, Potsdam,
and Wilhelmshaven (see ‘ Boll.
Meteorico dell’ Ufficio centrale . . .
al Collegio Romano,’ No. 135, Sup-
plemento 103),and was probably pro-
duced by the earthquake in Japan
(7h. 27m. 49s. Tokio mean time).
Four to five hours earlier another
rather strong disturbance is seen
on the photogram, which does not
coincide with any observed earth-

quake, but which was also registered by the horizontal pendulum at

Charkow

a a

i

ON EARTH TREMORS. 157

The movements of the pendulum during a storm on May 4, 1893, are
represented in fig. 5 (1 mm.=0'"044).

Fig. 5.—Movements during a Storm on May 4, 1893.

reamrgonon eng staan held (odena qreanaeey cn GOEH POCONO

Lastly, fig. 6 (1 mm.=0” 025) serves to illustrate the deviations (5),
when the pendulum, without being agitated, is never at rest, but for
several hours inclines sometimes in one direction, sometimes in the other.
During the month of March, 1894, such disturbances frequently occurred.

Frc. 6.—Disturbances of Short Period (probably seismic) on March 5, 1894

oe ne nep DRADER ABD :

a SS SS. SSS SS aaa aS
1S 16 17 18 19 20 2l 22 23 fe)

On the whole, the observations of the horizontal pendulum may be of
much service in studying the different movements of the earth’s crust and
of the ground.

Amongst other things it seems to me difficult to explain the oscilla-
tions of the diurnal period observed here, as well as at Potsdam, &c., by
M. von Rebeur-Paschwitz, and at Charkow by Professor Lewitzky, since
the temperature and relative humidity of the air in the neighbourhood of
the instrument remain constant throughout the day.

Having at my disposal an almost uninterrupted series of observations
for fifteen months in the same position of the instrument (the axis of the
pendulum in the prime vertical), I wished to investigate if the moon
produced any influence on these oscillations. For this purpose I divided
the whole series into sixty successive groups, corresponding to the different
phases of the moon, from which I have drawn the conclusion that the
influence of the moon is insensible, or, if it exists, that it is masked by
the different accidental disturbances. After this, having divided the
whole series into five consecutive parts (three lunar months in each), I
have obtained the following table of the deviations of the pendulum from
its mean position for every two hours (astronomical time) in thousandths
of a second! (0-001) :—

i Le ee

ee on. | 2 4 6 s | 10 | 12 | 14 |] 16 | 18 | 20 | oon es
bake
1893 i
Mar. 14-June 9 . |—10-6 |4+15°7 | +32°0 |+39°5 [429-2 |4+25°8 4115 |— 58 |—25-7|—41-4 |-41-5 —28°5| 0-081
June 10-Sept. 5 . |—38°5 |— 9°3/ +178 |+38-2|442°3 |+39'3 +266 |-+100|— 8:3|—29-2|—50-1 |—45-4| o-o92
Sept. 6-Dec. 3. |—13-2|— 2-0-4102 |4161 |+18-7|4+18-0|+12°9|+ 41|— 7-7/-17-7 |—20°5 —19°7 | 0-039
Dec. 4-Mar.2 | |— 1°6/-+19°8|+25-8 |+26-4|+207|+11-9/4 4°5|— 5:0|—12-4|—27-0|—32-7 —27-1/ 0-059
1894 |
Mar. 3-May 30. —11°5 |+10-7 | +28°7|+35-1 |4+30°3]+256|+12-7|— 5-0|—22'6 |—375 |-39:7| 268 | 0-075
j

|
| |

1 A — sign denotes a deviation to the north, a + sign to the south.

158 REPORT—1894.

We see, therefore, that the amplitude of the deviations is greatest
during the summer months. It will be remarked that the first and last
series, corresponding nearly to the same times of the year, give almost
identical deviations.

APPENDIX II.

The Bifilar Pendulum at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.
By Professor R. Copetann, /.2.S.L., Astronomer Royal for Scotland.

This instrument was placed in position by Mr. H. Darwin on
March 23, 1894. It is, with slight exceptions, similar to the instrument
erected at Birmingham, in April 1893, for Mr. C. Davison, and which
has been fully described in the British Association Report for 1893,
pp. 291-303. The exceptions referred to are: (1) the arrangement of the
mirror of the Edinburgh instrument at right angles to the plane of the
suspending wires, and (2 ) the surrounding “of the instrument by a heavy
casing to prevent, as far as possible, any qaoreniene of the mirror due to
change of temperature resulting from the lighting of the illuminating
lamp « or other cause.

The whole apparatus, including the scale and lamp, is placed in a hut
erected for the purpose over a trench running east and west, formed
within the Observatory grounds by removing the soil and levelling the
rock. A hole 2 feet deep is bored in the rock near the west end of the
trench, and into this is leaded the heavy iron supporting bar. This bar
is 14 inch in diameter, and projects above the surface of the rock suf-
ficiently far to allow the iron plate carrying the instrument to be fixed to
it by screws. A slate slab 18 inches square and 1} inch thick, in which
a circular hole is cut 94 inches in diameter, is placed round the iron
plate, but not touching it, and is supported on a wooden frame at the
level of the plate. On this slate is placed a square cast-iron casing.
64 inches deep, which surrounds the body of the instrument, including
the mirror-box. On this, again, rests a second slate with a circular hole,
64 inches in diameter, through which passes the head of the instrument
and the upper part of the brass tube containing the frame. The head is
covered by a stoneware jar resting on the upper “slate.

The cast-iron casing surrounding the body of the instrument is
perforated by an aperture 4} inches in diameter opposite the mirror-
window. To prevent undue access of air, and consequent dewing of the
window, a truncated cone of sheet copper is fastened inside this aperture,
with its smaller end turned inwards towards the instrument. In spite of
this precaution, however, much difficulty has been experienced from the
dewing of the glass, and a wooden shutter lined with green baize has
been arranged to still further prevent the circulation of air. The shutter
is raised when necessary by pulling a string from the east end of the hut.
In addition vessels containing chloride of calcium have been placed in
the hut and inside the cast-iron casing. Much benefit has been derived
from these arrangements. The casing is also perforated with holes to
admit the handles of the tangent screws and the pipes of the bellows
used for ascertaining the number of divisions of the scale correspond-
ing to a known tilt of the instrument. In both cases provision has been

ON EARTH TREMORS. 159

made for preventing tremor being conveyed to the instrument by the use
of these parts of the apparatus, the whole of such tremor being taken up
by the casing.

The scale and small benzoline illuminating lamp are placed at the
east end of the hut. A frame, supported in a horizontal position by two
strong iron feet fixed by beds of cement laid on the rock, is traversed by
the lamp-stand, which carries an index along the edge of the scale. The
readings are taken when the image of a wire placed vertically in front of
a circular hole in the lamp-screen coincides with the vertical wire in a
fixed theodolite. The scale is divided into millimetres, and the effective
length of it traversed by the index is 382 mm., and it is distant 10 feet
(=3,048 mm.) from the centre of the instrument. If / be the distance of
the lamp from the point of the scale which is due east of the mirror,
the azimuth, north or south of east, of the normal to the mirror is

y
—]
3048"
the rotation of the mirror to each side cf the north and south position
within the range of the scale. When the rotation exceeds this amount
the mirror has to be brought back to its north and south position by
turning the long handle attached to the southern levelling screw.

The plane of the suspending wire is in the east and west direction
with the longer section of the wire toward the east ; consequently, as the
face of the mirror is towards the east, a tilt of the upper support of the
wire towards the north produces a corresponding deflection of the normal
to the mirror also to the north; hence tilts in the north and south
direction only are measured by the instrument.

From measures of the dimensions of the instrument which have been
supplied by Mr. Horace Darwin, it is computed that the movement of
the lever, attached to the micrometer screw against which the top of
the frame is pressed, through the fixed amount of 13 mm. for which the
apparatus is set, produces a tilt of 2°016 seconds of arc in the upper
support of the suspending wire. As soon as the pendulum was mounted
experiments were made to ascertain its sensitiveness, or the scale value of
this fixed amount of tilt. The mean of nine measures taken on March 26
gave 62°4 mm. of the scale = 2-016. This was considered excessive,
and steps were taken to reduce it gradually. The mean of four measures
made between May 5 and 8 gave 21:2 mm. = 2/016. Since the last of
these dates the two levelling screws, whose combined movement alters
the sensitiveness, have not been interfered with. Observations of the
sensitiveness have, however, been made occasionally, four measures
between May 16 and June 9 giving 19°3 mm., 17-2 mm., 20:0 mm., and
23°7 mm. respectively, or an average of 20:0 mm., equal to 2”-016. Since
June 9 four measures have been made, but these give somewhat anomalous
and as yet unexplained results.

In the absence of any photographic arrangement for giving a con-
tinuous record of the position of the mirror, it has been decided to take
readings at each full minute from five minutes before to five minutes
after Paris mean noon every day. This has been carried out from
May 26 up to the present time, with the exception of a few days, when
the readings were rendered impossible by a deposit of moisture on the
mirror window or other cause. These observations were made by Mr.
T. Heath and Mr. A. J. Ramsay.

On no occasion has any unsteadiness or oscillation of the mirror been

4 tan When /=191 this becomes 1° 47’ 35’, and represents

160 REPORT—1 894.

observed, though a slight change of position appears to take place during
the time of observation, owing possibly to the presence of the observer or
the heat of the lamp. This change, however, is very slight, and the
mean of the eleven observations of each set is taken as showing the
position of the mirror for that day at Paris noon. These mean scale
readings have been laid on a curve with the date as one argument and
the divisions of the scale as the other. The result shows that the mirror
has been constantly turning in azimuth from the east towards the north
during the whole period over which the observations have extended
(May 26 to July 31). The total amount of this movement has been
517 mm. on the scale in sixty-six days, or an angular rotation of 9° 37/ 23’
for the ray falling on the mirror from the lamp; which is, of course,
equivalent to an angular rotation of 4° 48’ 42’ in the mirror itself,

Tf, now, 20 mm. (=2"'016) be taken as the sensitiveness of the instru-
ment over all this time—though about this number there is some uncer-
tainty—the total tilt of the instrument towards the north appears to have
been fifty-two seconds of arc in sixty-six days. The stability of the nadir-
point of the mural circle in the adjoining observatory proves that this tilt
must either be in the superficial layer of the rock to which the instrument
is attached or, which is far more probable, in the pendulum itself.

The experiments confirm the results obtained elsewhere, that the
instrument, while unfitted to show the slower progressive tilts of the
earth’s surface, is pre-eminently suited, by its great sensitiveness and
momentary stability, for the indication of earth tremors. However, to
bring out the full powers of the apparatus it is obviously necessary to
secure a continuous photographic record of the position of the mirror.

M. Antoine d’Abbadie, at whose cost the pendulum was supplied, has
eaused simultaneous observations to be taken with his ‘nadirane’ at
Abbadia in north latitude 43° 22'8 and longitude 7m. Os. west of Green-
wich. The readings at the two stations have, however, not yet been com-
pared.

The Llectrolytic Methods of (Quantitative Analysis—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS (Chair-
man), Dr. C. A. Koxnn (Secretary), Professor P. FRANKLAND,
Professor F. Clowes, Dr. HuGH MarsHatu, Mr. A. EK. FLETCHER,
Mr. D. H. NaGE., Mr. T. Turner, and Mr. J. B. CoLEMan,

THE first work undertaken by the Committee has been the compilation
of the bibliography of the subject, with which some progress has been
made,

In addition, the plan on which the experimental part of the work is
to be carried out has been arranged. This is to include the investigation
of the methods for the determination of the following metals: silver,
lead, mercury, bismuth, cadmium, tin, antimony, iron, zinc, manganese ;
and subsequently of the methods for the separation of these metals both
from one another and from other metals.

This is all the Committee undertook to do when they were appointed
without a grant of money.

They now ask to be reappointed and with a grant of 401.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 161

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. McLeop, Professor W. C. Roserts AusTEN, Mr. H.
G. Mapan, and Mr. D. H. NaGet.

Tue work of searching for, and arranging chronologically under proper
heads, the titles of papers on subjects relating to spectroscopy has been
proceeded with by the Committee, and a list is appended which brings the
catalogue of spectroscopic literature up to the beginning of 1894.

Tt will be a subject for consideration whether the reappointment of
the Committee would be advisable. Considerable difficulty arises in find-
ing any one who can gratuitously devote sufficient time to the work of
obtaining and verifying references to papers, and who possesses at the
same time the requisite facilities for doing so.

In the meantime, however, the Committee ask to be reappointed for
one more year,

PAPERS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SPECTROSCOPY.
Continuation of the List published in the Report for 1889.

{[m cases where it has not been found possible to verify a reference, the latter is
placed in brackets, in the same column as the title of the paper. A list of the
chief abbreviations used will be found at the end of the catalogue. ]

=e ale
INSTRUMENTAL.
1881.
W. Wernicke. .{| Neues Flissigkeitsprisma fiir | ‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
Spectralapparate. kunde,’ i. 353-357.

Ein kleines Universalspectroscop | ‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
(«Centralzeitung f. Opt. u. Mech.’ | tenkunde,’ i. 273.
1881, No. 10).

N. von Konkoly .

1882.

. | Sternspectralapparat in Verbin- | ‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
| dung mit einem Colorimeter | kunde, ii. 111-112(Abs.),
(‘Centr.-Zeit. f. Opt. u. Mech” | 148-149 (Abs.); Beibliit-

” ”

| 1882, No. 1). ter, vi. 230-231 (Abs.)
1883.
Cc, Braun : . | Verbessertes Prisma ‘a vision | ‘ Ber. Erzb. Haynald’schen
directe.’ (Read April 23.) Obs. zu Kalocsa in Un-

garn, 1883, 133-138,
‘Zeitschr. f. ‘ Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ vii. 399-400
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xii.
335-336 (Abs.)

W. E. Wilson . | A Reflecting Spectroscope. (Roy. | ‘ Nature,’ xxix. 167 (Abs.)
Soc. Dublin, Noy. 19.)

R.vonKévesligethy | Ueber ein neues Kolorimeter, zu- =
gleich Spectralphotometer. (‘Cen-
tralzeitung f. Opt. u. Mech.’ vi.
55.)

1894. M

Noack : ‘

L, Respighi . ‘

C, Braun : -

O. Tumlirz .

C. C. Hutchins

N. von Konkoly

” e
Th. W. Engelmann.
H.W. Vogel :

REPORT—1 894.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1888.

1885,

Ein neues Spectralphotometer.
(Read May 22.)

Ein einfacher Brenner fiir mono-
chromatisches Licht. (‘ Zeitschr.
zur Forderung des phys. Unter-
richts,’ ii. 67-69.)

1886.

Sullo spettroscopio
(Read Dec. 5.)

obbiettivo.

Projectirter Halbprisma - Spectro-
scop. Universal-Sternspectroscop.

1887.

Ein einfacher Apparat zur Demon-
stration der Umkehrung der Na-
triumlinien. (Feb.)

A New Photographic Spectroscope.
(July).

Ein einfacher Apparat zum Ablesen |

der Spectrallinien an photogra-
phirten Spectren. (Noy.)

1888.

Ueber ein Spectroscop ‘4 vision
directe.’ (Jan. 1.)

Hin Siderospectrograph. (Feb.) .

Das Microspectrometer. (June) .

Universal-Spectralapparat. (June)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl, III. Jahrg. 50-53;
‘Nature,’ xxxii. 191-192
(Abs.)

‘ Beiblitter,’ ix.
(Abs.).

an

‘Rend. R. Accad. dei Lin-
cei’ [4], ii. (2nd sem.,),
315-321 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xi.
701 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
xxxv. 405 (Abs.)

‘ Ber. Erzb. Haynald’schen
Obs. zu Kalocsa in Un-
garn, 1886, 149-150,
151-159; ‘ Zeitschr. f. In-
strumentenkunde,’. viii.
288-289 (Abs.)

‘Repert. der Phys.’ xxiii.
404-405 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xi.
707 (Abs.) ; ‘ Zeitschr. f.
phys. u. chem. Unter-
richt,’ 33-34 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ xxxiv. 58—
59; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxiv.
221-234.

‘Centralzeitung f. Opt. u.

Mech.’ viii, 241-249;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xii. 45-46
(Abs. )

‘Centralzeitung f. Opt. u.
Mech.’ ix. 1-3 ; * Beibliit-
ter,’ xli. 657 (Abs.)

‘Centralzeitung f. Opt. u.
Mech.’ ix. 25-27; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xii. 335 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. wiss. Micro-
skopie, v. 289-296;
‘ Archives Néerlandaises,’

Xxili. 82-92; ‘ Beibliit-
ter, xiii. 216 (Abs.);
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem.’ ii. 862 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. phys. u.chem.
Unterricht,’i. 231; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ xiv. 506 (Abs.)

A. Bliimel

J.S. Ames

Prazmowski

Ph. Pellin

H

N

M

A.

H

M

H

. Hiifner

. Ebert

. Piltschikoff

Dupré

. Kriiss

. Démichel .

. d'Arsonval

. Kriiss

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

165

INSTRUMENTAL, 1888, 1889, 1890.

Apparat zur Bestiitigung des Snel-
lius’schen Brechungsgesetzes, und
zur Bestimmung des Brechungs-
exponenten von Fliissigkeiten.
(Dec.)

1889.

The Concave Grating in Theory
and Practice. (March 27.)

Ein Spectroscop. (March)

Réfractométre de M. A. Dupré.
Appareil pour mesurer les indices
de réfraction des liquides ou des
gaz, construit pour le laboratoire

municipal de Paris. (Read April
19.)

Ueber ein neues Spectrophoto-
meter. (June 28.)

Optische Mittheilungen. 1. Kin
Spectrograph mit einem MHohl-
spiegel. 2. Ueber das Absorptions-
spectrum des Iods. 3. Ueber das
Leuchten der Flammen. 4. Ueber
die Anwendung des Doppler’schen
Principes auf leuchtende Gas-
moleciile. (Read July 7).

Réfractométre a
liquides. (Sept.)

Nouvel appareil pour la recomposi-
tion de la lumiére. (Sept.)

lentille pour

Un réfractométre. (‘J. de phys.
élémentaire,’ 1889, 177-182.)

1890.

Vorrichtung zur automatischen
Einstellung der Trismen eines
Spectralapparates auf das Mini-
mum der Ablenkung. (March.)

Sur un spectro-colorimétre. (Read
April 18.)

Spectralapparat mit automatischer
Einstellung der Prismen. (April.)

‘Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterricht,’ ii. 162-165;

‘ Beiblatter,’ xiv. 762
(Abs.)
| *Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxvii.

369-384 ;‘Beibliitter,’ xiii.
673 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde.’ ix. 106 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblatter, xiii. 495-
496 (Abs.)

‘J.de Phys.’ [2], viii. 411-
415; ‘ Beiblitter, xiv, 35-
36 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem,’ iii. 562-571.

‘Sitzungsb. phys. - med.
Gesellsch. Erlangen,’ xxi.
1-8; ‘Beiblitter,’ xiii.
942-944 (Abs.); ‘Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem,’ iv. 579
(Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ [2], viii. 416-
420.

‘La Nature,’ xxxili. 237—

238 ; ‘Zeitschr. f. phys. u.

chem. Unterricht,’ iii. 90.

‘Zeitschr. f£. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ x. 97-100;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv. 505-506
(Abs.)

‘J. Soc. frang. de phys.’
1890, 109-110; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxiv. 293 (Abs.)

‘Festschr. d. math. Ge-
sellsch. in Hamburg,’
1890, IT. Theil, 153-158 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ v. 285 (Abs.) ;
‘Centralzeitung f. Optik
u. Mech.’ xi. 537-08
(Abs.)
M2

164

O, Lohse 4

F. Scheiner .

P. Glan.

5. P. Thompson

L. Mach

V. &chumann

E. Pringsheim

A. Crova 5

47. E. J. G. du Bois.

J. Scheiner - ‘

Qa

II. W. Wiley

. Féry . F A

REPORT—1894..

INSTRUMENTAL, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893.

Construction eines Sternspectro-
graphen. (April.)

Apparat zur Verbreitung von
photographischen Sternspectren.

(May.)
Ein spectro-saccharimeter. (Sept.)

On the Use of Fluor spar in Optical
Instruments. (Sept.)

1891.

Ueber ein Interferenzrefractometer.
(Read Nov. 5.)

Sur un nouveau réfractométre.

(Read Dec. 28.)

Vacuumspectrographie . :

1892
Argandlampe fiir Spectralbeobach-
tungen. (March.)

Sur la mesure optique des hautes
températures. (Read April 19.)

Ein Intensivnatronbrenner. (May.)

Ueber neuere Spectroscopconstruc-
tionen. (Nov.)

1893.

Un réfractométre. (Read March 10.)

Lamp for Constant Monochromatic
Flame. (April 13.)

‘Centralzeitung f. Optik.
u. Mech.’ xi. 85-86;
‘ Beiblitter, xiv. 588
(Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 2969,
279-282; ‘Nature,’ xlii.
303 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Zeit.’ xiv. 1306-
1307; ‘Zeitschr. f. anal.

Chem.” xxx, 2192971
(Abs.)
‘Phil. Magis ib], sexi:
120-123.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien.’
ci. IIa. 5-10; ‘ Zeitschr. f.
Instrumentenkunde,’ xii.
89-93.

°C. R.’ cxiii. 1028-1030;
‘Nature,’ xlv. 239-240
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xvi.
273-274 (Abs.); ‘Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem.’ ix. 757
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixiy. 2

ii ’
‘ Beiblitter,’ xvi. 278
(Abs.)
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlv. 426-427;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem.’ ix. 766 (Abs.)

*C,. RB. . exiv. 941-943;
‘ Beiblitter” xvii. 316
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xii. 165-167 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xvii, 334-
335 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xii. 365-374;
‘Beiblitter, xvii, 1051-—
1072 (Abs.)

‘Bull. soc. chim. [3], ix.
244-248; * Beiblitter,’
Xviil. 77-78 (Abs.)

‘J. Amer, Chem. Soc.’ xv.
121-123; ‘Chem. Cen-
tralbl.”’ 1893, II. 614
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

165

INSTRUMENTAL, 1893, 1894—EMISSION SPECTRA, 1879, 1884, 1885.

F. Schmidt and | Neuer

G. Hiusch.

A. Konig.

Otto Vogel

E. H. Amagat and
F, Jean.

A. E. Tutton . 3

W. W. Jacques

O. Schumann E

C. Piazzi Smyth

C. Fiévez &

P.T. Cléve

Helmholtz’scher Farben-
mischapparat. (May.)
Ein neues Spectralphotometer.

(Read June 17.)

Ueber die Anwendung der Leucht-
gassauerstoffflamme zu spectral-
analytischen Mineraluntersuchun-
gen. (Sept.)

Ein Refractometer.

1894.

On an Instrument of Precision for

producing Monochromatic Light
of any desired Wave-length,

and its Use in the Investigation of

the Optical Properties of Crystals.
(Read Feb. 1.)

Ey,
EMISSION; SPECTRA.
1879.

‘Zeitschr. . f. Instru-
mentenkunde,’ xiii. 200-
204; ‘ Beiblatter, xviii.
112-113 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlvi. 527 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f, anorg. Chem.’
v. 42-62; * Ber. xxvi.
(Ref.), 1019-1020 ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xviii, 84-85
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixvi. II. 594-595 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’

SKU, oO) CADSs)isy wbel-
blitter,” xv. 33 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixviil. 85
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lv. 111-
113 (Abs.)

Distribution of Heat in the Spectra | ‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ [N.8.],

of various Sources of Radiation.
(Presented April 9.)

1884.

Ueber die Farbe und die Helligkeit
des electrischen Gltihlichtes.
(May.)

Micrometrical Measures of Gaseous
Spectra under High Pressure.
(Read June 16.)

Recherches sur le spectre de car-
bone dans Tare électrique, en
rapport avec le spectre de cométes
et le spectre solaire. (Read Dec. 6.)

1885.

Recherches sur le Samarium.

(Feb.)

vi. 142-163.

‘Electrotechnische Zei-
tung,’ v. 220-228 ; ‘ Zeit-
schr. fiir Electrotechnik,’
iv. 402 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ Vili. 532-533 (Abs.)

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb.’
xxxii. 415-460; ‘Proc.
Roy. Soc. Edinb,’ xii.
696-702 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,” ix. 421-422
(Abs.), x. 766-767 (Abs.)

‘Mém. Couronnés, Roy.
Acad. Belg.’ xlvii. 4 pp. ;
‘Beiblitter,’ ix. 631 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [2],
xlili. 161-172 : ‘ Amer. J.
Sci.’ [3], xxix. 401 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ li. 145
(Abs.)

166

C. Fiévez 5

A. ¥. Sundell

Fohr .

B. Hasselberg

E. Goldstein .

V. Schumann

H. Marwin .

H. Deslandres

G. Mengarini.

C. Fiévez P

A. Griinwald .

A. F. Sundell

REPORT—1894.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1885, 1886, 1887.

Recherches sur le spectre du car-
bone dans larc électrique, en rap-
port avec le spectre des cométes
et le spectre solaire. (Feb. 7.)

Spectralversuche. (May 26.)

Ein Beitrag zur quantitativen Spec-
tralanalyse. (July 15.)

1886.

Sur le spectre & bandes de lazote
et son origine. (Jan.)

Emissionspectra erster Ordnung
bei den Haloiden. (Read March 5.)

Das zweite Spectrum des Wasser-
stofts.

Methode zur
Spectrallinien.

Darstellung der

1887.

Loi de répartition des raies et des
bandes, commune a plusieurs spec-
tres des bandes. Analogie avec
la loi de succession des sons d’un
corps solide. (Read April 4.)

Il massimo d’ intensit& luminosa
dello spettro solare. (Nota I.,
read June 12; Nota II., read June
19.)

Nouvelles recherches sur le spectre
du carbone. (Read July 2.)

Ueber die merkwiirdigen Bezie-
hungen zwischen dem Spektrum
des Wasserdampfes und den Lini-
enspektren des Wasserstoffs und
Sauerstoffs, sowie tiber die che-
mische Struktur der beiden letz-
tern, und ihre Dissociation in der
Sonnenatmosphire. (July 17.)

Researches on Spectrum Analysis.
(July.)

Peer wis Civ.

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3], ix.
75-79 (Report of M. Stas
on the Paper).

‘Acta Soc. Scient. Fenn.’
(Helsingfors), xv. 197-
207; ‘ Beibliitter, ix. 788-
789 (Abs.)

‘ Chem. Zeitung,’ ix. 1013-
1014 ; ‘Ber. xviii. (Refe-
rate), 511 (Abs.)

‘Mem. Spettroscop. Ital.’
xv. 1-3 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xii.
349 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ v. 38-41] ; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xiv. 616-617 (Abs.)

* Beibliitter, x. 698-699
(Abs. )

‘Laterna Magica,’ iii. 6-
7; ‘Beibliitter, x. 767
(Abs.)

972 — 976 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ i. 519 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei *
[4], iii. 482-489, 566-573 ;
‘Beiblitter, xi. 705 (Abs. )

‘ Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3], xiv.
100-107; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xii. 102-103 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxvii. 199-
214; * Phil. Mag.” |i,
xxiv. 354-367; ‘Chem.
News,’ lvi. 186-188, 201-
202, 223-224, 232; ‘J.
Chem. S08.’ lii. 1070-1071
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ xxxvi.
501-502 (Abs.); ‘Am. J.
Sci.’ [3], xxxix. 399
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xii.
245-246 (Abs.); ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. physikal. Chem,’
ii. 38 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag,’ [5], xxiv. 98-
106.

E. F. J. Love. 5

H, W. Vogel . .

W. H. Julius. ;

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 167

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1887, 1888.

On a Method of Discriminating | ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ ix. 94~

A. von Oettingen .

J. Trowbridge and
W. E. Sabine.

H. W. Vogel .

G. Govi . a

EH. Lommel .

©. Fiévez 4

H. W. Vogel .

H. Deslandres

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

Real from Accidental Coincidences
between the Lines of Different
Spectra : with some Applications.
(Read Nov. 26.)

Photographische Aufnahme des
Sauerstotfspectrnms und Vergros-
serung desselbens. (Read Dec.
23.)

Recherches bolométriques dans le
spectre infra-rouge.

1888.
| Ueber Wasserstoffknallgasexplo-
sion. (Read Jan. 6.)

| Wave-leneths of Metallic Spectra

in the Ultra-violet.
14.)

(Read Mar.

Ueber das Spectrum des Cyans und
des Kohlenstofts. (Read April 5.)

Dei colori invisibili o latenti dei
corpi. (Read May 20.)

Subjective Interferenzstreifen im
objectiven Spectrum. (Read June
2.)

Nouvelles recherches sur Vorigine
optique des raies spectacles, en
rapport avec la théorie ondulatoire
de la lumiére. (Read June 8.)

Spectroscopische Notizen. (Read

June 25.)

Spectres des bandes ultra-violettes
des métalloides avec une faible
dispersion. (July.)

Ueber die Spectra der Elementen.
(Read July 26.)

100; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxv.
1-6 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ liv.
542-543 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter, xii. 348-349
(Abs.) ;‘Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal. Chem.’ ii. 447 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ vi. 142 ; ‘ Nature,’
XXXVli. Sk1 (Abs.)

‘Archives Néerlandaises,’
xxii. 310-383.

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl. vii. 1 (Notice) ;
‘Nature, xxvii. 311(Abs.)

‘Proc. Am. Acad.’ [N.8.],
xv. 288-299; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[5], xxvi. 342-353; ‘J.
Chem. Soc. lvi. 1-2
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lvili. 237-239, 247-249;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xiii. 382-383
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1888, 523-528; ‘ Ver-
handl. d. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ vii. 53-56; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xii. 787-788
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ xxxviii.
72 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei,’
iv. 572-577 ; ‘Beibliitter,’
xiii. 502-508 (Abs.)

‘Sitznngsb. Akad. Miin-
chen’ (1888), 319-320.

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3],
xvi. 81-86; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xii. 852-853 (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxi. 2029-2032;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 655 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [6],
xv. 1-86; ‘ Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem,’ iii. 139
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ viii.
809-810 (Abs.)

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berl.’
1888, 93 pp.; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xiii. 78-79 (Abs.)

168

E. L. Nichols and
W.S. Franklin.

J. Janssen

E. Budde 7

Vv. A. Julius .

”

” . .

', Fiévez

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

J. Trowbridge and
W. C. Sabine.

” ” \-)

A. E. Bostwick

C C. Hutchins

Gouy .

G. Magnanini

REPORT—18) 4.

EMISS[)N SPECTRA, 1888, 1889.

A Spectrophotometric Comparison
of Sources of Artificial Illumina-
tion. (Read in August.)

Sur lapplication de l’analyse spec-
trale 4 la mécanique moléculaire,
et sur les spectres de loxygéne.
(Sept.)

Ueber eine neue Entdeckung des

Hrn. Janssen, welche sich auf
das Sauerstoffspectrum bezieht.
(Read Nov. 16.)

Over de lineaire spectra der Ele-
menten, en over de dubbellinien in
de spectra van Natrium, Magne-
sium en Aluminium.

Sur les spectres de lignes des élé-
ments,

Sur les raies doubles dans les
spectres du natrium, du magné-
sium et de aluminium.

Analyse optique de la flamme d’une
bougie.

1889.

Ueber die im galvanischen Licht-
bogen auftretenden Bandenspec-
trum der Kohle. (Kead Feb. 28.)

On the Use of Steam in Spectrum
Analysis. (Ieb.)

Wave-lengths of Metallic Spectra
in the Ultra-violet. (March.)

Preliminary Note on the Absorption
Spectra of Mixed Liquids. (June.)

Notes on Metallic Spectra. (June.)

Sur l’élargissement des raies spec-
trales des métaux. (Read June
17.)

Sullo spettro di emissione della
ammoniaca. (Read June 2.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’[3], xxxviit.
100-114; ‘Nature,’ xl.
404 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1888,
547-554; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv.
617-618 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ vii. 89-96; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xiii. 501-502
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xxxix.
168 (Abs.)

‘Natuurv. Verh. der k.
Akad. Amsterdam,’ xxvi.
125 pp. and 11 pp. ; ‘ Bei-
blatter” xiii. 496-499
(Abs.)

‘Ann. de l’école polytech..
Delft,’ v. 1-80.

‘Ann. de lécole polytech-
Delft,’ v. 118-128.

‘Annuaire de l’Obs. de
Bruxelles,’ 1888, 568-575.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.”
[N.F.], xxxvilil. 80-90;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iv. 492 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci. [3], xxxvi¥.
114-116.

‘Chem. News,’ lvi. 237;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iii. 210 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxvii.
471-473.

©Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxvii-
474-476 ; ‘Phil. Mag. [5],
xxviii. 73-76; ‘ Beiblitter,”
xiii. 883 (Abs.)

‘C. R. eviii. 1236-1238;
‘Nature,’ xl. 216 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ lx. 8; ‘ Bei-
plitter, xiii. 677-678
(Abs.)

‘Rend. d. R. Accad. d. Lin-
cei’ [4], v. Ist sem. 900-
908; ‘ Zeitschr. f. physikal
Chem.’ iv. 435-440 ; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xiv. 118-119
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lviii. 97 (Abs.)

ON

H. Ebert

A, Wiillner

K. R. Koch

C. Piazzi Smyth

T. Thomas and C.
Trépied.

J. I. Rydberg

K. Angstrom .

H. Moissan

A. Wiillner

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

Ti. Hitchcock

G. Salet

-A. S. Herschel

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1889, 1890.

Optische Mittheilungen. 1. Hin
Spectrograph mit einem Hohl-
spiegel. 2. Ueber das Absorptions-
spectrum des Iods. 3. Ueber das
Leuchten der Flammen. 4. Ueber
die Andwendung desDoppler’schen
Principes auf leuchtende Gas-
moleciile. (Read July 7.)

Ueber den allmiihlichen Uebergang
der Gasspectra in ihren verschie-
denen Formen. (Read July 18.)

Ueber die Spectra der Gase bei
tiefen Temperaturen. (Aug.)

Re-examination of the Spectra of
Twenty-three Gas-vacuum End-
on Tubes, after Six to Ten Years
of Existence and Use. (Sept.)

Sur l’application des hautes tem-
pératures 4]’observation duspectre
de lhydrogéne. (Read Sept. 30.)

Recherches sur la constitution des
spectres d’émission des éléments
chimiques. (Read Noy. 12.)

Etude des spectres infra-rouges de
Yacide carbonique et de Voxyde
de carbone. (Recd. Nov. 13.)

Sur la couleur et sur le spectre du
fluor. (Bead Dec. 16.)

Die allmahliche Entwickelung des
Wasserstoffspectrums. (Read Dec.
12.)

Ueber die Spectren der Elementen.
II. Ueber die im galvanischen
Lichtbogen auftretenden Banden-
spectren der Kohle. (Pub. at
Berlin, 45 pp.)

Spectrum Photography inthe Ultra-
violet (‘ Amer. Nat. Acad.’ 1889).

1890.

Sur la flamme bleue dn sel marin,
et sur la réaction spectroscopique
du chlorure de cuivre. (Feb.)

The Spectrum of Subchloride of
Copper. (March.)

169

‘Sitzungsb. phys. - med
Gesellsch. Erlangen,’ xxi°
1-8; ‘Beibliitter,’ xiii-
942-944(Abs.); ‘Zeitschr’
f. physikal. Chem.’ iv. 579
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Beri’
XXXViii. 793-812; ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. physikal. Chem.’iv.
587 (Abs.)

‘Anno. Phys. u. Chem.’
XENVIL a, loo ed
Chem. Soe.’ lviii. 313
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ lx. 223-224
‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1889,
490 (Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ xl,
584 (Abs.)

°C. RY cix. 524-525; ‘Na-
ture,’ xl. 588 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lx. 208
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliatter,’ xiv.
39-40 (Abs.)

‘Handl. Svensk. Vet.
Akad.’ (Stockholm), xxiii.
155 pp.; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xxix. 331-337 (Abs.)

‘Oefversigt af Kongt,
Vet. Akad. Forbandl.’
(Stockholm), xlvi. 549-
557.

*C. RY cix. 937-940 ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xli. 214 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb, Akad. Berl.’
1889, 1113-1119.

* Beiblitter,’ xiii, 811-812
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ x]. 44 (title).

‘Bull. Soc. chim. franc.”
[3], iii. 328-329 ; ‘ Chem.
News,’ Ixi. 8377 (Abs.)
513-514;

xiv. 782

‘Nature,’ xli,
‘ Beiblitter,’
(Abs.)

170

J.M. Eder .

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

J.S.Ames , A

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

VY. Schumann -

W. 4H. Julius. 5

A. Bettendorf 5

H. Kayser . .

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

H. Deslandres

W.N. Hartley.

eri

REPORT—1894.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1890, 1891.

Ueber das sichtbare und ultra-
violette Emissionsspectrum
schwachleuchtender verbrennen-
der Kohlenwasserstoffe (Swan’sche
Spectrum), und der Oxyhydrogen-
flamme (Wasserdampfspectrum).
(April.) (Separate publication,
30 pp.)

Ueber die Linienspectren der Al-
kalien. (Dritter | Abschnitt.)
(Read June 5.)

On some Gaseous Spectra—Hydro-
gen, Nitrogen. (July.)

The Spectroscopic Properties of
Dust. (Read Nov. 20.)

Latest Researches on the Photo-
graphy of Metallic Spectra. (Dec.
19.)

Die Licht- und Wiarmestrahlung
verbrannter Gase.

1891.

Studien tiber die Erden des Cerium-
und Yttrium-Gruppe. (Jan.)

Ueber den Ursprung des Banden-
und Linienspectrums. (Jan.)

On the Influence of Pressure on the
Spectra of Flames. (Read Feb.
19.)

Ueber die Spectra der Elemente
der zweiten Mendeléjeff’schen
Gruppe. (Read Feb. 19.)

. | Méthode nouvelle pour la recherche

des bandes faibles dans les spectres
de bandes. (Read Mar. 31.)

On the Physical Character of the
Lines in the Spark Spectra of the
Elements. (Read April 16.)

f. Chem.’ xi.
* Beiblitter,’

* Monatsh.
151-158 ;

xiv. 780-781 (Abs.) ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem. vii. 480-431
(Abs.)

*Abhandl. Akad. Berlin,’
1890, 66 pp. ; ‘Sitzungsb.
Akad. Berl.’ 1890, 599-
600; ‘ Ber. xxiv. [Ref.],
253 (Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[5], xxx. 203-204 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxx, 48=
58.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlviii.
437-440.

“Chem. News,’ Ixii. 299.

‘ Gekrénte Preisarbeit
des Vereins zur Befor-
derung desGewerbfleisses
in Deutschland, 1890, 26
pp.; ‘ Beibliitter, xiv.
602-615 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem, u. Pharm.’
eclxiii. 164-174; ‘ Chem.

News, Ixiii. 159-160,
172-173.
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], xlii. 310-318.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 217=
227; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii.
143-145, 155-156 (Abs.) ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem,’ viii. 332 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlili. 385-409 ;
‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1891, I. 177-178 (Abs.) ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem,’ viii. 575 (Abs.)

°C. R, cxii. 661-663 ; ‘ Na-
ture, xliii. 552 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii. 179-
180 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 448~
451; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxiv.
II. 2-3 (Abs.)

W. Crookes .

Li. E. Brooks .

C. Piazzi Smith

B. Hasselberg

V. Schumann

H. Moissan ,

J. Parry .

E. L. Nichols
B. W. Snow.

H. Kayser
C. Runge.

A. Griinwald .

Lecoq de
baudran.

J. Violle 3

E. Pringsheim

Lecoq de
baudran.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

and

and

Bois-

Bois-

EMISSION SPECTRA, 189], 1892.

On Electric Evaporation.
June 4. Read June 11.)

(Recd.

On Terminal Spectra of Electrodes,
observed in vacuo. (July.)

Report of the Committee appointed
to co-operate with Dr. C. Piazzi
Smyth in his Researches on the
Ultra-violet Rays of the Solar
Spectrum. (Aug.)

Zur Spectroscopie der Verbindun-
gen. Spectrum der Thonerde.
(Read Oct. 14.)

Vacuum
(Dec. 4.)

Spectro - Photography.

1892,

Détermination de quelques con-
stantes physiques de _ fluor.
(Jan.)

The Spectrum of Iron and the
Periodic Law. (Jan. 14.)

The Character of the Light emitted
by Glowing Zinc Oxide. (Jan.)

Ueber die Spectren von Kupfer,
Silber und Gold. (Read Jan. 21.)

Ueber das sogenannte zweite oder
zusammengesetzte | Wasserstoft-
spectrum von Dr. B. Hasselberg,
und die Structur des Wasserstoffs.
I. Theil. Empirisch-Induction-Ab-
theilung. (Read Feb. 4.)

Recherches sur le samarium. (Read
March 14.)

Sur le rayonnement des corps in-
candescents, et la mesure optique
des hautes températures. (Read
Mar. 28.)

Das Kirckhoft’sche Gesetz und die

Strahluvg der Gase.

Sur les spectres électriques du
gallium. (Read April 4.)

171

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1. 88-
105; ‘ Nature,’ xliv. 212-
215; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii.
287-290.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixiv. 30-
31; ‘ Beibliatter,’ xvi. 426
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1891,
147-148.

‘Handl. K. Svensk. Vet.
Akad.’ (Stockholm), xxiv.
(45 pp.); ‘ Beibliatter,’
xvii. 738-739 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixiv. 275.

‘Ann. de Chim. et Phys.’
[6], xxv. 125-144; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xlv. 260 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlv. 253-255.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxiii. 19-
28; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvi. 427
(Abs.)

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berlin,’

1892 (39 pp.); ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ [N.F.],
xlvi. 225-243; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixvii. 49 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad, Wien,’
ci. II. Abth. 121-254 ;
‘Monatshefte f. Chem.’
xiii. 111-244; * Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem.’ x. 668
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xvii.
203-204 (Abs.) ; ‘J.Chem.
Soc.’ Ixii, 1351 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ cxiv. 572-577.

°C. RR. -exiv.
‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii.
316 (Abs.)

734-736 ;
315-

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlv. 428-459 ;
‘Nature,’ xlv. 312 (Abs.)

‘©. RB. exiv. 815-818;
‘Beiblatter,’ xvi. 532-
533 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixii, 930 (Abs.)

A. Bettendorft

B. W. Snow .

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

A. Smithells .

J. M. Eder and E.

Valenta.

C. Piazzi Smyth

G. D. Liveing .

L. Arons <

B. Brunhes

W. N. Hartley

G. Kriiss and H.
Kriiss.

J. 8. Ames

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

H. Wilde

REPORT—1894:.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1892, 1893.

Studien iiber die Erden der
Cerium- und Yttrium-Gruppe. ILI.
Kathodsluminescenz der Gado-
linerde. (May.)

Ueber das ultrarothe Emissions-
spectrum der Alkalien. (June.)

Ueber die Spectren von Aluminium,
Indium und Thallium. (Read
July 7.)

Experiments on Flame Spectra.
(Read Aug. 5.)

Ueber einige neue Linien im brech-

barsten ultravioletten Emission-
spectrum des metallischen Cal-
cium. (Aug.)

Second Report of the Committee
appointed to co-operate with Dr.
C. Piazzi Smyth in his Researches
on the Ultra-violet Rays of the
Solar Spectrum. (Aug.)

Note on Pliicker’s Statement that
he has discovered the Line Spec-
trum of Oxygen in the Oxyhydro-
gen Flame. (Oct.)

Ueber einen Quecksilberlichtbogen.
(Read Oct. 21.)

Expérience sur les spectres can-
nelés. (Nov.)

On a Method of Observing the
Spectra of easily Volatile Metals
and their Salts, and of Separating
their Spectra from those of the
Alkalies. (Read Dec. 1.)

Beitriige zur quantitativen Spec-
tralanalyse.

1893.

On the Probable Spectrum of Sul-
phur. (Jan.)

Ueber das Emissionspectrum des
Kohlenstoffes und _ Siliciums.
(Read Jan. 19.)

On the Spectrum of Thallium and
its Relation to the Homologous
Spectra of Indium and Gallium.
(Read April 20.)

‘Ann, Chem. u. Pharm,’
cclxx. 376-383; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xvi. 744-745
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], xlvii. 208-251 ;
‘Nature,’ xlvii. 39 (Abs.)

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berlin,’
1892 (28 pp.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1892,
645-646.

‘Denkschr. Akad.: Wien,’
1892, 252-253 ; ‘ Beiblit-
ter,’ xvii. 444 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1892,
74-76 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii.
829-830 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxiv.
371-375 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
Xvii. 925-926 (Abs.)

Ann. UP ays, a.
[N.F.], xvii.
‘Nature,’ xlvil.

Chem.’
762-771;
24 (Abs.)

‘J. de-Phys.’ [2], x. 508-
512; ‘ Beiblatter, xvi.
435-436 (Abs. )

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxiii. 138-
141; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixvi.
313 (Abs.)

,

‘Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.
i. 104-125; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’
lxiv. II. 283-284 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys’
xii. 50,51; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xvii. 827 (Abs.)

* Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
lx. 241-263; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xvlil. 753-756 (Abs. )

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ liii. 8369-
of25 "£3. Chem soc
Ixiv. | IL. 52bRn@Abs)is
‘Beiblitter, xvii. 1054
(Abs. )

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

VY. Schumann

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

D. Cochin

E. Pringsheim
E. Carvallo

W. N. Hartley

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

J.M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

B. W. Snow .

E Carvallo .

J. R. Rydberg

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1893.

Ueber die Photographie der Licht-
strahlen kleinster Wellenlingen.

(April.)

Ueber das ultraviolette Linien-
spectrum des elementaren Bor.
(Read April 13).

Sur les spectres de flammes de
quelques métaux. (Read May 8.)

Ueber die Strahlung von Lithium,
Thallium und Kalium. (Read
May 12.)

Le spectre calorifique de la fluorine.
(Read May 23.)

Flame Spectra at High Tempera-
tures. (Read June 1.)

Spectra of the Flames of some
Metallic Compounds. (Read June
16.)

Ueber die Spectren von Aluminium,
Indium und Thallium. (Read
July 7.)

Ueber den Verlauf der Bunsen’schen

Flammereactionen im _ ultravio-
letten Spectrum von Kalium,
Natrium, Lithium, Calcium, Stron-
tium, Barium und das Verbin-
dungsspectrum der Borsaiire.
(Read July 6.)

On the Infra-red Spectra of the
Alkalies. (July.)

. | Lespectre calorifique de la fluorine.

(Read Aug. 7.)

Contributions 4 la connaissance des
spectres linéaires. (IILI.) (Read
Oct. 11.)

| * Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien.’

cii. II. 415-475, 625-694;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixviii. 46_
47, 56-57, 63, 81-82, 100_
101, 133, 158-159, 164—
165, 180-181, 194-195,
201, 229, 239-240, 252,
262-263, 289-290, 301,
lxix. 9, 34; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xviii. 187-189 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
lx. 307-811 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
XVill. 752-753 (Abs.)

°C. RB.’ exvi. 1055-1057;

‘Chem. News,’ lxvii. 265
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixiv. IT. 402 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ xlviii. 144 (Abs.)

*C. R. exvi. 1189-1191;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xvii. 917~
918 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ liv. 5-7
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ xlviii.
165-166 (Abs.) ; ‘ Chem.
News,’ Ixvii. 279 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii. 1055—
1056 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Jii. 117—
123; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xiv. II. 401-402 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblitter,’ xvii. 1056~
1057 (Abs )

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berl.
1892, 28 pp.; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ [N.F.],
xviii. 126-149 ;‘J.Chem.
Soc.’ lxiv. II. 313 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
lx. 467-476.

‘Phys. Review,’ i. 28-50,
95-97, 221-223.

‘C. R.’ cxvii. 306-307;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xvii. 1046-
1047 (Abs.)

‘Oefversict af K. Vet.
Akad. Foérh.’(Stockholm),

1. 505-520.

174

REPORT—1894.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1893, 1894—ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1878, 1880, 1881, 1883, 1884.

J. N. Lockyer

J. R. Rydberg

H. Kayser and C.

Runge.

B. W. Snow .

J. N. Lockyer

A. de Gramont

J. Janssen ,

R. Amory .

S. P. Langley

W.C. Winlock

F. Boas. .

H. W. Vogel .

E. Schoene ,

\

-; The Photographic Spectrum of

Electrolytic Iron, (Read Nov. 23.)

Contributions 4 la connaissance des
spectres linéaires. (IV.) (Read
Dec. 11.)

Ueber die ultrarothen Spectren
der Alkalien.

1894.

On the Continuous Spectrum of
Sodium. (Jan.)

. | Onthe Photographic Arc-Spectrum
of Iron Meteorites. (Read Feb.
15.)

Sur les spectres d’étincelle de
quelques minéraux. (Read April 2.)

+ | Sur les spectres de l’oxygéne porté
aux températures élevées. Méthode
électrique pour l’échauffement des
gaz. (Read April 9.)

III.
ABSORPTION SPECTRA.
1878.

Theory of Absorption Bands in the
Spectrum, and its bearing in Pho-
tography and Chemistry. (Pre-
sented Jan. 9.)

. | On certain Remarkable Groups in
the Lower Spectrum. (Presented
Oct. 7.)

1880.

. | On the Group ‘B’ in the Solar
Spectrum. (Presented June 9.)

1881.

Beitriige zur Erkenntniss der Farbe
des Wassers. (Inaug.-Dissert.
Kiel.)

1883.

pectrographischer Vergleich von
Sonnenlicht und Himmelslicht.
(June.)

1884.

Spectrum of Ozone and the Pre-
sence of Ozone in the Atmosphere.
(in Russian.) (Read May 3.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ liv. 359-
361; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xviii.
337-338 (Abs.)

‘Oefversigt af K. Vet.
Akad. ¥Grh.’(Stockholm),
(1894), 1. 677-691.

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlviii. 150-157.

‘Phys. Review,’ i. 296-

298.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lv. 139-
140 (Abs.); 9 ‘Chem.
News,’ lxix. 89 (Abs.)

‘C. R. exviil. 746-748;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixviii.
192-193 (Abs.)

*¢C, Ri.” -exvill, 157-169):
‘Chem. News,’ Ixix. 207~
208 (Abs.)

«Proc. Amer. Acad.’

[N.S.] v. 216-221.

‘Proc. Amer. Acad

[N.S.], vi. 92-105.

‘Proc. Amer. Acad,’
[N.S.], viii. 398-405.

‘Beiblitter, v.
(Abs.)

797-799

‘Phot. Mittheil. xx.” 74;
‘Beibliitter, vii. 600
(Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc.’
xvi. No. 7, pt. 11.250-252;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xlviii.
713 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

WI. Tichomirof .
N. Egoroff . .
A. Tschirch . ;

W. de W. Abney
and R. Festing.

P. Sabatier , «

W. Leube = 6

A. Hénocque.

F. Stenger . .

W. Ramsay .

K. Olszewski

W. Crookes . .

H. Becquerel .

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1885, 1886, 1887.

1885.

Zur Frage iiber die spectroscopi-
schen EKigenschaften des Mutter-
korns. (Read Jan. 21.)

Das <Absorptionspectrum der At-
mosphire. (In Russian). (Read
Sept. 24, 0.8.)

Untersuchungen tiber das Chloro-
phyll.

Absorption-spectra Thermograms.
(Read Jan, 15.)

1886.

Spectres d’absorption des _ chro-
mates alcalins et de l’acide chro-
mique. (Read July 6.)

Ueber einen neuen pathologischen
Harnfarbstoff. (Nov.)

L’hématoscopie, méthode nouvelle

d’analyse du _ sang, basée sur
Yemploi du spectroscope. (Read
Nov. 2.)

Ueber die Bedeutung der Absorp-
tionsstreifen. (Dec.)

1887.

Underséhning af pleokroismen och
ljusabsorptionen i epidote frdn
Sulzbachthal. (Read Jan. 12.)

Ueber das Absorptionsspectrum
des fliissigen Sauerstoffs und der
verflissigten Luft. (Read Jan. 20.)

Genesis of the Elements (Lect.
Roy. Inst. Feb. 18).

Sur les variations des spectres
absorption du didyme. (Read
March 14.)

‘Pharm. Zeitschr. fiir
Russland, xxiv. 241-247,

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc.’
xvii. [Phys.],No. 7, p. 229.

‘Chem. Zeitung,’ ix. 1431;
‘ Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
xxv. 279 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxviii,
77-83 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc?’
xlviii. 1175-1176 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblitter, xiv. 512
(Abs.)

‘Ann. de la Facult. des
Sciences’ (Toulouse), i.
DI-D11; ‘C. R. ciii.
49-52; ‘Beiblitter, xii.
194 (Abs.) ; ‘J. de Phys.’
[2], vi. 312-320 (Abs.)

‘ Archiv f. path, Anat. und
Physiol.’ cvi. 418-419;
‘ Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem,’
Xxvi. 672 (Abs.) ; ‘ Chem.
News,’ lvii. 231 (Abs.)

‘C. RR ciii. 817-820;
‘Ber.’ xx. (Ref.), 25 (Abs.)

| ‘Botan. Zeitung, 1887, 120_

126; ‘Annuaire Agron.’
xiii, 175-176 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblitter,’ xi. 709-710
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.
lii, 693 (Abs.)

‘Bihang till K. Svensk.Vet.
Akad. Handl.” (Stock-
holm), xiii. 1-45; ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. Kryst. u. Min
xill, 97-134; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xii. 58-55 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
xcy. II. 257-261; ‘ Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ [N.F.],
Xxxili. 570-575; ‘Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem, ii. 348
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Inst.’ xii, 37—
60; ‘Chem. News,’ lv.

83-88, 95-99.
Ore ene Civ. | T7780:
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem.’ i. 426 (Abs.)

176

A. Tsehirch

c. A. Macmunn

Gq. Kriiss and L. F.
Nilson.

J. Reinke .

L. Soret

A. E. Nordenskiéld

G. H. Bailey .

J. Wollheim .

‘Scezelkow A

F. Stenger

REPORT—1894.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1887, 1888.

Untersuchungen tiber das Chloro-
phyll. (Read March 16.)

On the Chromatology of some
British Sponges. (Read March 12.)

Studien tiber die Componenten der
Absorptionspectra erzeugenden
seltenen Erden. (Read April 25.)

Entsetzung beziiglich der subjec-
tiven Absorptionsbinder.

Absorption des raies ultra-violettes.
(Read Aug. 10.)

Om ett enkelt férhallande mellan
vagliindderna i en del iimnens
spektra, (Read Sept. 14.)

The Absorption Spectra of the
Haloid Salts of Didyinium. (Read
Sept. 6.)

Die Componenten der Absorption-
spectra erzeugenden seltenen
Erden. (Oct.)

Untersuchungen tiber den Chloro-
phylifarbstoff. (Nov.)

Hin Beitrag zur Spectrophotometrie
des Blutes. (Dec.)

1888.

Ueber die Gesetzmiissigkeiten im
Absorptionsspectrum eines Kor-
pers. (Jan.)

J. Trowbridge and |The Selective Absorption of Metals

W. C. Sabine.

G. Linossier .

for Ultra-Violet Light.
sented Mar. 14.)

(Pre-

Sur la recherche spectroscopique du
sang. (Read March 24.)

‘Ber. d. bot. Gesellsch.’ v.
128-135; ‘Chem. Cen-
tralbl.’ 1887, 669 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lii, 1116-
1117 (Abs.)

Gdn, shysiol= jax: «125:
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ liv. 619-
620 (Abs.)

OBSre | SX ose iiles
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 108 (Abs.)

‘Bot. Zeitung,’ 1887, 271-
275; ‘ Geiblitter,’ xi. 709-
710 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ xviii.
344-346; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xii. 246-247 (Abs.)

‘Oefversigt af K. Vet.
Akad. Férhandl.’ (Stock-
holm), xliv. 471-478.

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 654—
655 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
xxxvi. 570 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xiii. 815 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xx. 2769-2770, 3325-
3327; ‘Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem." ii, 251, 348
(Abs.)

‘Bot. Centralblatt,’ xxxii.
310-318 ; ‘ Annuaire
Agron.’ xiv, 141-143; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ liv. 723-724
(Abs.)

‘ Arch.
Physiol.’ xli.

f. d. gesammte
313-318 s

‘Ber. xxi, (Ref.), 746
(Abs.)
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], xxxiii, 577-586 ;
‘Zeitscbr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii, 44 (Abs.)

‘Proc, Amer. Acad.’ [N.S.],
xy. 299-300; ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[5], xxvi. 316-317;‘Chem.
News,’ lviii. 216; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xiii. 18 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ xlix.
691-694 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lix. 1139-1140 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lvili. 37
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

G. Kriiss -

J. Wollheim .

Cc, Liebermann

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

K. Katayama

B. Hasselberg

EF. B. Pitcher .

W. P. Mason.

Cc. A. Macmunn

Ferry de la Bellone

L. Hermann .

P. Schottlinder

W. Grosse

W. Zopf

J. Trowbridge and
W. C. Sabine,
1894.

177

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1888, 1889.

Beziehung zwischen die Zusam-
mensetzung und Absorptions-
spectrum organischer Verbindun-
gen. (May.)

Ueber die photographischen Higen-
schaftendesChlorophyll. (July.)

Ueber die Spectra der Aether der
Oxyanthrachinone. (Aug.)

The Absorption Spectrum, Lumi-
nous and Ultra-Violet, of Large
Masses of Oxygen. (Sept.)

Ueber eine neue Blutprobe bei der
Kohlenoxydvergiftung. (Oct. 2.)

Untersuchungen iiber das Absorp-
tionspectrum des Jodgases.
(Read Nov. 1.)

The Absorption Spectra of certain
Blue Solutions, (Noy.)

Fatal Poisoning by Carbon Mon-
oxide. (Characteristic absorp-
tion spectrum of blood.) (Dec.)

On the Hematoporphyrin of Sole-
curtus strigillatus.

Nouveau procédé pour découvrir
les taches de sang (‘ Rép. de
Pharm.’)

Notiz betreffend das reducirte
Hamoglobin.

1889.

Vorschlag zur Abénderung des
Spetroskops zur Bestimmung des
Extinktionskoefficienten absor-
birender Kérper nach Vierordt’s
Methode. (Jan.)

Ueber Messungen der Lichttrans-
mission und Lichtabsorption,
(Jan.)

Ueber Pilzfarbstoffe. (Feb.)

On the Use of Steam in Spectrum

Analysis. (Feb.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 310-337.

‘Phot. Mittheil.’ xxv. 113,
114; ‘Beiblitter,’ xii. 856
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxi, 2527; ‘Zeit-
schr. f. physikal Chem.’
li, 967 (Abs.)

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxvi. 286—
290; ‘ Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem.’ii. 862 (Abs.)

‘Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.’
cxiv. 53-64; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxi. 241,

‘Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des
Sciences de St.-Péters-
bourg,’ xxxvi. No. 17, 50
pp.; ‘ Nature,’ xxxix, 518
(Abs.)

‘Amer, J, Sci.’ [3], xxxvi.
332-336 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lvi. 325 (Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’
xxxix. 70 (Abs.); ‘Bei-
blitter,’ xiii, 218 (Abs,)

‘J. Amer. Chem, Soc.’ x.
176-178; ‘Chem, News,’
lix. 260-261.

‘J. Physiol.’ viii. 384-390;
‘J. Chem, Soc.’ liv. 304—
305 (Abs.)

‘J. de Pharm,’ [5], xvii.
253-255; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
liv. 1140 (Abs.)

‘Arch, f. d. gesammte
Physiol.’ xliii. 435 ; § Ber’
xxil. (Ref.), 595 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr, f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ ix. 98-101;
‘ Beibliatter,’ xiii. 672-673
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr.’ f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ ix. 1-9; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xiii. 679 (Abs.)

‘Bot. Zeitung,’ 1889, 53-
61, 69-81, 85-92; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ [4], i. 291-293
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lvi. 919 (Abs.)

* Phil. Mag,’ [5], xxvii. 139-
141,

N

178

H. Becquerel.

W. J. Russell and
W. J. Orsman.

©. Fiévez and E.
van Aubel.

E. Bamberger and
F. Bordt.

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

A. Babés ‘ i

G. Magnanini

A, E. Bostwick .

H. Ebert . .

G. Kriiss and H.
Moraht,

M. Althausse and
G. Kriiss.

REPORT—1894.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1889.

Sur les spectres d’absorption de
lépidote. (Read Feb. 11.)

The Relation of Cobalt to Iron as
indicated by their Absorption
Spectra. (Read Feb. 7.)

Note sur l'intensité lumineuse des
bandes d’absorption des liquides
colorés. (Read Feb. 2.)

Weitere Beitriige zur Kenntniss des
a-Tetrahydronaphtylamins. (Recd.
March 11.)

Notes on the Absorption Spectra
of Oxygen and some of its Com-
pounds. (Recd. May 23. Read
June 6.)

Note sur quelques matiéres colo-
rantes et aromatiques produites
par le bacille pyocyanique. (Read
June 22.)

Sullo spettro di absorbimento del
cloruro di nitrosile. (Read June
2.)

Preliminary Notice on the Absorp-
tion Spectra of Mixed Liquids.
(June.)

Optische Mittheilungen. 1. Ein
Spectrograph mit einem Hohl-
spiegel. 2. Ueber das Absorptions-
spectrum des Iods. 3. Ueber das
Leuchten der Flammen. 4. Ueber
die Anwendung des Doppler’schen
Principes auf leuchtende Gas-
moleciile. (Read July 7.)

Zur spectrocolorimetrischen Hisen-
bezw. Rhodan-Bestimmung. (Read
Aug. 6.)

Beziehung zwischen Zusammen-
setzung und Absorptionsspec-
trum organischer Verbindungen.
(Read Aug. 6.)

‘C. RB.’ cviii. 282-984;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xiii. 680-681
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’ No. 62,
14-15; ‘Nature,’ xxxix.
453-454 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lix. 93-94 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3],
xvii. 102-104; ‘ Arch. de
Genéve,’ [3], xxi. 231-
234; ‘ Beiblitter, xiii.
501 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxii. 625-634; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lvi. 715-717
(Abs.)

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvi, 222—

230; ‘Nature,’ xl. 212-
214; ‘Beiblatter,’ xiii.
946-947 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xxiii. (Ref.), 4 (Abs.) ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 675
(Abs.)

‘©. R. de la Soc. biol.’ [9],
i, 438-440; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lviii, 189-190 (Abs.)

‘Atti d. R. Acc. d. Lincei,’
Rend. [4], v. (1st sem.),
908-911; ‘Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem.’ iv. 427-428 ;
‘Ber.’ sai. Reb), a7
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lvili. 97 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblit-
ter,’ xiv. 619 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxvii.
471-473 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xiii. 814-815 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. phys. - med.
Gesellsch. Erlangen, xxi.
1-8; ‘Beiblatter, xiii.
942-944(Abs.); ‘Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem.’ iv. 579
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxii. 2054-2060;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iv. 585 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter, xiv. 40 (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxii. 2065-2070;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iv. 585 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lvi. 1093-
1094 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ 1x. 240-241 (Abs.);
lxi. 209 (Abs.); Beibliat-
ter,’ xiii. 945-946 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

L. Macchiati . F

K. Heumann and
H. Rey.

J. L. Soret and A.
Rilliet.

F, Schtitt

T. L. Patterson

G. Hiifner

T. Araki

C, Michie Smith

C. Liebermann and
F. Haber,
H. W. Vogel .

B. Hasselberg

W. N. Hartley

179

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1889, 1890.

Die Farbstoffe der Zapfen von
Abies excelsa. (Nov.)

Ueber Farbstoffe aus der Gruppe
der Benzeine. (Recd. Nov. 14.)

1890.

Recherches sur l’absorption des
rayons ultra-violets par diverses
substances, (Read Jan. 20.)

Ueber Peridineénfarbstoffe. (Jan.)

The Quantitative Estimation of
Colouring Matters by means of
their Absorption Spectra. (Jan.)

Ueber das Gesetz der Dissociation
des Oxyhimoglobins und tiber
einige sich daran kniipfende
wichtige Fragen aus der Biologie.
—Ueber die Bedeutung der in der
vorigen Abhandlung vorgetrage-
nen Lehre fiir die Spektroskopie
und Photometrie des Blutes.
(Feb.)

Ueber den Blutfarbstoff und seine
niiheren Umwandlungsproducte.
(March.)

On the Absorption Spectra of

certain Vegetable Colouring
Matters. (Read March 17.)
Ueber Bidioxymethylenindigo.

(Recd. May 24.)

Ueber farbige Glaser fiir Dunkel-
kammerfenster. (May.)

Untersuchungen tiber die Absorp-
tionsspectrum des Broms. (Read
Oct. 8.)

The Spectra of Blue and Yellow
Chlorophyll, with some Observa-
tions on Leaf-Green. (Read Noy.
20.)

*Naturw. Rundschau,’ iv.
608 ; ‘Chem. Centr.’ [4],
ii. Bd. i. 164 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. pt. i,
641-642 (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxii. 3001-3004;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xiv. 281
(Abs.)

* Archiv de Genéve,’ xxiii.
5-69 ; ‘ Rev. générale des
Sciences, i. 57 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxii. 202
(Abs.)

‘Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Ge-
sellsch.’ viii. 9-32; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ [4], ii. 767-768
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ivili. 1172-1173 (Abs.)

‘J. Soc. Chem. Industr.’
ix. 36-41; ‘Zeitschr. f.
anal. Chem.’ xxxi, 192
(Abs.)

‘Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.’
1890 (Physiol. Abth.), 1-
30; ‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vy. 86 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physiol.
Chein.’ xliv. 405-415;
‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
xxix. 737 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News, lxiv. 113 (Abs.)

*Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb.
Xvii. 121-137 ; ‘ Nature,
xli, 573 (Abs.); ‘Beiblit-
ter,’ xiv. 619 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxiii. 1566-1567;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Iviii. 1140
(Abs.)

‘Phot. Mittheil.’ xxvii, 51-
52; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv. 704
(Abs.)

‘Handl. K. Svensk. Vet.
Akad.’ (Stockholm), xxiv.
(53 pp.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
XViii. 339 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lix, 106-
124; ‘Nature,’ xliii, 262
(Abs.)

N 2

180

H. Bremer

H. Rigollot

K. Olszewski .

J. Conroy

T. L. Phipson

G. Hiifner and E.
Albrecht.

G. Kriiss

W. M. Watts.

J. G. Macgregor

E. Schunck

E. Vogel

R. E. Schmidt and
L. Gattermann.

O. Knoblauch

G. Magnanini

REPORT—189 4.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1890, 1891.

Einfluss der Temperatur gefiarbter
Lésungen auf die Absorptions-
spectrum desselben. (Inaugural-
Dissertation, Erlangen, 1890.)

1891.

Sur les spectres d’absorption des
solutions d’iode. (Read Jan. 5.)

Ueber das Absorptionsspectrum
und iiber die Farbe des fitissigen
Sauerstoffes. (Read Jan. 20.)

On the Change in the Absorption
Spectrum of Cobalt-Glass pro-
duced by Heat. (Read Feb. 13.)

Palmelline and Aspergilline. (March
27.)

Ueber die Durchiissigkeit des
Wassers fiir Licht von verschie-
(March.)

Beitrige zur Chemie des Erbiums
und Didyms. (I.) April.)

dener Wellenlinge.

Index of Spectra

On the Variation with Temperature
and Concentration of the Absorp-
tion Spectra of Aqueous Solutions
of Salts. (Read May 29.)

Contributions to the Chemistry of
Chlorophyll. Part IV. (Read June
18.)

Ueber die Lage der Absorption-
streifen und Lichtempfindlichkeit
organischer Farbenstoffe.

Ueber Oxyderivative des Alizarin-
Blau.

Absorptionsspectralanalyse sehr
verdtinnter Lésungen.
Sul potere assorbente dei sali

colorati in rapporto colla disso-

ciazione elettrolitica. (Read Nov.
99

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ viii. 430 (Abs.)

‘C. R’ cxii. 38-40; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xliii. 264 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxiii. 50
(Abs.) ; ‘ Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem.’ vil. 335
(Abs.)

‘Bull. internat. de l’Acad.
des Sciences de Cracovie,’
1891, No. 1, 44-46 ; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ [N.F.],
xlii. 662-665 ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’
(5], xxxi. 447 (Abs.);
‘ Nature,’ xliii. 498 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxi. 317-
320; ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xi.
103-106 ; ‘Chem. News,’
lxiii. 105 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii. 165.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
(N.F.], xlii. 1-17; ‘Na-
ture,’ xliii. 520 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
ceelxv. 1-27; ‘Chem.
News,’ lIxiv. 65-66, 75-
76, 99-101, 120-121.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxi. 486
(Review).

‘Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc.
Canada,’ ix. Sect. III. 27—
41; ‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ x. 430 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1. 302—
317; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixiv.
I. 41-42 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlili. 449-492;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem,’ viii. 569 (Abs.)

‘J. prakt. Chem.’ xliv.103-
109; ‘ Chem, News,’ lxiv.
261 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], xlili. 738, 783;
‘Chem. News,’ lxiv. 120
(Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei,’

vii. II. 356-363; ‘ Bei-
bliitter” xvi. 427-428
(Abs.)

ON

H. Bremer

W. L. Dudley

A. H. Church.

E. L. Nichols and
B. W. Snow.

W. Merkelbach

A. Brun.

T, Ewan

A. B. Griffiths

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

J. Janecek

G. Bider

O. Hammarsten

J. Janetek

- | Gerichtlich-chemischer

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

181

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1891, 1892.

Ueber den Einfluss der Tempera-
tur gefirbter Lésungen auf die
Absorptionsspectren desselben.
(Inaug.-Dissert. Erlangen, 1891.)

1892.

- _ TheColours and Absorption Spectra

of Thin Metallic Films, and of In-
candescent Vapours of the Metals;
with some Observations on Elec-
trical Volatility. (March.)

Researches on Turacin. Part II.

(Read April 28.)

Onthe Selective Absorption of Light
by Optical Glass and Cale Spar.
(April.)

Zur Absorption des Lichtes durch
Natriumdampf. (June.)

Note sur le spectre d’absorption
des grenats almandines rouges de
Ceylan. (Read July 7.)

The Absorption Spectra of some
Copper Salts in Aqueous Solution.
(July.)

Sur la matiére colorante du micro-
coccus prodigiosus. (Read Aug. 8.)

Spectrum of Liquid Oxygen, and
Refractive Indices of Liquid
Oxygen, Nitrous Oxide, and Ethy-
lene. (Aug.)

Die Grenzen der Beweiskraft des

Himatinspectrums und der Ha-
minkrystalle (Teichmann’s Krys-
talle) fiir die Anwesenheit von
Blut. (Separate publication.)

Ueber das spectroscopische Ver-
halten des Blutes, nach Aufnahme
von schidlichen Gasen, und eine
Methode diese Verinderung fiir
gerichtliche Zwecke objectiv zur
Darstellung zu bringen.

Ueber den Nachweis von Himato-
porphyrin im Harn.

Nachweis
von Blut.

‘ Zeitschr. f.anorg. Chem.’
1,112-122(Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lxvi. 41-42 (Abs.)

‘ Amer, Chem. J.’ xiv. 185-
190; ‘Chem. Centralbl.
1892, II. 23-24 (Abs.);
‘Beiblatter, xvii. 123
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ li. 399-
400 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxiv. I. 184 (Abs.)

* Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxi, 379-
382; ‘Beibliatter, xvi.
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterr.’ v. 253; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xvii. 564 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3],
XXvill, 410-412; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xvii. 3365 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag, [5], xxxiii.
317-342; ‘Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’ ix. 750
(Abs.)

°C. R. exv. 321; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixvi. 149-150
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag’ [5], xxxiv.
205-209 ; ‘ J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixiv. II. 201-202 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblaitter, xvii. 121-
122 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centralbl.’ 1892, i.

507-508 (Abs.); ‘Jd.
Chem. Soc.’ lxii. 1169-
1170 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Pharm.’ ccxxx.
609-640; ‘Ber. xxvi.
(Ref.), 248-249 (Abs.)

‘Skand. Archiv f. Phy-
siol.’ iii. 319; ‘ Zeitschr.
f. ana]. Chem.’ xxxi. 233-
235 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixii. 1136 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’

xXxxi. 236-237 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixvi, 32
(Abs.)

182

W. H. Julius. i

P. Dittrich ,

V. Svejcar , ’

K. Angstrém .

C. Grebe 7 :

F. Zecchini ,

W. Lapraik , A

K. Angstrém
W. Palmer,

and

E. L. Nichols,

G. Magnanini and

Tf. Bentivoglio.

E. Vogel .

C. Camichel , 3

G. P. Menegazzi

G. Kriiss +

REPORT—1894.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1892, 1893.

Bolometrisch onderzoek van ab-
sorptiespectra.

Das Spectrum des Methimoglo-
bins.

Das umgekehrte Natriumspectrum
(‘Zeitschr. math. phys. Bohm,’ xxi.
238.)

Untersuchungen iiber die spectrale
Vertheilung der Absorption im in-
frarothen Spectrum (‘ Physikal.
Revue,’ i. 597-623). ;

Ueber Azofarbenspectra . :

1893.

Sul potere rifrangente del fosforo.
Il. Potere rifrangente degli acidi
del fosforo e dei loro sali sodici.
(Read Jan. 8.)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectra eini-
ger Chromverbindungen. (Mar.)

Le spectre infra-rouge du chlor, et
de acide hydrochlorique. (Read
June 7.)

A Study of the Transmission Spectra
of certain Substances in the Infra-
Red. (July.)

Intornoallo spettro di absorbimento
delle soluzioni di aleuni chromoos-
salati della serie bleu. (Read
July 2.)

Ueber die Lage der Absorptions-
streifen und Lichtempfindlichkeit
organischer Farbstoffe. (July.)

Sur l’absorption de la lumiére dans
le brome liquide. (Read Aug. 7).

Spectroscopic Researches on Blood
which has been decomposed by
the action of Poisonous Gases
(‘ Instit. chim. pharm. d. R. Accad.
di Padova, Lavori,’ 1892-3).

Ueber die Erbinerde ; 5

*Verhandl. K. Vet. Akad.
Amsterdam,’ i, 1-49,

‘Arch. f. exper. Pathol. .
u. Pharmakol.’ xxix. 247;
‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’

xxxi. 593 (Abs.)
‘ Beiblitter,” xvi, [82]
(title).

© Beibliitter, xvii. 332-334
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ x. 673-698.

‘Rendic. R. Accad. Roma’
[5], ii. Ist sem, 31-38.

‘J. prakt. Chem,’
xIvii. 305-342; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xvii. 650-652
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
Ixiv. IT. 313-314 (Abs.)

‘Oefversigt af K. Vet.
Akad. Férh.’(Stockholm),
1893, 389-395; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 87 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ i. 1-18;
‘Beiblatter, xvii. 1062
(Abs.)

* Rendic. R. Accad. Roma’
[5], ii. 2nd sem. 17-23.

[2],

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
[N.F.], xliii, 449-472;
“Chem. News,’ lxvii. 61
(Abs.)

‘CO. R.’ exvii. 307-309; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lxiv. IT. 561
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ xlviii.
384 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxvii. (Ref.), 272-
273 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
ili. 353-369 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxiv. II. 376. (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

183

: ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1893, 1894—PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1878, 1881, 1883, 1884.

K. Hofmann and | Ueber die Holminerde , ;

G. Kriiss.

P. Dittrich and T.

Araki,

F. Struve

G. B. Rizzo

G. S. Hall

S. P. Langley

A. G. Bell

8. P. Langley

G. Buzzolini ,

A. Abt .

A. Konig

C. Dieterici.

G. Sieben

and

Das Spectrum des Methimoglo-
bins.

Zur gerichtlich-chemischen Unter-
suchung verdiichtiger Flecken auf
Blut.

1894.
Sulle proprieta delle linee e delle

bande negli spettri d’assorbimento.

IV.
PHYSICAL RELATIONS.
1878.
Colour - Perception. (Presented
Mar. 14.)
1881.

The Bolometer and Radiant Energy.

(Read Jan. 12.)

Upon the Production of Sound by
Radiant Energy. (Read April
21.)

1883.

Experimental Determination of
Wave-Lengths in the Invisible
Prismatic Spectrum. (April.)

Sulla condicione di minima e mas-
sima deviazione d’ un raggio che
attraversa un prisma. (Oct.)

Beobachtung dunkler Interferenz-
streifen im Spectrum des weissen
Lichtes (‘Naturwiss. Ver. zu
Klausenberg,’ 1883, 165).

1884.

Die Empfindlichkeit des Auges fiir
Wellenlangenunterschiede des
Lichtes. (Part. I. read Feb. 22;
Part II. read March 7.)

Ueber die Abhingigkeit der
Brechungsexponenten anomaldi-
spergirender Medien von der
Concentration der Lésung und der
Temperatur. (April.)

SSE a ESE RE ES

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
iii. 407-414; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxiv. II, 466-467
(Abs.)

‘ Arch. f. exper. Pathol. u.
Pharmakol.’ xxix. 247;
‘ Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
xxxi. 593 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxvii. 61 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. £. anal. Chem,’
xxxii. 174-178; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxvii. 308-309,

‘Il nuovo cimento’ [3],
xxxv. 132-136; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixix. 222-223
(Abs.)

‘ Proc. Amer. Acad.’ [N.8.],
v. 402-413.

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ viii.
342-358; ‘ Ann. Chim. et
Phys.’ [5], xxiv. 275-
284; ‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3],
xxi. 187-198 (Abs.)

‘ Amer. J. Sci. [3], xxi. 463-
490; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xi.
510-528.

‘Mem. Nat. Amer. Acad.’
(Washington), ii. 149-
162.

‘ Riv. Sc. Industr.’ xv. 302-
306.

‘Beibliitter, vii. 899-901
(Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ iii. 7-10; 15-16 ;
‘Nature,’ xxix. 496, 568
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xxiii. 312-343.

184

H. W. Vogel .

A. Konig.

J. M, Eder

H. Kayser .

J. H. Gladstone

8. P. Langley

A. Konig

A. E. Dolbear

A. Konig

W. Ramsay

P. Garbe

REPORT—1894..

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1884, 1885, 1886.

Ueber die photographische Auf-
nahme farbiger Korper in den

richtigen Helligkeitsverhaltnissen.

(Read May 23.)

Ueber die bisher gemachten
Bestimmungen der Wellenlangen
einfacher complementiirer Farben.
(Read June 13.)

1885.

Ueber den Gesichtsinn der Zulu-
Kaffern. (Read Feb. 13.)

Spectrographische Untersuchung
von Normal-Lichtquellen und die
Brauchbarkeit der letzteren zu
photochemischen Messungen der
Lichtempfindlichkeit. (Read April
23.)

Ueber verschiedene Arbeiten tiber

Beziehungen zwischen den Spec-
trallinien. (Read June 11.)

On the Specific Refraction and Dis-
persion of the Alums. (Read
June 27.)

Observations of Invisible Heat
Spectra, and the Recognition of
hitherto Unmeasured Wave-
Lengths. (Aug.)

Ueber einen Fall pathologisch ent-
standener Violettblindheit. (Read

Noy. 6.)

1886.

On the Conditions that determine
the Length of the Spectrum.
(Presented Feb. 10.)

Ueber weitere Beobachtungen an

einen durch Alkoholismus ge-
storten Farbensystem. (Read
April 2.)

Methode zur Bestimmung der
Brechungsexponenten in Prismen
mit grossen brechenden Winkeln.
(Read June 9.)

Recherches expérimentales sur le
rayonnement. (Thése de docto-
rat, 91 pp., Paris, 1886.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ iii. 28-32; ‘Na-
ture,’ xxx. 188 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ iii. 37-39; ‘Na-
ture,’ xxx. 308 (Abs.)

‘Verb. Gesellsch. phys.
Berl” iv. 15-17; ‘Na-
ture,’ xxxi, 476 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
xci.. IL ~f097—1102 ;
‘Monatsh. f. Chem.’ vi.
363-368; ‘Wiener Anz.’
1885, 93 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl. iii. 55 (notice) ;
‘ Nature,’ xxxii.312 (Abs.)

‘ Proc. Phys. Soe.’ vii. 194—
200; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xx.
162-168.

‘ Proc. Amer. Assoc.’ Xxxiv.
55-75; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xxi. 394-409; ‘Amer.
J. Sel.; [isi] xs 12s
‘ Nature, xxxili.426 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ iv. 65-69; ‘Nature,’
XxXxili. 288 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer.Acad.’[N.S.],
xiii. 361-362,

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ v. 58 (notice).

‘Bihang till K. Svensk.
Vet. Akad. Handl.’ xii.
Afd. II. No. 4 (18 pp.);
‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u.
Min.’ xii. 209-221 ; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xi. 439-440
(Abs.)

‘J. de Physique,’ V. 245—
268 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,”
xii. 342-344 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

O, Lummer

R. Nasini
C. E. af Klercker .
W. de W. Abney .

W. von Bezold

H. W. Vogel

H. A. Rowland

L. Bell .

A. Kinig

H. Dufet

J. W. Bruhl .

A. E. Nordenskidld

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1887.

1887.

Ueber eine neue Methode Meter
und Kilogramm zu vergleichen,
die Wellenlinge als Urnormale
einzufiihren, und wtiber hydro-
statische Wagungen. (Read Jan.
21.)

Sulla refrazione molecolare delle
sostanze organiche dotate di
forte potere dispersivo. (Jan.)

Sur la dispersion anormale de la
lumiére. (Read Feb. 9.)

Sunlight Colours.
Inst., Feb. 25.)

(Lect. Roy.

Ueber eine neue Methode zur Zer-
legung des weissen Lichtes in Com-
plementenfarben. (Read Mar. 4.)

Ein Mischfarben- Experiment.
(Read Mar. 4.)

On the Relative Wave-Lengths of
the Lines of the Solar Spectrum.
(March.)

The Absolute Wave-Length of Light.
Parts I. II. (April.)

Ueber Newton’s Gesetz der Farben-
mischung. (Read May 6.)

Sur les volumes moléculaires et
Vénergie réfractive des phos-
phates, arséniates et hypophos-
phates de soude. (Read May 20.)

Etudes expérimentales sur la dis-
persion des axes d'élasticité op-
tique dans quelques cristaux clino-
rhombiques. (Read July 21.)

Ueber den Einfluss der einfachen
und der sogenannten mehrfachen
Bindung der Atome auf das Licht-
brechungsvermogen der Korper.
(July.)

Sur un rapport simple entre les
longueurs donde des spectres.
(Read Nov. 21.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ vi. 5-11; ‘ Nature,’
xxxv. 432 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d.
Lincei’ [4], iv. 128-133,
164-172; ‘ Zeitschr. £. phy-
sikal. Chem.’ i. 422 (Abs.)

‘Ofversigt af Kongl.
Svensk. Vet. Akad. For-
handl. Stockholm,’ 1887,
No. 2, 39 (title only).

‘Proc. Roy. Inst.’ xii. 61—
71; ‘Nature,’ xxxv. 498-

501; ‘ Beibliatter,’ xii.
350-351 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ vi. 28.

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ vi. 28-29.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxiii.
257-265.

‘Amer. J. Sci’ [3], xxxv.
265-282, 347-367 ; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xxv. 245-263,
350-372; ‘Nature,’ xxxvii.
623 (Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ vi. 55 (notice).

‘J. Soc. franc. de Phys.’
1887, 117-128; ‘J. de
Phys.’ [2], vi. 301-312;
‘Ber’ xx. (Referate),
530 (Abs.); ‘Beiblitter,’
xiii. 701-703 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Min. de France,’
x. 214-230; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xii. 530 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ i. 307-361.

°C. RB.’ cv. 988-995 ; ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. physikal. Chem.’
ii, 245 (Abs.)

186
Nanny Lagerborg .
H. Ebert =
» . :
» .

E. Bertrand .

T. Pelham Dale

A. Kundt

K. Feussner .

P. Simon .

H. Deslandres

E. Blasius ,

5. P. Langley

J. Kanonnikoft

REPORT—1894..

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1887, 1888.

Etudes sur la variation des indices
de réfraction et de la densité du
sel gemme sous 1’influence de la
température. (Read Dec. 14.)

Ueber den Einfluss der Schwellen-
werte der Lichtempfindung auf
dem Character der Spectra. (Dec.)

Ueber den Einfluss der Dicke und
Helligkeit der strahlenden Schicht
auf das Aussehen des Spectrums.
(Dec.)

Empfindliche und bequeme Methode
zur Messung der Fortpflanzungs-
geschwindigkeit des Lichtes.

1888.

Liquides d’indices supérieures a4
18. (Read Jan 12.)

On the Numerical Relation between
the Index of Refraction and the
Wave-Length within a Refractive
Medium, and on the Limit of Re-
fraction. (Read Feb. 11.)

Ueber die Brechungsexponenten
der Metalle. (Feb.)

Bestimmung der Winkel und Bre-
chungsexponenten von Prismen
mit Fernrohr und Scala. (Feb.)
(‘Sitzungsb. d. Gesellsch. zur Ford.
d. Naturwiss. Marburg.’ 65-76.)

Eixpérience de cours. [Platinum
wire heated by current before slit
of spectroscope.] (Ieb.)

Détermination, en longueurs d’onde,
de deux raies rouges du potassium.
(Read Mar. 12.)

Das Gesetz von Christiansen und
die optischen Beobachtungen am
Tabaschir. (March.)

Energy and Vision. (Read April 19.)

Relations between the Specific Ro-
tatory and the Refractive Power
of Chemical Compounds. Part I.
(in Russian.) (April.)

‘ Bihang till Kongl.
Svensk. Vet. Akad. Hand-
lingar,’ xiii. Afd. I. No. 10
(12 pp.); ‘ Beiblatter, xiii.
490-491 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xxxili. 136-155 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 250 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], sxxili. 155-158.

‘Tageblatt d. 60 versammt.
d. deutsche Naturf. und
Aerzte zu Wiesbaden’
(1887), 42; ‘ Nature,’
XXxXvVil. 328 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc.
France,’ xi. 31.

Min. de

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ ix. 167—
181; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxv.
325-338 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xiii. 805-806 (Abs.)

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1888, 255-272; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xxvi. 1-18.

807

‘ Beiblitter,’ xiii.

(Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ [2], vii. 79-
80; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xii. 346
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ evi. 739; ‘ Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem.’ ii. 434
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u. Min.’
xiv. 258-259 ; ‘Beiblatter,’
xii. 782 (Abs.)

© Phil, Mag.’ [5], xxvii. 1-
23; ‘ Beiblitter, xiii.
162-163 (Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc.’
xx. No. 6, 571-578; ‘J.
Chem. Soc,’ lvi.326(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

R. Weegmann .

A, Konig . E

H. Vogel ,
H. Ebert F
A. Haschek ,

W. Sutherland

W. Uhthoff . ‘|

E. L. Nichols and
W. S. Franklin.

W. H. Julius

J. Kanonnikoff

T. Pelham Dale

E. Ketteler . -

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1888.

Ueber die Molecularrefraction
einiger gebrannten Aethane und
Aethylene, und iiber den gegen-
wiirtigen Stand der Landolt-
Bruhl’schen Theorie. (Inaugural-
Dissertation.) (April.)

Measurement of the Intensities of
Light in the Spectrum (‘ Arch.
f. Anat. u. Physiol,’ May 11, 1888).

Spectroscopische Notizen. (Read

June 14.)

Die Methode der héher Interferen-
zen, und ihre Verwendbarkeit fiir
die Zwecke der qualitativen Spec-
tralanalyse. (Habilitationsschrift,
Erlangen, 1888.)

Ueber Brechungsexponenten triiber
Medien. (Read July 19.)

Molecular Refraction. (Australian
Assoc.for Advancement of Science.)

(Aug.)

Ueber die zur Erzeugung eben
merklicher Farbendifferenzen er-
forderlichen Aenderungen der
Wellenlinge spectralen Lichtes.
(Read Aug. 3.)

A Spectrophotometric Comparison
of Sources of Artificial Ilumina-
tion. (Aug.)

Recherches bolométriques dans le
spectre infra-rouge. (Sept.)

Relations between the Specific Ro-
tatory and the Refractive Power of
Chemical Compounds. Part II.
(in Russian.) (Oct.)

On the Upper Limit of Refraction
in Selenium and Bromine, (Read
Nov. 10.)

Experimentaluntersuchungen tiber
das Refractionsvermégen der
Fliissigkeiten zwischen sehr ent-
fernten Temperaturgrenzen.
(Nov.)

187

‘Zeitschr. £. physikal.
Chem.’ ii, 218-240, 257~
269.

‘Nature,’ xxxviii. 119-120
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxi. 2029-2082 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 655 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f, physikal.
Chem.’ ii, 434 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb, Akad. Wien,’
xevii. II. Abth. a. 958-
960 ; ‘ Monatshefte f.
Chem.’ ix. 900-902; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lvi.197 (Abs.);
‘Beiblatter,’ xiii. 492-493
(Abs.)

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxvii. 141-
155; ‘J. Chem, Soc.’ lvi.
454-455 (Abs.); ‘ Ber’
xxii.(Referate),129(Abs.);
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iii. 364 (Abs.)

‘Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.’
(phys. Abth.), 1889, 171-
172; ‘Nature, xxxviii.
464 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxviii.
100-114.

‘Arch. néerland.’ xxii, 310-
383; ‘ Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem,’ ii. 763 (Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.
Soc.’ xx. No. 9, part i.
686-693; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lvi. 453-454 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ x. 17-
23; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xxvii. 50-56; ‘Chem.
News,’ lviii. 252-253
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xiii.
805-806 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], xxxii. 662-699 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iii. 130 (Abs.)

188

C. Soret. :

E. Lommel

J. Stossel

P. Szymanski.

A. Konig

W. Grosse

H. W. Vogel .

¥F. L. Perrot .

H. Rubens

E. Conrady

T. Pelham Dale

H. A. Rowland

REPORT—1894.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1888, 1889.

Recherches sur la réfraction et la

dispersion dans les aluns crys-
tallisés. (Deuxiéme mémoire.)
(Dec.)

Phosphorophotographie des ultra-
rothen Spectrums. (Read Dec. 1.)

Ueber die Lichtemission des glii-
henden Platins.

Schulversuche iiber die Zurtickwer-
fung und Brechung des Lichtes.

1889.

Ueber die Abhiingigkeit der Seh-
schirfe von der Lichtintensitiit
bei spectraler Beleuchtung. (Read
Jan. 25.)

Ueber Messungen der Lichttrans-
mission und Lichtabsorption.
(Jan.)

Photographien vom Beugungspec-
trum. (Read Feb. 8.)

Vérification expérimentale de la
méthode de M. Charles Soret pour
la mesure des indices de réfraction
des cristaux & deux axes. (Read
Feb. 7.)

Die selective Reflexion der Metalle.
(Read Mar. 8.)

Berechnung der Atomrefractionen
fiir Natriumlicht. (Mar.)

On a Relation existing between the
Density and Refraction of the
Gaseous Elements, and also some
of their Compounds. (Read May
25.)

Table of Standard Wave-Lengths,
(May.)

‘ Arch, de Genéve’ [3], xx.
517-536; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xiii. 669-670 (Abs.)

‘ Sitzunsb. d. Akad. Miin-

chen’ (1888), 397-403.

‘Ziiricher Vierteljahres-
schrift,’ 1888, 308-322 ;

‘Beiblitter, xiii, 945
(Abs.)
‘Zeitschr. f. phys. u.

chem. Unterricht,’ ii. 62-
65; ‘Beiblatter, xiv.
763-764 (Abs.)

‘Verhandl. phys. Gesell-
sch. Berlin,’ viii. No. 2,

9-12; ‘Nature, xxxix.
408 (Abs.)
‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-

tenkunde,’ ix. 1-9; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xiii. 679 (Abs.)

‘Verhandl. phys. Gesell-
sch. Berlin,’ viii. No. 3,
20; ‘Nature,’ xxxix. 480
(Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ xxi.
113-115; ‘C. R. cviii.
137-138; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xiii. 317 (Abs.)

‘Verhandl. phys. Gesell-
sch. Berlin,’ viii. No. 5,
23 (Abs.); ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ [N.F.], xxxviii.
249-268; ‘ Nature,’ xxxix.
552 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschrift f. physikal.
Chem,’ iii. 210-227; ‘J.
Chem. Soc. lvi. 661
(Abs.)

© Proc. Phys. Soc.’ x. 189-
192; ‘Phil. Mag’ [5],
XXViii. 268-271; ‘ Nature,’
xl. 143 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lix. 276 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter,’ xiii. 937
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
lviii. 201 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ viii, 69, 78; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xxvii. 479-484 ;
‘Beiblatter, xiil, 677
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

J. L. Soret and
E, Sarasin.

P. Barbier and L.
Roux.

Lord Rayleigh

H. Ebert

B. Walter

T. Costa

C. V. Zenger . ,

A. A. Michelson and
E. W. Morley.

K. Seubert

J.H. Gladstone and
W. H. Perkin.

C. Pulfrich

J. Kanonnikoff

M. Le Blanc .

E, Fleischl
Marxow.

von

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1889.

Sur l’indice de réfraction de l’eau
de mer. (Read June 17.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques. (Read
June 17.)

On the Visibility of Faint Inter-
ference Bands. (June.)

Optische Mittheilungen. (Physikal-
medizin. Soc. Erlangen. July.)

Ueber die Brechungsexponenten
von Salzlésungen. (July.)

Sulla correlazione tra il potere ri-
frangente ed il potere dispersivo
dei derivati aromatici a catene
laterali sature. (Aug.)

La spectrophotographie des parties
invisibles du spectre solaire.
(Read Sept. 9.)

The Feasibility of Establishing a
Light Wave as the ultimate Stan-
dard of Length. (Sept.)

Einige pbysikalische Constanten
von Halogensubstitutionsproduc-
ten des Benzols und Toluols.
(Read Oct. 14.)

On the Correspondence between
the Magnetic Rotation and the
Refraction and Dispersion of
Light by Compounds containing
Nitrogen. (Read Nov. 7.)

Ueber das Brechungsvermégen von
Mischungen zweier Flissigkeiten.
(Nov. 29.)

On the Relations between the Re-
fractive and the Rotatory Powers
of Chemical Compounds. (Nov.)

Optisch.-chemische Studien mit
Beriicksichtigung der Dissocia-
tiontheorie. (Nov.)

Ueber die zweckmissigste Herstel-
lung monochromatischen Lichtes.
(Nov.)

189

°C. R. eviii. 1248-1249 ;
‘Arch. de Genéve,’ xxi.
509-514; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xiii. 669 (Abs.)

‘C. BR.’ eviii. 1249-1251;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iv. 478 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxvii. 484_
486.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iv. 578 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem’
[N.F.], xxviii. 107-118;
* Zeitschr. f. anal,

Chem.’ xxix. 430 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxiii. 201
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lili. 202 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital’ xix.
478-498; ‘Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’ v. 280
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lviii. 1201-1202 (Abs.)

‘C. RY cix. 434-436 ; * Bei-
blatter,’ xiv. 37-38 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci. [3], xxxviii.
181-186; ‘Nature,’ xl.
562 (Abs.)

© Ber.’ xxii. 2519-2524.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lv. 750-
759.

‘Zeitschr. f,. physikal.
Chem. iv. 561-569;
‘Beiblitter,’ xiv. 273
(Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc.’
Xxli. 85-96; ‘ Ber.’ xxiii.
[Ref.], 317-319 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iv. 553-560; ¢ J.
Chem. Soc.’ viii. 213
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv.
272 (Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
(N.F.], xxxviii. 675-676 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lviii, 549
(Abs.)

190

C. Bender .

J.Seyffart . .

K, Angstrom . 4

W. Kouriloff .

EH. Abbe. .

H. W. Vogel .

E. Doumer , "

J. L. Soret and
A. A. Rilliet.

P. Barbier
L. Roux.

and

C. A. Bischoff and
P. Walden.

P. Barbier
L. Roux.

and

REPORT—1894.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1889, 1890.

Brechungsexponenten normalen

Salzloésungen. (Dec.)

Ueber eine Methode zur Bestim-
mung der Rotationsdispersion
circularpolarisenden Substanzen.
(Inaugural-Dissertation.)

Nyere studien 6fvn det ultrarode
Spectrum (‘Svensk Kemisk Tid-
skrift,’ 1889, 98-108).

Terpenes from the Oil of Pinus
abies.

1890.

Ueber die Verwendung des Fluorits
fiir optische Zwecke. (Jan.)

Ueber Farbenwahrnehmungen.
(Read Jan. 10.)

Sur les pouvoirs réfringents molécu-
laires des sels en dissolution.
(Read Jan. 6, Jan. 20, May 5.)

Sur l’absorption des rayons ultra-

violets par quelques substances
organiques faisant partie de la
série grasse. (Read Jan. 20.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés aromatiques. (Feb.)

Ueber die physikalischen Con-
stanten der substituirten Aethe-
nyltricarbonsaureéster. (Recd.
Feb. 27. Read March 10.)

Recherches sur la dispersion des
dissolutions aqueuses. (Read
March 3, March 10, May 27.)

‘Ann. Phys. u, Chem.’
[N.F.], xxxix. 89-96;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ v. 283 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys.
[N.F.], xl. 113-134;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vi. 590 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter,’ [27]
(title).

u. Chem.’

xiv.

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.
Soc.” xxi 1357-367; "J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 789
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ x. 1-6; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xiv. 274-275
(Abs.)

‘Verh. phys. Ges. Berlin,’
ix. 1-8 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv.
629 (Abs.)

°C. R. ex. 40-42, 139-141,

957-958; ‘Nature,’ xli.
263, xliii 72 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblaitter, xiv. 767-—
768 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News, Ixi. 49 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Iviii.
433-1033 (Abs.); ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. physikal. Chem.’
vi. 374 (Abs.)

*C. R. ex. 137-1395 *Zeit-
schr. f. physikal. Chem.”
v. 275 (Abs.)

‘Bull. soc. chim.’ [3], iii.
255; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii.
11 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxiii. 660-664; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ lviii, 745—
746 (Abs.)

*C. RY cx. 457-460, 527-

532, 1071-1074; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lvyiii. 673-
674 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
xli. 455, 479 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter,” xiv. 368,
502 (Abs.) ; ‘Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem,’ vi. 84
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

B. Walter .

R. Nasini

J. F. Eykman

F. W. Semmler

F. Schiitt

T. Costa ‘

C. Schall and

C. Dralle.

P. Barbier
L. Roux.

and

A.Schrauf , -

P. Barbier and

L, Roux.

R. Loewenherz ,

H. E. J. G. du Bois
and H. Rubens,

8. angley and

Peek
¥. W. Very.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1890.

Sur les indices de réfraction des
solutions salines. (Read March
11.)

Sulla dispersione dei composti
organici. (Read March 16.)

Ueber die Umwandlung von Allyl
in Propenylbenzolderivate, ihre
Dispersion und Refraction. (Recd.
March 17. Read March 24.)

Ueber indisches Geraniumél. (Recd.
April 10. Read April 28.)

Ueber die Bestimmung der Mole-

cularrefraction fester chemische
Verbindungen in Lésungen der-
selben. (Read April 29.)

Sul peso moleculare e sul potere

rifrangente del bicloruro di
zolfo. (Read May 4.)
Studien iiber das Brazilin. IV.

(Read May 19.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques (alcodls
de la série grasse). (Read May 27.)

Ueber die thermische Veranderung

der Brechungsexponenten des
prismatischen Schwefels. (Read
May 8.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques (éthers
oxydes). (Read July 21.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques (acides
gras). (Read July 28.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction der
Nitrate. (Read July 14.)

Brechung und Dispersion des
Lichtes in einigen Metallen.
(Read July 24.)

On the Cheapest Form of Light;
from Studies at the Alleghany
Observatory. (Aug.)

=

191

HGS (B.S xin F08=709!:

‘Chem. News,’ lxi. 192
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xiv.
505 (Abs.); ‘ Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’ vi. 86
(Abs.)

‘Rend. d. R. Accad.
Lincei,’ vi. lst sem. 211-
215; ‘Gazz. chim. ital.

xx. 356-361.

‘Ber, xxiii. 855-864; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 748-
749 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’
xiv. 502-505 (Abs.)

‘Ber,’ xxiii. 1098-1103.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ v. 349-373; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 1033-
1034 (Abs.); ‘Bei-
blatter, xiv. 772-774
(Abs.)

‘Rend. d. R. Accad. d.

Lincei’ [4], vi. 408-411 ;

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vi. 286 (Abs.);
‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xx.
367-372.

‘ Ber.’ xxiii. 1428-1437,

‘C. BR. ex. 1071-1074:
‘ Nature,’ xlii. 143 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxi. 289
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
lvili. 1034-1035 (Abs.)

‘Anzeiger d. K. Akad.
Wien, xxvi. 105-106;
* Beiblatter, xv. 37-38.

Ore ats,
‘Chem.
(Abs.)

By hi) (CX1-
‘ Nature,’ xlii. 360
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lxii. 85 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xxiii. 2180-2182.

cxi. 180-183 ;
News, Ixii. 74

235, 236;

Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1890, 955-968; Ԥ Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xxx. "365-378
(Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci. [3], xl. 97-
113; ‘Nature,’ xlii, 432
(Abs.)

192

J. J. Kanonnikoff .

W. Marshall Watts

S. P. Thompson

T. Pelham Dale

VY. Schumann

LL. Buchkremer

©. Pulfrich

€h. Barbier and L.
Roux.

J. W. Brihl .

G. Lippmann .
G. D. Liveing and

J. Dewar.

G. Wiggs

W. Cassie

REPORT—1894.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1890, 1891.

Ueber die Wechselbeziehungen
zwischen den Drehungs- und
Brechungsvermégen chemischer
Verbindungen. (Aug.)

A New Series of Wave-length Tables
of the Spectra of the Elements and
Compounds. (Report of the Com-
mittee.) (Sept.)

On the Use of Fluor Spar in Optical
Instruments. (Sept.)

On certain Relations existing
among the Refractive Indices of
the Chemical Elements. (Nov.)

Photographische Gesammtauf-
nahme des Spectrums zwischen
den Wellenliingen 160 und 200 up.

Ueber die beim Mischen von zwei
Fliissigkeiten stattfindenden Vo-
lumiinderung und deren Einfluss
auf das Brechungsvermégen,
Cinaug.-Diss. Bonn, 1890, 46 pp.)

Das ‘Totalreflectometer und das
Refractometer fiir Chemiker, ihre
Anwendung in der Krystalloptik
und zur Untersuchung der
Lichtbrechung von Flissigkeiten.
(Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1890.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés aromatiques.

1891.

Ueber die Messung der Brechungs-
exponenten bei héheren Tempera-
turen mittelst des Totalreflecto-
meter. (Read Jan. 26.)

Sur la photographie des couleurs
(premiére note), (Read Feb. 2.)

On the Influence of Pressure on the
Spectra of Flames. (Read Feb.
19.)

On the Bisulphite Compounds of
Alizarin Blue and Czrulin as Sen-
sitisers for Rays of Low Refrangi-
bility. (Recd. Feb. 19. Read
March 12.)

On the Effect of Temperature upon

the Refractive Index of certain
Liquids. (Recd. Feb. 19. Read
March 12.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc.’
1890, 85-86; ‘ Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem.’ vi. 87
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1890,
224-261.

‘Phil. Mag.’
120-123.

‘Chem News,’ lxii. 259
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xliii.
118 (Abs.)

‘Eder’s Jahrb. d. Photog,’
iv. 158-1638; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xiv. 615-616 (Abs.)

‘Beiblatter,’ xiv. 768-769
(Abs.); ‘Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal. Chem.’ vi. 161-186
(Abs.)

jibi|)) Sox.

‘Nature,’ xliv. 538 (notice)

‘Bull. soc. chim. frang.’
[3], iii. 255-261; ‘ Bei-

blatter” xiv. 500-502
(Abs.)
‘Ber. xxiv. 286-299;

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vii. 429 (Abs.)

O@l IR. sexi 32 14227be
‘Chem. News,’ xiii. 87—
88.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix, 217-
227; ‘Chem. News,’ lxiii.
143-145, 155-156 (Abs.);
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ viii. 332 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 345-
346 ; ‘ Chem. News,’ xiii.
157.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix, 343-
345.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

W. de W. Abney

H. A. Rowland

Ph. Barbier and L.
Roux.

J. H. Gladstone

A. Crova .

¥.L. Perrot .

A. A. Michelson

W. de W. Abney

H G.Ellinger .

A. Johnson ,

G. Kiimmell .

W. H. Perkin.

1894.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1891,

The Numerical Registration of
Colour. Preliminary Notice. (Reed.
Feb. 6. Read Feb. 19.)

Report of Progress in Spectrum
Work. (Feb.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques (éthers).
(Read March 16.)

Molecular Refraction and Dis-
persion of various Substances.
(Read March 19.)

Sur la mesure optique des hautes
températures. (Read April 19.)

Recherches sur la réfraction et la
dispersion dans une série iso-
morphe de cristaux 4 deux axes.
(Read April 27.)

. |. On the Application of Interference

Methods to Spectroscopic Mea-
surements. (April.)

On the Examination for Colour of
Cases of Tobacco Scotoma, and
of Abnormal Colour Blindness.
(Recd. April 29. Read May 14.)

On the Limit of Visibility of the
Different Rays of the Spectrum.
(Read May 14.)

Der OConcentrationsgrad von
Liésungen, bestimmt durch das
Brechungsvermégen. (May.)

Newton’s Use of Slit and Lens in
forming a Pure Spectrum. (Read
May 27.)

Rotationsdispersion weinsatirer

Salze. (June.)

The Refractive Power of certain
Organic Compounds at Different
Temperatures. (Read June 18.)

|

193

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 227-
233.

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Circe.’ x. No. 25, 41-42;
‘Chem. News,’ lxiii. 133~
134.

£@)_ HR. cx, So2—-004 ¢
‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii. 166
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lix. 290-
301; ‘ Proc..Chem. Soc.’
1891, 35-36 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxiii. 173-—
174 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’

xliii. 549-550 (Abs.) ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chen.’ viii. 335 (Abs.)

‘C. RB.’ ecxiv. 941-943:
‘Beiblitter,’ xvii. 316
(Abs.)

@,) R? cexi. 967-969 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem,’ Vii. 335 (Abs.)

‘Phil.Mag.’ [5], xxxi. 359-
363.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 491—
508.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 509-
518; ‘Beiblatter, xvi.
741 (Abs.)

‘J. prakt. Chem.’ xliv. 152-
157; ‘Chem. News, Ixiv.
262 (Abs.) _

‘Proc. and Trans. Roy.
Soc. Canada,’ ix. Sect.
III. 45-54; ‘ Beibliitter,
xvii. 825 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xliii, 509-515;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem,’ viii. 569 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxi. 287-
310; ‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’
1891.) f15=117° ~(Abs:);
‘Chem. News, lxiv. 19-20
(Abs.) ; § Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem.’ viii. 692
(Abs.): ‘Beibliitter, xvii.
559-561 (Abs.)

O

194

J. H. Gladstone .

M. Labatut .
J. H. Gladstone and
W. Hibbert.

A. Jonas Z -

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

F, Aymonnet. °

H. Rubens . f

C, B. Thring . °

W, de W. Abney .

EB. L. Nicholls and

B. W. Snow.
TT; P. Dale e
A. Konig e

C. E. Guillaume

A. Konig and R.
Ritter.

REPORT—1894.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1891, 1892.

The Molecular Refraction and Dis-
persion of various Substances.
(Read June 4.)

Sur l’absorption et la photographie
des couleurs, (Read July 20.)

Experiments on the Molecular
Refraction of Electrolytes in
Solution. (Read Aug. 26.)

Orthochromatische Bromsilber-Col-
lodionemulsion. (Aug.)

On the Spectrum of Liquid Oxygen,
and on the Refractive Indices of

Liquid Oxygen, Nitrous Oxide,

and Ethylene. (Aug.)

Relation entre l’indice de réfraction
d’un corps, sa densité, son poids
moléculaire et son pouvoir dia-
thermane. (Read Sept. 21.)

Ueber eine Methode zur Bestim-
mung der Dispersion ultra-rothen
Strahlen. (Oct.)

Colour Photography by Lippmann’s
Process. (Nov.)

ColourPhotometry. (Read Nov. 19.)

On the Influence of Temperature on
the Colour of Pigments. (Nov.)

On certain Relations existing
amongst the Refractive Indices of
the Chemical Elements. (Phys.
Soc. Read Nov. 14.)

Ueber den Helligkeitswerth der
Spectralfarben bei verschiedener
absoluter Intensitat. (Hamburg,
1891, 84 pp.)

1892.

L’énergie dans le spectre. (Jan.)

Ueber den Helligkeitswerth der
Spectralfarben bei verschiedener
absoluter Intensitat. (Read Jan.
29.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lix. 589-
598 ; ‘Chem. News,’ lxiii.
304-305(Abs.); ‘Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem.’ ix.
223-225 (Abs.)

‘©. R’ cxiii. 126-129;
‘Beiblitter, xvi. 364-365
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1891,

609; ‘ Beiblatter, xvi.
605 (Abs.)
‘Phot. Mittheil’ xxviii.

155-157, 172-174; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xvi. 538 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’[5], xxxiv. 205-

209 ; ‘ Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem,’ x. 430 (Abs.)

‘C. RB!’ cxiii. 418-421;
‘Beiblitter,” xvi. 430
(Abs.)

‘Verhandl. der phys. Ge-
sellsch. Berl.’ 1891, 83-84;
‘Nature,’ xlv. 48 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci’ [8], xlii.
388-390; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xvi.
364 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’ 1891,
150-154 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ Ilxiv. 295-296
(Abs.)

* Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxii.401—
424; ‘Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem.’ ix. 380
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvi.
361-363 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixii. 259
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvi.
274 (Abs.) °

‘Zeitschr. f. Psychol. u.
Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane,’
iv. 422-424 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-

blitter,” xvii. 659-660
(Abs.)
‘Revue Générale’ des

Sciences,’ ili. 12-21.
?

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], -xlv. 604-607;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxiii.
541-542.

ON

J. Chappuis . :

C. E. Guillaume

P. Bary . . .

A. Weigle .

E. Brodhun . -

J. Elster and H.

Geitel.

F. Aymonnet .

F. Maclean , :

G. Lippmann. .

C. Pulfrich . C

F. J. Rogers . c

F. Dussaud . :

W. Baily . .

F. Schiitt .

R. Bach. ; *

Committee .

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY,

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1892.

Réfraction des gaz liquéfiés. (Read
Feb. 8.)

Les constantes radiométriques.

(Feb.)

Sur les indices de réfraction des
solutions salines. (Read Feb. 8.)

Spectrophotometrische Untersuch-
ungen der Salze aromatischer Ba-
sen. (Feb.)

Ueber die Empfindlichkeit des griin-
blinden und des normalen Auges
gegen Farbeniinderung im Spec-
trum.. (July.)

Beobachtungen des atmosphi-
rischen Potentialgefilles und der
ultravioletten Sonnenstrahlung.
(Read March 10.)

Des maxima calorifiques périodiques
observés dans les spectres du flint,
du crown et du sel gemme. (Read
March 14.)

Photographies spectrales obtenues
avec un réseaude Rowland. (Read
April 1.)

Sur la photographie des couleurs
(deuxiéme note). (Read April 25.)

Ueber den Einfluss der Temperatur
auf die Lichtbrechung des Glases.

(April.)

Magnesium as a Source of Light.
(April.)

Sur la réfraction et la dispersion
du chlorate de soude cristallisé.

(April.)

On the Construction of a Colour
Map. (Phys. Soc. Read April 8.)

Ueber die Bestimmung der Molecu-

larrefraction fester chemischer
Verbindungen in Losungen der-
selben, (April.)

Thermochemie des Hydrazins, nebst
einer Bemerkung iiber die Mole-
cularrefraction einiger Stickstoff-
verbindungen. (April.)

Report on Colour-Vision.
28.)

(April

195

*C. R.’ cxiv. 286-288;
‘Beiblitter,’ xvi. 425
(Abs.)

‘Rev. Générale des
Sciences,’ iii. 93-94.

°C} BY exivs 827—831;
‘Beiblitter,’ xvi. 735

(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxii. 929 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xi. 227-247, 426-
428: ‘Beibliatter,’ xvii.
506 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Psychol.

u. Physiol. der Sinnes-
organe,’ ili. 97-107.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien, ‘ci.
Il.a, 703-856.

°C. R.’ cxiv. 582-585; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xvii. 336-337
(Abs.)

‘J. Soc. Franc. de Phys.’
1892, 165-166.

‘C. R, cxiv. 961-962;
‘Beibliatter, xvi. 611
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlv. 609-655;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem.’ ix. 770 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xliii.
301-314; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xvi. 606-608 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3],
XXvii. 380-381, 521-536;
‘Beiblatter,’ xvi. 611
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxiii.
496-503.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal,
Chem.’ ix. 349-377.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ix. 241-263 ; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xvi. 515-517
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ li. 281-
396.
02

196

H. F. Newall.

D. Shea. 8

H, Landolt and H.
Jahn.

A. A. Michelson

F, Zecchini .

G. D. Liveing and
J, Dewar.

H. Rubens
B. W. Snow.

and

J. M. Eder

‘W. Marshall Watts

(. Piazzi Smith

Je err. °

H. Landolt and
Hans Jahn.

M. Le Blanc .

REPORT—1 89-4.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1892.

On a Diagram useful as a Guide in
adjusting a Diffraction-grating
Spectroscope. (May.)

Zur Brechung und Dispersion des
Lichtes durch Metallprismen.

(July.)
Ueber die Molecularrefraction
einiger einfachen organischen
Verbindungen fiir Strahlen von
unendlichgrosser Wellenlinge.
(July.)

On the Application of Interference
Methods to Spectroscopic Mea-
surements. (Read Aug. 6.)

Rifrazione atomiche degli elementi
rispetto della luce gialla del sodio.
(Read Aug. 20.)

On the Spectrum of Liquid Oxygen,
and on the Refractive Indices of
Liquid Oxygen, Nitrous Oxide,
and Ethylene. (Aug.)

Ueber die Brechung der Strahlen
von grosser Wellenlinge in Stein-
salz, Sylvin und Fluorite. (Aug.)

Ueber die Verwendbarkeit der
Farbenspectren verschiedener Me-
talle zur Bestimmung der Wellen-
linge im Ultravioletten, mit Bezug
auf des Spectrums, des Sonnen-
lichtes, Drummond’schen Mag-
nesium- und electrischen Bogen-
lichtes, (Aug.)

On Wave-Length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements and
Compounds. (Read Aug. 5.)

Researches on the Ultra-Violet
Rays of the Solar Spectrum.
(Read Aug. 5.)

On Dispersion in Double Refraction
due to Electrical Stress. (Aug.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction eini-
ger einfachen organischen Verbin-
dungen fiir Wellen von unendlich
grosser Wellenlinge. (Sept.)

Hine einfache Methode zur Bestim-
mung von Brechungsexpcnenten
optisch-isotroper Kérper. (Oct.)

‘Monthly Not. R.A.S.’ lii.
510-512; ‘ Beibliatter,
Xvii. 129-130 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlvii. 178-202;
‘Nature,’ xlvii. 68-69
(Abs.) .
‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Terl.’
1892, II. 729-754; ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. physikal. Chem.’
ix. 289=320.*

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1892,
170-185 ; ‘ Nature,’ xlvi.
385 (Abs.); ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[5], Xxxiv. 280-299.

‘Gazz. chim, ital.’ xxii.
II. 592-604; ‘J. Chem.

Soc.’ Ixiv. IL. 253-254
(Abs.)
Opn. Mag.’ is], saxxiy.

205-209 ; ‘ Physikal. Re-
vue, if. 288-294; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ lxiv. II. 201—
202 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’
xvii. 121-122 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlvi. 529-541;
‘Nature, xlvi. 483 (Abs.)
‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien’
(1892), Ix. 264-265;
‘Beiblitter, xvii. 331-
332 (Abs.) .

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1892,
193-260.

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1892,
74-76.

‘Brit. Assoc. ‘Rep? 1892,
157-158; ‘ Beiblitter,
xvii. 768-769" (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ x. 289-320; ‘ Bei-
blatter,. xvij. 329-331
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f.
Chem.’ ix.
‘ Beiblitter,’
442 (Abs.)

physikal.
433 _ 449 ;
xvii. 441-

G. Lippmann.

J. F. Eykman

B. Hasselberg

G. Meslin .

W. H. Perkin

¥.L. Perrot .

F. Zecchini .

W. B. Croft

A. Sella. é

W. Hallwachs

A. Kurz. "

E. Mach 7

.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1892.

Photographies colorées du spectre
sur albumine et sur gélatine bi-
chromatées. (Read Oct. 24.)

Recherches réfractométriques.
(Read Oct. 5 and 10.)

Projet d’une méthode pour déter-
miner avec grande exactitude l’in-
dice de réfraction et la dispersion
de Yair. (Read Nov. 9.)

Sur la photographie des couleurs
(‘ Physikal. Revue,’ ii. 681-701).
(Nov.)

On the Refractive Power of certain
Organic Substances at Different
Temperatures. (Nov.)

Nouvelles recherches sur réfraction
et dispersion dans une série iso-
morphe des cristaux 4 deux axes
(sulfates doubles 4 6H,0).
(Read Dec. 1.)

Sul potere rifrangente del fosforo.
Potere rifrangente degli acidi del
fosforo, et dei loro sali sodici.
(Read Dec. 6.)

.| The Spectra of the Colours in vari-

ous Orders of Colours of Newton’s
Scale. (Read Dec. 9.)

Sur l’étude des réactions chimiques
dans une masse liquide par l’in-
dice de réfraction. (Read Dec. 26.)

Sulla variazione dell’ indice di rifra-
zione del diamante colla tempera-
tura e su di una generalizzazione
del metodo di mimina deviazione
col prisma,

Ueber das Brechungsexponenten
verdtinnter Losungen.

Die kleinste Ablenkung im Prisma.

Ueber eine elementare Darstellung
der Fraunhofer’schen Beugungser-
scheinung, ins besondere der Git-
terspectra.

197

6 RY cxy. 5755: Ber.’
xxv. (Ref.), 850 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblitter, xvii. 933
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xlvii.
23 (Abs.)

‘Recueil dés trav. chim.
des Pays-Bas,’ xii. 157-
197, 268-286; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xvii. 1048-1049, xviii.

452-453 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.
xxv. 3069-3079, xxvii.
(Refs); it CAs) ga Sa.

Chem Soc.’ Ixiy. II. 1-2
(Abs.)

‘Oefversigt af K. Vet.
Akad. Férh. (Stockholm)
(1892), xlix. 441-449;
‘Beiblitter, xvii. 915
(Abs.)

‘Ann. chim. et phys.’ [6],
xxvii. 369-392 ; ‘ Beiblit-
ter,’ xviii. 342 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxi. 287-
310; ‘Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal, Chem.’ x. 667 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3],
xxix, 28250, ° 121-140;
‘Arch. néerland.’ xxix.
121-141.

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiii. I.
109-120; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixiy. II. 254 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixvi. 300-
301 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
xlvii. 190 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xvii. 1072 (Abs.)

AG) Re nexv, 1309-1312);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixiv. II.
201 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. <Accad. ¢

Lincei,’ vii. (2nd sem.),
300-308; ‘ Beiblitter,
xvi, 423-424 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlvii. 380-388.

‘Zeitschr. , f. Math. u.
Phys. (Leipzig), xxxvil.
317-318.

‘Zeitschr. .f£. phys. u.
chem. Unterricht,’ v.
225-229,

198

B. Krone

E. Carvallo

W. Grosse

W. Pole

J. H. Gladstone

W. H. Perkin

R. Nasini

A. Crova

J. R. Rydberg

A. Ghira

S. Bloch

G. Lippmann

A. A. Michelson

T. Liebisch

H. Bouasse

E. Hering

REPORT—1894.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1892, 1893.

Einige Erfahrungsnotizen tiber
farbige Photographie von Spec-
tren.

1893.

Perfectionnements 4 la méthode de
M. Mouton pour l'étude du spectre
calorifique. (Jan.)

Ueber die Linge der Spectren und
Spectralbezirke. (Jan.)

On the Present State of Knowledge
and Opinion with regard to Colour-
Blindness. (Read Jan. 16.)

Note on some Recent Determina-
tions of Molecular Refraction and
Dispersion. (Read Feb. 10.)

The Magnetic Rotation and Re-
fractive Power of Ethylene Oxide.
(Read March 2.)

Sul potere rifrangente per un raggio
di lunghezza qd’ onda infinita.
(Read March 8.)

Sur les bandes d’interférence des
spectres des réseaux sur gélatine.
(Read March 27.)

On a certain Asymmetry in Pro-
fessor Rowland’s Concave Grat-
ings. (March.)

Sulla rifrazione atomica del Boro.
(Read April 9.)

Sur la dispersion anomale.
April 10.)

(Read

Photographies en couleurs exé-
cutées d’aprés les méthodes inter-
férentielles. (Read April 17.)

Comparaison dumétre international
avec la longueur d’onde de Ia lu-
miére du cadmium. (Read April
i)

Ueber die Spectralanalyse der
Interferenzfarben optisch zwei-
axiger Krystalle. (April.)

Réflexion et réfraction dans les
milieux isotropes transparents et
absorbents. (April.)

Ueber den Hinfluss der Macula
lutea auf Spectralfarbengleichun-

gen. (May.)

* Phot.
67-70.

Mittheil” xxix.

‘J. de phys.’ [3], ii. 27-36;
‘ Beiblatter, xvii, 562—
563 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xiii. 6-13.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb.’
XxXxvili. 441-479; ‘Nature,’
xlvii. 335 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag. [5], xxxv.
204-210; ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
lxiv, II. 254 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xvii. 647-648
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixiii. 488-
492; ‘ Ber.’xxvi.(Ref.),497
(Abs.) ; ‘Beiblatter,’ xvii.
959 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiii.
I. 347-354.
‘C. R’ cxvi. 672-674;

‘ Beiblatter, xviii. 193—
194 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag,’ [5], xxxv.
190-199; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xvii. 840 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. Roma’
[5], ii. lst sem. 312-319.

‘Cc. R.’ cxvi. 746-748;
‘Beiblatter” xvii. 1046
(Abs.)

*C. R.’ cxvi. 784.

°C. R? exvi. 790-794.

‘Gottingen. Nachr.’ 1893,
265-266.

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [6],
XXVill. 433-498.

‘Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol.’
liv. 277-312; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xviii. 113-114 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

199

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1893, 1894—FLUORESCENCE, 1880.

W. de W. Abney

F. Zecchini . 5

A. Charpentier

A. Cornu 5

.

H. A. Rowland

K. Zimaényi .

C. Pulfrich . :

F. Aymonnet.

G. D. Liveing and

J. Dewar,

S. Bloch ° .

H.M. Ward .

J. Kanonnikoff >

J. W. Draper.

On the Colours of Sky-Light, Sun-
light, Cloud-Light, and Candle-
Light. (Read June 1.)

Sopra un notevole caso di accresci-
mento anomalo nel potere rifran-
gente delle basi feniliche. (Read
June 2.)

Sur le retard dans la perception des
divers rayons spectraux. (Read
June 13.)

Sur divers méthodes relatives a
Yobservation des propriétés ap-
pelées anomalies focales des ré-
seaux diffringents. (Read June
19.)

A New Table of Standard Wave-
Lengths. (July.)

Die Hauptbrechungsexponenten
der wichtigeren gesteinbildenden
Mineralien bei Na-licht. (July.)

Ueber Dispersionsbestimmung nach
der Totalreflexionsmethode mit-
telst micrometrischer Messung.
(July.)

Sur les maxima périodiques des
spectres, (Read Aug. 2, Sept. 18.)

On the Refractive Indices of Liquid
Nitrogen and Air. (Oct.)

Mesure du pouvoir absorbant pour
la lumiére de lames minces possé-
dant la réflexion métallique. (Read
Nov. 13.)

The Action of Light on Bacteria.
Part III. (Read Dec. 14.)

1894.

Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen
dem Lightbrechungs- und Dre-
hungsvermégen chemischer Ver-
bindungen, und iiber eine neue
Bestimmungsmethode der spe-
cifische Drehung optisch activer

Stoffe. (Feb.)
Ale
FLUORESCENCE.
1880.

. | On the Phosphorograph of a Solar

Spectrum, and on the Lines in its
Infra-red Region. (Dec.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ liv. 2-4;
‘Nature,’ xlviii. 333-334
(Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiii.
II. 42-47; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixvi, III. 2 (Abs.)

°C. RY exvi. 1423-1426 ;
‘Beiblatter” xvii. 657
(Abs.)

*C. RY exvi. 1421-1428;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xviii. 196-
198 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxvi.
49_75.

‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. uw.
Min.’ xxii. 321-359.

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xili. 267-273 ;
‘Beiblitter, xviii. 77
(Abs.)

°C. RY exvii. 394-306, 402-
405; ‘Beiblitter,’ xvii.
1057-1058 (Abs.)

‘Phil, Mag.’ [5], xxxvi.
328-331; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xviil, 334 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixvi. II. 37
(Abs.)

‘OC. R.’ exvii. 661-663;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xviii. 338-
339 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ liv. 472~
475 (Abs.)

‘J. prakt. Chem,’ [N.F.],

xlix. 137-184; ‘Ber.’
xxvii. (Ref.), 247-248
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ [N.S.];
Vili, 223-234.

200

REPCRT—1 894.

FLUORESCENCE, 1880, 1881, 1882, 1886, 1888, 1S89, 1890, 1891.

F. S. Provenzali

E. Dreher .

H. W. Vogel .

E. Lommel , A

M. Wolf and P.

Lenard.

B. Walter ,

») .

V. Klatt and P.
Lenard.

L. de Boisbaudran.

E. Lommel

E. E. Brooks.

H. Becquerel.

Sulla fosforescenza e fluorescenza.
(Read Dec. 19.)

1881,

Die Ursache der Phosphorescenz
der sogenannten ‘ Leuchtenden Ma-
terie’ nach vorangegangener In-
solation, (‘Die Natur,’ xxx. 4 pp.)

1882.

Ueber die Benutzung der Phos-
phorescenzplatten fiir Empfind-
lichkeitsbestimmungen. (May.)

1886.

Thosphorescenz. (Read Nov. 6.)

1888.

Phosphorescenz und Photographie.
(Aug.)

1889.

Die Aenderung des Fluorescenz-
vermogen mit der Concentration.
(Jan.)

Ueber den Nachweis des Zerfalles
von Moleculargruppen in Lésungen
durch Fluorescenz- und Absorp-
tionserscheinung. (Jan.)

Ueber die Phosphorescenzen des
Kupfers, Bismuths und Mangans
in den Erdalkalisulphiden. (July.)

1890.

Sur quelques nouvelles fluorescences.
(Read Jan. 6.)

Phosphorophotographie des ultra-
rothen Gitterspectrums. (Read
March 1.)

On the Phosphorescence of Lithium

Compounds in vacuo and the
Spectra of Coated Terminals.
(Nov.)

1891.

Sur les différentes manifestations
de la phosphorescence des miné-
raux sous l’influence de la lumiére
et de la chaleur. (Read Mar. 16.)

‘Atti dell’ Accad. Pontif.
de’ Nuovi Lincéi,’ xxxiv.
1-8 ;‘ Riv.Sci.Industriale,”
xiii. 374-384.

‘ Beiblatter,’ vi. 685 (Abs. )

‘Phot. Mitth’ xix. 46-47 ;
‘Beiblatter, vi. 876
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Bayer.

xvi, 283-298; ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ [N.F.],

xxx. 473-487; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lii. 410-411 (Abs.)

‘Eder’s Jahrb. f. Photog.”
1889, 141-148; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xiii. 221 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.”
[N.F.], xxxvi. 502-518 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iii, 234 (Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xxxvi. 518-532 ;
‘Zeitschr, f. physikal.
Chem.’ iii. 234 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xxxviii. 90-107 ;.
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 201
(Abs.)

°C. RB,’ cx. 24-28 ; ‘ Nature,”
xli. 263 (Abs.)

‘ Sitzungsb. d. Akad.
Miinchen,’ xx. 83-87.

‘Chem. News,’ lxii. 239.

°C. R.’ cxii. 557-563 ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xliii. 504 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ Lxiil. 165-—
166 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

201

FLUORESCENCE, 1891, 1892—ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1880, 1882, 1883, 1884.

W. Bohlendorf

P. Drude and W.

Nernst,

G. Salet e

W. N. Hartley

C.S. Hastings

H.Draper .

C. Fiévez ~

C. C. Krafft .

C. Piazzi Smyth

C. Fiévez Ps

N. C. Dunér ,

Bemerkung zu der Abhandlung des
Herrn B. Walter ‘ Ueber den Nach-
weis des Zerfalles von Molecular-
gruppen in Lésungen durch Fluo-
rescenz und Absorptionserschei-
nungen. (July.)

Ueber die Fluorescenzwirkung
stehender Lichtwellen. (Dec.)

1892,

Sur la loi de Stokes: sa vérifica-
tion et son interprétation. (Read
Aug. 1.)

Observations on the Origin of
Colour and on Flurorescence.
(Read Dec. 1.)

VI.

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], xlili. 784-789.

‘Ann, Phys. u., Chem.’
[N.F.], xlv. 460-474.

°C. RB’ exv. 283-284 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xvi. 741
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xlvi.
364 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxiii. 253-
256; ‘ Proc. Chem. Soc.”
No. 116, 188-189 (Abs.)

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS. ©

1880.

A Theory of the Constitution of the
Sun, founded upon Spectroscopic
Observations, original and other.
(Presented Oct. 13.)

1882.

On Photographs of the Spectra of
the Nebula in Orion. (April.)

La Grande Cométe du Sud.

Spectroscopic Researches at the
Norwegian Polar Station at Bosse-
kop. (Report, 1882, Part II.)

1883.

Note on Sir David Brewster's Line
Y in the Infra-Red of the Solar
Spectrum. (Read Dec. 17.)

Etude de la région rouge (A-C) du
spectre solaire.

1884.

Sur les étoiles 4 spectres de la troi-
siéme classe. (Presented June 11.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’[N.S.],
viii, 140-152.

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxiii.
339-341 ; ‘ Nature,’ xxvi-
33-34; ‘J. de Phys.’ [2],
ii. 49-50 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Observ. Bruxelles,”
1883, 201-208.

* Nature,’ xxxix. 515-516 ;
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xiii-
884-885 (Abs.)

‘Trans, Roy. Soc. Edinb.’
XXxli. 233-238 ; ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ ix. 335 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Observ. Bruxelles,’
v. 3-5; ‘ Beiblatter,’ vii.
849 (Abs.)

‘Handlingar K. Svensk.
Vet, Akad,’ xxi. No. 2, 1-
92; ‘Beiblatter,’ x. 736—
737 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
xxxii. 610 (Abs.) ; xxxiil.
583-585 (Abs.); xxxvii-
234-236, 260-262.

202

REPORT—1894.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1884, 1885, 1886.

S. P. Langley, F. | On the Temperature of the Surface

W. Very, and J.
E. Keeler.

E.von Gothard .

L.Thollon , .

E. C. Pickering .

W. H. M. Christie .

A.A. Rambaut ,

&. P. Langley .

8. P. Langley, C. A.
Young, and E. C.
Pickering.

W. H. M. Christie.

E. L. Trouvelot

A. Huninger . .

of the Moon. (Read Oct, 17.)

Mittheilungen aus dem Astrophy-
sikalischen Observatorium zu He-
rény. (‘Publicationen des Astro-
phys. Observ. zu Herény in Un-
garn,’ 1884,35-63). (Read Dec. 15.)

1885.

Nouveau dessin du spectre solaire.
(Read Sept. 7.)

Photographic Spectra of Stars.
(Presented Dec. 3.)

Spectroscopic and Photographic
Observations made at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich.

1886.

The Spectroscopic Method of De-

termining the Distance of a
Double Star. (Roy. Irish Acad.
May 24, 1886.)

On the Solar and Lunar Spectrum.
(Read Nov. 9.)

On Pritchard’s Wedge Photometer.
(Presented Nov. 10.)

Spectroscopic and Photographic
Results.

Sur les changements temporaires
de réfrangibilité des raies du
spectre de la chromosphére et des
protubérances solaires (Jan.)

Protuberantie Solares (in Hun-
garian).

‘Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.’
(Washington), iii. 13-42 ;
‘Nature, xxxili. 210
(Abs.), 211-212 (Abs.) ;
‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ vi. 358-361
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ x.
304-306 (Abs.)

‘Math. u. naturwiss. Ber.
aus Ungarn,’ iii. 34-39;
‘ Beiblatter,’ x. 624 (Abs.)

°C, R,’ ci. 565-567; ‘Na-
ture,’ xxxii. 519 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter,’ ix. 790
(Abs.); ‘Bull. Astron,’
iii. 330-3438 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
x. 700-701 (Abs.)

‘Report of Harvard Coll.
Observ.’ 1885, 1-13; ‘ Na-
ture, xxxili, 376-377
(Abs.)

‘Greenwich Observ. Re-
port,’ 1885, xxxii. 104
pp-; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xii,
194-195 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xxxv. 206-207
(Abs.)

‘Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.
Washington,’ iv. 159-179;
* Nature,’ xli, 450 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Harvard Coll. Ob-
serv.’ xviii. 301-324; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xii. 337 (Abs.)

‘Greenwich Observ. Re-
ports, 1886, pp. i-xiv
and 1-97; ‘Nature,’ xxxvi.
140 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Astron.’ jii. 9-22;
‘ Beiblatter,’ x. 573-574;
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xxxiii.
498 (Abs.), 504 (Abs.)

° Ber. Erzb. Haynald’schen

Observ. zu Kalocsa in
Ungarn,’ 1886, I. 1-17;
‘Nature,’ xxxix. 352
(Abs.)

ON

O. T. Sherman :

C. C. Hutchins and
E. L. Holden.

J. Trowbridge and
C. C. Hutchins,

S.J. Perry . c

H. Pellat e

T. E. Espin . .

K. C. Pickering

T. EH. Espin . .

W. H, M. Christie .

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS,

1887.

Bright Lines in Stellar Spectra.
(Jan.)

On the Existence of certain Ele-
ments, together with the Dis-
covery of Platinum, in the Sun.
(Presented March 9.)

Oxygen in the Sun.
March 9.)

(Presented

On the Existence of Carbon in the
Sun. (Presented March 9.)

Reports of the Observations of the
Total Solar Eclipse of August 29,
1886, made at the Island of Car-
riacou. (Recd. April 5. Read
May 5.)

Renversement des raies spectrales.
Méthode pour déterminer la tem-

pérature du soleil. (Read May
28.)

A Probable New Class of Variable
Stars. (Nov.)

Henry Draper Memorial First An-
nual Report of the Photographic
Study of Stellar Spectra Con-
ducted at the Harvard Observa-
tory.

Spectroscopic Observations with
the 17}-in. Equatorial.

Spectroscopic and .Photographic
Results.

203

‘Gould’s Astron. Journ.’
No. xlix. 32-35; ‘Nature,’
xXxxv, 378 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci.’
[N.S.], xv. 14-19 ; ‘Amer.
J. Sci’ [3], xxxiv. 451-
456; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxiv.
825-330; ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
lii. 1065-1066 (Abs.);
‘Nature, xxxvil. 368
(Abs.) ; ‘ Ber.’ xxi. (Ref.),
79 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
xii, 473-475 (Abs.)

‘Proc; Am. Acad. Sci.’
xxiii, 1-9; ‘Amer. J. Sci.’

xxxvii. 47, 114 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lii. 1065
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xii.
352-355 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci.’
xXxili. 10-13; ‘Amer. J.
Sci.’ [3], xxxiv. 345-348 ;
‘Nature, xxxvii. 162
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lii. 1065 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xxi. (Ref.), 1-2 (Abs.) ;
* Beiblatter, xii. 355-

356 (Abs.)
‘Phil. Trans.” clxxx. A.
351-362; ‘Proc. Roy.

Soc.’ xlii, 316-318 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Philom.’ [7],
xi. 155-160; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xi. 705-706 (Abs.)

‘Wolsingham Observ.
Cire.’ No. xviii; ‘Nature,’
XxXXvii. 158 (Abs.)

‘Harvard Coll. Observ.’
1887, 10 pp.; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xi. 637-638 (Abs.)

‘Publications of the Liver-
pool. Astron. Soc.’ No. I.
(1887), 8-11 (continued
in ‘ Astron. Nachr.’ No.
2788).

‘Greenwich Observ. Re-
ports, 1887, pp. i-xiv
and 1-66; ‘ Nature,’
XXxXViii. 153-154 (Abs.)

204

H.C. Vogel . -

P. Ubaghs , 3

J. Janssen 5

S.J. Perry .

H.C. Vogel . :

H. Crew -

J.C. B. Burbank ,.

H. H. Turner.

W. de W. Abney

T. E. Espin

S. P. Langley 5

E. von Gothard

JeBanyt) (1.4

H. W. Vogel and
N. C, Dunér.

REPORT—1894.

Ueber Sternspectra. (Review of
N. C. Dunér’s Paper ‘Sur les
étoiles a spectres de la troisi¢me
classe. Stockholm, 1885.)

Détermination de la direction et
de la vitesse du transport du sys-
téme solaire dans l’espace. (IIme
partie.)

1888.

Note sur l’éclipse totale de Lune
du 28 janvier dernier. (Read
Jan. 30.)

The Chromosphere in 1887. (Jan.)

Ueber die Bestimmung der Bewe-

gung von Sternen im Visions-
radius durch spectrographische
Beobachtung. (Read Feb. 23.)

On the Period of the Rotation of
the Sun as determined by the
Spectroscope. (Heb.)

Photography of the least Refran-
gible Portion of the Solar Spec-
trum, (Read March 14.)

Report of the Observations of the
Total Solar Eclipse of August 29,
1886, made at Grenville, in the
Island of Grenada. (Recd. Feb.
23. Read March 15.)

Total Eclipse of the Sun observed
on Caroline Island on May 6,
1883. (Recd. May 25. Read June
16,1887. Revised June 4, 1888.)

The Spectrum of R Cygni. (‘ Wol-
singham Obs. Cire. No. xxi.)
(Aug.)

The Invisible Solarand Lunar Spec-
trum. (Dec.)

Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiete der
Himmels- und Spectral-Photogra-
phie.

Sonnen-Protuberanzen yom Jahre
1886.

O’Gyalla Spectroscopic Catalogue.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1887, 1888.

‘ Vierteljahresschrift 4d.
Astron. Ges.’ xxii. 50-
59; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xii. 104
(Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [13],
xiii, 66-70 (Report of
MM. Folie and Houzeau
on the paper) ; ‘ Nature,’
xxxvi. 45 (Abs.)

*C. R.’ cvi. 325-327.

‘The Observatory,’ Feb.
1888, 129-130 ; ‘ Nature,’
xxxvii. 424 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1888, 397-401; ‘ Nature,’
xXxxxvii. 616 (Abs.); ‘ As-
tron. Nachr.’ No. 2839,
97-100.

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxv.
151-159; “Nature, xl:
550 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci.’
[N.8.], xv. 301-304.

‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxx. 385-
398; ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’
xliii. 428-430 (Abs.)

‘Phil, ‘Trans. ¢elexx. vA.
119-135.

‘Nature,’ xxxvili. 423
(Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxvi.
397-410; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xxvi. 505-520; ‘ Nature,’
xxxix. 189 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xiii, 310-311
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lvi. 325 (Abs.)

‘Eder’s Jahrb. f. Photog.’
1888, 238-243.

‘ Ber. Erzb. Haynald’schen
Obs. zu Kalocsa in Un-
garn,’ IV. 1-60; ‘ Nature,’
xxxix. 352 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’
(Abs.)

XXXVil, 259

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

E.C. Pickering .

A. Schuster

L. Darwin, A. Schus-
ter, and EH. W.
Maunder.

H. A. Rowland

H.C. Vogel .

J. Waterhouse :

W. Huggins .

T. E.Espin .

J. N. Lockyer

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

T. E. Espin

J. N. Lockyer .

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

The Henry Draper Memorial Second
Annual Report of the Photogra-
phic Study of Stellar Spectra, con-
ducted at Harvard College Ob-
servatory. (8 pp.)

1889.

Observations of the Total Solar
Eclipse of August 29, 1886. (Read
Feb. 4.)

On the Total Solar Eclipse of August
29,1886. (Recd. Jan. 28. Read
Feb. 14.)

Photographic Map of the Solar
Spectrum (second series). (Pub-
lication Agency of the Johns
Hopkins University.) (Feb.)

Ueber die auf den Potsdamen Ob-
servatorium unternommen Unter-
suchungen iiber die Bewegung der
Sterne im Visionsradius vermit-
telst der spectrographischen Me-
thode. (March.)

Photography of the Solar Spectrum.
(March.)

Photography of the Red End of the
Spectrum. (Read April 3.)

On the Limit of Solar and Stellar
Light in the Ultra-Violet Part of
the Spectrum. (Recd. March 28.
Read April 4.)

The Spectra of R Leonis and R
Hydre. (April.)

On the Wave-Length of the Chief

Fluting seen in the Spectrum
of Manganese. (Recd. April 6.
Read May 2.)

On the Spectrum, Visible and
Photographic, of the Great Nebula
in Orion. (Recd. Aprilll. Read
May 2.)

The Spectrum of x Cygni. (May.)

Note surlespectre d’Uranus. (Read
June 3.)

Note on the Photographic Spectra
of Uranus and Saturn. (Recd.
June 5. Read June 6.)

205

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1888, 1889.

‘ Beiblitter,’ xii. 795-796
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ xxxviii.
306-307 (extract).

‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxx. 291-
384; ‘Nature,’ xli. 327
(Abs.)_

‘Phil. Trans’ clxxx. A.
291-350.

‘Chem. News, lix. 124~—
125; ‘ Beiblatter, xiii.
682 (Abs.) '

‘Astr. Nachr.’ cxxi. 241-
258; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xlii.
947-949 (Abs.) (com-
pare ‘Sitzungsb. Akad.
Berl.’ 1888, 397-401).

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxvii. 284.

‘Proceedings of the Asia-
tic Soc. of Bengal,’ 1889,
No. 4, 154-158 ; ‘ Nature,’
xli. 67 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvi. 133-
135; ‘Beiblatter, xiii.
884 (Abs.)

‘Wolsingham Observatory
Cire.’ No. xxiii. ; ‘Nature,’
xxxix, 567 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvi. 35—
40; ‘ Beiblitter, xiii. 812
(Abs.)

xlvi.
xe

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’
40-60; ‘Nature,’
405-407, 429-432.

‘Wolsingham Observ.
Circ.’ No. xxiv.; ‘Nature,’
xl. 135 (Abs.)

°C. RY eviii. 1149-1151;

‘Beibliitter, xiii. 688
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. . Soc. xlvi.
231-233; ‘ Beib’atter,’

Xili. 949 (Abs.)

206

W. Huggins .

J. N. Lockyer 7

J. E. Keeler . °

J. Fényi

J. Scheiner . :

G.Sporer .

C. V. Zenger . °

E.C. Pickering .

T. E. Espin .

A. Riccd .

A. M. Clerke .

H.C. Vogel . °
E. C. Pickering

J. N. Lockyer

H. C. Vogel and J.
Scheiner.

A. L. Cortie . a

REPORT—1894.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1889.

‘Sur le
d’Uranus.

spectre photographique
(Read June 17.)

On the Cause of Variability in con-
densing Swarms of Meteorites.
(Recd. June 27.)

Further Discussion of the Sun-spot
Observations made at South
Kensington. (Recd. June 27.)

On the Spectra of Saturn and
Uranus. (July 18.)

Deux éruptions sur le Soleil.

(Recd. July 22.)

Vorlaufige Mittheilung tiber Unter-
suchungen an photographischen
Aufnahmen von Sternspectren.
(July.)

Lettere al Prof. Riccd sulle macchie
solari del Giugno1889. (Aug.)

La spectrophotographie des parties
invisibles du spectre solaire. (Read
Sept. 9.)

Southern Stars having Peculiar
Spectra. Spectrum of Pleione.
(Sept.)

The Spectrum of R Andromedz.
(Oct. 31.)

Le macchie solari di Giugno, 1889.
(Oct.)

The Spectra of the Orion Nebula
and of the Aurora. (Oct.)

Lettere al Prof, Riccd sulle macchie
solari del Giugno 1889.

On the Spectrum of ¢ Urs Majoris.
(Read Nov. 13.)

Further Discussion of the Sun-spot
Observations made at South
Kensington. A Report of the
Solar Physics Committee. (Recd.
June 27. Read Nov. 21.)

Resultate spectrographischer Beo-
bachtungen des Sterns Algol.
(Read Noy. 28.)

Notes on the Spectrum of the Sun-
Spot of June, 1889. (Dec.)

°C. RY’ .eviii. 1228-1229;
‘Beiblitter,’ xiii. 688
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xliv. 401—
423; ‘Beiblatter, xiv.
515-516 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvi.
385-401; ‘Beibliitter,’
xiv. 513 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr,’ cxxii. 401-—
404.

SOr) Rte mixes see lckos
‘Beiblatter, xiii. 885
(Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxii. 321-
344; ‘Nature,’ xli. 163-
164 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xiii. 949-950 (Abs.)

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
xviii. 185-188.

*C. RR’ cix. 484-436;
‘Nature,’ xl. 539 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lx. 184-
185 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ exxiii. 95—
96; ‘Nature,’ xli. 115
(Abs.)

* Nature,’ xl. 656.

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
Xvili. 180-184; ‘Nature,’
xli. 115 (Abs.)

‘ Observatory,’ 1889, 366-
370.

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
xviii. 198; ‘Nature, xli.
233 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ xxxix. 46—

47; ‘Observatory,’ xiii.
80-81.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvi.
385-401.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1889 [Phys.-math. ], 1045;
‘Nature,’ xli. 164 (Abs.)

‘Month. Not. Roy. Ast.
Soc.’ 1. 64-65, 331-332 ;
‘Nature,’ xliii. 210 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

A. Fowler .

J. N. Lockyer

”

A. Riccd °

P. Tacchini .

E. C. Pickering

W. H. M. Christie .

H. Crew e

E. C, Pickering

H.C, Vogel .

J. N. Lockyer

”

J. Scheiner

Objects for the

Spectroscope.
(Nov.—Dec.)

Comparison of the Spectra of
Nebulz and Stars of Groups I. and
II. with those of Comets and
Aurore. (Recd. Nov, 9. Read
Dec. 19.)

The Presence of Bright Carbon
Flutings in the Spectra of Celes-
tial Bodies. (Recd. Nov. 23.
Read Dec. 19.)

Osservazioni astrophysiche solari.
Nova nella nebulosa di Andro-
meda. Nova presso x Orionis,

Macchie e facole solari osservate
nel Regio Osservatorio del Colle-
gio Romano, nel 3° trimestre del
1889.

The Henry Draper Memorial. Third

Annual Report of the Photo-
graphic Study of Stellar Spectra,
conducted at Harvard College
Observatory. (8 pp.)

Spectroscopic Results . , .

On the Period of the Sun’s Rota-
tion. (Haverford College Studies,
1889. 12 pp.)

1890.

On the Spectrum of ¢ Urs Majoris.
(Jan.)

Spectroscopische

Beobachtungen
an Argol. (Jan.)

On the Chief Line in the Spectrum

of the Nebula. (Recd. Dec. 9,
1889. Read Jan. 16, 1890. Re-
vised May 1890.)

Preliminary Note on Photographs
of the Spectrum of the Nebula in
Orion. (Recd. and read Feb.
13.)

Note on the Spectrum of the
Nebula of Orion. (Received
and read Feb. 13.)

Untersuchungen itiber die Stern-
spectra vom I Typus auf Grund
von photographischen Aufnahmen.
(Feb. 13.)

207

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1889, 1890.

‘Nature,’ xli. 20, 44-45,
68, 87-88, 114-115, 138-
139, 163, 183.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvii. 28-
39; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv. 516
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvii.
39-41 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xiv.
516 (Abs.)

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
Xvil. 135-140.

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
Xvili, 191-197; ‘Na-
ture,’ xli, 233-234 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xl. 17-18 (Abs.)

‘Greenwich Observ. Re-
port,’ 1888, Ixxxv., Ixxxvi.
1-19; ‘Nature,’ xlii. 209
(Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter,’
(Abs.)

xiii, 884

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxix.
46-47 ; ‘ Nature,’ xli. 285_-
286 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’
xiv. 515 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 2947,
289-292; ‘Nature,’ xli.
286 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xlv. 283-284, 789 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlviii.
167-198.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlviii.
199-201,

‘Proc Roy. Soc.’ xlviii.
198-199.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1890, 143-151; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xiv. 514 (Abs.)

208

E.C. Pickering .

Maxwell Hall

T, W. Backhouse .

E, C. Pickering

A. Fowler. .
A, A. Rambanut

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

H.C. Vogel .

. Michie Smith

E. C. Pickering

N.C. Dunér .

A. Fowler

” %

J.N. Lockyer

A. Fowler.

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

REPORT—1 894.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1890.

The Spectra of 6 and » Centauri.
(Feb.)

Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light.
(Feb.)

The Spectrum of Borelli’s Comet (g
1889). (Keb.)

Observations of ¢ Ursz Majoris.
(Feb.)

Note on the Zodiacal Light. (Feb.)

On the Parallax of Double Stars.
(March.)

On a Re-determination of the Prin-
cipal Line in the Spectrum of the
Nebula in Orion, and on the
Character of the Line. (Recd.
March 20. Read June 12.)

Bahnbewegung des Sterns a Vir-
ginis. (Read April 24.)

° 7

Notes on the Zodiacal Light.
(April.)

On a New Variable Star in Colum.
(April.)

Sur la rotation du soleil. (May.)

Objects for the Spectroscope.

The Spectrum of Comet Brooks
(a 1890). (May.)

On the Spectra of Comet a 1890
and the Nebula G. C, 4058. (Recd.
June 12. Read June 12.)

The Spectrum of Comet Brooks (a
1890). (June.)

Note on the Photographic Spec-
trum of the Great Nebula in
Orion. (Recd. April 16. Read
June 12.)

‘Astr.’ Nachr.’ No. 2951,
363; ‘Nature,’ xli. 374
(Abs.)

‘ Observatory,’ xiil. 77-79;
‘Nature,’ xli. 351 (Abs.);

‘Beiblitter, xiv. 377
(Abs.)
‘Observatory,’ xiii. 90;

‘Nature,’ xli. 374 (Abs.)

‘Sidereal Messenger,’ ix.
80-82; ‘Nature,’ xli. 403
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xli. 402-403.

‘Monthly Not. Roy. Astron.
Soc.’ 1. 303-310; ‘Na-
ture,’ xlii. 112-113 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlviii.
202-213.

*Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
xxii. 401-402 ; ‘ Nature,’
xlii. 90 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xiv. 622 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb.’
xvii. 142-146; ‘ Nature,’
xlili. 22, (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 2962,
175; ‘Nature, xli, 571
(Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 2968,
267-270; ‘Nature,’ xlii.
138 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xiv. 620 (Abs.)

‘Nature, xlii. 20, 37, 67—

68;/89=90; 114112) 137—
138, 161-162, 182, 208—
209, 235-236, 281-282,
303, 330, 354, 377, 404,
428, 459-460, 489, 511,
526, 555, 576, 600, 619.

‘Nature,’ xlii. 112.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlviii.

217-220.
‘Nature,’ xlii. 162.

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ xlviii.
213-216.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

209

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1890.

W. Huggins and | On a New Group of Lines in the

Mrs. Huggins.

W. Huggins .

J. Janssen

W. Huggins .

E. A. B. Mouchez .

H.C. Vogel .

L. Becker

A. de la Baume

Pluvinel.

E. C. Pickering

C. Piazzi Smyth

J. N. Lockyer

”

J. Janssen

E. C. Pickering

”

Photographic Spectrum of Sirius.
(Reed, April 25. Read June 12.)

Sur le spectre visible et photo-
graphique de la grande nébuleuse
dOrion. (Read June 23.)

Sur l’éclipse partielle du soleil du
17 juin. (Read June 23.)

Sur le spectre photographique de
Sirius. (Read June 30.)

Photographies spectrales d’étoiles
de MM. Henry, de l’Observatoire
de Paris. (Read July 7.)

Ueber die Bahnbewegung von a
Virginis. (July.)

The Solar Spectrum at Medium
and Low Altitudes. (Read July
21.)

Sur l’observation de léclipse an-
nulaire du soleil du 17 juin 1890.
(Read July 28.)

Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
(Aug.)

Photographs of the Invisible in
Solar Spectrography. (Read
Sept. 8.)

Comparison of the Spectra of Ne-
bulz and Stars of Groups I. and
II. with those of Comets and
Aurore. (Aug.)

On Stellar Variability. (Aug.)

Compte rendu dune ascension
scientifique au Mont-Blanc. (Read
Sept. 22.)

haying Peculiar

Stars Spectra.

(Oct.)

Stars having Peculiar Spectra, in-
cluding New Variables in Tri-
angulum and Hydra. (Oct.)

Stars
(Oct.)

haying Peculiar Spectra.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlviii.
216-217.

oC he Vex Ts1t0S1310"-
‘Nature,’ xlii. 240 (Abs.) ;

‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv. 790
(Abs.)
“CG! OR? cx. 129021299.

‘Nature,’ xlii. 256 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxii. 38
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix.
787 (Abs.)

‘Cc. R. cx. 1357-1358
‘ Nature,’ xlii. 263 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixii. 38
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv.
790 (Abs.)

‘C. R. cxi. 5-6; ‘ Nature,
xlii. 282 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xiv. 789 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’? No. 2995,
305-316; ‘Nature,’ xliii.
235-237 (Abs.)

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb.’
.Xxxvi. 99-210; ‘ Nature,’
xliii. 399-400 (Abs.)

°C. RB.’ cxi. 220-222; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xlii. 360 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 2986,
155-156; ‘Nature,’ xlii.
429 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1890,
750-751; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xvi. 279 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’
393-397.

xlii, 342-345,

‘Nature,’ xlii. 415-419.

°C. R’ cxi. 431-447 ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xlii. 555 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 2997,
363-364; ‘Nature,’ xlii.
619 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3008,
117-120; ‘Nature,’ xliii.
184 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3011,
166; ‘Nature,’ xliii. 280
( Abs.)

P

210

G. E. Hale

A. Fowler .

A. L. Cortie .

T. HE. Espin .

F. McClean

G. Higgs

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

A. L. Cortie .

M. Fleming

L. Thollon .

J. Janssen

N. von Konkoly

E. C. Pickering

W. H. M. Christie .

H. Deslandres

H. A. Rowland

E. C. Pickering

REPORT—1894.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1890, 1891.

4}

Note on Solar Prominence Photo-
graphy. (Oct.)

The Duplicity of a Lyre. (Nov.) .

Spectroscopic Notes and Queries.
(Nov.)

On the Variation of the Spectra of

R Corone and R Scuti, and on
the Spectra of R Aurige and R
Andromedz. (Nov.)

Comparative Photographs of the
High Sun and Low Sun Visible
Spectra, with Notes on the Method
of Photographing the Red End of
the Spectrum. (Noyv.)

Photograph of the A Line in the
Solar Spectrum. (Noyv.)

On Wolf and Rayet’s Bright-Line
Stars in Cygnus. (Recd. Nov.
25. Read Dec. 11.)

Observations of the Spectra of Sun-
Spots in the Region B_D, made at
the Stonyhurst College Observa-
tory in the Years 1882-1889. (Dec.)

Stars
(Dec.)

Nouveau dessin du spectre solaire.

having Peculiar Spectra.

Sur le spectre de l’oxygéne

Spectroscopische Beobachtung des
Kometen Sawerthal.

The Draper Catalogue of Stellar
Spectra.

Greenwich Spectroscopic Observa-
tions for 1889.

1891.

Sur le spectre dea Lyre. (Read
Feb, 23.)

Report of Progress in Spectrum
Work. (Feb.)

A Fifth Type of Stellar Spectra.
(Feb.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3006,
81-82; ‘Nature,’ xliii.
133 (Abs.)

‘Month. Not. Roy. Astron.
Soc’ li. 8-11; ‘ Nature,
xliii. 64-65 (Abs.)

‘Month. Not. Roy. Ast.
Soc.’ li. 18-23.

‘Month. Not. Roy. Ast.
Soc.’ li. 11-13; ‘ Nature,’
xliii. 165 (Abs.)

‘Month. Not. Roy. Ast.
Soc.’ li. 13-17.

‘Month. Not. Roy. Ast.
Soc.’ li. 18.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.” xlix, 33=
46; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii.
27-30, 39-40.

‘Month. Not. Roy. Ast.
Soc. li. 76-78 (Abs.);
‘Nature,’ xlili. 256-257
(Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3025 [6];
‘ Nature,’ xliii. 545 (Abs.)

‘Annales de l’Observ. de
Nice,’ iii. A7—A112; ‘Na-
ture,’ xlii. 303 (Abs.)

‘Vierteljahrb. d. Astron.
Gesellsch.’ xxv. 2-5.

‘O’Gyalla Observations,’
1888-9; ‘Nature,’ xlii.
650 (Abs.)

‘Annals of Harvard Coll.

Observ.’? xxvii. 1-388;
‘Nature,’ xliv. 89-90
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xliii. 210 (Abs.)

°C. RY exii. 413-414; ‘Na-
ture,’ xliii. 432 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii. 131
(Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Circ.’ No. 85, 41-42; ‘Na-
ture, xliii. 452-453 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3025,
1-2.

:
:

J. E. Keeler .

J. N. Lockyer

BE. C. Pickering

J.Kleiber .

T. EH. Espin
E. C. Pickering

G. HE. Hale ,
T.EH.Espin .
H. Deslandres

C. Piazzi Smyth

G. E. Hale

H. Fizeau i.

E. L. Trouvelot

C. A. Young .

E. W. Maunder

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

211

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1891.

On the Chief Line in the Spectrum
of the Nebulz. (Recd. March 13.
Read March 19.)

On the Causes which produce the
Phenomena of New Stars. (Recd.
Nov. 28, 1890. Read April 16,
1891.)

The Discovery of Double Stars by
their Spectra. (May.)

Ueber die mittlere Entfernung
derjenigen Sterne deren eigene
Bewegung im _ Visionsradius
bekannt ist. (May.)

Photo-Stellar Spectra.
Peculiar

(June.)

Stars having Spectra.

(July.)

The Spectrum of 6 Lyre. (Aug.).

On Stars having Peculiar Spectra. |

(Aug.)

Photographic Investigation of Solar
Prominences and their Spectra.

(Aug.)

On Nova Aurige. (Aug.)

Recherches nouvelles sur l’atmo-
sphére solaire. (Read Aug. 17.)

Report of the Committee on Re-

searches upon the Ultra-Violet
Rays of the Solar Spectrum.
(Read Aug. 24.)

The Ultra-Violet Spectrum of the
Solar Prominences. (Aug.)

Remarques sur TJinfluence que
Yaberration de la lumiére peut
exercer sur les observations des
protubérances solaires par
Yanalyse spectrale. (Sept.)

Chute d’une protubérance solaire
dans Jouverture dune _ tache.
(Read Oct, 5.)

Note on the Chromospheric Spec-
trum. (Oct. 20.)

The Chief Nebular Line. (Oct.) .

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 399+
403.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlix. 443~
446 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3034,
155-156; ‘ Nature,’ xliv.
138 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr, exxvii. No.
3037, 209-212; ‘ Beiblat-
ter, xvii. 753-754 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xliv. 133-134.
‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3049,

11-14; ‘Nature, xliv.
305 (Abs.)
‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3051,
39-42; ‘Nature,’ xliv.
355 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3054,
121-122; ‘Nature,’ xliv.
438 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci. [3], xlii.
160-166 ; ‘Nature,’ xliv.
439 (Abs.)

‘ Wolsingham Observ.
Circ.’ No. 33; ‘Nature,’
xlvi. 400 (Abs.)

'Cl-R.) exit s07—310)s
‘Chem. News,’ Ixiv. 125
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1891,
147-148 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xvi. 610 (Abs.)

«Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1891,
557-558 ; ‘ Amer. J. Sci.’
[3], xlii. 459-467.

OH R.” (cx. 3532356);
‘Nature,’ xliv. 530 (Abs.)

*C. R’ cxiii. 437-438 ;
‘Nature, xlvi. 258 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlv. 28.

‘J. Brit. Astron. Assoc.’ i.
25-33; ‘Nature, xliii.
165 (Abs.)

P2

212

E. C. Pickering

A. L. Cortie .
H. Deslandres
M. Fleming .

C, A. Young .

H. C. Vogel

A. Cornu

H. Deslandres
J. Scheiner

E. W. Maunder
W. Huggins .

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

G. E. Hale

H. Deslandres

H. Seeliger

C. Piazzi Smyth

REPORT—1894..

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1891, 1892.

The Distribution of Energy in
Stellar Spectra, (Oct.)

The Chromospheric Line Angstrém
66769. (Nov. 19.)

Recherches sur le mouvement
radial des astres avec le sidé-
rostat de l’Observatoire de Paris.
(Read Nov. 23.)

Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
Group of Stars of the Fifth Type
in Cepheus. (Nov.)

The Chromospheric Line A 6676°9.
(Dec. 16.)

On the Spectrographic Method of
Determining the Velocity of Stars
in the Line of Sight. (Dec.)

Sur la méthode Doppler-Fizeau

1892.

Recherches nouvelles sur l’atmo-
sphére solaire. (Read Feb. 8.)

Berichtigungen zu ‘Die Spectral-
analyse der Gestirne.’ (April.)

Spectrum of Nova Aurigze

The New Star in Auriga.
May 13.)

On the New Star in Auriga. (Read
May 19.)

(Read

Photographies de la chromosphére,
des protubérances et des facules
solaires, prises a 1’Observatoire
d’Astronomie Physique de Ken-
wood, Chicago. (Read July 11.)

Résultats nouveaux surl’hydrogéne,
obtenus par l’étude spectrale du
soleil. Rapprochements avec
létoile nouvelle du Cocher. (Read
July 25.)

Ueber den neuen Stern im Stern-
bilde Auriga. (July.)

Second Report of the Committee
appointed to co-operate with Dr.
C. Piazzi Smyth in his Researches
on the Ultra-Violet Rays of the

Solar Spectrum, (Aug.)

* Astr. Nachr.’ exxvili. No.
3069, 377-380; ‘ Nature,’
xlv. 159 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,” xviii. 97-98.
(Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ xlv. 103-104.

Bh lis Gxotting Taye)
‘Nature,’ xlv. 117 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 3070}
403-404; ‘Nature,’ xlv.
210 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlv. 198.

‘Month. Not. Roy. Ast.
Soc,’ lii. 87-96; ‘Nature,’
xly. 280-281 (Abs.)

‘Annuaire du Bureau de
Longitudes,’ 1891, Dl- .
D40,

TO eRe. \CXIVen pa o=e2nee
‘ Beibliatter, xvii. 565-
566 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxix. No.
3082, 157-160; ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ xvii. 129 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlv. 616-617.

‘Proce. Roy. Inst.’ xiii. 615—
624.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ li. 486—
495; ‘Beibliitter, xvii.
449 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ cxv. 106-109.

*C. BR’ cxv. 222-225; *‘ Na-
ture,’ xlvi. 401 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblitter, xvii. 556
(Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.”’ No. 3118,
392-406; ‘ Nature,’ xlvii.
137-140.

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1892,
74-76; ‘Beiblitter, xvii.
829-830 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

H. F. Newall.

E. von Gothard .

A. Belopolsky

H. F. Newall.
H. Deslandres

J. N. Lockyer

#. von Gothard

G. E. Hale

©, HE. Stromeyer
A. A, Rambaut

W. H. M. Christie.

J, Janssen

G. E. Hale

; H.C. Vogel .

W. Huggins .

Y. Schumann

213

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1892, 1893.

The Nova Aurige. (Sept.)
Ueber die Nova Aurigze. (Sept.) .

Nova Aurigz. (Oct.)

Nova Aurigz. (Oct.)

Transformation du grand télescope

de Observatoire de Paris pour
Yétude des vitesses radiales des
astres. Résultats obtenus. (Read
Nov. 14.)

On the Photographic Spectra of
some of the Brighter Stars. (Read
Dec. 8.)

Studien tiber den photographischen

Spectrum der planetarischen
Nebel und des neuen Stern.
(Dec.)

The Ultra-Violet Spectrum of the
Solar Prominences. (Dec.)

Measurement of Distances of Binary

Stars. (Dec.)
Measurement of Distances of Binary
Stars. (Dec.)

Results of the Spectroscopic Ob-
servations made at Greenwich in
the Year 1890.

1893.

. [Remarques sur une note de M. Dunér

intitulée ‘Y a-t-il de loxygéne
dans JVatmosphére du _ soleil?’
(Read Jan. 8.)

Les raies H et K dans le spectre

des facules solaires. (Read
Jan. 30.)
Versuch einer Ableitung der

Bewegung des Sonnensystems aus
den Potsdamer spectrographischen
Beobachtungen. (Feb.)

Note on the Spectrum of Nova
Aurigze. (Feb.)

The Hydrogen Line Hg in the
Spectrum of Nova Aurigz, and in
the Spectrum of Vacuum-tubes.
(Feb.)

‘Nature,’ xlvi. 489.

‘Astr. Nachr.’ cxxx. No.
3122, 27-28; ‘Nature,’
xlvi. 620 (Abs.)

* Astr. Nachr.’ cxxx. No.
3120, 437-438; ‘Nature,’
xlvi. 552, 576 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlvii. 7.

©@. Ru exv. -783-786)
‘Beiblitter,’ xviii. 340
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xlvii.

88, 115 (Abs.)

© Phil. Trans.’ clxxxiv. 675—

726; ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’
lii. 326-331 (Abs.) ; ‘ Na-
ture, xlvii. 261-263

(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xvii.
831 (Abs.)

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
xxl. 169-171; ‘Nature,’
xlvii. 352 (Abs.)

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
xxi. 160-161; ‘ Nature,’
xlvii. 186 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlvii. 199.
‘Nature,’ xlvii. 226.

‘Greenwich Observ. Re-
port,’ 1890, 28 pp.

°C. RY exviii. 54-56 ; ‘Ber.
xxvii. (Ref.), 108 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxix. 49
(Abs.)

*C. RY exvi, 170-172.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxii. 81-
82; ‘ Beiblitter, xvii.
1055-1056 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxii. No.
3153, 143-144 ; ‘ Nature,’
xlvii. 425 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 159-166; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xvii. 826-827 (Abs.)

214

REPORT—1894.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1893, 1894--METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1882.

J. Janssen

G.E. Hale .

E. von Oppolzer

T. E. Espin

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

A. de la Baume
Pluvinel.

J. Janssen

G. J. Stoney ,

J. Janssen

E. Dunér

A. Schuster

C. C, Kraft

Sur la méthode spectrophoto-
graphique qui permet d’obtenir la
photographie de la chromosphére,
des facules, des protubérances, ete.
(Read March 6.)

Méthode spectrographique pour
étude de Ja couronne solaire.
(Read April 24.)

Zur Frage der Rotationsdauer der
Venus. (June.)

Stars with Remarkable Spectra.
(June.)

On the Bright Bands in the Present
Spectrum of Nova Aurigze. (Read
June 8.)

Sur l’observation de Véclipse totale
du soleil du 16 avril, fait 4 Joal
(Sénégal). (Read July 3.)

Note sur Vhistorique des faits qui
ont démontré l’existence de l’at-
mosphére coronale du _ soleil.
(Read July 10.)

Note on Observing the Rotation of
the Sun with the Spectroscope.

(Aug.)

Sur les observations spectro-
scopiques faites 4 l’Observatoire
du Mont-Blanc les 14 et 15 Sep-
tembre 1893. (Read Sept. 25.)

Y a-t-il de Yoxygéne dans l’atmo-
sphére du soleil ?° (Read Dec. 26.)

1894.

Y a-t-il de loxygéne dans l’atmo-
sphére du soleil ?’ (Read Jan. 15.)

Vit:

°C. RY exvi. 456-457.

“C. RB.’ ecxvi. 865-866 ;
‘Beiblatter, xvii. 931-
932 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxiii. No.
3170, 39-40; ‘Nature,’
xlvili. 233 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxiii. No.
3171, 43-48; ‘ Nature,’
xlviii. 233 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ liv. 30-
36.

“C, Re Sexy, 24ers
‘ Beiblitter, xviii. 93
(Abs.)
BG) }RS exyile wae sO
‘ Beibliitter,’ xviii, 94
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1891,
573-574; * Beibliatter,
Xvli. 931 (Abs.)

‘C. RY cexvii. 419-423;
‘Chem, News,’ Ixviii. 185
(Abs.)

°C. RY cxvii. 1056-1059 ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxix. 25

(Abs.); ‘Ber. xxvii.
(Ref.), 43 (Abs.)
°C. RY exviii. 137-138;

‘Chem. News,’ lxix. 61
(Abs.)

METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS.

1882.
Spectroscopische Untersuchungen.

‘ Beobachtungsergebnisse
der Norwegischen Polar-
station Bossekop in
Alten,’ 1882-3, II. Theil,
‘ Nordlicht,’ 10-11; ‘ Na-
ture, xxxix. 515-516
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 215

METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1888, 1889, 1890.

1883.
O.E.Cook . . | The Use of the Spectroscope in | ‘Science, ii, 488-491 ;
Meteorology. (Oct.) ‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde, iv. 102-103
(Abs.)
1884.

8. P. Langley . | On the Amount of the Atmospheric
Absorption. (April.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxviii.
163-180; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[5], xviii. 289-307 ; ‘ Na-
ture, xxxi. 46 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xlviii.
319 (Abs.) ; ‘J. de Phys.’
[2], iv. 95-97 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter, ix. 335-336
(Abs.)

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb.’
xxxii. 389-409; ‘Nature,’
xxx. 347-349.

C. Michie Smith .| Observations ona Green Sun and
Associated Phenomena. (Read
July 7.)

1885.

W. W. Lermantoff. | Ueberdie Regenbande im Spectrum
der Atmosphire. (Read Jan. 29,
O.S. (In Russian.)

E. L. Nichols. . | A Spectro-photometric Analysis of
the Colour of the Sky. (Aug.)

N. Egoroff . . | Das Absorptionspectrum der At-
mosphire. (In Russian.) (Read

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.Soc.,’
xvii. [Phys.], No. 2, pp.
4 5.

‘Proc. Amer. Assoc.’ xxxiv.
78-79.

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc.’
xvii. [Phys.], No. 7, p.

i

Sept. 24, 0.8.) 229.
1888.

C. Rovelli? . . | Le tinte dei crepuscoli in relazione | ‘Riv. __ scientifico-indus-
collo stato igrometrico dell atmo- triale,’ xx. 1-5 ; ‘ Nature,’
sfera. (Jan.) xxxvii. 404 (Abs.)

1889.

J.danssen . . | Sur Yorigine tellurique des raies de | ‘C. R.’ eviii. 1035-1037 ;
Yoxygéne dans le spectre solaire. | ‘Nature,’ xl. 104; ‘Chem.

(Read May 20.) News,’ lix. 281; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xiii. 682-683

(Abs.)
A. Crova' . . | Sur l’analyse de la lumiére diffusée | ‘C. R.’ cix. 493-496; ‘ Na-
par le ciel. (Read Sept. 23.) ture, xl. 563 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter, xiv. 37

(Abs.)

1890.

C.$.Cook . . | A Mountain Study of the Spectrum | ‘ Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xxxix.
of Aqueous Vapour. (April.) 258-268; ‘Nature,’ xli.

598 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xiv. 782-786 (Abs.)

W. E. Wood . . | Lightning Spectra. (June.) ‘Sidereal Messenger,’ ix.
a 285; ‘Nature,’ xlii. 236
377-378 (Abs.)

216

REPORT—1894..

METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1890, 1891, 1892—CHEMICAL RELATIONS,

G. Higgs

J. Janssen

A, Cornu

A. Crova!

W. E. Wood .

G. B. Rizzo

N. Piltschiko#

R. Amory

”

1875, 1876, 1877.

Recent Photographs of the Less Re-
frangible Portions of the Solar
Spectrum under Different Atmo-

spheric Conditions. (Read Sept.
10.)
Compte rendu d'une ascension

scientifique au Mont-Blanc.

(Read Sept. 22.)

Le spectre de l’atmosphére ter-
restre. (Sept.)

Sur la limite ultraviolette du spec-
tre solaire, d’aprés des clichés
obtenus par M. le Dr. O. Simony
ausommet du pic de Ténériffe.
(Read Dec. 22.)

1891.

Analyse de la lumiére diffusée par
le ciel. (Read June 1.)

Lightning Spectra. (Aug.) .

Le linee telluriche dello spettro
solare.

1892.

Sur la polarisation spectrale du
ciel. (Read Oct. 17.)

VIII.
CHEMICAL RELATIONS.

1875,

On Photographs of the Solar
Spectrum. (Read May 25.)

1876.

On Photographs of the
Spectrum. (Read May 10.)

Solar

1877.

On the Photographic Action of
Dry Silver Bromide Collodion,
&c., to Rays of Solar Light of
Different Refrangibility. (Pre-
sented June 10.)

|
|

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1890,
760; ‘Beiblitter, xvi.
279 (Abs. )

‘Annuaire du Bureau des
Longitudes, 1891, A18-
A24; *C. RY exi. 431-447 ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixii. 202
(Abs.)

L’Astronomie, ix. 337—
338; ‘Nature,’ xlii. 526
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ cxi. 941-947; ‘Na-

ture, xlili. 216 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ Isxiii. 36
(Abs.)

°C. R. exit, W76-1179;
1246-1247 ; ‘Phil. Mag,’
[5], xxxii. 141-144 (Abs.);
‘Ann. Chim. et Phys. [6],
xxv. 534-567.

‘ Sidereal nee x.
378-380; ‘Nature, xliv.
504 (Abs. )

‘Mem. spettroscop. ital.’
xx. 77-86; ‘Nature,
xliv. 186-187 (Abs.)

SCy IR? “exvi— bbp=bb8is
‘ Beibliitter, xvii. 337
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ [N.S.],
iii. 70.

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ M- 8.],
iii. 279-280.

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ [N.S.]
v. 171-174.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

217

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883, 1884.

M. Coulier ., Fy

L. Palmieri

W. de W. Abney

H. W. Vogel .

F, Osmond and G.
Witz.

H. W. Vogel .

”

H. Quincke

R. Nasini and O.
Bernheimer.

W. H. Pickering

1880.

Le spectroscope appliqué aux
sciences chimiques et pharma-
ceutiques.

1881.

Della riga dell’ Helium apparsa in
una recente sublimazione vesu-
viana. (Read Nov. 5.)

On the Effect of the Spectrum on
the Haloid Salts of Silver and on
Mixtures of the same. (Recd.
Dec. 6.)

1882.

Ueber eine Substanz zur Erkennung
der chemischen Wirkung des gel-
ben Lichtes. (Feb.)

Ktudes sur l'industrie du vanadium
(‘ Bull. Soc. Industr. de Rouen’).
(March.)

Ueber die verschiedenen Modifica-
tionen des Brom- und Chlorsilbers,
und die Empfindlichkeit derselben
gegen das Sonnenspectrum. (Read
May 25.) :

Lichtempfindlichkeit der . Silber-
haloidsalze gegen das Sonnen-
spectrum. (June.)

1883.

Ueber das Verhalten des Harns
nach Gebrauch von Copaiva-
balsam. (Sept.)

1884.

Sulle relazioni esistenti tra il potere
rifrangente e la constituzione chi-
mica dei composti organici.
(March.)

Photography of the Infra-Red
Region of the Solar Spectrum.
(Presented May 14.)

‘J. de Pharm.’ [4], xxx.
541-544; [5], i. 24-30,
118-128, 319-327, 393-
400; ii. 18-31, 221-223,
285-294, 376-388, 455-
465; iil, 126-138, 220-
228, 403-410, 545-548.

‘Rendic. Accad. Napoli,
xx. 233.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxxiii.
164-186 ; ‘J. Phot. Soc’
vi. 136-151; ‘ Phot.
Mittheil, 130-131 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblatter, v. 872
(Abs.)

‘Phot. Mittheil.’ xviii. 300_
301; ‘Beiblitter, vi.
490 (Abs.)

‘Rev. des Industr. chim.
et agric. vi. 480-494,
513-530 ; ‘Chem. News,’
xlvii. 12-13 (Abs.)

‘Phot. Mittheil.’ xix. 32-
34; ‘ Beiblatter, vi. 489
(Abs.)

‘Phot. Mittheil. xix. 70-73,

94-97, 108-112; ‘Bei-
blatter, vii. 536-538
(Abs.)

‘Arch. f. exp. Path. u.
Pharmakol,’ xvii. 273-
277; ‘Ber.’ xvii. (Ref.),
178-179 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital,’ xy. 59-
105; ‘Atti R. Accad.
Lincei, Mem.’ [3], xviii.
608-640 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xlviii. 1097 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xviii. (Ref.), 474-475
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ ix.
326-330 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ [N.S.],
xii. 473-477.

218

J. Uffelmann. -

J. H. Gladstone

S. v. Kostanecki
and §. Niemen-
towski.

W. N. Hartley

H. W. Vogel .

E. Pringsheim

W. Leube °

W. Crookes , -

R. Nasini .

T. W. Best .

A. B. Griffiths and
Mrs. Griffiths.

REPORT—1894.

Spectroscopisch-hygienische Stu-
dien. (Oct.)

1885.

On the Specific Refraction and Dis-
persion of the Alums. (Read June
27.)

Ueber die isomeren Dioxydi-
methylanthrachinone, (Recd.
Aug. 5.)

1886.

Researches on the Relation between
the Molecular Structure of Carbon
Compounds and their Absorption
Spectra. Part VIII. A Study of
Coloured Substances and Dyes.
(Read Noy. 18.)

Ueber neue Fortschritte in dem

farbenempfindlichen photo-
graphischen Verfahren. (Read
Nov. 25.)

Ueber neuere Versuche die Kohlen-
siiure ausserhalb der Pflanze durch
Chlorophyll zu zerlegen. (Oct.)

Ueber einen neuen pathologischen
Harnfarbstoff. (Nov.)

1887.

Genesis of the Elements.

(Lect.
Roy. Inst, Feb. 18.)

Sulla rifrazione moleculare delle
sostanze organiche dotate di
forte potere dispersivo. (Read
Feb. 20.)

On the Delicacy of Spectroscopic
Reaction in Gases. (Manch. Lit.
and Phil. Soc. Feb. 22.)

Investigations on the Influence of
Certain Rays of the Solar Spec-
trum on Root-Absorption and on
the Growth of Plants. (Read
March 7.)

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887.

‘Arch. f. Hygiéne,’ ii.
196-222 ; ‘ Chemiker-
Zeitung, viii. 1232;
‘Zeitschr. f. anal, Chem.’
xxiv. 626 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ vii. 194-
200 ; * Phil. Mag.’ [5], xx.
162-168.

‘Ber’ xviii. 2138-2141;
‘Beiblitter” xiv, 613
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc,’ li. 152-
202; ‘Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem,” ii, 855
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1886, 1205-1208 ; ‘ Verh.
phys. Gesellsch. Berl.’
VI. Jahrg. 11 (Abs.);
‘Nature, xxxv. 432
(Abs.)

‘ Chemiker-Zeitung, x.
1241; * Bied. Centralbl.’
1887, 168-169 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lii. 685
(Abs.)

‘ Archiv f. path, Anat. und
Physiol.’ cvi. 418-419;
‘ Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
XXvl. 672 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News,’ lvii. 231 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Inst.’ xii. 37-
60; ‘Chem. News,’ lv.
83-88, 95-99.

‘Rendic. R. Accad. Lincei’
[4], iii. 164-172; ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. physikal. Chem.’
i. 422 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News, lv. 209-
211; ‘ Dingler’s polyt. J’
cclxiv, 407-408 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblatter, xii. 102
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb.’

xiv. 125-129; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ liv. 623 (Abs.)

A. Tschirch .

J. Dewar Pe

H. Dufet =

” . .

E. Kock

A, Hénocque .

Th. W. Engelmann

F, Mangini .

L., Hermann .

Cc. A. Macmunn

E, Lambling .

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

219

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1887, 1888.

Untersuchungen iiber das Chloro-
phyll. (Read March 16.)

Light as an Analytic Agent. (Lect.
Roy. Inst., April 1.)

Sur les volumes moléculaires et
Yénergie réfractive des phos-
phates, arséniates et hypophos-
phites de soude. (Read May 10.)

Sur les volumes moléculaires et
l’énergie réfractive des phosphates,
arséniates et hypophosphates de
soude. (Read May 20.)

Zur Kenntniss der Beziehungen
zwischen optischen Higenschaften
und Constitution der Verbindun-
gen. (June.)

De l’influence des médications ther-
males sur l’activité de la réduc-
tion de loxyhémoglobine, et sur
la richesse du sang en oxyhémo-
globine. (Read Noy. 19.)

Die Farben bunter Laubblatter
und ihrer Bedeutung fiir die
Zerlegung der Kohlensaiire im
Lichte.

1888.

Probabile causa della valenza degli
atomi. (Jan.)

Notiz betreffend das reducirte

Himoglobin.

On the Origin of Urohzematopor-
phyrin and of Normal and Patho-
logical Urobilin in the Organism.
(Read Mar. 17.)

Sur l’action réductrice exercée par

Vindigo blanc sur Jloxyhémo-
globine du sang. (Read April
28.)

‘ Ber. d. bot. Gesellsch.’ v.
128-135; ‘Chem. Cen-
tralbl” 1887, 669 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc,’ lii. 1116-
1117 (Abs.)

«Proc. Roy. Inst.’ xii. 83-
93 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xiii. 79-
80 (Abs.)

‘Soc. frang. de Phys.’
1887, 117-128; ‘J. de
Phys.’ [2], vi. 301-312;
‘Bull. Soc. frang. de
Min’ x. 77-120; ‘ Ber.’
xx. (Ref.), 530 (Abs.) ;

‘Beiblatter,’ xiii. 701-
703 (Abs.)
‘Soc. frang. de Phys.’

1887, 117-128; ‘J. de
Phys.’ [2], vi. 301-312;
‘Ber’ xx. (Referate),
530 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xiii. 701-703 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem’
[N.F.], xxxii. 167-171;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ i. 669-670 (Abs.)

*C. R. de la Soc. Biol. de
France’ [8], iv. 678-683 ;
‘Ber’ xxi. (Ref.), 373
(Abs.)

‘ Bot. Zeitung,’ 1887, 393-
398, 409-419, 441-450,
457-469 ; ‘ Onderzoekun-
gen Physiol. Lab. Utrecht’
[3], x. 107-168 ; ‘ Ar-
chives néerlandaises,’
xxii. 1-57 ; ‘ Beiblitter,
xi. 709 (Abs.) ; ‘ Chem.
News, lvi. 279 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ liv. 381-
382 (Abs.)

‘Riv. scientifico-industri-
ale, xx. 23-27 ; ‘ Nature,’
xxxvii. 451 (Abs.)

‘Arch. f. d. gesammte
Physiol.’ xliii. 435 ; ‘Ber,’
xxii. [Ref.], 595 (Abs.)

‘J. Physiol. x. 71-121.

*C. R. de la Soc. Biol. de
France’ [8], v. 394-396 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lvi, 530~
531 (Abs.)

220

R. Weegmann

W. N. Hartley

H. Vogel

E. Lambling .

C. Liebermann

Th, W. Engelmann

”

L. von Udranszky .

K. Katayama

A. Griinwald .

d.C. B. Burbank .

REPORT—1894.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1888.

Ueber dclie Molecularrefraction
einiger gebromter Aethane und
Aethylene, und tiber den gegen-
wirtigen Stand der Landolt-
Briihl’schen Theorie’ (Inaugural-
Dissertation, Bonn. 1888, 44 pp.).

(April.)

Researches on the Relation between
the Molecular Structure of Car-
bon Compounds and their Absorp-
tion Spectra. Part ix. On
Isomeric Cresols, Dihydroxyben-
zenes, and Hydroxybenzoic Acids.
(Read May 18.)

Spectroscopische Notizen.
June 1+.)

(Read

Des applications de la _ spectro-
photométrie 4 la chimie physio-
logique. (July.)

Ueber Spectra der Aether der
Oxyanthrachinone. (Recd. Aug.
1.)

Ueber Bacteriopurpurin und seine
physiologische Bedeutung. (Aug.)

Ueber Blutfarbstoff als Mittel um
den Gaswechsel von Pflanzen im
Licht und Dunkel zu unterschei-
den. (Aug.)

Ueber Furfurdlreactionen. (Sept.)

Ueber eine neue Blutprobe bei der
Kohlenoxydvergiftung. (Oct. 2.)

Spectralanalyse des Kadmiums.

(Read Oct. 11.)

Photography of the Least Refran-
gible Portion of the Solar Spec-
trum. (Oct.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 218-240, 257-
269.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ liii. 641-
663; ‘Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal, Chem.’ ii. 974 (Abs.)

‘Ber’ xxi. 2029-2032;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 655 (Abs.)

‘ Arch.de Physiol. normale
et pathologique’ [4], ii.
1-34, 384, 418 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lvi. 73 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xxi. 2527 ; ‘Zeitschr.
f. physikal. Chem. ii. 967
(Abs.)

* Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol.’
xlii. 183-186 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soe.’ lvi. 180-181 (Abs.)

‘Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol.’
xlii. 186-188 ; ‘ J. Chem.
Soc.’ lvi. 182 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Physiol.
Chem.’ xii. 8355-376, 377-
395, xiii. 248-263 ; ‘Ber,’
xxii. [Ref.], 600-602
(Abs.)

‘Archiv f. path. Anat.’ cxiv.
53-64; ‘Chem. News,’
lxi. 241; ‘J. Chem. Soc.
lvi. 88 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
xevii. [II.], 967-1044 ;
‘Monatshefte f. Chem.’
ix. 956-1034; ‘ Wien.
Anz.’ 1888, 187 (Abs.); °
“Chem. News,’ lix. 2-7,
16-19, 29-31 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lvi. 455 (Abs. )

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxvi. 391-
393; ‘Chem. News,’ lviii.
311-312; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xiii. 219 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 221

A, Kundt

Grimbert
A. Hansen

H, Ebert

H. W. Vogel .

W, Crookes

0. Wallach

T. Pelham Dale

S. Handler

Ph. Barbier and L.

Roux.

A, Babés =

A. Letellier

G. Kriiss and H.

Moraht.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1888, 1889.

Photographien, welche die Sensi-
bilisirung photographischer Troc-
kenplatten mittels absorbirender
Farbstoffe zeigen. (Read Nov.
2.)

Sur un nouveau mode de recherche
de l'urobiline dans Yurine. (Dec.)

Ueber die Bedeutung des Chloro-
phyllfarbstoffs (‘Naturw. Rund-
schau,’ ii. 501-502.)

Die Methode der hoher Interferen-
zen, und ihre Verwendbarkeit fiir
die Zwecke der qualitativen Spec-
tralanalyse. (Habilitationsschrift,
Erlangen, 1888.)

1889.

Capt. Abney tiber farbenempfind-
liche Verfahren. (Jan.)

On the Use of the Spectroscope in
the Detection and Discrimination
of the so-called ‘ Rare Earths,’
(Read Mar. 21.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction des
Camphens. (March.)

‘On a Relation existing between the

Density and Refraction of Gaseous
Elements, and also of some of
their Compounds. (Read May 25.)

Ueber die Reduction des Hiamo-
globins im Herzen. (May.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques. (Read
June 17.)

Note sur quelques matiéres colo-
rantes et aromatiques produites
par le bacille pyocyanique. (Read
June 22.)

Recherches sur la pourpre produite
par le Purpura laprllus. (Read
July 8.)

Zur spectrocolorimetrischen Hisen-
bezw. Rhodan-Bestimmung. (Read
Aug. 6.)

‘Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.” vii. 86 (notice) ;
‘Nature, xxxix. 120
(Abs.)

‘J. de Pharm.’ [5], xviii.
481-482; ‘ J. Chem. Soc.”
lvi. 324 (Abs.)

‘Bied. Centr.’ 1888, 357—
388 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ liv. 867-868 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 434 (Abs.)

‘Phot. Mittheil.’ xxv. 254,
255; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiii.
383 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lv. 255-
285; ‘Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal. Chem.’ vi. 88 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblatter, xiv, 173
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
ceclii. 136-140 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lvi. 1069 (Abs.)
‘Ber.’ xxii, (Ref.), 585
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ x, 189—
193.

‘Zeitschr. f£. Biol.’ xxvi.
233-258 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.”
lvi, 1225 (Abs.)

°C. RY cviii. 1249-1251 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lvi. 805
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xiii.
669 (Abs.)

*C. R. de la Soc. biol.”
(Paris) [9], i. 438-440;
*J.Chem. Soe.’ lviii. 189—
190 (Abs.)

C. HR. *cvill. BBE8bis “J.

Chem. Soc.’ lvi. 1207—
1208 (Abs.)
‘Ber. xxii. 2054-2060;

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lvi, 1247—
1248 (Abs.)

222

M. Althausse and
G. Kriiss.

T. Costa - =

C. Timiriazeff

A. Griinwald .

E. H. Amagat and
¥. Jean.

K. Seubert

J. F. Eykman

J.H. Gladstone and
W. H. Perkin.

K. Angstrom .

A. Bettendorfft

K. Neumann and
H. Rey.

L. Macchiati .

REPORT—1894..

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1889.

Beziehungen zwischen Zusammen-

setzung und Absorptionsspec-
trum organischer Verbindungen.
(Read Aug. 6.)

Sulle correlazioni tra il potere ri-
frangente ed il potere dispersivo
dei derivati aromatici a catene
laterali sature. (Aug.)

La protophylline dans les plantes
étiolées. (Read Sept. 2.)

Spectralanalytischer Nachweis von

Spuren eines neuen, der eilften
Reihe der Mendelejeff’schen
Tafel angehdrigen Elementes,
welches besonders im Tellur und
Antimon ausserdem aber auch im
Kupfer vorkommt. (Read Oct.
10.)

Sur l’analyse optique’ des huiles
et du beurre. (Read Oct. 14.)

| Einige physikalische Constanten

von Halogensubstitutionsproduc-
ten des Benzols und Toluols.
(Read Oct. 14.)

Ueber das iitherische Oel der Betel-
bliitter. (Oct. 20. Read Oct. 28.)

On the Correspondence between
the Magnetic Rotation and the
Refraction and Dispersion of
Light by Compounds containing
Nitrogen. (Read Nov. 7.)

Etudes des spectresinfra-rouges de
Yacide carbonique et de l’oxyde
de carbone. (Read Nov. 13.)

Studien tiber die Erden der Cerium-
und Yttrium-Gruppe. (Received
Nov. 14.)

Ueber Farbstoffe aus der Gruppe
der Benzeine. (Recd. Nov. 14.)

Die Farbstoffe der Zapfen von"
Abies excelsa. (Nov.)

‘Ber.’ xxii. 2065-2070;
© J. Chem. Soc.’ lvi. 1093-
1094 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lx. 240-241

(Abs.) ; Ixi. 209 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xiii. 945-946
(Abs.); ‘ Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal. Chem.’ iv. 585 (Abs.)

“Gazz: ‘chim. ital? six.
478-498; ‘Ber? -xxii.
(Ref.), 738 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xiii. 937-939
(Abs.)

°C. R. cix. 414-416; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lvi. 1236-
1237 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’

xcvilil. ILO, %85=817.;
‘Chem. News,’ lxi. 39
(Abs.); ‘Monatsh. f.

Chem.’ x. 829-861; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ lviii. 434-435
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xiv.
278-279 Abs.)

"Cy Re cie Tele=61 7
‘Mon.Scientifique’ (Ques-
neville) [4], iii, 1396-
1397; ‘Chem. News, 1xi.
25 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xxii.
(Ref.), 777 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxii. 2519-2524.

‘Ber.’ xxii. 2736-2754.

*J. Chem. Soc.’ lv. 750-
759.

‘Ofvers. af K. Vet. Akad.
Forhandl.’ (Stockholm),
1889, No. 9, 549-557.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm’
eclvi. 159-170.

‘Ber. xxii, 3001-3004;
‘Beiblatter, xiv. 281
(Abs.)

*‘Naturw. Rundschau,’ iv.
608 ; ‘ Chem. Centr.’ [4],
ii. Bd. i. 164 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. pt. i.
641-642 (Abs.)

ON

M. Le Blanc . °

J. F. Eykman
W. de W. Abney
andG.8. Edwards.

C. Bender ,

R. Heise a

F. Flavitsky .

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

W. Kouriloff .

R. Wegner . .

A. P. Laurie . :

H. Gautier and G.
Charpy.

¥. Schiitt

H. Moissan .

A. B. Griffiths

G. Silet é

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

223

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1889, 1890.

Optisch.-chemische Studien mit
Beriicksichtigung der Dissocia-
tiontheorie. (Nov.)

Zur Constitution des Asarons.

(Read Dec. 9.)

On the Effect of the Spectrum on
the Haloid Salts of Silver. (Recd.

Nov. 26. Read Dec. 12.)
Brechungsexponenten normaler
Salzlésungen.. (Dec.)

Zur Kenntniss des Rothweinfarb-
stoffes. (Arbeiten aus dem kaiser-
lichen Reichsgesundheitsamte,
Sonderabdruck.)

Dextro-rotatory Terpenes from
Pinus cembra. (in Russian.)

Ueber die Spectren der Elemente
(‘Abhandl. Akad. Berlin,’ 1889,

93 pp.)
Terpenes from the Oil of Pinus
abies. (In Russian.)

1890.

Ueber die Molekularrefraktion der
Haloidsalze des Lithiums, Natriums
und Kaliums. (Jan. 8.)

Madder Lakes. (Jan. 24)

Sur l’état de Viode en dissolution.
(Read Jan. 27.)

Ueber Peridineenfarbstoffe. (Jan.)

Action du fluor sur les différentes
variétés de carbone. (Read Feb.
10.)

Sur une nouvelle ptomaine de
putréfaction, obtenue par la cul-
ture du Bacterium Allii. (Read
Feb. 24.)

Sur la flamme bleue du sel marin,
et sur la réaction spectroscopique
du chlorure de cuivre. (Feb.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iv. 553-560; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 213
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv.
272 (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxii. 3172-3176.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xlvii.
249-275; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lviii. 933 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xiv. 791 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
ENE), x=xix,) 89=96;
‘J. Chem. Soc,’ lviii. 549
' (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxii. (Ref.), 823
(Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.

Soc, xxi. 3672375 54sI.
Chem. Soe.’ lviii. 789-790
(Abs.)

‘ Beiblitter, xii. $7 (title).

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.
Soc. xxi. 357-367; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 789
(Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1890, 78—
79; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lviii.
549 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixi. 60-61.

°C. RB.’ cx. 189-191; ‘Chem.

News, lxi. 97 (Abs.);
‘Ber,’ xxiii. (Ref.), 135
(Abs.)

‘Ber. deutsch. bot. Ge-
sellsch.’viii. 9-32; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ [4], ii. 767-768
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lviii. 1172-1173 (Abs.)

°C. RR.’ ‘cx. 276-279;
‘Chem. News,’ lxi. 120
(Abs.)

°C. R. ex. 416-418; ‘Chem,
News, lxi. 145 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. -chim. franc.’
[3], iii. 328-329; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxi. 377 (Abs.)

224

C. A. Bischoff and
P. Walden.

J. F, Eykman -

T, Araki

¥. Kehrmann

T. E. Thorpe and
A. E. Tutton.

C. Liebermann and
F, Haber.

Ph. Barbier and L.
Roux.

T. Costa

A. Perey Smith

R. Lowenherz

Ph. Barbier and L.
Roux.

” ”

C. Bohr .

E. Laurent .

REPORT—1894:.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1890.

Ueber die physikalischen Con-
stanten der substituirten Aethe-
nyltricarbonsidureester. (Recd.
Feb. 27. Read March 10.)

Ueber die Umwandlung von Allyl
in Propenylbenzolderivate, ihre
Dispersion und Refraction. (Read
March 24.)

Ueber den Blutfarbstoff und seine
niheren Umwandlungsproducte.
(March.)

Hiniges tiber Beziehungen zwischen
Fiirbung und chemischer Consti-
tution. (April 16.)

Phosphorous Oxide. Part I. (Read
April 17.)

Ueber Bidioxymethylenindigo.
(Reed. May 24.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans

les composés organiques (alcodls
de la série grasse). (Read May
27.)

Sul peso molecolare e sul potere
rifrangente del cloruro di zolfo.
(June 1.)

The Violet Flame produced by
Common Salt in a Coal Fire.
(June.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction der
Nitrate. (Read July 14.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques (éthers-
oxydes.) (Read July 21.)

Recherches sur la dispersion dans
les composés organiques (acides
gras). (Read July 28.)

Sur les combinaisons de l’hémo-
elobine avec Voxygéne. (Read
July 21.)

Réduction des nitrates par la lu-
miére solaire (premiére note).
(Aug.)

‘Ber. xxiii. 660-664; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 745-
746 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxiii. 855-864; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. 748-
749 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xiv. 502-505 (Abs.);
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vi. 91 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chem.’
xiv. 405-415; ‘J. Chem.

Soc. lviii. 1012-1013
(Abs.)
‘Chem. Zeit.’ xiv. 608,

527, 541-542; ‘ Beiblat-
ter, xiv. 618 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lvii. 545-
573.

‘Ber.’ xxiii. 1566-1567;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lviii. 1140
(Abs.)

HCe ine 1ex, OT SuOvar
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem,’ vi. 374 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital.

367-372.

xx.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixi. 292-
293;~-*J. Chem: Socl
lviii. 1202 (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxiii. 2180-2182;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vi. 382 (Abs.)

“O.) RY ‘ex. Ws0=1835
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem. vi. 377 (Abs.);
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], iv.
9-16 ; ‘Chem. News, xii.
249 (Abs.)

‘Cc. RR’ exi. 235-236;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vi. 378 (Abs.);

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], iv.
614-622 ; ‘Chem. News,’
lxii. 249 (Abs.)

Oy RY exi. plboal oe
‘Chem. News, Ixii. 74
(Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Belg’ xx.
303-808.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

Lecoq de _ Bois-

baudran.

J. H. Gladstone and
G. Gladstone.

R. Nasini and T.
Costa.

J. H. Gladstone

R. Lowenherz

E. Demargay .

C. Pulfrich

8S. Handler

A. Bettendorft

J. W. Briihl .

VY. Schumann.

E. Becquerel .

H. Kayser and C. .
Runge.

1894.

225

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1890, 1891.

Nouvelles recherches sur la gado-
line de M. de Marignac. (Read
Sept. 8.)

The Refraction and Dispersion of
Fluor-Benzene and Allied Com-
pounds. (Sept.)

Sopra un caso singolare nella ri-
frazione dei composti organici.
(Read Oct. 19.)

Molecular Dispersion. (Dec. 27,
1890.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction
stickstoffenthaltender Substan-
zen. (Dec.)

Les terres rares s E

Das Totalreflectometer und das
Refractometer fiir Chemiker, ihre
Anwendung in der Krystalloptik
und zur Untersuchung der Licht-
brechung von Flissigkeiten.
(Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1890.)

Ueber die Reduction des Hiamo-
globin im Herzen.

1891.

Studien tiber die Erden des Cerium-
und Yttrium-Gruppe. (Jan.)

Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen
der Refraction der Gase und
Dampfe und deren chemischen
Zusammensetzung. (Jan.)

On Determining the Sensitiveness
of Photographic Plates by means
of the Spectrograph. (Jan.)

Observations sur la communication
de M. Lippmann au sujet de la
reproduction photographique des
couleurs. (Read Feb. 2.)

Ueber die Spectra der Elemente
der zweiten Mendeléjeff’schen
Gruppe. (Read Feb. 19.)

‘CC. RB. exi. 393-395 ;
‘Nature,’ xlii. 512 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxii. 178
(Abs.) :

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxi. 1-
9; ‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vii. 331 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lin-

cei’ [4], vi. 259-263;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxi.
448 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xliii. 198.

‘ Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vi. 532-563.

‘Rev. générale des Sci-
ences pures et appli-
quées,’ 1890, No. 13, 396—
402 ; ‘Chem. News,’ ]xii.
85 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ xliv. 538 (notice).

‘Zeitschr. f. Biol.” xxvi.
233-258 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lvi. 1225 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
eclxili. 164-174 ; ‘ Chem.

News,’ Ilsxiii. 159-160,
172-173.
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem.’ vii. 1-33.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii. 33-34.

‘¢. RB. cxii. 275-277 -
‘Chem. News,’ lxiii. 111
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.] xliii. 385-409;
‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1891, I. 177-178 (Abs.) ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ viii. 575 (Abs.)

Q

226

B, Walter

M. Schiitze . el

V. Schumann
J. W. Briihl .

Ph. Barbier and L.
Roux.

E. Laurent

B. Brauner

G. Kriiss

H. O. G. Ellinger .
W. H. Perkin

E.Schunck .

E. E. Brooks .

W. Bohlendorft

C. M. Thompson

F. A. Gooch and T. |
8. Hart.

REPORT—1894.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1891.

Ueber das a-Monobromnaphthalin.
(Feb.)

Ueber den Zusammenhang zwischen
Farbe und Constitution der Ver-
bindungen. (Feb.)

Photochemical Researches. (Feb.)

| Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen

die spectrometrischen Constanten
und der chemischen Constitution
des Epichlorhydrin, des Acet- und
Paraldehyds und des Benzols.
(Feb.)

Recherches sur la dispersion des
composés organiques (éthers).
(Read Mar. 16.)

Réduction des nitrates par la lu-

miére solaire (deuxiéme note).
(March.)

Ueber das Atomgewicht des Lan-
thans. (Recd. April 25.)

Beitriige zur Chemie des Erbiums
und Didyms. (I.) (April.)

Optische Bestimmung der Albumin-
menge im Harn. (May.)

The Refractive Power of certain |

Organic Compounds at Various
Temperatures. (Read June 18.)

Contributions to the Chemistry of
Chlorophyll. No. IV. (Recd. June
16. Read June 18.)

On Terminal Spectra observed in
Vacuo. (July.)

Bemerkung zu der Abhandlung des
Herrn B. Walter ‘ Ueber den Nach-
weis des Zerfalles von Molecular-
gruppen in Lésungen durch Fluo-
rescenz und Absorptionserschei-
nungen.’ (July.)

On Didymium from Different
Sources. (Aug.)

The Detection and Determination
of Potassium Spectroscopically.
(Aug.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], xlii. 511-512;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxi.
367.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ix. 109-136 ; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xvi. 428-429
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixiii. 97.

‘Ber’ xxiv. 656-658 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ vii. 521 (Abs.)

‘C. RB.’ cxii. 582-584 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ viii. 144 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3],
xxi. 337-345; ‘Nature,’
xliv. 24 (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxiv. 1328-1331;
‘Chem. News,’ lxiv. 50
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
celxv. 1-27; ~°Chem.
News,’ lxiv. 65-66, 75-
76, 99-101, 120-121.

‘J. prakt. Chem.’ xliv. 256;
‘Chem. News,’ lxiv. 262
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixi. 287-
310; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii.
559-561 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1. 302—
317; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxiv.
I. 41-42 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixiv. 30-31.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xliii. 784-789.

‘Brit, Assoc. Report,’ 1891,
511; ‘Chem. News,’ lxiv.
167.

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3]. xlii.
448-459 ; ‘ Chem. News,’
Ixv. 22-24, 32-34; ‘Na-
ture,’ xlv. 212 (Abs.)

“1

ON

T. Costa 5

0. Knoblauch

R. E. Schmidt and
L. Gattermann.

F. Miller '

A. Weigle

Lecog de _ Bois-

daudran.
R. Bach

A. Bettendorf

J. W. Briihl .

G. Carrara .

G. Kriiss and H. |
Moraht.

|

H. Landolt and |
Hans Jahn.

G. Kriiss and H.
Kriiss.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

227

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1891, 1892.

Sul potere rifrangente moleculare
delle carbilamine et dei nitrili.
(Read Nov. 15.)

Absorptions-Spectralanalyse sehr

verdiinnter Lésungen.

Ueber Oxyderivative des Alizarin-
Blau.

1892.

Ueber das aitherische Oel der Lor-
beer-Beeren. (Read Feb. 11.)

. | Spectrophotometrische Untersuch-

ungen der Salze aromatischer Ba-
sen. (Feb.)

Necherches sur lesamarium. (Read
March 14.)

Thermochemie des Hydrazins, nebst
einer Bemerkung iiber die Mole-
cularrefraction einiger Stickstoff-
verbindungen. (April.)

Studien tiber die Erden der Cerium-
und Yttrium-Gruppe. (June.)

Ueber das Trimethylen.
June 11.)

(Read

Sul peso molecolare e sul potere
rifrangente dell’ acqua ossigenata.
(Read July 3.)

Ueber die Reaction zwischen Ferri-
salzen und léslichen Rhodaniden.

(July.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction eini-
ger einfachen organischen Verbin-
dungen fiir Wellen von unendlich
grosser Wellenliinge. (Sept.)

Beitriige zur quantitativen Spectral-
analyse. (Sept.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lin-
cei’ [4], vii. 308-313 }
‘Rivista scient. industr.’
xxiv. 104-109.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.]. xliii. 738-783;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixiv. 120
(Abs.)

‘J. prakt. Chem.’ xliv. 103-
109; ‘ Chem. News,’ lxiv.
261 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xxv. 547-551; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xvi. 605 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem,’ xi. 227-247, 426_
428; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xvii.
506 (Abs.)

°C. R. exiv. 572-577.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ix. 241-263; ‘ Bei-
blatter” xvi. 515-517
(Abs.)

‘Ann. der Chem.’ cclxx.
376-383; ‘Ber’ xxv.
(Ref.),765 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News,’ ixvi. 307, 320-321
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xii. 1400-1401 (Abs.);

‘Beiblatter,’ xvi. 744~
745 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxv. 1952-1956;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xvii. 823
(Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. Roma,’
[5], i. II. sem. 19-24;

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxii.
II. 341-349 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soe.’ lxiv. II. 163 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
i. 399-404; * Ber.’ xxv.
(Ref.), 917(Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lxvi. 198 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ x. 289-320; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xvii. 329-331
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
i. 104-125 ; ‘ Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’ x. 432
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xvi, 606 (Abs.); ‘Zeitschr.
f. anal. Chem.’ xxxii. 574
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxiv. II. 283-284 (Abs.)

Q2

228

J.M.Eder ., F

V. Markovnikoff
and A. Reformat-
sky.

F. A. Gooch and
J.J. Phinney.

F. Zecchini

C. Féry .

C. Graebe

©. A. Lobry de
Bruijn.

A. Gortz

W. Ostwald .

J. Janeéek

P. Bary.

G. Kriiss and A.
Loose.

H. Bertin-Sans and
J. Moitessier.

REPORT—1894.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1892, 1893.

Beitrage zur
(Read Nov. 3.)

Bulgarian (Turkish) Oil of Roses.
(Read Nov. 5, 0.8.) (In Russian.)

Spectralanalyse.

Quantitative Determination of
Rubidium by the Spectroscope.
(Nov.)

Sul potere rifrangente del fosforo.

I. Potere rifrangente del fosforo
libro e delle sue combinazioni
cogli elementi o gruppi mono-
valenti. (Read Dec. 6.)

Sur l'étude des réactions chimiques
dans une masse liquide par l’in-
dice de réfraction. (Read Dec. 26.)

Ueber Azofarbenspectra. (Dec.) .

L’hydroxylamine

Ueber spectrophotometrische
Affinititsbestimmungen. (Disser-
tation, Tiibingen, 1892, 57 pp.)

Ueber die Farbe der Ionen

| Gerichtlich-chemischer Nachweis
von Blut.
1893.

Sur la composition des solutions
aqueuses des sels d’aprés les
indices de réfraction. (Read
Jan. 8.)

Verhalten der Gadoliniterden

gegen Kaliumchromat. (Jan.)

Oxyhématin, hématin réduit, et
hémochromogéne. (Read Feb. 20.)

*‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
lex 24.

‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc.”
XXiv. 663-686 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc. lxiv. I. 662-663
(Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ xliv. 392—
400; ‘ Nature, xlvii. 94
(Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital. xxiii.
I. 97-120; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxiv. II. 353-354
(Abs.)

“COC. R! exv, _ 120921312
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxiy. II.
201 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal-
Chem. x. 673-698 ;
‘ Beiblatter, xvii. 336
(Abs.)

‘Rec. trav. chim. des
Pays - Bas, xi. 18-50;

‘Ber. xxv.(Ref.), 684-685
(Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter,
(Abs.)

Xvii. 378

‘Abhandl. math. phys..
Klasse Sachs. Gesellsch.
d. Wiss.’ xviii. No. II.
281-307; ‘Beiblatter,
xvi. 534-537 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’

Xxxl. 236-237 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxvi. 32
(Abs.)

EC. OR, iCxvilit l= reemes
Chem. Soc.’ Ixvi. IT. 132
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.”
Ti, 92-07 Cheme
News,’ lxvii. 75-76, 87—
89, 100.

‘C. RY’ cxvi.. 401-403 5
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3],
ix. 380-382; ‘ Ber.’ xxvi-
(Ref.),247(Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lxviii. 26 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxiv. I.
447-448 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

R. Braunschweig

H. Bertin-Sans and
J. Moitessier.

7” ”
Lecog de_ Bois-
baudran.
” ”
L. Meyer
G. Kriiss

K. Hofmann and
G. Kriiss.

H. Bertin-Sans and
J. Moitessier.

K. Hofmann and
G. Kriiss.

©. Trapesonzjanz .

J. M. Eder and E.
Valente.

H, Demarcay .

Lecoqg de _ Bois-

baudran.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1892.
. | Ueber die Ester der Methylbern-

steinsatire
(Feb.)

Nouveau procédé pour obtenir de
Yoxyhémoglobine a l’aide d’oxy-
hématine et d’une matiére albu-
minoide. (Read Mar. 10.)

Action de loxyde de carbone sur
Yhématine réduite et sur ’hémo-
chromogéne. (Read Mar. 13.)

( Brenzweinsiure ).

Recherches sur le samarium. (Read
Mar. 20.)

Recherches sur le samarium. (Read
Mar. 27.)

Nachtrag zu der Abhandlung von
A. Weigle, ‘Spectrophotometrische
Untersuchung der Salze aroma-
tischer Basen.’ (March.)

Ueber die Erbinerde. (March) .

Ueber die Holminerde. (April)

Action de V’oxyde de carbone sur
Vhématine réduite et sur l’hémo-
chromogéne. (Read May 12.)

Ueber die Terbinerde. (May)

Ueber die
stickstoffenthaltenden
zen. (Read June 8.)

Molecularrefraction
Substan-

Ueber den Verlauf der Bunsen’schen
Flammereaction im ultravioletten
Spectrum. (Read July 6.)

Sur la simplicité du samarium.
(Read July 17.)

Recherches surlesamarium. (Read
July 24.)

229

‘J. prakt. Chem.’ [N.F.],
xlvii, 274-300.

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], ix.
243-244; ‘Chem. News,’
lxvii. 301 (Abs.)

‘C. BR.” cxvi. 691-592
‘Ber.’ xxvi. (Ref.), 292—
293 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixiv. I. 448 (Abs.)

O. “R. ‘exvi. (611=613-
‘Chem. News,’ Ixvii. 180
(Abs.)

‘C. R’ exvi. 674-677°;
‘ Chem. News,’ lxvii. 258—
259 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xi. 426-428; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ Ixiv. II. 464
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’

lii, 353-369 ; ‘ Chem.
News,’ Ixviii. 148-149,
158-159, 165-166, 176-
178, 194, 209, 217-218;
J. Chem. Soc. Ixiv. II. 376
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
iii. 407-414 ; ‘ Ber.’ xxvi.
(Ref.), 473-474 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], ix.
382-384; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixviii. 26 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
iv. 27-43; ‘Ber. xxvi.
(Ref.), 474-475 (Abs.)

‘Ber. xxvi. 1428-1483 ;
«J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixiv. II.
401 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
lx, 467-476.

*C. R’ exvii. 163-164;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxiv. II.
526(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lxvili. 73-74 (Abs.)

*C. R’ exvii. 199-201;
‘Beiblatter, xviii, 452-
453 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.

Soc,” Ixiv. II. 526-527
(Abs.); ‘Chem, News,’
Ixviii. 313 (Abs.)

230 REPORT—1894.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1893—THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1882, 1885, 1886.

H. Bertin-Sans and |} Méthode pour démontrer rapide-

J. Moitessier. ment le déplacement par l’oxygéne
de lVoxyde de carbone de la car-
boxyhémoglobine. (Read July 28.)

Zur Kenntniss der Terpene und der
atherischen Oele. (26*t* Abhandl.)

(Aug.)

O. Wallach ,

Zur Kenntniss der Terpene und der
atherischen Oele. (27** Abhandl.)

(Aug.)

S. J. Ferreira da | Surunenouvelle réaction del’éserine

Silva. et une matiére colorante verte
dérivée du méme alcaloide. (Read
Aug. 14.)

Note on the Nature of the Dandruff
and its Pigment from the Skin of
the Horse. (Sept.)

L’analyse qualitative et la spectro-
scopie. (Dec.)

Ueber die Holminerde . *

F, Smith .

E. Demarcay .

K. Hofmann and
G. Kriiss.

1B
THEORETICAL PAPERS,

1882.

M. Weinberg . Interferenzstreifen
tischen und im Beugungsspec-
trum (‘ Ber. d. naturwiss. Ver. d.
techn. Hochsch, in Wien,’ 1882,

1-8).

1885.

R. von Kévesligethy | Theorie dercontinuirlichen Spectra.
(Read Oct. 19.)

1886.

Die Beugungserscheinungen gerad-
linig begrenzter Schirme. (Read
May 1.)

E. Lommel

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], ix.
722; ‘Chem. News, Ixviii.
221 (Abs.)

‘Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm.’
celxxvii. 105-154; ‘ Ber’
xxvi. (Ref.), 869-871
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
lxvi. I. 43-45 (Abs.)

‘Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm.’
eclxxvii. 154-161; ‘ Ber.”
xxvi. (Ref.), 871-872
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
Ixvi. I. 46 (Abs.)

*C. R, exvii. 330-331;
‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], ix.
753-754 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixiv: J. Wt CAbsais
‘Chem. News,’ Ixviii. 221
(Abs.)

‘J. Physiol.’ xv. 162-166 ;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxiy. IT.
585-586 (Abs.)

| « Rev. générale des sci-

ences, iv. 725-729.

Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
iii. 407-414; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxiv. II, 466-467
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii.
688 (Abs.)

im prisma-/ ‘Carl. Repert.’ xviii. 600-

608 ; ‘ Beibliatter,’ vi. 746
(Abs.)

‘Math. u. naturw. Ber.
aus Ungarn, iv. 9-10;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xii. 346-348
(Abs.)

‘ Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.”
[2], xv. 529-664; ‘Sit-
zungsb. Akad. Miinchen,’
xvi, 84-87 (Abs.) ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xi. 42-46 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

R. von Kévesligethy

W. Michelson

K. Klar . F

R. von Kovesligethy

A. Griinwald .

R. von Kovesligethy

A. E. Nordenskidld

E. F. J. Love.

A. Griinwald .

R. von K6vesligethy

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1887.

1887.
Theorie der discontinuirlichen
Spectra. (Read May 16.)

Theoretical Essay on the Distribu-
tion of Energy in the Spectra of
Solids. (May.) (In Russian.)

Die Theorie des Gliihens. (May.)

Theorie der Lockyer’schen Spectral-
methode und Linienverwandschaf-
ten. (Read June 20.)

Ueber die merkwiirdigen Bezie-
hungen zwischen dem Spektrum
des Wasserdampfes und den Lini-
enspektrum des Wassertoffs und
Sauerstoffs, sowie tiber die che-
mische Struktur der beiden letz-
tern, und ihre Dissociation in der

Sonnenatmosphiare. (July 17.)
Mathematische Spectralanalyse
(Aug.)

Sur un rapport simple entre les
longueurs d’onde des spectres.
(Read Nov. 21.)

On a Method for Discriminating
Real from Accidental Coincidences
between the Lines of Different
Spectra, with some Applications.
(Read Nov. 26.)

Mathematische Spectralanalyse des
Magnesiums und der Kohle. (Read
Dec. 1.)

W. Michelson’s
(Read Dec. 12.)

Spectraltheorie.

231

‘Math. u. .naturw. Ber.
aus Ungarn,’ v. 20-28;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xii. 346-348
(Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.Soc.’
xix. IV. 79-99; ‘J. de
Phys.’ vi. 467-479 (Abs.);
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxv.
425-435 (Abs.)

‘Centralzeit. f. Opt. u.
Mech’ viii. 109-111;
‘Beiblatter,’ xi. 777 (Abs.)

‘Math. u. naturw. Ber.
aus Ungarn,’ v. 29-31;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xii. 579-580
(Abs. )

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exvii. 199-

214; ‘Phil. Mag, [5],
xxiv. 354-367; ‘Chem.
News,’ lvi..186-188, 201-
202, 223-224, 232; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ lii. 1070-1071
(Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’ xxxvi.
501-502 (Abs.) ; ‘Am. J.
[3], xxxix. 399 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter, xii, 245-
246 (Abs.) ; ‘Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’ ii. 38
(Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ cxvii. 328-
338; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xii.
346-348 (Abs.)

*C. RY cy. 988-995 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 245 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxv. 1-6;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ii. 447 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
xevi. II. 1154-1216;
‘Monatsh. f. Chem,’ viii.
650-712; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[5], xxv. 343-350 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblatter,’ xii. 661-662
(Abs.); ‘Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’ ii. 256
(Abs.)

‘Math. naturwiss. Ber.
aus Ungarn,’ vii. 24-36 ;
*Beiblatter,’ xiv. 116-117.

232

C, Fiévez .

J. Willard Gib)s

C. Runge

A. Griinwald .

E. Wilson

T. P. Dale

é. S. Ames

”

E. Conrady

W. Michelson

T. P. Dale

A. Griinwald .

M. Koppe

REPORT—1894.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1888, 1889.

1888.

De la constitution optique des raies
spectrales, en rapport avec la
théorie ondulatoire de la lumiére
(Presented May 8.)

A Comparison of the Elastic and
Electrical Theories of Light with
respect to the Law of Double
Refraction and the Dispersion of
Colours. (June.)

On the Harmonic Series of Lines
in the Spectra of the Elements.

(Sept.)

Spectralanalyse des Kadmiums.
(Read Oct. 11.)
The Law of Dispersion. (Oct.)

On the Upper Limit of Refraction
in Selenium and Bromine. (Nov.)

1889.

Griinwald’s Mathematical Spectrum
Analysis. (Feb.)

The Concave Grating in Theory
and Practice. (March 27.)

Atomrefraction
(March.)

Berechnung der
fiir Natriumlicht.

Modern Researches on the Theory
of Continuous Spectra. (April.)

On a Relation existing between
the Density and Refraction of
Gaseous Elements, and also ofsome
of their Compounds. (Read May
25.)

Spectralanalytischer Nachweis von
Spuren eines neuen, der eilften
Reibe der Mendelejeff’schen Tafel
angehorigen Elementes, welches
besonders im Tellur und Antimon,
ausserdem aber auch im Kupfer
vorkommt. (Oct.)

Das Minimum der Ablenkung beim
Prisma. (Dec.)

‘Bull, Acad. Belg.’ [3], xv.
694 (title); ‘Nature,
XxxXviil. 511 (Abs.)

‘Amer, J. Sci. [3], xxxv.
467-475.

‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1888,
576-577; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xiv. 509-510 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
xevil. II. 967.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxvi. 385—
389; ‘ Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal. Chem.’ ii. 973 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ x. 17—
23; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xxvii. 50-56.

‘Amer. Chem. J.’ xi. 138-
141; ‘Nature,’ xl. 18;
‘ Beibliitter, xiii, 941-
942 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag’ [5], xxvii.
369-384; ‘Beiblatter,’ xiii.
673 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ iii. 210-227.

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.
Soc.’ xxi. 87-103; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xiv. 277-278
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxviii.
268-272.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
xevili. II.b, 785-817;
‘Monatsh. f. Chem.’ x.
829-861; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lvili, 434-435 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblitter,’ xiv. 278-279
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterricht,’ iii. 76-78.

H, Kayser

R. Nasini

J. R. Rydberg

A. Griinwald .

H. Deslandres

A. Griinwald .

J. R. Rydberg

C, Runge

A. W. Gravelaar

Fr. C. G. Miiller

J. S. Ames

ON

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

233

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1889, 1890.

Ueber Griinwald’s mathematische
Spectralanalyse. (Dec.)

1890.

Sullo stato attuale delle teorie
riguardanti il potere rifrangente
dei composti organici. (Jan. 1.)

Sur la constitution des spectres
linéaires des éléments chimiques,
(Read Feb. 24.)

Herr Dr. H. Kayser und meine
mathematische Spectralanalyse.
(March 8.)

Propriété fondamentale commune
aux deux classes de spectres. Ca-
ractéres distinctifs de chacune des
classes. Variation périodique
a’ trois paramétres. (Head April
8.)

Ueber das sogenannte zweite oder
zusammengesetzte _ Wasserstoff-
spectrum von Dr. B. Hasselberg,
und die Structur des Wasserstoffs.
(Read April 17 and Oct. 9.)

Ueber den Bau der Linienspectren
der chemischen Grundstoffe.

(April.)

On a Method of Discriminating
Real from Accidental Coinci-
dences between the Lines of Dif-
ferent Spectra. (June.)

Das Minimum der Ablenkung
eines Lichtstrahls durch ein homo-
genes Prisma. (June.)

Der Satz vom Minimum der Ablen-
kung beim Prisma. (June.)

On the Relations between the Lines
of Various Spectra, with special
Reference to those of Cadmium
and Zinc; and a Re-determina-
tion of theirWave-Lengths. (July.)

‘Chem. Zeitung,’ xili.1655—
1687, xiv. 510-511; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ xiv. 278 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital.” xx, 1-
18.

SC) PRivwex. 21394-3907
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ v. 222-232 ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ xli. 431 (Abs.);
*Chem. News,’ lxi. 145
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliatter,’ xiv.
507-509 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Zeitung,’ xiv. 325-
328; ‘Chem. News,’ lxi.
159. :

°C. RY cx. 748-750; ‘ Na-

ture, xli. 756 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblitter, xiv. 616
(Abs.); ‘Zeitschr. ff.
physikal. Chem.’ vi. 87
(Abs.)

‘Anzeiger d. k. Akad.
Wien,’ xxvi. 70-71, 196—
201; ‘Monatshefte f.
Chem.’ xi. 129-130, xiii.
111-145; ‘Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’ vi. 593
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixii. 288-289, Ixiii. 13
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xiv.
779 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ ¥. LY S-BY an
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxix.

331-337; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lviii. 674-675 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxix. 462-
466.

‘ Zeitschr.f. phys. u. chem.
Unterricht,’ iii. 246-247.

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.

Unterricht, iii. 247-
248; ‘Beiblatter,’ xiv.
979 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxx. 33-
48.

234:

G. J. Stoney .

H. Deslandres

W. N. Hartley

J. S. Ames

A. B. Basset .

G. J. Stoney .

A. Breuer

A. Griinwald .

D. Goldhammer

R. Nasini

G. J. Stoney .

C. Runge

E. Ketteler

.

REPORT—1 894.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1891, 1892.

1891.

Analysis of the Spectrum of So-
dium, including an Inquiry into
the True Place of the Lines that
have been regarded as Satellites.
(Read March 26 and May 22.)

Méthode nouvelle pour la re-
cherche des bandes faibles dans
les spectres de bandes. Applica-
tion aux spectres des hydrocar-
bons. (Read March 31.)

On the Relations between the Lines
of Various Spectra. (April.)

On Homologous Spectra. (Sept.)

On Selective and Metallic Reflexion.
(Read Nov. 12.)

Analysis of the Spectrum of So-
dium, including an Inquiry into
the True Place of the Lines that
have been regarded as Satellites.
(Read Nov. 18.)

Uebersichtliche Darstellung der
mathematischen Theorien tiber die
Dispersion des Lichtes. I. Theil.
(Hannover, Bacmeister, 1890. 50
pp.) II. Theil. Anomale Dispersion.
(Erfurt, Bacmeister. 1891. 54 pp.)

1892.

Ueber das sogenannte zweite oder
zusammengesetzte | Wasserstoff-
spectrum von Dr. B. Hasselberg,
und die Structur des Wasserstofts.
1. Theil. Empirisch-Induction-Ab-
theilung. (Read Feb. 4.)

Essay on the Theory of Dispersion
andAbsorption.(InRussian.)(Feb.)

Sul potere rifrangente per un
raggio di lunghezza d’ onda in-
finita. (March.)

On the Line Spectra of the Ele-
ments. (May.)
On the Line Spectra of the Ele-
ments. (June.)
Das Grenzbrechungsexponent fiir
unendlich langen Wellen.

Transformation der Dispersions-
gleichungen. (Aug.)

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Dubl.’

[2], iv. 563-608 ; ‘ Proc.
Roy. Soc. Dubl.’ [N.S.],
vii. 201-203 (Abs.);
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxili.
503-516 (Abs.); ‘Na-
tore,* xlili, 551-552
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvi.
531-532 (Abs.)

‘C. R cxii. 661-663 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem,’ viii. 144 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag’ [5], xxxi.
359-363.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxii.
319-320.

‘Proc. Math. Soc. London,’
xxili. 4-18 ; ‘ Nature,’ xlv.
119-121 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Dubl.’

[N.S.], vii. 204-217 ;
‘Nature,’ xlv. 166-167
(Abs.)

‘Beiblatter, xiv. 971

(Abs.); ‘ Beibliatter,’ xvi.
273 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
cil. II. 121-254; ‘Mo-
natsh. f. Chem.’ xiii. 111-
244; ‘Zeitschr. f. phy-
sikal. Chem.” x. 668
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii.
203-204(Abs.) ; ‘ J.Chem.
Soc.’ lxii. 1351 (Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys.-Chem.
Soc.’ xxiv. II. 17-39.

‘Gazz. chim. ital. xxiii.
I. 347-354.

‘Nature, xlvi. 29, 126,

222, 268.

‘Nature,’ xlvi. 100, 200,
247.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], xlvi. 572-583;
‘Nature,’ xlvi. 484
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

235

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1892, 1893.

G. J. Stoney . Recent Spectroscopic Determina- | ‘ Nature,’ xlvi. 513.
tions. (Sept.)
1893.
G. Higgs . On the Geometrical Construction | ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ liv. 200-
of the Oxygen Absorption Lines | 208 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
A, B, and a of the Solar Spec- | xlviii. 164-165 (Abs.);
trum, (Read March 9.) ‘Beiblitter, xviii, 338
(Abs.)
A. Cornu Etudes sur les réseaux diffringents. | ‘C. R. cxvi. 1215-1222;
Anomalies focales. (Read May ‘ Beiblitter, xviii. 195-
291) 196 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,
xlviii. 144 (Abs.)

* Sur divers méthodes relatives 4 | ‘C. R.’ cxvi. 1421-1428;
Yobservation des propriétés ap- | ‘ Beiblitter, xviii. 196-
pelées anomalies focales des ré- | 198 (Abs.)
seaux diffringents. (Read June
iS)

A, Kurz. ‘ Die kleinste Ablenkung im Prisma. | ‘ Zeitschr. f. Math. u.

; (Aug.) Phys.’ xxxvili. (Phys.

Abth.), 319-320.
E. Carvallo Le spectre calorifique de la fluorine, | ‘C. R.’ cxvii. 845-847 ;
(Read Dec. 11.) ‘ Beiblatter, xvili. 333
(Abs.)
List of the Chief Abbreviations used in the above Catalogue.
Abbreviated Title. Full Title.
Amer. J. Sei. : American Journal of Science (Silliman’s).
Ann. Agron. Annales Agronomiques.
Ann. Chem. u. Pharm. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie (Liebig).
Ann. Chim. et Phys. . Annales de Chimie et de Physique.
Ann. de Chim. . : Annales de Chimie.
Ann. Obs. Bruxelles . Annuaire de l’Observatoire de Bruxelles.
Ann. Phys. u.Chem. [N. FJ Annalen der Physik und Chemie [Neue Folge]

Arch. de Genéve c
Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. .

Arch s)he" d:
Physiol.

Arch. f. exper. Pathol. u.
Pharmakol.

Arch. néerland .

gesammte

Astr. Nachr. .
Atti d. R. Accad. d. Lincei
Beiblitter .

Ber. . ;

Bied. Centr.

Bot. Zeitung

Bull. Astron.

Bull. Soc. Chim. ‘
Bull. Soc. Min. de France
Chem. Centr.

C. R.

(Wiedemann).
Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles (Genéve).
Archiv fiir pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und
fiir klinische Medicin (Virchow).
Archiv fiir die gesammte Physiologie (Pfliiger).

Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie.

Archives néerlandaises des Sciences exactes et natu-
relles (Haarlem).

Astronomische Nachrichten.

Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei.

Beibliitter zu der Annalen der Physik und Chemie
(Wiedemann).

Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft.

Biedermanns Centralblatt fiir Agriculturchemie.

Botanische Zeitung.

Bulletin Astronomique (Observatoire de Paris).

Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris.

Bulletin de la Société Minéralogique de France.

Chemisches Centralblatt.

Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris).

236

REPORT—1894.

List of the Chief Abbreviations—continued.

Abbreviated Title.
Dingl. J. .
Gazz. chim. ital.
Gottingen. Nachr.

Handl. Svensk. Vet. Akad.

Jahrb. f. Photog.

J. Chem. Soc.

J. de Phys.

J. Physiol.

J. prakt Chem. ’

J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc. .

J. Soc. franc. de Phys.
Math. u. naturwiss.
aus Ungarn.
Mem. spettr. ital. 5
Monatsb. Akad. Berl.

Ber.

Monatsh. f. Chem.

Month. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc.

Oefvers. af K. Vet. Akad.
Forh.

Phil. Mag.

Phil. Trans.

Phot. Mittheil. .
Phys. Review
Phys. Revue
Proc. Phys. Soc.
Proc. Roy. Inst.
Proc. Roy. Soc..
Rec. des. trav.
Pays-Bas.
Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei
Riv. sci. industr. . :
Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.

chim. des

Sitzungsb. Akad. Miinchen

Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien

Sitzungsb. phys.-med. Soc.

Erlangen
Skand. Arch. f. Physiol. .
Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berlin.
Wien. Anz.

Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.

Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem. .
Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u. Min..
Zeitschr. f. physikal. Chem.
Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem,

Unterr.
Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chem.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Micro-
scopie.

Full Title.
Dingler’s polytechnisches Journal.
Gazzetta chimica italiana.

Nachrichten von der Georg-August-Universitiit und der

k6nigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (Gottingen).

Handlingar K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien (Stock-
holm).

Jahrbruch fiir Photographie (Eder).

Journal of the Chemical Society of London.

Journal de Physique.

Journal of Physiology.

Journal fiir praktische Chemie.

Journal of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (in
Russian).

Journal de la Société francaise de Physique.

Mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn.

Memorie della Societ’ degli spettroscopisti italiani.

Monatsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin.

Monatshefte fiir Chemie (Wien).

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society of
London.

Oefversigt af K.
Forhandlingar.

London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London.

Photographische Mittheilungen (Vogel).

Physical Review.

Physikalische Revue.

Procedings of the Physical Society of London.

Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

Recueil des travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas.

Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens

Rendiconti della reale Accademia dei Lincei.

Rivista scientifico-industriale.

Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin.

Sitzungsberichte der kéniglich baierischen Akademie zu
Miinchen.

Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Wien.

Sitzungsberichte der phys.-medicinischen Societit zu
ErlJangen.

Skandinavisches Archiv fiir Physiologie (Leipzig).

Verhandlungen der physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin.

Anzeiger der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien.
Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und Mineralogie.
Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir physikalischen und chemischenUnterricht.

Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie.
Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Microscopie.

ON STANDARDS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF IRON AND STEEL. 237

An International Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel_—
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C.
Roperts-AUSTEN (Chairman), Sir F. Apet, Mr. E. Rivey,
Mr. J. SprLuer, Professor J. W. Lanauey, Mr. G. J. SNELUS,
Professor TILDEN, and Mr. THomas TuRNER (Secretary). (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)

In the previous report of this Committee it was stated that the work of
the British analysts was completed, so far as the four original standards
were concerned, and that the results of the analyses conducted by the
other Committees were in good agreement with those published by this
Committee.

The remaining standard, No. 5, has now been analysed by Messrs.
G. 8. Packer, J. Pattinson, E. Riley, and J. E. Stead, and the results of

their investigations are as follows :—

—

= G.S. Packer | J. Pattinson E. Riley J.E. Stead | Mean
Combined Carbon (0:055) 0034 0:036 0:035 0:035
Silicon : ¢ 0:006 0:005 trace 0:008 0:006
Sulphur 7 3 0:030 0:030 0-023 0086 0:030
Phosphorus . é 0:040 0041 0-041 0-042 0-041
Manganese . : 0:275 0310 0:258 0°317 0-290
Copper : : == == 0-025 — —

Generally speaking, the agreement in these results is very good. The
carbon determination by Mr. Packer is somewhat high, and this is ex-
plained by the fact that Mr. Packer’s determinations were made in the
laboratory of Messrs. J. Brown and Co., Sheffield ; and as the operations
were conducted in the centre of a large works, with dust inevitably in
constant circulation, it was not found possible, even by carefully covering
the vessels in which the analyses were performed, to obtain strictly con-
cordant results with the combustion of samples so low in carbon content.
For this reason, at Mr. Packer’s suggestion, his numbers are not reckoned
in calculating the mean carbon percentage. The quantity of material
operated upon in estimating such small amounts of carbon is necessarily
large, and during filtration and other processes in a dusty atmosphere
sufficient carbon is added to seriously affect the results.

The manganese determinations vary from a minimum of 0:258 toa
maximum of 0317, and the figures have been carefully checked by the
analysts. This difference raises an important question as ta the relative
accuracy of the methods employed, though such inquiries are outside the
present work of the Committee.

Several applications have been received during the past year for samples.
of the standards from chemists engaged in investigations as to the relative
accuracy of various methods of analysis, and it is hoped, now the stan-
dards have been prepared and their composition determined with very
considerable accuracy, that they may be frequently employed for such
purposes of reference.

As the work of the Committee is now completed it is proposed to
shortly deposit the standards with the Board of Trade, as originally
suggested, or with some other suitable authority, where they will be at
the public service.

The Committee do not ask for reappointment.

238 REPORT—1894.

The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor T. E. THorPE (Chairman), Professor J. J.
HumMEL (Secretary), Dr. W. H. PERKIN, Professor W. J. RUSSELL,
Captain W. DE W. Asney, Professor W. Stroup, and Professor
R. Metpoia. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Durine the past year the work of this Committee has been continued,
and a large number of wool and silk patterns, dyed with various natural
and artificial orange and yellow colouring matters, have been examined
with respect to their power of resisting the fading action of light.

The general method of preparing the dyed patterns, and the manner
of exposing them under glass, with free access of air and moisture, were
the same as already adopted.

The patterns were exposed at Adel, near Leeds, in the grounds of
James A. Hirst, Esq., to whom the best thanks of the Committee are
again due for his kind permission to do so.

Each dyed pattern was divided into six pieces, one of which was
protected from the action of light, while the others were exposed for
different periods of time. These ‘ periods of exposure’ were made equivalent
to those adopted last year, by exposing, along with the patterns, special
series of ‘standards,’ dyed with the same colouring matters as were then
selected for this purpose. The standards were allowed to fade to the
same extent as those which marked off the ‘fading period’ of last year,
before being renewed or removing a set of dyed patterns from the action
of light. The patterns exposed during the past year are therefore
comparable, in respect of the amount of fading which they have ex-
perienced, with the red dyes already reported upon,

The patterns were all put out for exposure on June 8, 1893, certain
sets being subsequently removed on the following dates :—July 1, July 31,
August 26, 1893 ; February 19, June 12, 1894. Of the five ‘periods of
exposure’ thus marked off, periods 1, 2, 3 were equivalent to each other
in fading power, whereas periods 4 and 5 were each equivalent to four of
the first period in this respect ; hence five patterns of each colour have
been submitted respectively to an amount of fading equal to 1, 2, 3, 7,
and 11 times that of the first ‘fading period’ selected—viz. June 8 to
July 1, 1893.

The dyed and faded patterns have again been entered in pattern-card
books in such a manner that they can be readily compared with each other.

The foliowing tables give the general result of the exposure experi-
ments made during the year 1893-94, the colours being divided, according
to their behaviour towards light, into the following five classes: very
fugitive, fugitive, moderately fast, fast, very fast.

The initial numbers refer to the order of the patterns in the pattern-
books. The 8. and J. numbers refer to Schultz and Julius’s ‘ Tabel-
larische Uebersicht der kiinstlichen organischen Farbstoffen.’

The colours marked thus (*) appear to be somewhat faster than the
rest of the class in which they are placed.

In the case of colouring matters requiring mordants, the particular
mordant employed is indicated in brackets after the name of the dye-

stuff.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 239

Crass I. Very Fuairive Corours. (Wo0t.)

The colours of this class have faded so rapidly that at the end of the
first ‘fading period’ (June 8 to July 1, 1893) only a very faint colour
remains, or it has become very materially altered in hue. At the end of
the fifth period (one year) all traces of the original colour have disap-
peared, the woollen cloth being either quite white or merely of a yellowish
or brownish tint.

Nitro Colours.

Wool Book ITT.

Acid Yellows. 9. Aurantia. Ammonium salt of hexa-nitro-diphenylamine. S. and
J. 14,

32. *Brilliant Yellow. Sodium salt of dinitro-a-naphthol-a-sulphonic
acid. S. and J. 12.

3 37. *Naphthol Yellow. Sodium salt of dinitro-a-naphthol. S. and
J. 9.

38. *Naphthol Yellow 8. Sodium salt of dinitro-a-naphthol-f-sul-
phonic acid. §S. and J. 11.

3 43. Picric acid, Tri-nitro-phenol. 8. and J. 1.

Azo Colours.
Wool Book IV.
Mordant Colours. 14. *Wool Yellow (Cr.). From azo derivative’ of aniline and
maclurin. S. and J. 32.
Wool Book ITT.
Basic Yellows. 4. Chrysoidine. From aniline and m-phenylene-diamine. 8S. and

J. 31.
Direct Cotton 1. Terra Cotta F. From primulin and m-phenylene-diamine-azo-
Colours. naphthionic acid.
% 9 Direct Orange RR. Constitution not published.
+ 26. Thiazol Yellow. From azo derivative of dehydro-thio-toluidine-
sulphonic acid, and debydro-thio-toluidine-sulphonic acid.
; S. and J. 98.
a 28. Mimosa Yellow. From azo derivative of primulin, and ammonia.
F 30. Direct Yellow TS. Constitution not published.
sf 36. Direct Orange R. Constitution not published.
fe 39. Direct Yellow ASC. Constitution not published.

Diphenylmethan Colours.

Basic Colours. 7. Auramine. Imido-tetra-methyl-diamido-diphenyl-methan-hydro-
chloride. 8. and J. 260.

Triphenylmethan Colours.

Acid Colours. 48, Uranin A. Sodium salt of fluorescein. §S.and J. 315.

Quinoline Colours.

Basic Colours. 42. Quinoline Yellow (sol. in spirit), Quino-phthalone. 8. and J. 378.

Acridine Colours.

5 1. Acridine Orange R. extra. Zinc salt of tetra-methyl-diamido-
phenyl-acridine.

Acridine Orange NO. Zinc salt of tetra-methyl-diamido-acridine.
S. and J. 381.

Phosphine. Diamido-phenyl-acridine-nitrate. 8. and J. 382.

Benzoflavine. Diamido-phenyl.di-methyl-acridine hydrochloride.
S. and J. 383.

”

»”

24.0 REPORT—1894.

Thiobenzenyl Colours.

Wool Book III.

Basic Colours. 9. Thioflavin T. Dimethyl-dehydro-thio-toluidine-methyl chloride.
S. and J. 384.

Acid Colour. 29, Thioflavin 8. Sodium salt of dimethyl-dehydro-thio-toluidine-
sulphonic acid. §. and J. 385.

Direct Cotton 31. Primulin. Sulphonated product of the interaction of sulphur and

Colour. p-toluidine. S. and J. 386.

Natural Colouring Matters.

Non-mordant Colours. 1. Annatto. Pulp from fruit of Bixa orellana.
Fs 2. Saffron. Stigmata of the flower of Crocus sativus.
5 3. Turmeric. Rhizome of Curcuma tinctoria.
Mordant Colours. 1. Young Fustic (Al.). Wood of Rhus cotinus.
fy 8. Tesu (Al.). Flowers of Butea frondosa.

Nores.—Certain of the nitro colours show extreme sensitiveness to
light by rapidly altering in hue. During the first ‘period of exposure,’ the
rich red-orange colour of Aurantia, for example, soon changes to brown,
and the pure lemon-yellow of Picric Acid changes to orange-yellow ; in
both cases these altered colours fade slowly without any further change
in hue, and might almost be placed among the ‘ moderately fast colours.’
Brilliant Yellow, Martius Yellow, and Naphthol Yellow S behave some-
what like Picric Acid, but the alteration in hue is much less pronounced.
Thiazol Yellow, Mimosa Yellow, Thioflavin T and 8, and Primulin all fade
rapidly during the first ‘period of exposure’ to a yellow-buff, which then
appears to be ‘ moderately fast.’

Crass IIT Fucirive Contours. (WOo0L.)

The colours of this class show very marked fading at the end of the
second ‘fading period’ (July 1 to July 31, 1893), and after a year’s
exposure they have entirely faded, or only a tint remains.

Azo Colours.
Wool Book III.
Acid Colours. 1. Orange R. From xylidine-sulphonic acid and f-naphthol. S.
and J. 81.
5 6. Orange I. From p-sulphanilic acid and a-naphthol. 8. and J. 72.
5 14. Narcein. Sodium bisulphite compound of Orange II. S. and J.
103.
4 35. Phenoflavin. From m-sulphanilic acid and diamido-phenol-sul-
phonic acid,
Direct Cotton 4. Benzo Orange R. From benzidine, salicylic and naphthionic acids.
Colours. 8. and J. 173.
5. Salmon Red. Sodium salt of diamido-diphenyl-urea-disazo-naph-
thionic acid. 8. and J. 143.
5 6. Toluylene Orange R. From o-tolidine and m-toluylene-diamine-
sulphonic acid. §.and J 197.
55 8. Cloth Orange. From benzidine, salicylic acid, and resorcinol. S.
and J. 170.

Quinoline Colours.

Acid Colours, 41 Quinoline Yellow 8. Sodium salt of quino-thalone-disulphonic
acid. 8. and J. 379,

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 241

Natural Colouring Matters.
Wool Book IV.
Mordant Colours. 1. Tesu (Cr.).
3. Young Fustic (Cr.).
5. Anthracine (Cr.). Composition not published.
2. Quercitron Bark (Al.). Bark of Quercus nigra.
3. Old Fustic (Al.). Wood of Morus tinctoria.
6. Flavin (Al.). Quercetin prepared from Quercitron Bark.
“ 7. Persian Berries (Al.). Fruit of Rhamnus saxatilis.
2
3
t
5
6
7

-
=
i

. Persian Berries (Sn.).
. Young Fustic (Sn.).

. Flavin (Sn.).

. Quercitron Bark (Sn.).
. Old Fustic (Sn.).

. Tesu (Sn.).

Nores.—The fugitive character of Narcein as compared with Orange
II., of which it is merely the sodium bisulphite compound, is very pro-
nounced. The bright orange of Flavin with tin mordant changes rapidly
during the first exposing period to an olive-yellow, which may be regarded
as ‘moderately fast.’ A similar change is noticed in the case of Quercitron
Bark and Old Fustic with the same mordant, the faded colour of the
latter being, however, very dull.

With aluminium and tin mordants Anthracine gives bright but very
fugitive colours.

Cuass III. Mopsrarety Fast Cotours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show distinct fading at the end of the second
period (July 1 to July 31, 1893), which becomes more pronounced at the
end of the third period (July 31 to August 26, 1893). <A pale tint re-
mains at the end of the fourth ‘ period of exposure’ (August 26, 1893, to
February 19, 1894), and at the end of a year’s exposure the colour has
entirely faded, or, at most, mere traces of colour remain.

zo Colours.

Wool Book III.
Acid Colours. 2. Orange GT. From toluidine and 8-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid S.

8. and J. 41.
9 4, *Mandarin GR. extra. From o-toluidine-mono-sulphonic acid and
B-naphthol, 8. and J. 78.
Bs 5. cauauige II. From p-sulphanilic acid and B-naphthol. S. and
. 73.

7. *Orange III. From m-nitraniline and 8-naphthol-disulphonic
acid R. S.and J. 33.

10. Dimethylaniline Orange. From p-sulphanilic acid and dimethyl-
aniline. S. and J. 74.

” 11. *Diphenylamine Orange. From p-sulphanilic acid and diphenyl-
amine. S. and J. 75.

as 12. Tropzolin Y. From p-sulphanilic acid and phenol. §S. and J. 70.

ss 15. *Metanil Yellow. From m-sulphanilic acid and diphenylamine.
S. and J. 77.

oh 16. Resorcinol Yellow. From p-sulphanilic acid and resorcinol. S.
and J. 71.

a 18. *Acid Yellow OO. Constitution not published.

bs 19. *Fast Yellow N. From yp-toluidine-o-sulphonic acid and

diphenylamine. 8. and J. 79.
1894, R

242 REPORT—1894.

Wool Book III.
Acid Colours. 28. *Curcumein. Nitro derivative of Diphenylamine Orange. §,
and J. 101.
5 29. *Azoflavin S. Same as Curcumein, but more highly nitrated.
S. and J. 102.
44, * . Bromine derivative of Metanil Yellow.
1) 45. Persian Yellow (G). Constitution not published.
Direct Cotton 2. Salmon Red. Constitution not published.
Colours. 3. Congo Orange R. From tolidine, S-naphthylamine-disulphonic
acid R and phenol (ethylated). §. and J. 202.
of 7. Congo Orange G. From benzidine, 6-naphthylamine-disulphonic
acid R and phenol (ethylated).
o 10. Toluylene Orange G. From _ tolidine, o-cresotinic acid, and
m-toluylene-diamine-sulphonic acid. §. and J. 196.
23. Carbazol Yellow. From diamido-carbazol and salicylic acid.
S.and J. 181.
24. *Cotton Yellow G. Sodium salt of diamido-diphenyl-urea-disazo-
salicylic acid. §. and J. 144.

”

Wool Book IV.
Mordant Colour. 24. Mordant Yellow (Cr.). Constitution not published.

Triphenylmethan Colours.

Wool Book III.
Acid Colours. 33. Aurotin. Sodium salt of tetra-nitro-phenol-phthalein. S. and

J. 314.

Natural Colouring Matters.

Wool Book IV.
Mordant Colours. 5. Weld (Al.). Reseda luteola (whole plant),

Nores.—The following colours become somewhat duller and apparently
darker during the first and second periods of exposure :—Diphenylamine
Orange, Metanil Yellow, Fast Yellow N, Azo-flavin 8, Acid Yellow OO,
and Aurotin. This appearance is only observed when the patterns are
examined ‘underhand,’ 7.¢e. by looking down into the fabric ; when they
are examined ‘overhand,’ i.e. by glancing along the surface, a normal
fading of the colours is observed. This darkening is probably due to the
presence of the diphenylamine group in the first four colours mentioned,
and to the presence of the nitro group in the case of Aurotin, of which
the alteration in hue reminds one of the change occurring in Picrie Acid
Yellow, though it is less pronounced.

Mordant Yellow with aluminium and tin mordants gives colours which
may well be classed with the fast colours.

Cuass IV. Fast Contours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show comparatively little fading during the
first, second, and third periods. At the end of the fourth ‘period of ex-
posure’ a pale shade remains, which at the end of the year’s exposure still
leaves a pale tint.

Nitro Colours.

Woot Book III.
Acid Colours. 3. *Palatine Orange. Ammonium salt of tetra-nitro - y - diphenol.
S. and J. 8.

Hydrazone Colours.

Acid Colours. 36. Tartrazin. Sodium salt of diphenyl-y-sulphonic-acid-osazone-
dioxytartaric acid. 8S. and J. 19.

39. Nitrazin Yellow. Sodium salt of dinitro-dixylyl-p-sulphonic
acid-osazone-dioxytartaric acid.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 243

‘Azo Colours.
Wool Book III.
Acid Colours. 23. *Acid Yellow. Sodium salt of amido-azo-benzene-disulphonic
acid. 8. and J. 21.

“ 24. *Fast Yellow. Sodium salt of amido-azo-toluene-disulphonic acid.
8. and J. 22.
” 25. Brilliant Yellow 8. Sulphonated Diphenylamine Orange. S, and
J. 76.
31. *Milling Yellow OO. Constitution not published.
~ 34, *Milling Yellow. From A-naphthylamine-a-sulphonic acid and

salicylic acid.
Direct Cotton 11. Titan Yellow R. From thio-p-toluidine-sulphonic acid. (Con-

Colours. stitution not published.)

a 12. Chrysamin R. From o-tolidine and salicylic acid. §S. and J. 195.

= 13. Cresotin Yellow R. From o-tolidine and o-cresol-carboxylic acid.

“A 16. Chrysophenin. Ethylated Brilliant Yellow from diamido-stilbene-
disulphonic acid. 8. and J. 156.

i 17. Cresotin Yellow G. From benzidine and o-cresol-carboxylic acid.

5 19. Diamine Yellow N. From ethoxy-benzidine, phenol, and salicylic
acid (ethylated). S. and J. 204.

- 21. Chrysamin G. From benzidine and salicylic acid. S. and J. 166.

33 22. *Oriol Yellow. From dehydro-thio-p-toluidine-sulphonic acid and
salicylic acid. 8. and J. 99.

3 38. Titan Yellow Y. From thio-p-toluidine-sulphonic acid, (Con-

stitution not published.)
Wool Book IV.
Mordant Colours. 12. Chrome Orange (Cr.). Constitution not published.
5 13. Yellow for wool A F (Cr.). Constitution not published.
+ 20. Chrome Yellow (Cr.). Constitution not published.

Oxyketone Colours.
Mordant Colours. 25. Galioflavin (Cr.). Oxidation product of gallic acid. S. and J.
242.
~ 26. Alizarin Yellow A (Cr.). Tri-oxy-benzophenone. S.and J. 237.

Natural Colouring Matters.

Mordant Colours. 2. Persian Berries (Cr.).
ci 8. Weld (Sn.).

Nores.—In Palatine Orange we meet with the first example of a colour
fast to light, the manufacture of which has already been abandoned ;
possibly some difficulty or expense connected with its manufacture may
account for this circumstance.

Yellow for wool AF, applied with aluminium mordant, is very fugi-
tive, while Chrome Orange seems quite as fast as with chromium. Chrome
Yellow with aluminium mordant may be classed as a ‘ moderately, fast ’
colour.

Galloflavin with aluminium and tin mordants gives fugitive colours,
more especially with aluminium.

Criass V. Very Fast CoLours.

The colours of this class show a very gradual fading during the dif-
ferent periods, and even after a year’s exposure a moderately good colour
remains.

R2

24.4 REPORT—1894.

Azoxy Colours.
Wool Book III.
Direct Cotton 20. Curcumin S. Sodium salt of azoxy-stilbene-disulphonic acid.
Colours. 8. and J. 16.
a 33. Mikado Orange 3 RO. Constitution not published. 8S. and J. 18.
a 35. Mikado Orange GO. Constitution not pubiished. 8S. and J. 18.

zo Colours.

Acid Colours. 13. Orange GG. From aniline and §-naphthol-disulphonic acid G.
8. and J. 28.

Wool Book IV.

Mordant Colours. 10. *Alizarin Yellow R (Cr.). From p-nitraniline and salicylic acid.

8. and J. 35.

= 17. *Anthracene Yellow C (Cr.). Constitution not published.

- 18. *Diamond Yellow R (Cr.). From o-amido-benzoic acid and
salicylic acid. §. and J. 231.

Fr 19. *Alizarin Yellow GGW. (Cr.). From m-nitraniline and salicylic
acid. §. and J. 34.

4 21. *Gambine Yellow (Cr.). Constitution not published.

5 22. *Diamond Yellow G (Cr.). From m-amido-benzoic acid and

salicylic acid. S. and J. 230.
23. *Flavazol (Cr.). From p-toluidine and salicylic acid.
Direct Cotton 14. Brilliant Yellow. From diamido-stilbene-disulphonic acid and
Colours. phenol. 8. and J. 149.

as 15. Hessian Yellow. From diamido-stilbene-disulphonie acid and
; salicylic acid. S. and J. 154.
e 37. Chloramine Yellow. Oxyphenin.

Oxyketone Colours.
Mordant Colours. 9. *Alizarin Orange W (Cr.) (Al.). A-nitro-alizarin. S.and J. 251.

Natural Colouring Matters.

Mordant Colours. 4. *Flavin (Cr.).

ay 6. *Quercitron Bark (Cr.).

P 7. *Weld (Cr.).

5. 8. *Old Fustic (Cr.).

5 16. *Xanthaurin (Cr.). Composition not published.

Nores.—The brownish-red given by Alizarin Orange W with chro-
mium mordant becomes, during the first ‘fading period,’ distinctly bluer in
shade, and hence apparently darker ; the altered colour then fades so
‘slowly that even after a year’s exposure the faded colour appears almost
as dark as the original.

The azo colours in this class which have been dyed on chromium mor-
danted wool leaye, at the end of a year’s exposure, faded colours of greater
body and fulness than those applied without mordant ; this is no 5 doubt
due to the inferior fastness of the latter, the faded colours of which are
covered with a thin layer of perfectly bleached fibres.

All the artificial azo-mordant-colours in this class were fixed with
aluminium as well as chromium mordant, and found to be equally fast to
light. 'They were also applied with a tin mordant, but only in a few cases
were satisfactory level colours thus obtained, and these seemed to be inferior
to those applied with an aluminium mordant, in point of brilliancy ; as well
as of fastness to light.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 245

SILK PATTERNS.

Most of the foregoing colours were also dyed on silk, and the patterns
were exposed to light along with those on wool. The relative fastness of the
various colours was, for the most part, the same as on wool, the differences
observed being too unimportant to necessitate a special classification for
sik. In Class IV., Yellow for wool A F (Cr.) proved to be much more
fugitive on silk, whereas Chrysamin R and G, Titan Yellow R and Y,
Oriol, Cresotin Yellow R and G, and Chrysophenin appeared to be
somewhat faster. In Class III. the same remark applies to Cotton
Yellow G.

The Indian dye-stuff Kamala was an additional one applied to silk, and
found to belong to the fugitive class, being very little faster than Annatto.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

The first thing which strikes one when examining these orange and
yellow patterns is the comparatively large number of satisfactorily per-
manent colours.

In the more or less fugitive class are to be found all the basic colours,
all the nitro-phenols, with the exception of Palatine Orange, and all the
bright yellows derived from the natural colouring matters by means of
aluminium and tin mordants, with the exception of those obtained from
Weld. Comparatively few azo colours are met with in this group.

The marked alteration in colour from yellow to orange shown in the
case of Picric Acid has long been known, and is ascribed to a reducing
action of the light. The equally striking change from orange to brown,
shown by Aurantia, does not, however, seem to have been previously
recorded.

By far the largest number of yellows, ranging from ‘moderately fast’
to ‘ very fast,’ are to be found among theazo colours. Specially important
are those in which salicylic acid is a constituent element, since not only does
this impart to the colour the power of forming more or less stable lakes with
chromium and aluminium mordants, but it appears frequently to give the
colours the quality of fastness to light, even when no mordant is applied.
It is a fact of some importance that the colours obtained with aluminium
are practically as fast as those fixed with chromium, since the first-named
mordant gives much brighter and purer yellows. The tin mordant, so useful
in the production of the most brilliant orange and yellow colours obtainable
from the natural colouring matters, seems, however, to be of little or no
advantage in connection with most of these azo-mordant-colours, no doubt
because they are susceptible to the reducing action of the mordant usually
employed for wool—viz. stannous chloride.

Very interesting in point of fastness to light are the azoxy colours, and
although unfortunately apt to dye wool somewhat irregularly, giving
speckled-looking colours, they are admirably adapted for silk and
cotton.

Another interesting little group is that which includes Tartrazin, a
colour not only noteworthy for its fastness to light, but also because of its
brilliancy and purity.

The fastness of Alizarin Orange is worthy of special mention, for it is
probably greater even than that exhibited by most other colours of the

246 REPORT—1894.

Alizarin group, and it shows the peculiar darkening action exerted by the
light, probably in consequence of the presence of the nitro group.

It is remarkable how few really fast yellows are derived from the
natural colouring matters, and these are chiefly the olive-yellows obtained
with chromium mordant. The only fast, and at the same time bright,
natural yellows are those derived from Weld, and since this dye-stuff is
now of little general importance to the dyer its cultivation has become
extremely limited, and is gradually being given up ; it is fortunate, there-
fore, that science has been able to replace it by efficient substitutes, so far,
at least, as permanency towards light is concerned.

Our experiments have already abundantly proved that the popular
opinion that the coal tar dye-stufls include only such as yield more or less
fugitive colours is entirely false ; indeed, it is perfectly safe to assert that
coal-tar is the source from which the greatest number of colours fast to
light are derived at the present time, and this seems to be specially true of
the red and yellow colours.

Bibliography of Solution—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. TiLDEN (Chairman), Dr. W. W. J. Nicou
(Secretary), Professor H. McLerop, Mr. 8. U. PickErinG, Professor
W. Ramsay, and Professor SYDNEY YOUNG.

Tue Committee have collected the titles of all papers on solution published
before 1874 in the journals catalogued by the Royal Society, the arrange-
ment and classification of these are well advanced, and the Committee hope
that this portion of the work will be completed and ready for publication
at the next meeting of the Association.

Prowimate Chemical Constituents of Coal.—Interim Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir I. LowrH1an BELL (Chairman), Pro-
fessor P. PHILLIPS BEDSON (Secretary), Mr. Lupwia Monp, Professor
Vivian B. Lewes, Professor H. Hutt, Mr. J. W. THomas, and
Mr. H. Baverman.

Or the proximate constituents of the organic material forming coal our
knowledge is limited to the demonstrated existence in it of certain gaseous
hydrocarbons which have been extracted under conditions such as to lead to
the belief that these gases exist occluded or enclosed in the coal itself.
Further, certain mineral substances (containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen) of a more or less defined character have been met with from time
to time in association with coal, and also some few solid hydrocarbons.

The literature bearing upon this subject is extremely meagre, but it
appears that the action of some solvents on coal has formed the subject of
investigation by several chemists. Ether, alcohol, petroleum ether, benzene,
and phenol have been used as solvents by different observers. The last
named was found by Guignet to dissolve from 2 to 4 per cent. of a brown
amorphous solid from a fat coal. Guignet has also observed that, by the
action of nitric acid on coal, oxalic acid and trinitro-resorcinol are produced ;
further, there are formed insoluble substances, apparently similar to ‘ nitro-
cellulose,’ which explode on heating.

ON THE PROXIMATE CHEMICAL. CONSTITUENTS OF COAL, 24.7

For the purposes of a preliminary study a coal representing the Hutton
seam in the county of Durham was selected. This coal is a bituminous
coal, and is used as a gas coal. When heated with ether it yields up to
the solvent a small amount of a substance which imparts a light yellow
colour to the ether, and a blue fluorescence is observed, similar to that
noted by Dondorff in his experiments with a gas coal of the Westphalia
Coalfield. Alcohol, benzene, and petroleum ether dissolve but little from
the coal, the solutions being in each case similar to that obtained with
ether.

Acetic anhydride and glacial acetic acid were employed as solvents
with but little effect. Somewhat more promising at first were the results
obtained by using a solution of sulphur dioxide in glacial acetic acid.
The coal was heated at 100° C. with this solution in tightly closed
flasks. The liquid becomes dark in colour, and on adding water to the
solution a light yellow precipitate is formed. The precipitate is dissolved
by ether, and the ethereal solution on evaporation leaves an oily residue,
which was found to be partially volatile in steam.

Turpentine heated at 150° C. in a tightly closed flask with the
powdered coal dissolves some constituent, becoming darker in colour and
acquiring a greenish-blue fluorescence.

When the coal is heated with aniline a brown amorphous solid is
dissolved out, which is precipitated from the aniline on acidifying with
hydrochloric acid. This substance is not unlike that obtained by Guignet
by treatment of coal with phenol. It was attempted to separate this
solid into several fractions by treatment with alcohol and benzene.
The alcoholic and benzene solutions, however, left merely resinous sub-
stances on evaporation. Dilute solutions of potassium permanganate
oxidise this solid, forming dark brown solutions containing potassium
carbonate and the potassium salts of organic acids. The quantity of
material being small, it was next decided to treat the coal itself with
potassium permanganate. For this purpose finely powdered coal is sus-
pended in water, to which, when boiling, potassium permanganate is added
in small quantities at a time. The colour of the permanganate gradually
disappears, and an odour resembling that of turpentine is observed ; at the
same time a dark brown alkaline liquid is formed.

The amount of permanganate which is thus reduced by the coal is
considerable : in one case where 500 grams of coal were taken, some 1,600
grams of permanganate were employed without exhausting the reducing
power of the coal, of which some 25 to 30 per cent. had been oxidised in
this manner.

The aqueous solution decanted off from the manganese dioxide and
coal is very dark in colour, becoming almost black when concentrated.

Amongst the acids formed in this way, oxalic acid has been found,
together with some deliquescent acids, which on the evaporation of their
aqueous solutions are left as brown resinous masses. The separation of
these products is still incomplete, and it would be futile to give the results
of the analyses of the salts which have been prepared. The barium salts
appear to afford a means of separating the acids, some of which salts have
been already obtained in a fairly pure condition. The account of these
acids and the study of the action of potassium permanganate on other
coals it is proposed to deal with in a subsequent report.

248; REPORT—1894.

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.
—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscog, Dr.
MarsHaLL Watts, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors J. DrEwar,
G. D. Liverne, A. Scuuster, W. N. Hartiey, and Woicorr
Gipps, and Captain ABNEY. (Drawn up by Dr. Warts.)

Curomium (Arc SPECTRUM).
Hasselberg: ‘ Kong]. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akadem. Handl.,’ Bd. 26, No. 5, 1894.

* Coincident with a solar line. t See Calcium.
+ See Iron. § See Nickel.

Rowland’s Normal solar lines (on which these measurements of the Chromium
lines rest) are given at the foot of page 255.

Reduction) ¢ psa Reduction aR.
Wave- Intensity to Vacuum 3 SI 3 Wave: Intensity to Vacuum 5 = =
length and 22s | length and ‘ = oP
i 82
(Rowland) | Character we -- & Es | (Rowland) | Character! ,, | +_ ena
*5797-02 1 1:58 | 4°7| 17245°5 || 5432°56 1 1:48 | 5:0} 18402°5
579200 1 ” »» | 17260°5 || *5409-99 10 ” » | 18479°3
*5791°20 6 » » | 172629 || *5405-22 2 “: » | 18495°6
5788'63 15 ” », | 17270°5 || 6400-82 4 1:47) 5:1) 185106
*5788'15 5 » 9» | 17272:0|| 5391-57 2 » | 9» | 18542-4
5787°26 os) ” » | 17274:6 || *5390°60 2 + » | 18545-7
5786-00 3 5 y> | 17278-4 || *5387-76 3 =) » | 18555°5
*5785°21 4 3 » | 17280-7 || *5387-17 3 $ » | 18557°5
*5784:09 4 ne yy» | 17284:1]| 5377-82 1 co » | 18589°8
*5783'32 3 » | o | 17286:4 |] *5373-92 15 » | > | 18603°3
*5782°01 i 5) » | 17290°3 || *5370°57 15 5 » | 18614-9
*5781°43 2 + »» | 17292-1 || *5368-73 15 “ », | 18621:3
5781-20 15 + »» | 17292°7 || *6348-50 8 1:46} ,, | 18691-7
*5753°88 15 1:57| ,, | 17374-9 || *5345-98 8 ns »» | 18700°5
5746°65 15 e » | 17396°7 || 5344-98 15 ” » | 18704:0
5738°77 15 156] ,, | 17420-7 || *5340-66 2 “A » | 18719°2/
5736°88 1 aS » | 174264 || *5329-91 3n 4 », | 18757-0
5729°42 15 RS » | 17449-1 || *4329-30 4n *) » | 18759°1
5720:06 15 » | 4:8) 17477°5 |\t*5328-50 8n ” » | 18761-9
*5713:03 3 » », | 17499:0 || “5318-97 2 145] ,, | 18795-5
*5712°87 15 ” » | 17499°5 |) *5313-05 2 53 » | 18816°5
*5702°56 3 155] ,, | 17531:2|| *5304:37 2 3 » | 18847°3
6700°75 15 ” »» | 17536°7 || *5300°90 5 » | 52] 18859°6.
*5698°55 4 + » | 17543°5 || “5298-43 8 x » | 18868°3 |-
*5694:93 3 » 9» | 17554°7 || *5298-14 4n ce », | 18869:4
5683°76 In = » | 17589-2 || *5297-°52 5n o » | 18871°6
5682°67 2n 9 » | 17592°6 || *5296°86 8 ° » | 18873:9
5681:39 1‘5n » », | 17596°5|| 5293-57 1 " » | 18885°6
5674:42 1 = » | 17618°1 || *5287:36 15 1-44/ ,, | 189078
*5664:26 3 1:54} ,, | 17649°8 || *5280-48 15 . » | 18932°5
*5658°85 15 “ », | 176665 |) *5276:20 6 5 » | 18947°8 |
5649-60 2 » | 17695°5 || *5275°85 4 ay » | 18949-1
5642-60 15 53 » | L7{175 || *5275:3) 6 “ » | 18951:0
*5638°35 1 “ tau lt =>aro oT 2 of » | 18957°3
*5628'87 3 “5 »» | 17760°7 || *5272°17 2 > » | 18962°3
*5480°71 3 1:50| 5:0} 18240°8 || *5265-88 6 + », | 18985-0
*5464:16 3 1:49| ,, | 18296-1 || *5265°31 3 re » | 18987:0
5442°61 2 » » | 18368°5 || *5264:32 8 ns » | 18990°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 249

CHromium (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction Eb Reduction Eb

Wave- | Intensity SS sab $8 5 Wave- | Intensity eerie $5 8

length and = 2S || length aod) |-=ar ia ea

(Rowland) | Character) ,, | 1_) 22 || (Rowland)| Character} », | 1_| 2%

x cmt r Omn'"
$*5261°91 2 1:44] 5:2} 18999°3 | *4936°51 4 1:35 | 5°6| 20251°6
*5255°27 4 - » | 190233 || 4930:36 15 A » | 202769
*5255:08 3 A » | 19024:0 || *4922-40 5 Pr » | 20309°7
*5247°68 6 1:43] ,, | 19050°8 || *4921-11 2 ” », | 20315-0
*5243'53 2 Fe » | 19065°9 || 4903°40 3 1:34] ,, | 20388°4
5241°62 1 ee » | 19072°9|} 488869 2 5 » | 20449°8
*5240°62 1 Fr » | 190765 || 4887°15 4 PS » | 20456°2
*5239°13 2 + » | 19081:9 || *4886°11 15 ” » | 20460°6
*5228°25 15 He y» | 19121-7 || *4885-92 3 + » | 2046174
*5227-04 1:5 Ky » | 1912671 || 4885°12 15 ” » | 20464°7
*5225°98 15 tg », | 19130:0|| 4874-81 1 1:33| ,, | 20508-0
*5225°17 15 A », | 19132:9 || *4870:96 5 t » | 20524-2
¥*5225-08 4 - », | 19133°3 || *4862:00 4 » | 57] 20561°9
*5224-70 15 . » | 191347 || 486138 2 " » | 20564°6
*5224-22 1 3 » | 191364 || 4857-50 1 = » | 20581°0
*5222°83 1 ie » | 191415 || 4855°32 1 5 » | 20590°3
*5221:90 2 Pr » | 19144°9 || *4851°65 1:5 a) » | 20605°8
*5221:06 15 Ys » | 19148:0 || *4848°39 1 ” », | 20619°7
*5214°30 15 - »» | 19172°8 || *4837:00 15 1:32| ,, | 20668-2
$*5208°58 1Onr | 1:42} 5:3| 19193°8 || *4831:79 1:5 HS », | 20690°6
5206-20 10nr ts » | 19202°6 || *4829°50 4 F 4, | 20700°4
$5204°67 10nr a » | 19208:2 |} *4824°31 1 ” y» | 20722°7
*5200°33 15 5 »» | 19224:2}) 4824-10 1 ~ » | 20723°6
*5196-60 4 = » | 192381 || 4816-31 15 3 » | 207571
*5193°66 15 3 » | 19248-9}| *4814-44 15 + » | 20765:1
*5192°17 3 3 »» | 19254°5 |) *4810°91 1:5 : » | 20780°4
§*5184-73 2 3 y», | 19282:1 || *4806-44 1:5 Bs » | 20799°7
*5177°58 2 * »» | 19308°7 || *4801°17 4 131] ,, | 20822°6
*5166'41 3 1-41] ,, | 19350°5 || *4796:29 2 oS », | 20843°7
| *5161°98 15 i » | 193671 || *4792°61 4 “5 » | 20859°8
*5144:87 15 is »> | 19431°5 || *4790°44 2 a » | 20869°2
*5142-46 1 3 yy | 19440°6 |) *4789-45 5 + »» | 20873°5
*5139°82 3 x » | 19450°6 || *4783-16 1:5n » | 58} 20900°9
*5123°64 2 1:40] ,, | 19512°1 |) *4775°25 15 » », | 209356°5
5122-98 1 & » | 19514°6|| 4774-63 1 op » | 20938:2
*5122°30 15 Fr », | 19517-2 || *4770°80 i FF » | 20955:0
*5113°31 15 » | 54] 19551-4 || *4767-98 2 ¢ » | 29967-4
5112°70 1 “ »» | 19553°7 || *4767°40 L5 + »» | 20970°0
*5110°93 2 3 » | 19560°5 || *4766:77 2 1:30} ,, | 20972°8
*5092-08 1 1°39] ,, | 19632°9|| 4764°81 15 + »» | 20981°4
5078-92 1 3 » | 19683°8 || *4764-45 3 + » | 20983-0
*5073°10 2 Ph », | 19706-4 |) *4761°43 1 or » | 20996°3
*5068°50 1 "3 » | 19724°3 | t*4757-76 15 + » | 21012°5
*5067:90 2 x » | 19726°6 || 4757-49 15 a » | 21013°7
*5066:10 15 5 » | 19733°6 || *4756°30 4 “f » | 21018°9
*5052°10 2 1:38| ,, | 19788°3 || *4755:36 15 5 » | 21023:2
5048-96 it 3 », | 19800°7 | §*4754-95 15 ) »» | 21024:9
*5022°12 1 1:37 | 5°5 | 199064 || 4754-10 1 3 » | 21028°7
*5013°48 3 a »» | 19940°7 | §*4752:27 3 i » | 21036°8
*5004-60 1 > | 99 | 1997671 || *4745:48 2 3» «(| | 210669
*4986°16 1 1:36) ,, | 20050:0|| 4743-30 1 - » | 21076°6
*4965-02 3 A » | 20135°4|| 4741-27 1 % » | 21085°6
*4954-92 4 3 »» | 20176: || *4737°50 4 o » | 211024
4953-87 1 1:35] ,, | 20180°7 || *4730°88 4 3 » | 211319
*4942°63 4 » | 56! 20226°5 || *4729°89 2 1:29] ,, | 21136°3

250 REPORT—1894..

CHROMIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction} ¢ »,~ Reduction Be

Wave- | Intensity | Vacuum ze a 5 Wave- | Intensity to Vacuum Ss 8

length and A =| =S length Pes 8 ; a>

(Rowland) | Character at |5- Zee (Rowland) aracter| <- ges
*4727°33 3 | 1:29] 5°8| 21148-1|| *4626-07 15 1:27| 6:0} 21610°6
*4724-60 3 + » | 21160:0)} 4625:46 1 FE » | 21613°5
*4723'28 3 ” » | 21165°9 || *4622°89 2 aa » | 216255
*4722°90 1:5 x » | 21167°6 || *4622-60 4 sf » | 21626°9
*4718°57 » 6 4 »» | 211871 || *4622:07 4 3 » | 21629°3
471787 1:5 ” 5 | 21190:2 || *4619-70 3 ar » | 216404
*4708°16 6 . », | 21233°9 || *4616:28 6 1:26] ,, | 21656°5
4706°25 15 » | 59} 21242-4)| 4614:92 15 Fe » | 21662°8
*4700°77 2 (Seis » | 21267°2 || §4614°70 15 I » | 21663°9
4699°76 15 | », | 21271°8 || *4614°34 15 - » | 21665°6
4699°12 15 » | 21274°7 || *4613°54 5 4 » | 21669°3
469877 4 - » | 212763 || 4612:15 15 5 » | 21675°9
+4698°60 4 | 99 | 2L277°0|| *4610:07 15 Ft, » | 21685°6
4697°57 15 99 », | 21281°7|| 4606°55 1105} as » | 21712°2
*4697°20 3 - » | 21283°4|| *4601:18 2 ‘5 » | 21727°6
*4695°32 2 = » | 21291°9]| *4600:92 6 a » | 217288
*4694-12 3 or » | 21297°4 || *4600°25 3 renee, » | 21731:9
*4689°54 4 1:28] ,, | 213182 || *4598°60 15 3 Frye ieee ACK ay
§*4686:38 1coc 1! Bs » | 21332°5 || *4595-78 4 | #5 » | 21763°1
*4684:77 15 + » | 21339:9|| 4594°57 15) | ae » | 21768°7
*4681-01 2 3 » | 21357:0|| *4591°56 6 anes » | 217731
*4680°65 2 i » | 21858°7 ||. 4590°88 15 is » | 217763
*4673'30 15 ng » | 21392°3 || *4588 38 15 3 9 | 21788°2
*4669°86 15s fs » | 21408-°0|| 4586°31 2 A, 39 ets"
*4669°50 3 + »» | 21409°7 || 4585-23 15 > » | 21803°2
4667°36 2 ” » | 21419°5 || 4585-08 15 5; » | 2180379
*4666°67 4 » » | 21422°7 |) 4584°25 15 i » | 21807°8
*4666°35 3 3 » | 21424-1]| 4584-02 15 3 » | 21808:9
*4666°07 3 - 9, | 21425°4|| 4581-22 15 3 » | 21822°2
*4664:°94 4 . » | 214380°6 || *4580°22 5 1'25| ,, | 218270
*4663°98 4 i » | 21485:0|| 4578°55 15 5 », | 218350
*4663°47 4 a » | 21437°4|| 457526 2 5 » | 21850°7
4657:00 15 55 » | 21467°1 || *4574°63 1 i » | 21853°7
*4656°61 1:5 - » | 21468°9 || *4571-86 4 ) », | 21867:0
*4656°34 2 - » | 21470°2|| *4571:27 15 + » | 21869°8
4654-90 3 _ 5, | 21476°8 || *4569-°76 5 Ss » | 218770
*4654-24 2n 1:27] ,, | 21479°9|| *4565°71 4 Ay » | 21896-4
*4652°31 7 5 », | 214888 |) *4564:36 2 » | 61 21902°8
*4651°44 7 » | 99 | 21492°8 || 4563-82 3 | eons
*4649°58 3 + yy | 21501-4 || *4563-43 G5 Fr » | 21907°2
*4649-04 3 # », | 21503°9 || *4558°81 2 = 9 | 21929°4
464827 2 3 » | 21507°5 || *4556°32 Bie 3 » | 21941°4
*4648°00 sb . » | 21508°7 || 4555°45 15 “3 » | 21945°6
*4646°96 15 * » | 21513°5|| 4554-98 2 oF » | 219479
*4646°33 7 53 » | 21516°5 || 4554-10 15 és » | 219521
4642°21 15 5 », | 21535°6 || *4546:15 6 3 » | 21990°5
*4639°85 15 a » | 21546°6 || *4545°51 3 * » | 21993°6
*4639°69 2 a3 », | 21547°3 |) *4544-77 5 a » | 21997°2
#4637°92 3 3 » | 21555°5 || *4543-99 15 9 », | 22001:0
*4637°35 3 3 » | 215581 || *4542°83 2 1:24) ,, | 220066
*4634:23 15 » | 6:0| 21572-6 || *4541:70 2 43 » | 22012°1
*4633°45 2 4 » | 21576°2 || *4541-25 3 A. » | 22014°3
*4632°32 2 5 s | 21581°5 || *4540°90 6 a3 » | 22016°0
*4627°83 1 53 y | 21602°4 || *4540°70 6 2 » | 22016°9
¥*4626°31 6 * » | 21609°5 || *4539°96 4 + yy | 22020°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 251

CHroMiuM (ARC SpECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction Bio Reduction Bio

ee ine ey Pe eoeae B5 3 Wave- | Intensity fo Vacaan S 5 3

engt an Seb length and a

(Rowland) | Character! ) < 2 ae = || (Rowland) | Character} ) + .- & é a
*4535°95 6 1:21 | 6-1] 22C50°0 || $4422°84 15 1:21] 6:3 | 22603°6
*4535°36 3 be » | 22052°9]) 4421-12 1 £ » | 226124
*4530°92 6 % 5 | 22064°5 || *4419°26 1 ra + | 22621°9
453004 3 i > | 22068°8 || *4414:00 2 % » | 226489
*4527°65 3 ™ yy | 22080°4 || *4412°42 2 . » | 22657:0
*4527°53 4 4 » | 22081:0}| *4411:26 2 cf » | 226630
*4526°65 6 a » | 22085°3 || 4411°15 15 o » | 22663°5
*4526°26 3 F > | 22087:2 || *4410°47 2 3 » | 22667°0
452501 2 » | 9) | 22093°3]} 440645 | 1 3 » | 22687°7
4522°18 15 » | 9 | 2210771 || *4403°68 2 * », | 22702°0
4521°30 3 = », | 22111:4)| *4403°55 2 i », | 22702°6
4515°60 3 _ 5) | 22139°4 || *4399:97 15 : » | 227211
*4514:64 3 Ke ,, | 22144:1 || *4397-40 2 i » | 227344
*4512°05 4 - » | 22156°8 || 4395-58 1:5 = » | 227438
*4507:00 3 - 5, | 22181°6 |) *4395°00 In 7 », | 227468
*4501°92 2 1:23) ,, | 22206°6 || *4393-66 15 1:20] ,, | 22753°8
*4501°24 3 9 ,», | 22210:0|| *4392°41 1 3 » | 22760°2
*4500°42 3 ss », | 22214:0]| *4391:90 3 * » | 22762°9
*4498°87 3 “ » | 22221°7|| 4387-64 3 {: » | 22785:0
*4497-02 5 » | 6:2] 22230°8 || 4387-54 15 ¥ », | 22785°5
4495°42 15 3 » | 22238°7 || *4385°11 6 ” » | 22798°2
*4492°45 3 ae », | 22253°4]| 4383-04 15 “h » | 22808°9
*4491-99 15 af », | 22255°6 || *4381:25 2 + » | 228182
*4491°81 2n pe » | 22256°5 || *4380°73 1 #3 », | 22820°9
*4490-70 1-5n - 4, | 22262:0|| *4379°93 15 5 » | 2282571
*4489°60 2 a | 22267°5 || *4377°73 15 . » | 22836°6
4488-18 2 s »» | 22274°5 |\t*4376'95 2 aa » | 22840°7
*4483-01 2 Af | 22300:2 || *4375:52 3 Ay » | 22848°1
4481°57 15 _ », | 223074 || *4374°34 4 * » | 22854°3
*4480°40 15 = » | 223132 || 4873°83 15 a j, | 228570
TPALTS AT 2n _ » | 22337°8 || *4373°41 4 a » | 22859°2
4473°91 15 5 » | 22345°6 || *4371-44 6 : » | 22869°5
*4467°72 15 1:22] ,, | 22376°6 ||§*4368°42 15 » | 64] 22885-2
4466°33 15 a 3, | 22383°5 || *4363°25 3 = » | 22912°3
*4465°54 2 A », | 22387°5 || 4360°17 15 43 » | 22928°5
*4465°31 1 - » | 22388°7 || *4359°78 6 “ » | 22930°5
4465°08 2 Fe » | 22389°8 || *4358°86 1 rn » | 22935°4
$*4464°84 15 3 » | 22391:0 || *4357-70 15 3 » | 22941°5
446298 15 Fe » | 22400°3 || *4356-91 15 119] ,, | 22945°6
*4460°95 15 7 » | 22410°6 || *4351-91 8 5 2 | 22972:0
*4459°95 3 ty », | 22415°6 || *4351-20 6 ” » | 22975°8
*4459°56 15 7 » | 22417°5 || *4347-00 3 » | 22998:0
*4458°75 3 FE », | 22421°6 || *4344-66 7 Ad » | 23010°4
*4443-90 15 + » | 22496°6 |) 4343°32 15 sa » | 238017°5
4442-43 15 » | o | 225040 || *4340-26 3 Pan ee HeeBUBELY
Bages'o8 1 B » | 22552:2 || *4339°85 6 5 » | 23035:9
4432°30 3n ‘5 » | 22555-4 || *4339-60 6 Fe » | 23037°2
4430°59 2 1:21] 6:3) 22564:1 || *4338-95 15 3 » | 23040°7
4430:07 15 4 » | 22566°7 || *4338°56 15 ee » | 23042°7
*4428°71 2 0 » | 22573°6 || *4337°70 3 SF » | 23047°3
“ec alee 1 n » | 22578:0 || *4337:38 2 a » | 238049:0
4425:27 1 - » | 22591:2 || *4332°75 15 + » | 23073°6
*4424°40 3 . » | 225956 || 4325°24 15 39 » | 23113°7
*4424-20 15 a » | 22596°7 || *4323°70 2 5, » | 231219
4423°46 15 is » | 226004 || *4321:80 2 +4 » | 23132°1

252

Wave-
length
(Rowland)

4321-44

*4320°75
*4319-82
*4312-65
*4307-65
+*4305'61
*4302-95
*4301:33
*4300°68
4299:87
*4997-91
4297-21
*4296°81
*4296:47
*4995-92
*4293-73
*4299-14
*4289-87
*4284-99
§*4284-84
*4980-53
*4274-91
*4273-04
4271-18
*4970-08
*4268-90
*4266-96
*4263-28
¥*4962'53
4262-27
4261°77
*4261-49
*4255°65
*4254-49
4252:37
*4248-84
*4248-47
*4240-82
*4239-08
¥*4237-83
*4934-64
*4233-00
*4939-35
*4930-61
$*4224-64
*4292-89
4221-71
4217-75
*4216-50
*4913-31
*4212-77
*4211-47
*4209-90
*4209:50
*4208-50

Intensity
and
Character

oO Oo a

i
SCWHREONN WHEN WNHNNHNHHE DHE

i
5
be

oo B

SCNWHHEH REE toto
Oe Gt Gt Cio

ra
OPS sell rere pO esi)
Or an &

an

or

Dwhprprtywrrp

REPORT—1894.

CHROMIuM (ARC SPECTRUM) —continued.

Reduction

to Vacuum

A+

1

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

Wave-
length
(Rowland)

23673°9
23680°5
23702°7
23709°8
23727°7
23730°8
23738°1
23746°9
23749°2
237548

| *4207-05

*4904-61
*4904-37
*4903-71
*4200°27
4198-65
*4197-38
4195-09
4193-80
4192-25
4191-90
*4191-41
*4190-32
*4186°50
*4185°50
*4179°37
*4176-09
4175'34
*4174-98
+*4172°88
*4171°81
4170°31
4169-94
4165°67
*4163-76
*4161-55

4153-96
*4153°20
*4152:89
*4146°81

§*4142°31
*4131-50

4128-53
*4197-77
*4197-44

4127-05
*4126-67

4126-25
*4123-55
4129-34

*4121-96
$4121-41
*4120-78
¥*4109-74

4108°54

4104-90
*4101-31
*4099°16
*4090-43

+*4085-15

408188

+*4080-35
4077°81

*4077°21
4076:20

Intensity
and
Character

or Kt

Pe DrrDNNNwWwWhWHhrH
oot ne

or

AOU NS TH TH oT A oO ON

DN NH EER H EDP ENDED HPD RE DDE DEEP pw wb tb wr wD
or

Reduction
to Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

23763'0

23776°8
23778°2
23781°9
23801°3
23810°5
23817°7
23830°7
23838'0
23846°8
23848°8
23851°6
23857°8
23879°6
23885°3
23920°4
23939°1
23943-4
23945°5
23957°6
23963°7
23972°3
239745
23999-0
2401071
24022°8
24066°7
240711
24072'9
241081
24134°3
24197°5
24214°9
24219°4
24221°3
24223°6
24225°8
24228°3
24244°1
24251°3
24253°5
24256°7
24260°4
24325°6
24332°7
243543
24375'7
24388°3
24440°4
24472:0
24491°6
24490°8
24515°7
24519°7
24525°'8

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 253

CHROMIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Ne

Reduction] ¢ p,, Reduction| gy .

Wave- | Intensity | t° Vacuum Be g 3 Wave- | Intensity to Vacuum z FI 3

length h and Phedlea Ss 3,5 length and Sew = 3,5

(Rowland) Character a+ = Z z a (Rowland) | Character at | 5 & & 5
*4075°01 15 1:12} 6°9| 24582:9 || *3951-93 1 1:09 | 7°2| 252969
4071713 1 as » | 24556°3 || 3951:26 15 “- » | 25301-2
*4067°94 1 aS », | 24575°6 || *3946°15 15 x » | 253340
4067:05 4 ” » | 24581:0|! 3945°68 1 oF » | 253370
*4065°84 3 + », | 24588°3 |) *3941-66 3 ” » | 25362°8
*4060°77 15 ” » | 24619:0|| *3928-79 6 1:08] ,, | 254459
*4058°89 3 ” » | 24630°4|| 3926-80 2 13 » | 254588
4056:93 1 ” ” 24642°3 3923°51 1 ” ” 25480°2
*4056°17 15 : », | 24646°9 || *3921:20 5 ” » | 254952
*4051:47 15 111} 7:0) 24675:4|| 3920°25 15 ” » | 255014
¥4050°18 1 » | 99 | 24683:°3 |} *8919°31 7 fr »» | 25506°5
*4049°90 15 ” »» | 24685:0|| *3917-75 15 ” x» | 25517-7
4048°94 3 ” » | 24690°8 || *3917-15 1 ” » | 25521°6
$*4046°89 1 * » | 24703°3 || *3916°38 4 ” » | 25526°6
*4044-24 15 ” »» | 24719°5 || *3915-96 4n ” » | 25529°3
*4043°85 1:5 nf » | 24721°9 || *3915-65 15 ” » | 255381°3
*4042°40 15 + », | 24730°8 |) *38914-45 15 a5 » | 25539°2
*4039-21 3 » »» | 24750°3 || *3908-87 5 » | 73) 255755
*4037-43 15 + » | 24761:2 || *3907-91 2 oa » | 25581°8
403344 15 ” » | 24785°7|| 3907-40 1 ” » | 25585°2
*4031:26 15 ” y | 24799°L|| 3903:30 3 ” » | 25612°0
4030°82 2 ” », | 24801°8 || 3903-02 4 3 » | 25613°9
*4028°22 1 ” » | 24817:9}|| 3902-22 2n ” » | 25619°1
*4027:24 2 ” » | 24823:94| 3897-83 3n + » | 25648:0
*4026°30 2 + »» | 24829°7 || *3894-20 4 1:07| ;, | 25671:9
*4025°60 1 ” » | 24834:0|| *3892:07 2n = » | 25686-0
*4025-14 2 ” » | 24836°9 || *3886°94 4 oF » | 25719°9
*4023'90 15 as »» | 24844°5 || *3885°35 4 “4 » | 25730°4
*4022°38 2 2 » | 24853°9 || *38883-78 2 _ » | 25740°8
4018°36 1 ” », | 24878°8 || 7388341 4 - » | 25743°3
*4016:95 1 » | oy | 24887°5 || 388137 2n + » | 257568
4014°85 1 1:10} ,, | 24900°5 || *3879°39 3n a5 » | 257701
4012°63 2 4 » | 249143 || *3868-41 15 95 » | 25843°1
400411 1 a » | 24967°3 || 3865°73 15 Fe » | 25861:0
*4001°58 2 » | 71] 249830 || *3862°68 15 ” » | 25881°5
3999-85 1 3 », | 24993°8 || 3860-23 15 es » | 25897°9
*3994°10 15 + »» | 25029°8|| 3857-74 4 ” » | 25914°6
*3992-95 3 + », | 25037:0|| 3856-40 2 1:06] ,, | 25923°6
*3991°81 3 ;. » | 250442 || *3855°75 3 ” » | 25928-0
*3991:26 4 »» | 25047°6 || *3855-41 2 s » | 25930°3
*3990'14 2 + »» | 25054:°7 || *3854-36 4 ” » | 25937°3
*3984°48 3 2 » | 25090°3 || *3853°33 15 p » | 25944°3
*3984-02 5 ” »» | 25093°2 || *3852°33 2 . » | 25951:0
*3981°37 2 3 » | 25109°9|| 3850°18 5n a » | 259659
*3979°99 15 7 »» | 25118°6 || *3849-66 2n + » | 25969-0
*3978°81 2 % » | 251260 || *3849-48 3n * » | 25970°2
*3976°81 6 5 », | 25138°7 || *3849°15 3n x » | 25972°5
3972°85 1 1:09! ,, | 25163°7 || *3841-42 5 ” » | 26024°7
3971°39 6 + » | 251730 || *3836-22 2 a » | 26060-0
*3969°89 5 FA » | 25182°5 || *3834°88 3 “e » | 26069°1
3969°20 2 s » | 25186:9|| 3833°62 1 as » | 26077°7
*3963°82 5 a3 »» | 25221-1 || *3831-15 3 Rs » | 26094°5
3960-95 1 = », | 25239-4 || *3830:17 5n Pe » | 26101-2
443953°34 15 » | 72] 25287-9 || *3826°55 4n “f » | 26125°8
3952°56 15 as »» | 25292:91) *3825°54 2n os » | 26132°9

254 REPORT—1894.

CHRomium (ARc SPECTRUM)—continued.

ee ee

| Reduction bo Reduction Bibs

Wave- | Intensity hoWisenum 28 8 Wave- | Intensity bo: Weenies “= 5 8

length ot and i cenlieea = ae ene | and 1 B cia

arac 92 LESS

(Rowland) ee ee (Rowland) | Character) ) ries g
*3823°64 2 1:06 | 7°3| 26145°8 || *3685-70 2n 1:02| 76] 271243
*3822°22 1 a » | 26155°5 3683°60 15s 95 T7| 271397
*3821°71 15 = », | 26159:0 || *3681-°81 lbs i » | 271529
*3821-00 15 “ », | 26163°9 || *3681-12 1 ” » | 271581
3820711 1 “ » | 261700 3680°34 1 ” » | 27163:7
3819°68 3 = » | 261729 3679°93 | 15s $ » | 271667
*3818°61 2 20 y» | 26180°2 || *3679-20 1‘5s A » | 27172°1
*3817:97 15 ” 7-4 | 26184°5 || *3678-00 15 ” » | 27181:0
3816°30 2 1:05] ,, | 26196-0 |\*+3668:17 15s ” 3 | 27253°9
*3815°53 3 op », | 26201°3 3666°78 2 . » | 27264:2
3814-74 2 » | 26206°7 3666°30 1s a » | 27267°8
*3812°37 2 os » | 26223°0 3666:10 15s ” » | 27269°2
*3808:06 2 aS », | 26252°7 || *3663°35 3 Ps 3 feaheoond
*3806°97 2 55 » | 26260°2 || *3662°97 15 . » | 27292°6
3806'68 15 * » | 262622 || *3656°36 4 1:01} 5, | 27841°9
*3804°91 4 f » | 26274:4 || *3654-05 3 7 4 1eZtooore
*3797-85 4 » | » | 26823°3 || *3649-97 1 sen [eee Reta s oss
*3797-28 | 2 is » | 263272 || *3649-12 4 4 » | 273962
*3794°75 2 EY », | 263448 || *3648-65 15 ' 53) ea
3794-02 2 “p », | 26349°9 || *3646-26 15 ss » | 27417°7
*3793°46 2 of » | 26353°8 || *3641:95 4 ” » | 2744971
*3792°30 2 _ », | 26361°8 || *3641°61 2 es » | 27452°7
*3791°51 2 8 » | 26367°3 || *3639-93 5 as » | 27465°4
*3790°61 2 . 3, | 26373°6 || *3636-72 3 RS 78 | 27489°5
*3790°36 15 a » | 2637573 3635°37 1 4s 9» | 27499°7
3789'87 eS a » | 26378°7 || *3635-09 1 7 » | 27501°8
*3789:00 2 ie », | 26384°8 || *3632°92 2 < » |e2tols:3
3786'38 1 is » | 26403°1 || *3615:°76 15 1:0 » | 276489
*3769°13 1 1:04] 7:°5| 26523°8 361378 1°5 ” » | 2766471
*3768°85 2s ny 3 | 26525°8 || 3612-70 15s + » | 21672°3
*3768°37 3s A » | 26529°2 || 3610717 15 » | 24691°7
376825 15 “4 » | 26530°2 || *3609-62 15 ay » | 27695°9
376756 | ike) .. », | 26534°9 3608°52 155 rf » | 27704°4
*3758°14 2 fh » | 26601°4 || *3605°46 10nr rs Pe Write OS)
*3757°80 3 af » | 26603°8 3603°86 2n +r » | 277402
*3757°28 ie . », | 26607°6 || 3602-68 1 “5 » | 27749°3
375597 i “ », | 26616°8 || *3601°76 3 - » | 277564
*3749:13 4 of », | 26665-4 || *3599-51 il “ » | Bates
*3748'73 2 ss », | 26668°2 || *3593°57 10nr a 7:9 | 27819°7
*3747°40 1:5 “4 3, | 26677:7 358445 3b “a » | 27890°5
*3744°63 2 mt » | 26697°4 || *3582-74 1°5 pF » | 27903°8
*3744:01 4 eA », | 26701°8 || *3578°81 10nr “5 » | 27934:4
*3743 67 4 + »» | 26704°3 || *3575-10 2 0:99} ,, | 27963°3
*3743:08 2 ss », | 26708°5 || *3574:93 3 is » | 27964°7
¥*3732°15 2 1:03| ,, | 26786°7 || *3574:19 2 5 » | 27970°5
*3730°91 2 FA » | 267956 3573-79 3 ss » | 27973°6
*3616°65 1°5n » | 76| 26898-4 || *3572°90 2 A » | 27980°6
*3696°02 1 1:02} ,, | 27048°5|| 3569-28 1 ” » | 28009-0
3689°76 15 a » | 27094°4 || *3566°23 3n os » | 28032°9
3689°41 15 a » | 27097°0|| 3565°31 1 Aa » | 28040°2
*4+3688°56 15 “¢ », | 271033 || *3564:87 15 3 » | 28043°6
*3688°24 1 sp » | 27105°6 356444 1 “4 ;, | 28047:0
*3687°65 3n » | 9 | 27109°9 || 3562°5 1 a» | | 280617
868741 3n - » | 27111°7 || *3562°40 1 | 75 3 | 28063°1
*3686°95 | 3n Es » | 2711571 |) *3559-90 ate “A », | 28082'8

ON WAVE-LENGTH ‘TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 255

CHROMIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Reduction

Reduction | gy, & ats
Wave- | Intensity | *° Vacuum Bs 2 5 Wave- | Intensity to Vacuum ze S 5
length and ‘Spaaeel yg = ai length and ; S 2,5
(Rowland) | Character a+ | <— cae (Rowland) |Character gee ts ae =
3558°74 3n 0:99] 7:9} 28091°9 || *3481-41 1:5 0:97 | 8:1] 28715:9
*3556°27 1 ” » | 28111°4 || *3467-86 15 » | 8:2) 28828:0
*3555°88 1 ” » | 28114°5 || *8465°40 15 95 » | 28848°5
3554:10 1 7 », | 28128°6 |) *3460°60 i + » | 28888°5
3552°85 2n os » | 28138°5 || *3455-76 15 0:96] ,, | 28929:0
*3550°73 3n 8-0 | 28155°2 || *3453-46 15 or » | 289483
354895 15n » | 28169°3 || *3447-90 il An » | 28995:0
353304 1 0:98] ,, | 28296:2 || *3447°55 15 Fr 338 (2209979
*3527°22 1 nf » | 28342:9 || *3447-15 J AP » | 29001°3
*3511:93 1 ss » | 28466°4 | *3445-71 15 5 » | 29013-4
3510°66 1:5 0 8:1 | 28478°6 || *3441°56 Nase Ee » | 29048-4
*3495-08 15 0:97) ,, | 28603°5 || *3436°31 15 a », | 29092°8
*3488-60 i * », | 28656°2 || *3433°72 15 5 eco 7
*3483:92 1 ” », | 28695°7 || *3433-42 1 is » | 29117-3
*348 1-66 15 = » | 28713°8

Rowland’s Normal Lines: 5798-09, 5754°89, 5731°98, 5709°69, 5688-43, 5662-75,
563416, 5487-96, 5447-12, 5409:99, 5379°77, 5353°59, 5324°37, 5296°88, 5266-73,
5233-12, 5202°49, 5173:91, 5146°67, 5126°37, 5090°96, 5083°53, 5050:01, 5020-20,
4994-31, 4981:90, 4934-24, 4890°94, 4859°93, 482431, 4805:25, 475422, 4727-62,
4703°98, 4690°32, 4668°30, 4643°64, 4629°50, 4611-44, 4590:°12, 4571-27, 4563-94,
450845, 449472, 4447-90, 4407°85, 437610, 4352°91, 431883, 4293:25, 4267°94,
4254-49, 4222°37, 4199-25, 4185:°05, 4157:94, 4121°96, 4103°10, 4083°75, 4055-69,
4029:79, 4003°91, 3977:89, 3954:00, 392613, 391688, 3897:60, 3875-24, 3843-40,
3821-32, 379402, 377012, 3754°65, 373254, 3695°19, 3667-40, 3640°53, 3612-21,
3583°48, 356468, 3540°27, 351848, 3491°47, 346461, 3455°38.

562 chromium lines coincide with solar lines, and 199 lines have, apparently, no

corresponding solar lines. ‘Their intensities are shown in the following Table :—-

Number of Lines
Intensity hee Re ed aa) cat
is C yneident Not Coincident

1 to 2 213 129

2 to 4 228 62

4 to 6 74 8

6 to 8 31 0

8 to 10 16 0

256 REPORT—1894.

PorassiIumM.
Eder and Valenta: ‘Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wien,’ Bd. lx. 1893.

Flame-spectrum Reduction
Intensity] to Vacuum Oscillation
Wave-lengths and, >> =e Frequency
} Character ike in Vacuo
\Lecoq de Boisbaudran} Eder and Valenta AS A
7697 7699 10s 2:08 | 35 12985
7663 7666 10s ” ” 13041
7248_6825 7040 lb 191 | 38 14201
5831 5832 5s 1:59 | 4:7 17142
5803 5802 8s 1:58 ” 17231
5783 5783 5s 9 ” 17287 }
5342 5344 4n | 146 | 51 18607 |
6104 5103 3n 1:40 | 5:4 19591 }
4948 4950 3n 135 | 55 20196
4045 4045°8 10 111 | 7:0 24710
—_— 3447-2 4 0:96 | 82 29001
— 3217°5 1 0:90 | 88 31071

NotsE.—The continuous spectrum due to potassium extends from 6400 to 4000,
being most intense between 5700 and 4700, According to Vogel (‘ Spectral Analyse ’)
it is due to potassium oxide, but it is present in the spark spectrum of metallic
potassium in an atmosphere of hydrogen. The lines 40458, 3447-2 and 3217°5 occur

. ; 4047°4 |) 3447°5 32178
in the arc spectrum as the double lines agua 3446-4 and 3917°3 f°

Sopirum.
Eder and Valenta: ‘Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wien,’ Bk. lx. 1893.

Flame Spectrum f cee ie
ay Oscillation Frequency
Wave-length Character ite pe
(Eder and Valenta) At r
(5896°16) 10 1-61 4°6 16955°6 |
(589019) 10 1-60 t 16972°8
3302°5 8 0:93 86 30271
2853:0 2 0°81 10-1 35041
: a : - 3303.07
The line 3302°5 appears in the are spectrum as the double line 3309-47 f? and

the line 2853-0 as 2852-91. Kayser and Runge.

Liraium.
Eder and Valenta: ‘Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wien,’ Bk. lx. 1893.
Flame-spectrum : Retnehion: to |
ey Oscillation Frequency
au in Vacuo
Wave-length Character 1
(Eder and Valenta) A+ re
(67082) 10 1:82 4:0 14903'1
(6103°77) 3 1-66 4-4 163789
*4602°4 2 1:26 6:0 21722
*3232°8 4 0-91 88 30924

|

|

* In the arc spectrum Kayser and Runge obtain for these lines the numbers
4602°37 (21721'8) and 3232°77 (30923°7).

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 257

Catcium CHLORIDE AND OXIDE.

Eder and Valenta: ‘Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wien,’ Bk. lx. 1893.

Flame-spectrum | Reduction
Sr Intensity| to Vacuum
Wave-lengths and —
pens PE LUA Yee oi it ded s8 Character ey
Lecoq de Boisbaudran| Eder and Valenta At A
e6441 | +6442 4 | 1-75 | 42
6348 *6§349 2 173 | 4:3
6320 *6§322 2 1:72 =
| 6265 $6265 LORI AZ7D IH 39%,
a; 6202 *6202 ie) GS 4-4
6181 *6§183 | 10 | 1°68 o€
( 6068 *6069 | B |. 1°65 4:5
5 | 6044 *6044 | ae ae oS “r
| 5982 $5983 5 1-63 -
“5933 *5934 8 162 | 46
(5817 *5816 3 | 158} 47
5728 +5727 2 1°56 a
5644 5644 2 154 | 4:8
8 5543 755435 8 5 4:9
sei +5517 g | Lisaealt
5427 $5428 2 1:48 5:0
5372 | T5374 2 147 | 5:1
$4550 1 1:25 | 61
$4515 1 1:24 a
$4465 1 1:22 | 62
$4435 1 ” ”
$4396 1 12H 6:3
$4362 1 1:20 | 64
$4324 1 1-19 “-
+4294 1 | 118 | 63
$4257 1 117 x
4226 4227 10s 116 | 66
4159 | 1 | Degas?
$4122 ae 113 | 68
+4084 1 112 | 69
| £4042 1 l1L | 7:0
| +4002 1 | Ogle
$3972 1 1:09 “¢
3942 1 2 72
] +3909 1 1:08}i] 7:3
+3880 1 1:07 =;
13840 1 1:06 a
/ $8815 1 1:05 T-4
$3771 1 1:04 T5
+3722 1 1:03 76
+3687 1 1:02 +
73644 1 101 T7
+3608 1 | 100] 78
$3569 1 0-99 79
+3531 i 0:98 8-0
73494 1 0:97 81
$3463 il i 8:2
$3429 1 0:96 8:3

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

15519
15746
15813
15957
16119
16169
16473
16541
16709
16847
17189
17456
17713
18034
18121
18418
18603
21972
22142
22590
22542
22742
22919
23120
23282
23484
23651
24037
24253
24479
24733
24980
25169
25361
25574
25766
26034
26205
26511
26860
27115
27435
27708
28011
28313
28612
28868
29155

In the are spectrum Kayser and Runge obtain for the line 4227, due to metallic

calcium, the number 4226°91 (25650-4.)
* Due to calcium chloride.
t Due to calcium oxide.

1894.

258 REPORT—1894.
STRONTIUM CHLORIDE AND OXIDE.
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wien,’ Bk. Ix. 1893.
Flame-spectrum Reduction to
ntensitns Vacuum Oscillation
Wave-lengths anne Frequency
Character} a + Bas in Vacuo
Lecoqde Boisbaudran} Eder and Valenta A
c{ 6862 +6863 4 1:86 3:9 14567
6827 6828 4 1:85 4:0 14642
6729 *6731 I 1:83 “5 14853
6694 +6695 8 1:82 < 14932
{ 6664 T6665 8 1°81 41 15000
< { 6627 +6628 6 1:80 oF 15083
6597 *6597 6 ier) 0 15154
5 6464 6464 6 1:76 4:2 15466
n 6350 *6351 5 1:73 43 15741
6276 $6275 1 1 <7Al th 15932
6233 $6233 1 1:70 33 16039
6191 $6192 1 1:68 4-4 16145
ra { 6059 +6060 10 1°65 4°5 16497
6031 +6032 10 1:64 iY 16574
5970 (5968) 2s 1:63 “f 16751
5940 +5940 1 1°62 4°6 16830
5911 +5910 3 161 a 16916
5890 +5891 3 1:60 ‘s 16970
B 4607 (4608) 10s 1:26 6:0 21695
$4505 1 1623; 6:1 22191
+4470 1 3 6:2 22365
$4430 il 1:21 6:3 22567
74391 1 1:20 ” 22768
$4357 1 cs 64 22945
+4328 1. |} Tene; 23099
4292 1 118 65 23293
$4259 1 1:17 — 23473
(4032) 2s 111 7-0 24795
3806 2b | 1:05 T4 26267
3778 2b * ms 26462
3738 2b | 1:04 75 26745
3692 3b | 1:02 76 27078
3647 3b 1:01 UES 27412
3612 1n | 1:00 78 27678

In the arc spectrum Kayser and Runge obtain for the lines 5968, 4608, and 4032,
due to metallic strontium, the numbers 5970°38 (16744°8) 4607:°52 (21697°6) and
4032°51 (24791°4).

* Due to strontium chloride.

¢ Due to strontium oxide.

=

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Lecoq Lecoq deBoisbaudran| Eder and Valenta Eder and Valenta

6819
6499
6448
6297
6239
6178
6108
6044
5995
5938
5881
5824
5768
5719
5661
5613
5536
5492
5461
5346

5314

5242
5215
5089
6019
4974

4873
4794

Eder and Valenta:

Barium Ox1pDE AND CHLORIDE.

Flame-spectrum

Wave-lengths

+6820
6497
+6450
+6297
+6240
46177
+6109
+6044
45997
45938
$5882
#5827
45768
45720
45660
+5612
5536
+5493
$5460
45346
(15316
(5314
+5280
$5255
#5943
$5215
$5089
$5022
+4977
+4954
14873-5
+4796
+4756
+4736
, | 4694
1 4681
; 4644
t | 4630
, | 4589
| 4567
+4554 (2)
44535
44488
4443
+4398
+4353
+4309
+4270
44235
+4200
+4165
+4128

Intensity
and
Character

BEES Eee ee ee ee EW HH WOHP DE ODN EEN HOH DOWRDRAEH OOP ERR PDE DOH

Reduction to

Vacuum
ic
At x
1°85 40
177 4:2
1:75 es
171 4:3
1:70 45
1°68 4-4
1:66 ne
1:65 45
1:63 a
162 46
1:60 =
1:59 4:7
1:57 os
1°56 4:8
1:54 Pr
1:53 7
1:51 49
1:50 5:0
1°49 a
1:46 51
1°45 3
1°44 5:2
1:43 B
” ”
1:39 5-4
1°37 5°5
1°36 Fe
” ”
ERE: 56
1:31 57
1:30 58
1:29 59
1:28 a
1:27 3
<a 6:0
1:26 ip
1:25 i
“ 6-1
1:24 os
1:23 6-2
1-22 =
1:21 6-3
1:19 6-4
118 65
117 a
1:16 66
1:15 6-7
1:14
113 6-8

“Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wien,’ Bk. lx. 1893.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

14659
15387
15500
15876
16021
16185
16365
16541
16670
16836
16996
17157
17332
17478
17663
17814
18059
18200
18310
18700
18806
18813
18934
19024
19068
19170
19645
19907
20087
20180
20513
20845
21020
21109

oe
21351

§ 21527

| 21592
21785
21890
21953
22045
22275
22501
22731
22966
23201
23413
23606
23803
24003
24218

259

a ee aaa

260 REPORT—1894.

BARIUM OXIDE AND CHLORIDE—continued.

Flame-spectrum Reduction to
Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Wave-lengths and: >|". + >a Frequency
aS BS | a Character ye aes ia Vacuo
Lecoq de Boisbaudran| Eder and Valenta A
+4088 1 112 | 69 24455
14047 1 111 | 7:0 24703
+4009 1 1:10 y 24937
$3984 1 , 71 25093
$3951 1 109 | 72 25303
3918 1 1:08 4 25516

|
In the arc spectrum Kayser and Runge have obtained for the lines 6497, 5536,
and 4654, due to metallic barium, the numbers 6498-93 (15382°9), 5535°69 (18069.7),
and 4554-21 (21951°6).
* Due to barium chloride.
¢ Due to barium oxide.

Boron (SparK SPECTRUM).

Eder and Valenta : ‘ Denkschr. math. Wissensch. kais. Akad. Wien,’ Bd. lx. 1893.
Ciamician: ‘ Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Bd. Ilxxxix. 1890.

Wave-lengths Reduction to

Vacuum sane tt
Intensity and Oscillation
Character 1 Frequency
Ciamician Eder and Valenta A+ Pie in Vacuo
5103 1 1:40 54 19590°9
4981 l 1:36 55 20070°8
4966 1 Fs, % 20131°4
4964 ul zs re 20139°5
| 3957-9 2 1:09 (ful 25258'8
1 3941°7 2 i 72 { 25362°6
3829°3 1 1:06 73 { 26107°3
38245 1 3 : 1 261400
*3451°3 6 0:96 8:2 289684
3246°9 1 0:91 8°8 30789°8
{ 2689:0 1 0:77 10'8 { 37177'8
—2686°2 1 > os 372165
*2497°7 10 0°73 117 40025'1
*2496'8 10 * FA 40039°6
2388°5 1 O71 12°4 418549
{ 2267:0 2 0°68 13°3 { 44097°9
2266°4 2 5 ci 44109°5
J 2088°8 2 0°65 14:9 47859'5
\ 2088-4 2 P ‘ { 478686
{ 2066:2 2 0°64 15:3 48382°7
( 2064°6 2 % a { 48416°2

* Observed also by Hartley.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 261

Wave-
length
(Rowland)

5631-91
4524-92
3801°16
3655-88
3330-71
3262-44
3218-78
3175712
3141-92
3034-21
$3032-88
3009-24
2922'48
[2913-67
2863-41
2850°72
2840-06
2813-66
2812°70
2788-09
##2785'14
++2779°92
2706°61
2661-35
2637-05
2594-49
2571:67
{$2658-12
2546°63
2531°35
2526'13
$$ 2524-05
2499-30
2495-80
2491-91
2483-50
2455°30
2433-53
2429°58
2421 78
2408-27
2386-96
2380°82
2364°89
2358-05
2354-94
2334-89
2317°32
2286'79
2282°40
2269-03
2267°30

Limit of

Error

0:03

0:03
0:05
0:03
0:05
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:05
015
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:05
0:05
0:10
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:20
0:03
0°10
0°10
0:05
0:20
0:03
0:20
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03

0:03 |

0:03
0:50
0:05
0:20
0:05
0:03
0:03
0:03
003
0:03
0:05
0:05

Tin (Arc Spectrum).
Kayser and Runge: ‘ Abhandl kénigl. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin,’ 1893.

Intensity
and
Character

Previoys Measurements

(Angstrém )
5630°0 Thalén
45240,
3800°3 H. & A.

36555 ,,
33300 ,, 3326:0 L.&D.
32616 ,, 3260°0 ,,
32180,
BI74'3 4, lia 0L4,,
31406 ,, 31417 ,,
3033 ,, 3053:07 7 |;
30079 -,, 30085 ,,
Z2901s9) =e) 250So yy.
28621 ,, 28628 ,,
2849°3—,,
2838:9 ,,' 2839°5 ,,
28125 ,, 28135 | ;.
28115 ,, 28125 =,
27873 =, «= 27875,
27840 ,, 27847 ,,
PAN is ete Ta ber At iy A a
27058,
26602 ,, 26607 ,,
2636°5_,,
2D93:6" ,, 2adoib. 4
2b10:5) ,, 2ociO
2000" . 5, 2pacon a
2545'6 ,, 25461 ,,
2530°8 ,, 25307 ,,
26234. ,, 2523'5) £5
24993 -.,
2495:0 ,, 24935 ,,
24880 ,, 24935 ,,
2482°9 ,, 2483-1 3
2455°5
2433°3
2429°3 ~ 5," "2439'5" ,,
Z42U§ oe 28 aleo ss
2408:0 ,, 24079 ,,
23811 =,
23647,
23007 55
23550 ,, 23545 ,,
2335'3 4, «23343 ~—C,,
Sad eee ao Le O 4 is,
22881 -,, °2286:9° .,
22825 ,,
2270°'0" 5, 2275°4'2'¢,,

2268°6

Reduction to

Vacuum
i)

A+ ah
1:54 48
1:24 61
1:05 74
1:01 Miah,
0:93 8-5
0:92 8-7
0:90 8°8
0:89 9-0
0°88 9-1
0°86 9-4
0°85 9°5
0°83 9°8
7 9:9
0°81 1071

” ”

33 10:2
0°80 | 10:3
” ”

* 10°4
” ”»

0-79 | ,,
0-78 | 10-7
0-77 | 10°9
0-76 | 11:0
0:75 | 11:2
6 11°3
O74 | 11:4
a 115

” ”
i 11°6

” ”
0:73 | 11:7
073 | 117
oo 11°8
0-72 12:0
a 1271
0-71 | 12:2
as 12:3
7 12°4
as 12°5
070) 12°6
5 12°8
0°69 | 12:9
Ws 13:2

” ”
068 | 13:3

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

17751:2

22093°7
26300°4
273455
30015:1
30643°2
31058-9
31485°9
318186
32948°1
32962°6
33221°5
34207°7
34311°1
349133
35068'8
35200°3
35530°6
35542°7
35856 4
358944
35961-9
36935°9
37564°0
37910°2
38532°0
38873-9
39079°8
39256°1
39493-1
395746
39607'3
89999°5
40055-6
40118-1
402540
407162
41080°5
41147:3
412797
415113
41881°5
41989'8
4222-7
423953
42451°3
42815:8
43140-4
437162
43800°3
44058°4
44092°0

262

REPORT—1894.

Tin (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

44405°6

44507°1
447933
45239°6
45451°8
455519
46037:0
46471°4
46525°5
46690°6
47121°9
47291°2
47583'8
47686'0
47793°1
48057:0
48224:0
48324°2
48439:0
48568°5
486749

prniee Limit of intel Previous Measurements Yaouom
(Rowland) Error (Character a) Bee ees
A
2251:29 0°10 6r 22510 ,, 0°68 a4
2246°15 0:10 10r 2247-0H.& A. 22453L.&D) ,, 13°5
2231:80 | 0-10 6r 22332 ,, 2231:3 ,, ” 136
2209°78 0:10 10r 22101 ,, 22107 ,, 0°67 | 13:8
2199°46 | 0:10 10r 21902 ony peel OSitan | 55 i 13:9
2194°63 0:10 8r Z195:0) ,,. 2194:05),, + 55
2171°5 0:20 6r 066 | 141
2151°2 0-20 6r? | 2151-2 x 143
2148°7 0-20 8r? a ee
2141°1 0:20 10r a 14-4
2121°5 0°20 6r 2119°2? 065 | 14:6
2113:9 0:30 6r 21136 a 14:7
2100°9 0°50 6r 7 14:8
2096-4 0:30 10r * _
2091:7 0:50 6r? 065 | 14:9
2080°2 0°50 6 2OTI3i 55 5 15:3
20730 0°50 8r 0°64 ;
2068°7 0°50 6 20661? ,, 3 5
2063°8 0:50 6 3 65
2058°3 0°50 6 “ .
2033°8 0°50 6 . 1
* See Iron. + See Copper. ~ See Lead. § See Arsenic.
{ See Gold. ** See Barium. tt See Magnesium.

ff See Zinc.

Leap (Arc Spectrum).

§§ See Silicon.

Kayser and Runge: ‘ Abhandl. kénigl. Akad. Wissench. zu Berlin, 1893.

Wave-
length
(Rowland)

6002-08

5201°65
5005-62
4340°65
4168°21
4062-30
4057-97
4019 77
3740°10
3683°60
3671°65
3639°71
3572°88

Limit o
Error

0:10

0:05
0:05
0:05
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:05
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03

¢ | Intensity
and

Character

2b’
4b’
6b’
2
4r
4r
10r
4r
8r
10r
4r
10r
8r

Reduction to

Previous Measurements Npoudy
( Angstrém) 1
6001°5 Thalén 1:63 4:5
5201:0__,, 1:42 5.3
[5005:634 Rowland] 1:37 55
1-19 6:4
4167°5 Thalén 1:14 6:7
4061°5H. & A. 1:12 69
40576 ,, ” 5
40205 ,, 4019°0L.&D.} 1:11 70
STa00. 4, alae. 4, 1:04 15
[8683°622 Rowland] 1:02. V7
3671:0H.& A.3670°7 ,, ” 9
[3639°728 Rowland } 1:0: oe
3572°6H.& A. 35720 ,, 0:99 (G5)

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

16656°4

19219°4
199721
23031°6
23984°4
24609°7
24636:0
248700
26729'7
27139°7
27228-0
274670
27980°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 263

LEAD (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to
Vacuum

ihe Limit of ig ae Previous Measurements tole oe

(Rowlana) Resor Character Chuemion) ne 2 in Vacuo
*43262°47| 0:05 6 3260°0 L.&D.| 0:92 87 | 306432
3240°31 0:05 6 32386 ,, 0:91 88 | 30852°4
3220°68) 0°05 6 3219'9H.& A.3219°6 _,, 0:90 e 31040°5
3150°9 2-00 4n 0°89 9:0 | 31728:0
3119:09| 0-10 2 31185, 0°88 91 | 32051°5
2980:29) 0:10 2 2981°0_,, 0°84 9°6 33544°2
2926°84 0°10 2b" 0°83 9°8 34156°7
287340) 0:03 6r 28722 ,, 28720 ,, 0:82 | 10:0 | 34792-0
2833°17| 0:03 10r 28322 ,, 28329 ,, | 0°81 | 10:2 | 35286-0
2823:28| 0:03 6r 28221 ,, 282275 ,, 0°80 | 103 | 35409°5
2802:09| 0:03 8r 2801-4 ,, 280171 ,, 7 *y 35677°4
||$2712°62| 0-10 2bv 0:78 | 10°7 | 36854°0
2697-72 0:10 6rn_ | 26972 ,, 2697°0 ,, 0-77 | 10°83 | 37057°5
266326} 0:03 6r 2662°5 ,, 26627 ,, 109 | 375371
2657:16| 0-03 2 e » | 37623°3
2650°77| 1:00 8n 26500 ,, 26505 ,, 0-76 | 11:0 | 37713°9
42628°36) 0:03 2r 26274 ,, 262783 5 ” 111 38035°4
2614:26| 0:03 gr 26134 ,, 2613°7 ,, oF oy 38240°6
2613°74| 0:03 4r O76 | 111 | 382483
2577°35| 0:05 6r 25764 ,, 25757 ,, O'75 | 11°3 | 38788-2
247648 | 0:03 6r 24757 =, «= 24765 ,, 0-73 | 11:9 | 40368-0
244628) 0:03 6r 2445°7 ,, 24461 ,, O72 | 12:0 | 408663
*¥2443'92| 0:03 6r 24436 ,, = -2443°7_—*—7, on ”9 40905'9
2428°71| 0:05 6r 24278 ,, 24285 ,, An 121 | 41162:0
241180} 0:03 6r 24102 a Belo) 5, O71 | 12°3 | 41450°5
2402:04| 0:03 6r 24021 ,, 24018 ,, 5 op 41619:0
412399°69| 0:03 4r 2399°4_,, 6 41659°7

2393°89| 0:03 8r 2393°7 =, «= 2393°7_—"7» ” 124 41760°6
2388°89| 0:05 4r 2389'0 ,, 2388°8 41848'0

2332°54 0:03 6r 2333°3 ,, «23320 ,, 0-70 | 12°8 42858°9
2257'53| 0-15 1 0°68 | 13:4 442828
2254:02 0:05 4r » ” 44351°8
2247-00; 0:05 10r 22479 ~=s, AA 13°5 44490°3
2237°52 0:05 8r 22382 =y, “ 13°6 44678°7
§$2203°57| 0:05 4 22043, 0-67 | 13:9 45367:0
2187-99 0:10 2 ” 14:0 456900
***2175°88 0:10 6r 066 | 14-1 459443
2170:07 0:10 10r 21700 ,, ” 14-2 46067°3
211571 0°10 8r 0°65 | 14:7 | 47264-4
2112°0 0:10 6 “4 by 47333'8
2088°5 0:10 8r + 14:9 47866°3

* See Tin. t See Lead, || See Zinc. § See Cadmium.

¥ See Iron. ** See Thallium. tt See Mercury.

§§ Possibly not due to Lead. *** See Antimony.

264 oye t REPORT—1894.

ARSENIC.

Kayser and Runge: ‘ Abhandl. kénig]. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin,’ 1893.
a aden Ean

. piaction
a eae : to Vacuum aie
on re ey Previous Measurements [ete et a a
(Rowland)| Error |Character (Angstrom ) es )- in Vacuo
3119°69 0:03 4 3119°2 H. & A. 0°88 91 320454
3075 44 0:03 2 30750 a 0°87 9:3 32506°4
*3032°96 0:03 4 3032-2 =F 0°86 9-4 32961°7
2991°11 0:03 2 2990°2 ae 0°85 96 33422°8
2898°83 0:03 4r 2898°2 = 0°82 9-9 34486°8
286054 | 0-03 6r 28597 |. 081 | 101 | 349483
2780°30 0:03 8r 27795 Be 0779 | 10:4 35956°9
2745:09 0:03 6r 274471 Pr ” 10°6 3641871
2492:98 0:03 1 2491°9 5 073 | 11:8 40100°8
2456°61 0:03 4r 2456°2 + 072 | 12:0 40694°5
2437°30 0:03 1 2436'9 os 7 12:1 41016°9
2381-28 0:03 4r 2381:0 a O71 | 12:5 41981°7
237085 | 0-03 ar 23708 070 | ,, | 421665
2369-75 | 0-03 4r 23697. , (ep | ateaD
2363°12 0:03 2 2362°8 Fi ” 12°6 42304°3
234992 | 003 | 10r 23501 >. "| 19-7 | 42541-9
#228819 | 0-03 | lor 2988-9 | 0-69 | 13-2 | 43689°5
2271-46 0:05 4 2272°3 33 0-68 | 133 44011°2
2266-79 | 0-05 4 29675. ¢ » | 441019
2228°77 0°05 2 2230-0 Ss 0-67 | 13°6 44854°2
2206-08 0°10 2 2207-0 < “ 13°8 45316°5
2205-28 | 0-10 2 ; , | 45831-9
2183-07 0°10 1 2182-6 o ES 14:0 45793°0
217637 | 0-10 1 2768 | 0-66 | 141 | 45934-0
2165-64 | 0:10 4 2165-4 | . | 12 | 46161°5
2144-21 | 010 4 21445 |. "1 144 | 46622°8
2133-92 | 0-10 2 21352 > ” | 445 | 46847°6
2113-14 0:10 2 2112°2 i 0°65 14:7 47308 °2
2089-71 | 0-10 » | 149 | 478386
2089-02 0:10 ‘3 is 47854°4
2069°96 0:10 0-64 | 15:3 ee
2067°26 0 10 ’ ” 4835 9
206552 | 010 - ” | 48398-7
2010°23 0:20 0°63 15:7 49729°8
4200931 | 0-20 4 , | 497526
* See Tin.

1 The spectrum of arsenic shows no lines in the visible spectrum, but between
3000-2000, the lines of arsenic, and in particular 2288-19 and 2009-31, constantly
appear as impurities in other metals and in the carbon poles. The lines 2288-19 and
2009°31, given as copper lines (Report, 1893, pp. 397, 398). appear to be due to
arsenic. The spark-spectrum of arsenic, on the other hand, shows some fifty lines in
the visible portion. ;

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 260

Antimony (Arc SPECTRUM).
Kayser and Runge: ‘ Abhandl. kénigl. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin,’ 1893.

Reduction to
Vacuum

Wave- Limit of Intensity Previews Measurements iy | Oscillation
| length Error and (Angstiém) | Frequency
(Rowland) Character eee nae | in Vacuo
| Ay |
*5730°52 | 0°20 2b 1:56) 4:7 | 174457
*5707°63 | 0°20 In >» | of8 |) DELS

*5660°98 | 0°20 In 154 | + iss 17660°0
*5632:22 | 0:20 4b* pobre tts 17750:2
*5568-25 | 0:20 In | 5567-0 Thalén 152) 49] 179541
*5556:39 | 0-20 2n weak lad 17992°4
*5490:60 | 0°30 2 1:50 | 5:0 | 18207-9

403370 | 0:03 4 40320L&D.| 111, 70) 247841

3722/92 | 0:03 4 3722 4H.& A. 1:03 7:6! 26853-0

3637:94 | 0:03 4 363875 ,, 36370 ., 101 | 7:8] 27480:3

3383-24 | 0:03 2 3382-0 095 84] 29549-1

3267:60 | 0:03 6r |32676 ,, 32650 ,, | 092' 871} 30594°8

323261 | 0:03 6r |3231'6 ,, -32308 ,, | O91, 88 | 309260

3029:91 | 003 6r |30290 ,, 30280 ,, | O86 9:4) 32994-9

2878:01 | 0:03 1dr |28771 ,, 28765 ,, | U'82/ 100} 347362

2851-20 | 0:03 2 2849°9? 0°81 | 101 | 35062°8 |

2770-04 | 0:03 8r |27689 ,, 079 105 | 36090-1 |

2727 32 | 003 4 2726:1 _,, 0-78 | 106 | 36655-4

2719:00 | 0:03 4r [27179 ,, » | 10-7 | 36767-5 |

2692'35 | 0:03 4y | 26913 ,, 077 | 10°8 | $7131°5

2682'86 0:03 4r 2681:7 ,, | we 37262°9

$2670°73 | 0:03 6r | 26689 _,, Be 10:9 | 37432-0 |

2652-70 | 0:03 4 2651:7__,, 0-76 | 11:0, 37686°4

2614-74 | 0:03 2 2613:7,, » | Ih | 382336

2612-40 | 0:03 4r |2611:3_,, eg a ae 382679

2598-16 | 0:03 l0r |25972 ,, 25975 O75 | 11:2 | 384776

2574-14 | 0-03 9 |95727 4, » | 113 | 388366

2554:72 | 0:03 2 25533, O74 | 114) 391318

$2528-60 | 0:03 10r |25276 ,, 25280 ,, x 11-6 | 395360

2514-64 | 0:03 1 25145 ,, 073 | , | 397555

§2510°60 | {03 1 25095, . 11:7 39819°4

2481'81 | 0:03 1 248074 ,, 23 118 | 40281°4

2480°50 | 0:03 2 24794, x » | 40302°6

247463 | 0:03 2 24734, 0:73 | 11:9 | 403983

244559 | 0:03 4y |24448 ,, 0:72 | 12:0 | 40877°6

2426-44 | 0:03 4dr |24295°7 ,, 24260 ,, a 12:2 | 412004

2422-21 | 0:03 4 2421-5 ,, ; = 412724

2395°31 | 0:03 2 23953, O71 | 12:4 | 41735°8

2383-71 | 0:03 4 9383°2 ,, 23833 ,, fs * 41939-0

2373-78 | 0-05 6 23743, 0:70 | 12:5 | 42114-4

2360:60 | 0:03 2 23613, i 12°6 | 42349:5

2352°31 | 0:03 2 23530 ,, » «=| 227 | 42498:7

2329:19 | 0-03 2 2329°7 ,, » | 12:8 | 429206

2311-60 | 0:03 10r |2311'8 ,, 23130 ,, | 069 | 13:0] 43247-1

230656 | 0:03 sr |23068 ,,. 23100 ,, : - 43341°6

229354 | 0:10 4 22940 ,, ee 13: 43587°6

2289:09 | 0:10 4 22888 __,, ¥ * 43672°4

226255 | 0:20 6 22635, 0°68 | 13-4 | 44184-5

2225:06 | 0:10 4 22263, 0:67 | 13:7 | 44928-9

2222°10 0:10 4 2223°'5 ” ” ” 44988'8

222085 | 0-10 2 22215 ,, ‘ 5 45014:1

221254 | 0°10 1 22113 ,, - 13:8 | 45183-1

2208-65 | 0:10 4 2209:0,, | sass » | 46262°7

266

Wave- init
length Benn
2207:86 | 0-10
2203°83 | 0°10
220313 | 0:10
2201:46 | 0:10
€2179°33 | 0-10
**2175°99 | 0-10
2159°32 | 0:20
2159-02 | 0°20
214510 | 0:20
2141-76 | 0:20
2139°89 | 0:20
2137°21 | 0:20
2127°55 | 0:20
2117-28 | 0:30
2098:47 | 0°30
2079°55 | 0:30
{1206854 | 0-30

Wave-
length

(Rowland)

5742°74

6552°44
5298°52
4733°91
4722°72
4692°45
4615°71
4615°27

4493°16 )

4492°79 f

4308°70
¥4308-34
4254:33
4122-01
4121°69
3888°34
3888°05
3596°26
3511°00
3405°39
3397°31
307673
3067°81

Reduction
Intensity} Previous Measurements to Vacuum | Oscillation
and (Angstrém) Frequency
Character 1 in Vacuo
Aer |
a
2 0°67 | 13: 8| 45278-9
2 2203°8 H. & A. fe as 45361:7
2 2202°2 =, S 13:9 | 4537671
4 22003, “8 45410°5
6r ANT9:0" 55 0-66 | 14:1 458716
10r 1 21758 ,, 5 4 45942-0
+ ~Q./ ” 14:3 | 46296°6
WG eter {” |, | 46303-0 |
4 2144-4 —,, 7 14:4 46603°5
4 21420 ,, “ AS 46676°2
4 21393, “4 4 46717°0
4 21357 —y, ” 14:5 | 46775°5
4 21261 _ ,, 0°65 a 46987°9
4 21180 ,, 5 14:6 | 47215°8
6 20964, 14°8 | 47639:0
4 2075°3 i, » 15:3 | 48072:0
10r 20648, 0-64 % 483280
* Possibly not due to Antimony. + See Zine.
§ See Gold. || See Iron.
** See Lead. tt See Tin.
BismutH (Arc SPECTRUM).
Reduction to
Intensity ’ Vacuum Oscillation
and Previous Measurements Frequency
Character (Angstrém) a+ | 1— | im Vacuo
A
4bv 157 | 47 17408°6
8b’ 5553'0 Thalén 1:51 4:9 18005-2
2b’ , 1°45 52 18868°0
4bY 1:30 58 21118°4
10r 4722°0 ,, 129 5 211684
1 4691°5 ,, 1:28 | 59 21304'9
1 1:26 | 60 | 2165971
1 Pen ieee
2 1:23 6:2 22249°8
2 as " 22251°7
4 1:18 65 23202°4
4 ” ” 23204°3
In 117 : 23499°0
6 Ae f| 113] 68 | 249532
6 ; SOs fe » | 242551
1 1:07 73 | 257106
1 3 » | 257125
4r 3595'7 ,, 3595-3 1-00 78 27798'9
4r 35105 ,, 3510-4 0:98 8:0 | 28473°9
2r 0°95 83 29356°9
4r 3396°7 ,, 3396°2 oo op 29426°7
2 3075°7 ,, 0:87 9:3 32492°7
10r 3067'1 ,, 3066-0 32587°2

REPORT—1894.

ANTIMONY (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

See Silicon.
{| See Copper.

Limit of
Error

0:20
0:20
0:20
0°20
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:05
0:03
0:03
0:03

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 267

BISMUTH (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Reduction to
- Vacuum say gs
Wave- | Limit of | Intensity) previous Measurements | i Oscillation
length Bevin and onstrinn) | Frequency
(Rowland) Character CauES ont i i in Vacuo
A

7303499 0:05 4b* 3034°5 Thalén 0°86 9-4 32939 6
||3024-75 0:03 8r 3023'8 ,, 30235 Fi 9°5 33051-1
2993-46 0:03 8r 29922 ,, 0°85 9°6 33396°6
2989°15 0:03 8r 29881 ,, a3 5 334447
2944-38 0:10 In 29424 ,, 0°84 9°8 33953°2
§2938-41 0:03 10r 29375 ,, 29374 0°83 s 34022°2
2898:08 0:03 10r 28972 ,, 2897°0 0°82 9°9 34495°7
2892°98 0°10 In = 10:0 34556°4
2883°88 0°10 ln + a 34665°5
2863°86 0:05 4 2862°5 ,, 28620 0°81 | 101 54907°8
2809°74 0:03 8r 2808'4H.&A.2810'0L.& D. | 0°80 | 10°3 35580°2
2798°75 0:03 4 S798 ORE S219; . 10°4 35719°8
2780°57 0:03 8r 2779°3 ,, 27800 ,, 0:79 * 35953°4
2730°61 0:03 6r 27293 ,, 27300 ,, 0:78 | 10°6 36611:2
269684 0:03 6r 2695'6 ,, 077 | 10°8 37069°6
Baas Con 2627°0 ,, 0°76 | 11:1 38040°8
600°7 i 0°75 | 11:2 38439°5
2594-714 0°05 1 0°75 | 11:2 38537°2
2582717 0:03 2 2581°5 ,, 7 11:3 387158
2532°65 0°50 4n 25319 ,, 0:74 | 11°5 39472°5
252458 0:03 8r 2523'5 ,, 25240 ,, ” 11°6 39599°0
| 2515°72 Ne 6r 9514:3 ,, 25154 ,, 0:73 3 39738'4
2499°58 0:05 2 2499'1 ,, “f 11:7 399950
2489°5 2:00 6b 2489°1 ,, cs 118 40157:2
244815 0:03 + 24472 ,, 2448:0 ,, 0-72 | 12:0 40835°2
2433°5 2:00 4b 24355, % 1271 41080°9
2430°51 0:05 2n 24293 % 24381:0 ,, oy ae 411315
2409°7 2:00 2b O71 | 12:3 41486°7
2400-98 0:03 8r 2400'7 ,, 24008 ,, a “ 41637°4
“ste poe A 23680 ,, 0:70 | 125 42195°5
360° : Pc 12°6 42360°4
2354:°57 0:05 2n 12:7 42457°9
2346:0 0°50 2n 23470 ,, é “5 42613°3
2333°87 0:05 2 2331'8 ,, 6 12°8 42834°5
2328-27 0:05 2 2327°0 ,, ” ” 42937°6
2309°4 1:00 4bv 0°69 | 13°0 432880
2281-39 0°10 2b 2281°0 ,, a 13°2 43819°7
2276-64 0:03 8n 2276: tees ss 0°68 a 43911°2
2230°70 0:05 10r 2231-4 ,, ” 13°6 44816:4
aye re an 22291 ,, 0°67 i 44863°5
: 4 mf 3:7 44944'9
2214-21 0:05 4 22148 ,, % 13°8 451490
2203°2 1:00 6n 2203°3 ,, cy 13°9 453751
2189 70 0:05 8r 21904 ,, a 14:0 45654°4
2176°70 0:20 6r 21766 ,, 0°66 | 14:1 45927:0
2164:16 0:20 4r a 14:2 461931
2157:03 0:05 10r a 14:3 46345°7
2153-60 0°20 4r & Fe 46419°6
2152-98 0:05 8r + sf 46433:°0
213438 0:10 10r iW 14:5 46837°5
2133°72 0:10 8r PAB Ho tern a a 46852°0
2110°35 0°10 10r 2109°8 ,, 065 14:7 47370°8
2061-77 0°10 10r 20582 ,, 0-64 | 15:3 48486°7

* See Strontium. + See Potassium. || See Gold. § See Silver.

268 REPORT—1894..

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives—Eighth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. A. TILDEN and Professor H. KE. ArM-
STRONG. (Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG.)

The Conversion of Sulphochlorides into the corresponding Chloro-
derivatives.—In the case of naphthalene derivatives no interaction is of
greater practical importance than that which occurs when sulphochlorides
are heated with phosphorus pentachloride, whereby they are converted
into chloro-derivatives. At one time it was argued that reliance could
not be placed on this interaction as a means of determining constitu-
tion, but of late years no such objection has been raised, and the idea
that isomeric change may attend the displacement of the sulphonic radicle
by chlorine appears to have been abandoned. The results obtained,
especially by Cleve and by Dr. Wynne and the writer, are so uniformly
consistent inter se that, bearing in mind the extent of the field covered,
there is no longer room for doubt. Observations made during the past
year are of interest as throwing light on the nature of the interaction.

There have long been instances on record of the conversion of sulpho-
chlorides into corresponding chloro-derivatives and sulphur dioxide
(RSO,Cl=RCI+S0O,) by mere distillation. The successful use recently
made of this method in the writer’s laboratory in preparing chloro- and
bromo-derivatives of camphor by Dr. Kipping and Mr. Pope has led him
and Dr. Wynne to systematically study the behaviour of naphthalene
sulphochlorides, which they had long known underwent decomposition,
evolving sulphur dioxide, when heated. The conclusion arrived at is that,
in all probability, phosphorus pentachloride acts merely by facilitating the
resolution of the sulphochloride into sulphur dioxide and the chloro-deriva-
tive by attacking the former and converting it into thionyl chloride ; and
that, in fact, the chlorine in the chloro-derivative is not improbably the
original chlorine of the sulphochloride and not chlorine derived from the
pentachloride. In most cases the amount of chloro-derivative produced
by directly distilling the sulphochloride is inferior to that obtained by means
of pentachloride, as the decomposition is facilitated by the chloride, and
therefore takes place at a lower temperature in its presence. There is
always more or less of a resinoid condensation product formed on distilling
the sulphochloride, but the amount is in some cases very small, while in
others practically nothing else is obtained. On the other hand, in the
case of compounds which are very readily chlorinated, the method permits
of the production of chloro-derivatives corresponding to the sulpho-
chlorides which are almost unprocurable from them by the ordinary method.
For example, 1 : 1/-chloronaphthalenesulphonie chloride yields a very large
proportion of 1: 1’-dichloronaphthalene when distilled, although when
heated with phosphorus pentachloride it is almost entirely converted into
1:4: trichloronaphthalene. The a-sulphochlorides appear all to
decompose more readily and to yield a larger proportion of chloro-derivative
than do the 6-sulphochlorides. It may be added that, taking into account the
readiness with which change occurs during sulphonation, the non-occurrence
of isomeric change on distilling sulphochlorides is probably significant.

Bromo-derivatives of Naphthalene.—The conversion of naphthalene
sulphobromides into corresponding bromonaphthalenes by means of phos-
phorus pentabromide is attended with great difficulty, as the bromide
frequently acts almost exclusively as a brominating agent, owing to the
readiness with which it is resolved into the terbromide and bromine. Far

ON ISOMERIG NAPTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 269

better results are obtained in many cases by merely distilling the sulpho-
bromide, although the formation of higher bromo-derivatives is not
entirely avoided. During the year Mr. Jenks and the writer have
made considerable progress in completing the series of bromonaphtha-
lenes (di- and tri-derivatives), and in determining the nature of the
sulphonic acids prepared from the dibromonaphthalenes by Mr. Rossiter
and the writer.

One result of which mention may be made relates to the tribromo-
naphthalene obtained by Jolin by distilling nitro-1 : 4-dibromonaph-
thalene with phosphorus pentabromide, which hitherto has always been
represented as the 1 : 4: 1’ derivative, apparently because it is supposed
that, as a rule, a-nitro-compounds are formed on nitrating naphthalene
derivatives. Judging from the low melting-point of the tribromonaph-
thalene in question, it is improbable that it is a tri-a-derivative, as such
a tribromonaphthalene should melt at a much higher temperature. The
accuracy of this conclusion is established by the observation that 1 : 4-
dibromonaphthalene hetero-/3-sulphonic bromide is converted by distilla-
tion into a tribromonaphthalene which is undoubtedly identical with that
prepared from nitro-1 : 4-dibromonaphthalene.

Attempts to devise a satisfactory method of preparing 1 : 1’-dibromo-
naphthalene had been made by Mr. Jenks and the writer prior to
Meldola’s discovery of this modification, and as these have been continued
to a successful issue reference may be made to the subject. The first
method devised involved brominating the acetyl derivative of Guareschi’s
1: 4’ bromonaphthylamine, prepared by brominating nitronaphthalene,
é&c. ; this readily affords what appears to be a 1 : 1’-dibromacetnaphthalide,
but the greatest difficulty has been experienced in hydrolysing this
compound.

A second method consists in nitrating 1 : 4-bromonaphthalene sulpho-
chloride. A 1: 1/-nitrobromosulphochloride is readily obtained, but,
although the chief product, it is by no means the only one.

A third and far simpler method consists in heating 1 : 4-bromonaph-
thalene sulphochloride with bromine and subsequently hydrolysing the
1 : 1-dibromosulphochloride, which is almost the exclusive product when
the operation is properly carried out.

Although it is known that naphthalene-/3-sulphonic acid is very readily
converted into 1 ; 4-dibromonaphthalene hetero-/3-sulphonic acid, the order
in which the bromine atoms enter has not been determined ; and it is, in fact,
difficult to arrest the action at an intermediate stage, the tendency to form
the dibromo-derivative being very great. Mr. Stallard, however, having
kindly placed a quantity of monobrominated /3-sulphonate at the writer’s
disposal, it has been ascertained that it is an «,-bromo-/3,’-derivative. .
By heating naphthalene-/3-sulphochloride with a molecular proportion of
bromine a very satisfactory amount of 1 : 3'-bromosulphochloride is readily
obtained. The ‘repellent’ influence of an acid radicle is clearly brought
out by these results, as 3-bromonaphthalene yields 1 : 2’-dibromonaph-
thalene when brominated.

It is well known that there is often great difficulty, especially in the
case of a-naphthol and «a-naphthylamine, in obtaining satisfactory yields
of bromo-derivatives, a considerable amount of by-product being formed,
the nature of which has not been understood hitherto. Some light has
been thrown on the nature of these products by observations made by Mr.
Jenks and the writer.

-

270 REPORT—1894.

Following the directions given by Cosiner and by Claus and Phillipson,
monobrom /3-acetnaphthalide was prepared by mixing bromine with
$-acetnaphthalide dissolved in acetic acid ; although the conditions. were
greatly varied, the amounts of pure product obtained were in all cases very
unsatisfactory, rarely exceeding 25 per cent. The main product was a
crystalline substance, more soluble in alcohol than monobromo-/}-acetnaph-
thalide, but almost insoluble in acetic acid, ethylic acetate, chloroform,
xylene and water. When digested with a weak solution of caustic soda
this substance is converted into monobromo-/3-acetnaphthalide, and the
same effect is produced by digesting it with a solution of either sulphurous
acid or potassium iodide. It appears to be probable that this substance
contains the elements of a molecule of bromo-(-acetnaphthalide and a
molecule of bromine ; such a compound would contain 56°6 per cent. of
bromine, The highest amount found was 52 per cent. ; but as the substance
undergoes decomposition when recrystallised from alcohol, it cannot be
obtained pure. It is not produced by brominating bromo-/j-acetnaphtha-
lide, and therefore is probably formed together with it, being perhaps an
addition compound, such as is represented by the formula

/\/~ (NH.Ac) Br.

fete

aloe

By digesting the crude product of the action of a single molecular
proportion of bromine on one of /3-acetnaphthalide with a weak solution of
caustic soda, and then recrystallising from spirit, as much as 75 per cent.
of the theoretical yield of bromo-/3-acetnaphthalide can be obtained.

Rule expressive of the Formation of Sulphonic Acids.—Dressel and
Kothe, in a recent most interesting paper,'! have taken exception to the
‘rule’ suggested by Dr. Wynne and the writer, referred to in previous
reports, that there is an ‘ invincible objection’ on the part of two sulphonic
groups to remain in either contiguous, or para-, or peri-positions ; they have
described a tri- and a tetra-sulphonic acid, each containing two sulphonic
radicles in contiguous ( (3 positions. We shall have occasion to discuss
their results when the investigation of the changes attending sulphona-
tion—the most difficult and complex chapter of the subject—is somewhat
further advanced. It is only necessary to say that the ‘rule’ was merely
an expression of the results up to that time obtained, and was never
intended as a final statement.

The Investigation of the Cave at Elbolton.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. R. H. TippEMan (Chairman), Rev. Epwarp
Jonrs (Secretary), Sir Joun Evans, Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. W.
PENGELLY, and Mr. J.J. WILKINSON, appointed to ascertain whether
the Remains of Paleolithic Man occur in the Lower Ouve Earth.

Tue work of excavation in this cave has now ceased. Since our last
report the débris from the cave mouth has been cleared away, and in some
material that was taken from the upper Neolithic layer a flint flake was

» Berichte, 1894, 27, 1193-1210.

ON THE INVESTIGATION OF THE CAVE AT ELBOLTON. 271

found. Hitherto no flint tools had been discovered. A further depth of
10 feet was sunk to the bottom of the fissure, through a bed of sand and
gravel, but no bones were found. The fissure still continues, being now
only 5 to 6 feet in width. A total thickness of 60 feet has now been
removed beneath the original cave floor. While an enormous quantity
of bones have been obtained from the lower layer, yet no trace of Palzo-
lithic man has been noticed, and, as this was the special purpose of the
investigation, the Committee decided to bring the work to a close.

Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Eleventh Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor T. WILTSHIRE (Chairman),
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Professor T. RuPERT Jones (Secretary).
(Drawn wp by Professor T. RUPERT JONES.)

F CoNTENTS.
1. Elymocaris Hindet, sp. nov. 4. Note on Macrocaris Gorbyi.
2. Abdominal segments of a Phyllocarid | 5, Small Hstheria, undescribed, from the
from Moffat. Coal-measures.
3. Discinocaris and Aptychopsis from | 6. Estheria Damwsoni from Nova Scotia.

Moffat.

1. A new species of Beecher’s phyllocaridal genus Elymocaris, from the
collection of Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.G.8., has been figured and described
in the ‘Geological Magazine’ for July 1894, p. 292, pl. ix. fig. 7. It was
found at Arkona, Ontario, Canada, in the Hamilton group of the Middle
Devonian series.

Its nearest known ally is Elymocaris capsella (Hall and Clarke), from
the Hamilton group of New York State, ‘Paleont. New York,’ vol. vii.
1888, p. 181, pl. xxxi. fig. 4. It differs, however, in details of outline
ornament, and ocular spot. The new species is named Z. Hindei, after its
discoverer.

2. Two imperfect sets of abdominal segments, impressed on a piece of
Moffat Shale (from Garpel Linn), have been noticed in association with a
carapace of Discinocaris Browniana, and therefore probably belonging to
individuals of either that genus and species, or of Aptychopsis, or possibly
Peltocaris, which also occur in the Moffat Shales. The two above-mentioned
specimens are figured and described in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ for July
1894, p. 291, pl. ix. figs. 4a, 4b. Fig. 3 shows the associated carapace.
They belong to the Carlisle Museum.

We have noticed similar abdominal segments, but differing somewhat
in size, associated with Hymenocaris in the Tremadoc slates, and with
Ceratiocaris in the Upper Silurian beds. As such body-rings belong to
various groups of these low-class Crustacea, it is not extraordinary that
the above-mentioned genera should each possess the same kind of structure
in the abdominal region.

3. A good-sized Discinocaris Browniana and the moiety of a rather
large Aptychopsis Wilsoni, preserved in the Carlisle Museum, have also
been described and figured in the July number of the ‘Geological Magazine,’
1894, p. 292, pl. ix. figs. 5 and 6. They are typical of the Moftat Shales.

Mee ; REPORT—1894.

4, It may be remarked that the figured interior of the bipartite carapace
of Macrocaris Gorbyi, Miller, referred to in our Tenth Report, at page 468,
‘Report British Association’ for 1893, appears (if looked at upside down)
very much to resemble some of the bivalved Aptychopses figured in the
‘Monograph of Paleozoic Phyllopoda,’ Pal. Soc., 1892, pl. xv., but with
a more acutely sagittate outline, and without the definitely concentric
umbonal striz.

If the carapace in the drawing (fig. 43) exposes its ‘ interior,’ it seems
to lie unconformably with respect to the body-rings, for they appear to be
covered by the carapace upside down. If it normally covered the body,
it would show its eaterior.

Is it possible that after death, the attachments of the body and cara-
pace having been loosened, the carapace turned quite over, and the parts
of the animal floated into a position reverse to what they held in life ?
Or have we here two valves and an imperfect body of an Aptychopsis
which during decay were washed into a reversed position—that is, with
the abdomen projecting from the anterior region, as is not unusual with
some fossil Ceratiocaridce ?

5. By favour of Dr. Wheelton Hind, F.G.S., we have very lately seer.,
from Mr. George Wild’s collection, some pyritous specimens of what seem
to be a very small Hstheria in shale from the roof of the Bullion Coal,
Lower Coal-measures, lately worked at Trawden, near Colne, in North-east
Lancashire.

6. A specimen of Estheria Dawsoni, Jones (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ 1870, p. 220,
pl. ix. fig. 15; abid., 1876, p. 576; abed., 1878, p. 101, pl. iii. fig. 2), has
been obtained from the vicinity of Five-Islands, Nova Scotia, by Mr. H.
Fletcher, of the Geological Survey of Canada. Like a former specimen,
it may be from the Horton Series ; and has been sent by Sir W. Dawson,
F.R.S., of Montreal, for our examination.

Exploration of the Calf Hole Cave at the Heights, Skyrethorns, near
Skipton.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. TpEMAN
(Chairman), Rev. E. Jones (Secretary), Professor W. Boro Daw-
KINS, Professor L. C. Mrautit, Mr. P. F. Kenpatu, Mr, A. Birr-
WHISTLE, und Mr. J. J. WILKINSON.

Tas cave lies on the west side of a limestone scar on the Heights Farm,
and its entrance is about 30 feet above the plain at the foot of the scar.
The entrance chamber is 33 feet long and from 14 feet to 26 feet in width.
A well-buttressed column of rock supports the roof, forming two archway
entrances to the cave. The outlook westward from these entrances is very
fine, and the platform would be of value to prehistoric man as a shelter.
At the north-east corner of the entrance chamber is another cave, here
8 feet wide, and which after a short course of 10 feet turns eastward.
This latter cave was originally blocked up, and a former tenant of the
farm attempted to open it out. He found a few worked flints, a long iron
spear-head, and the bones of numerous small mammals. But the ignorance
and want of skill of the workers made their finds of little value. In
August of 1893 your Secretary made some experimental trenches in the

ON EXPLORATION OF THE CALF HOLE CAVE. 273

entrance chamber. In one cutting on the east side of the pillar, at a depth
of 18 inches, a remarkable and unique implement was found resting on a
bed of clay. The tool consists of a haft 6 inches long of reindeer antler
with a socket at the upper end. A well-rounded hole half an inch in
diameter has been made through the haft. The circumference of the haft
is 44 inches at the socket and 53 inches at the other end. Into the socket
has been well inserted a large tooth, forming a powerful chisel, which
would be of great value to its possessor. The hole in the middle of the
haft might be for the insertion of a thong to be fastened round the
waist. The character of the tooth, whether boar or hippopotamus, has
not yet been ascertained. Another trench was cut towards the little
cave, and here, near the surface, were found a neat flint saw and a flint
flake.

Since the last meeting of the Association, and with the aid of the small
grant given to us, much preliminary work has been done to render possible
a thorough and orderly exploration. The material that had been taken
out of the little cave by the previous explorers and placed in the entrance
chamber was first cleared away. Thin ‘spits’ of about 6-inch layers were
taken successively from the surface of the entrance chamber, carefully
examined, and then tipped outside the cave. The top layer of 2 or 3
inches was of loamy clay, crowded with bones of small animals, frogs, rats,
voles, &c. Beneath this was a layer, varying from a foot to 18 inches thick,
of darkened earth containing angular fragments of limestone, some burnt
sandstones, bones of sheep, horse, fox, badger, rabbit, hare and otter, bits
of charcoal and charred bird-bones. In this layer a few flints were
found, and at the bottom, resting on the clay, was the hafted tool. This
implement is thus most likely of Neolithic age, though it was found
on the top of the more ancient layer which contained the bones of
bison, &e.

The lower layers consist so far of irregular beds of washed-in stuff,
stiff clay, then sandy clay over patches of gravel and sand. In this
material are rounded boulders of both grit and limestone, together with
pieces of stalagmite. On none of the boulders have we noticed any ice-
scratches. Fragments of bones are interspersed throughout the mass,
sometimes embedded in the patches of stiff clay as well as in the gravel
and sands. These bones are of very different character from those found
in the upper layers. They are mostly dark in colour, much mineralised,
and thus heavy. The bones so far identified belong to the bison, reindeer,
roebuck, horse, and grizzly bear. Some show evidence of having been
gnawed. Most of them are very fragmentary, often only sharp splinters.
From the current bedding it seems that the bones must have been washed
into the cave by the same means as the grits and limestone boulders. The.
finds are not abundant; yet from the variety obtained the excavation
promises to be interesting in confirming the lists of Pleistocene fauna that
have been found in other parts of North-east Yorkshire.

The Committee are indebted to Sir Matthew Wilson for permission to
explore on his estate, and for his kindly co-operation in their work.

1894. #3

274 REPORT—1894.

The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Fifth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE (Chawman),
Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Dr. VALENTINE
Batt, Mr. James E. Beprorp, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
Mr. Epmunp J. Garwoop, Mr. J. G. GoopcuiLtp, Mr. WILLIAM
Gray, Mr. Rozert Kipsron, Mr. Artour S. Ret, Mr. J. J. H.
TeaLL, Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Mr. W. W. Warts, Mr. Horace
B. Woopwarp, and Mr. Osmunp W. JErrFs (Secretary). (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)

Since the last Report, presented at the Nottingham meeting of the Asso-
ciation, your Committee have been enabled to add 215 photographs to
their collection, which has now reached a total of 1,055. This number,
again, shows a gratifying increase as compared with the two previous years.
The majority of these were, however, received late in the year, and it has
been found impossible to have them all arranged for exhibition before the
date of the opening meeting at Oxford. Your Committee, therefore,
respectfully suggest reappointment for another year at least, in order to
enable a complete and revised catalogue to be drawn up, which would be
more valuable for reference than the partial lists appearing in the various
annual reports. During the next year it is hoped that societies who have
been for some time engaged in the work of systematic photography of
geological sections in their districts, but have not yet sent in the results
obtained, will be able to make further progress with the work and enable
the Committee to make their own collection more complete. The col-
lection has now assumed such proportions that a rearrangement of a more
systematic character than has hitherto been possible has become neces-
sary, and with the additions that are expected from various sources this
rearrangement in suitable albums and cases, duly indexed, will occupy
some time.

The question of the location of the large number of photographs
now obtained has received the serious attention of the Committee, and
they have recommended to the Council that the collection be deposited at
the Museum of Practical Geology, London, where, in their opinion, it
would be most accessible to the general public for purposes of reference.

At a meeting of the Committee held during the Nottingham meeting
several matters were discussed bearing upon the furtherance of the objects
for which the Committee were appointed. The various local societies have
been again urged, by circular, to assist the scheme of the Committee with
the object of completing a national collection of photographs, to serve as a
photographic survey of the geology of our own country.

The Committee, having invited the views of members who are practical
photographers as to the most suitable form of camera for geological field
work, beg to tender their thanks to Drs. Tempest Anderson and H. J.
Johnston-Lavis, and to Messrs. Wilbert Goodchild, A. R. Hunt, C.
Defieux, and F. N. Eaton for suggestions and assistance rendered. It
still appears to be difficult to recommend a particular form of instrument,
as almost every photographer has his own favourite camera, and the
apparatus required varies with the class of work to be undertaken in the

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 279

field. It is proposed, however, to give in the next Report some hints
which may be of use to those engaged in photographing rocks and other
geological features.

Among the donations of photographs added to the collection during
the past year are several of great scientific value as illustrations of geologi-
cal interest. The Committee desire to record their obligations to the
following donors of photographs :—The Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club,
Croydon Natural History and Microscopical Society, Leicester Literary
and Philosophical Society, the Manchester Geographical Society, and the
Perthshire Society of Natural Science ; Miss Mary K. Andrews, Dr.
Valentine Ball, Messrs. F. J. Allen, W. H. Alexander, Montagu Browne,
R. G. Brook, Henry Coates, F. N. Eaton, H. D. Gower, Wm. Gray,
Wilbert Goodchild, E. J. Garwood, W. Lamont Howie, H. L. P. Lowe,
J.G. McDakin, G. A. Piquet, H. Preston, C. J. Watson, and R. Welch.
The Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club have contributed an exceedingly
valuable series of photographs illustrating the Antrim chalks and basalts,
together with some fine examples of marine denudation. The extensive
series of whole-plate prints, taken by Messrs. J. Burton and Sons for the
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society (for which the Committee are
indebted to the good oftices of Mr. Montagu Browne), afford some charac-
teristic examples of the advantageous application of photography to
geological illustration.

The following suggestions have been received as to suitable sections,
&c., of which photographs are desirable, and the Committee hope that
some photographer in the localities mentioned will be able to undertake
the work :—-

My. H. C. Brastey (Hon. Sec. Liverpool Geological Society).

Section in quarry (50 feet) between Rednall and Kendall End, Lickey Hills,
showing fault with contortions in the Lickey quartzite.

Dr. C. Catiaway, £.G.S. (Wellington, Salop).

Section of Uriconian tuffs and conglomerates in large quarry at Lawrence Hill at
the foot of the Wrekin, two miles from the railway station, Wellington, Shropshire.

Section of Longmyndian conglomerate by the side of the road at Bagston Hill,
two miles south of Shrewsbury.

Section of May Hill Sandstone resting unconformably upon Lower Ordovician
rocks at Hope, two miles from Minsterley Station, Shropshire.

Section of contorted Ordovician strata at Hope, near Minsterley.

Sections of Wenlock limestone around Much Wenlock, Shropshire.

Section of passage beds between Wenlock limestone and Wenlock shale, on the
road from Wenlock down to Harley, about one mile from Wenlock.

Section of basal Carboniferous beds resting on Wenlock shale in road called
Jigger’s Bank, about a mile from Coalbrookdale Station, Shropshire.

Sections of waterstones (Lower Keuper), with perhaps slabs of footprints of
Rhynchosaurus, at Grinshill, near Yarton Station, Shropshire.

Sections of glacial sands at Ketley, one mile from Wellington, Shropshire.

TRELAND.

Near Londonderry. West of the‘B of ‘ Burnfoot’ on the one-inch Ordnance
map. Quarry. Grit and black schist contorted,
ad Buncrana. On shore near Ned’s Point. Examples of contortion and over-
ust.
Between Buncrana and Fahan, near Fahan. On the shore. Fine examples of
crushing and contortion.
T2

276 REPORT—1894.

Galway town. East of town, on shore. Gneisses seen in crag sections. Very
curious, made by fragments of hornblende rock in granite.

Lisoughter, Western Galway. Ophicalcite quarries.

Glendalough, ditto. South of the hotel. Crags showing granite running along
joints of diorite.

Mr. J. W. Woopau, F.G.S. (St. Nicholas House, Scarborough),
suggests the desirability of having photographs taken of the series of
sections on the Yorkshire coast from Redcar to Flamborough Head, and
will be glad to give assistance to photographers.

The following table shows the number of photographs registered since
the issue of the Report for 1893 :—

ENGLAND AND WALES:
Cumberland
Denbighshire
Derbyshire
Gloucestershire .
Kent.
Lancashire
Leicestershire
Merionethshire .
Monmouthshire .
Norfolk 7
Northumberland
Surrey
Somerset .
Warwickshire
Westmoreland .
Yorkshire .

oo
re RS et ee et BD OD rt GO GY

_

| wansre

89
SCOTLAND:

Edinburgh . : - z . . - 32

Perth . : r 4 . A 1 LO

CHANNEL ISLANDS . ; : : 5 - : 1
IRELAND:

Avtrim : A : 3 5 é . . of

Down e - 5 5 . 5 : . 26

Galway . : ; : : : ; o ML

Fermanagh - 3 : : 3 : st) ind

Dublin A 3 i 3 ; ‘ vi 12

Donegal . - - ; : : : sib

Total . i ‘ A ; 2 5 215

GENERAL SUMMARY.
England and Wales . ‘ B , . 3 F e . 685
Scotland . 6 - si A Fi 5 5 a . . 125
Ireland . x : 3 ; ; ‘ ‘ 5 F . 206
Channel Islands 5 ; 5 c ; F - . 4
Isle of Man . J : ' . 5 . : : . eae.
Microscopical sections . : , - . ° - + aula

Total . A , 3 “ : : é . 1,055

FIFTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(To AuGusT 1894.)

Notre —This list contains the subjects of geological photographs,
copies of which have been received by the Secretary of the Committee

ON PHOTOGRAPHS Ol GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. PALE

since the publication of the last Report. Photographers are asked to
affix to their negatives the registered numbers, as given below, for con-
venience of future reference.

Copies of photographs desired, and, in many cases, lantern slides, can
usually be obtained either from the photographer direct or from the
otficers of the local society under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which prints or lantern slides may be obtained depends
upon local circumstances, over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee find it necessary to reiterate the fact that they do not
assume the copyright of any photographs included in this list. Inquiries
respecting them, and applications for permission to reproduce photographs,
should not be addressed to the Committee, but to the photographer direct.

[Enlargements are marked (E.)|

ENGLAND AND WALES.

CUMBERLAND.

Photographed by WitBert Goopcuitp, 2 Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh.
Size 6 x 4 inches.

Regd. No.
1046 Crossfell . : : . Scenery of Carboniferous rocks
1048 na Eden Valley . Blocks of Millstone grit

DENBIGHSHIRE.
Photographed by R. G. Broo, St. Helens. Size 8 x 6 inches.

887-888 Llandulas, near Abergele. Panorama of limestone quarries
889 Pistill Rhaiadr . : . Waterfall

DERBYSHIRE.

Photographed by Harry Sowrersutts, Manchester Geographical Society.
(Per Ext Sowersurts, F.2.G.S.) Size 6 x 4 inches.

880 Miller’s Dale. ; . Carboniferous limestone
881-882 : é } a “f and toadstone
GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

Photographed by H. L. P. Lows, Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow.
Size 6 x 4 inches.

879 Chepstow . - , . Anticlinal in Carboniferous limestone

KENT.
Photographed by Captain J. G. McDaxry, 15 Esplanade, Dover.
Size 84 x 64 inches (L£.)

866 Dover Cliffs 5 J . Fall of cliff (Middle and Upper Chalk)
867 Pr ; } . Landslip at ‘The Warren’
868-869 Sandgate . : ; . House fissured by landslip

278 REPORT—1894.

LEICESTERSHIRE.

Photographed by J. Burton & Sons, Leicester, for the Leicester Literary
and Philosophical Society. (Per Montacu Browne, /.Z.S.) Size
12x10 inches. Lantern slides can be obtained.

Regd. No.
927 Humberstone :
931 Aylestone . : ¢ 2
928 +5 . . 4 2
929 it F . d 4
930 £ Saffron Lane .

932-933 Barrow-on-Soar. : :
934-936 Woodhouse Haves, ‘ Hang-
ing Stone’ rocks
937 Broombriggs, Charnwood
Forest
938 Woodhouse Eaves
939-940 Breakback Hill .
941 ae c é

942 Swithland. : °
943-944 Benscliff 5
945-946 Woodhouse Eaves, ‘Ring

Pit Quarry

947 Stony Stanton

948-949 Mount Sorrel
950-957 Croft Hill

Erratic block of syenite (21 tons)
> B= Mount Sorrel granite (10
tons)
Boulder clay on middle glacial sand
%9 Keuper marls
Small erratic blocks in boulder clay
Lower Lias limestone, showing contortions
‘Charnwood slates’

” ”

Cavern in ‘ Charnwood slates’

Slates dipping 45° 8.E.

Upper Keuper lying unconformably on
slates
” on slate
: Charnwood slates ’
Slates, showing concentric rings

Southerly exposure of Charnwood Forest
rocks

Terraces of hornblendic granite

Triassic shore-line with rolled blocks of
greenstone, covered by Upper Keuper
marls

MERIONETH.

Photographed by C. J. Watson, Acock’s Green, Birmingham.
Size 6 x4 inches.

850 Barmouth . ¢ i -

Glacial groovings on Cambrian strata

Monmouth.

Photographed by H. L. P. Lown, Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow.
Size 6 x 4 inches.

878 Crich Road, Shirenewton .

Jointing and weathering of rocks

NORFOLK.

Photographed by H. Preston.

(Per H. W. Woopwarp, £.G.S.)

Size 4 3 inches.

883 Sherringham

Contorted glacial drift

884 Thorpe Crag, near Norwich Norwich Crag on Chalk

NoRTHUMBERLAND.

Photographed by E. J. Garwoop, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Size 12 x 10 inches (L£.)

888-889 Howick Bay
890 Cullenose . :

Bol 5 ait Va here it oi

‘Trough fault’
Felspathic grit and shale
‘Fern fathom’ limestone

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 279

Regd. No.
892 Howick . y - . False-bedded sandstones
893 Bs 3 - 3 . Intrusion of ‘whin’ in limestone
894-895 =f Faults in limestone

896 Dunstanborough 2
897 Bamburgh, Harkes Rocks .
898 Cuddy’s Cove Nae Le
899-900 __e,,
901 Craster

Columnar * whin sill’

‘Whin’ traversing Carboniferous rocks
Pillar rock

Enlarged view, showing weathering
‘Whin’ overlapping felspathic grit

” ”

SOMERSET.
Photographed by F. J. Auten, Mason College, Birmingham.
Size 8 x 6 inches.

852-857 Burrington, Mendip Uills .
858 Cheddar Pass

Denudation of Carboniferous limestone

” »

862 Dinder Wood, Mendip Hills
865 Croscombe Hills

”
Rock shelter
Dolomitic conglomerate

Size 6 x 4 inches.

859, 861 Cheddar Pass. é
860 Lion Rock, Cheddar .
863-864 Dinder Wood

Erosion of Carboniferous limestone
” ” 9

” ” ”

SURREY.

Photographed by Harry D. Gower, 16 Wandle Road, Croydon.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Society.) Size 6 x4 inches.

885 Tilburstow Hill.
886 Godstone, silver sand pits.

Escarpment in Lower Greensand
Lower beds of the Upper Greensand

‘W ARWICKSHIRE.

Photographed by C. J. Watson, Acock’s Green, Birmingham.
Size 6 x 4 inches.

844-846 Nuneaton .

847,848
849 Purley Park

Triassic marl resting unconformably on
Cambrian quartzite, with intrusive diorite

beneath
Cambrian quartzite
Diorite (rudely columnar)

WESTMORELAND.

Photographed by WiLBERT GOODCHILD,

Size 6 x 4 inches.

1039 Head of Haikable, or
Highcupgill, Appleby

1040, 1047 Udale, Milburn .
below Middle-

1041 _—s=e,
tongue
1042-1044 Orton . i = 4

1045 Dufton, from Bakstone
Edge
1049 Silveraband, Milburn ,

‘Whin’ in Carboniferous rocks

Waterfall in Carboniferous limestone
Rock-strewn river bed

Weathered joints (‘ grikes ’) in Carboniferous

limestone
Great Pennine fault

‘Swallow holes’ in Carboniferous limestone

(Per

2 Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh.

280

REPORT—1894..

YORKSHIRE.

Photographed by W. H. ALExanvDER, 14a Chorley Old Road, Bolton.
Size 4 x 3 inches.

Regd. No.
874-876 Sawley (Chasburn)

Synclinal and anticlinal foldings in lime-
stone and shale

Photographed by F, N. Eaton, Roseville, Maghull, Lancashire.

Size 4x3 inches.

841 Ingleton :
842, 843 ” : . ° .

Lantern slides can be obtained,

Craven fault
Fall on River Greta

CHANNEL ISLANDS.

Photographed by Gro. A. Piguet, 63 New St. John’s Road, Jersey.
Size 8 x 6 inches.

851 St. Owen’s, Jersey

Semi-detached pillar of granite (vein of
greenstone at base)

SCOTLAND.

EDINBURGH.

Photographed by WiLBERT GoovcHILD, Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh.
Size 6 x 4 inches.

1012-1014 Canonmills, Edinburgh .
1015-1017 Salisbury Craigs :

1018 Arthur's Seat.
1019, 1032 Glencorse reservoir

1020 Braid Burn

1021 Arthur's Seat

1022 ay
Knowl’

1023 Arthur's Seat, St. An-
thony’s Chapel

‘ Haggis

1024, 1025 Arthur’s Seat (Pano-
ramic view)
1026 Blackford Hill, Old
quarry
1027,1028 Hailes Quarry, near
Edinburgh
1029 Arthur’s Seat, from

Cameron Bridge

1033 Craiglockhart, Edin-
burgh

1034, 1035 Craiglockhart, Edin-
burgh

1036 Arthur's Seat, from brick
field, Portobello
1037 Braid Hills, from Black-
ford Hill
1050, 1051 ‘The Kipp,’ from Kitchen
Moss, Pentland Hills
1052 Salisbury Craigs

False bedding in Pleistocene sands

Junction of dolerite of Lower Carboniferous
sandstone

Columnar basalt

Stream cutting through tuffs of Middle Old
Red Age

Cutting through the massif of Middle Old
Red Age

View from Driddingston Loch

Basalt lava

Lower Carboniferous basalt
Weathered lava

Laminated Lower Carboniferous sandstones
Alluvial flat of Duddingston Loch

Great fault in railway cutting.

Red and Granton sandstone)
Smaller faults in railway cutting

(Upper Old

Volcanic neck
Middle Old Red volcanic rocks

”

View from St. Leonard’s

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 281

Regd. No.
1053 Logan Burn, Pentland Middle Old Red conglomerate
Hills
1054, 1055 Arthurs Seat, from Lower Carboniferous sandstones overlying
Salisbury Craigs dolerite

HADDINGTONSHIRE.

Photographed by Witeert Goopcuitp, Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh.
Size 6 x 4 inches.

1030 North Berwick . . Marine erosion in Lower Carboniferous tuffs
1031 _—Cs,, s Craigh- Marine erosion
leith in distance
1038 Canty Bay . . . Marine ‘ pot-holes’
PERTH.

Photographed by W. Exuison, 2 Dalhousie Street, Perth. (Per Henry
Coates, F.A.S.E., Perthshire Society of Natural Science.) Size 8x6

inches.
870 Glen Turret . - . Glacial barrier across valley
871-872 Glenartney . : . Waterfall, basaltic dyke crossing stream
873 = : - . Disintegration of basaltic dyke

IRELAND.

Co. ANTRIM.

Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews, College Gardens, Belfast. (Per
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.) Size 4x3 inches.

993-995 Greenisland, Carrickfer- Boulder clay, with erratics

gus
996-997 Carnmoney . : . Boulder clay, overlying basalt and chalk
902-906 Kenbaan ; ‘ . Chalk and basalt
$07-911 Giant's Causeway . . Columnar basalt

Photographed by Wm. Gray, M.R.I.A., Mount Charles, Belfast.
(Per Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.) Size 12x10 inches (£.).

987 Larne . : c . Raised beach of gravel on estuarine clay
988 Whitehead . , . Boulder clay on New Red sandstone
989 FairHeal . ‘ . Denudation of basalt

990 Soldierstown. ‘ . Flint nodules

991-992 White Rocks, Portrush . Denudation of chalk

Photographed by R. Wxetcu, 49 Lonsdale Road, Belfast. (Per Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club.) Size 8 x 6 inches.

[Notr.—Lantern slides of the following subjects can be obtained. For complete
list see Mr. Welch’s Geological Catalogues. ]

963 Glengariff Glen . . Large ‘ pot-hole’

964 Cushenden . : . ‘The Great Cave’
965 Peat Bog, Armoy . . Showing roots of trees
966 Glenarm : : . Inclined Chalk beds
967 Cave Hill, Belfast . . Escarpment

968 Glendun : H . General view of glen

969-971 Whitewell . : . Basalt or eroded surface of Chalk

282, REPORT—1894..

Regd. No.
972-974 Cave Hill, Belfast. . Trap overlying old cliffs and talus of Chalk
975 Red Bay . 6 - New Red conglomerate
976 Maylena : : . Current bedding in drift sands
977 Glenarm : : . Natural arch in Chalk
979 Portrush : ; - a3
978 Glenariff , A - General view of valley
980 Cushendall . Tertiary volcanic neck in Old Red sand-
stone
981 Murlough Bay : General view

982 Fair Head, Ballycastle . Marine erosion of Lower Carboniferous sand-
stone. Dolerite in distant cliff

Co. DoNnEGAL.

Photographed by R. Wrucn, Belfast. (Per Belfast Naturalists’ Field
Club.) Size 8 x 6 inches.

959 Port Salon . : - Marine erosion of quartzite
962 = . Natural arch
960 Muckross Head . . Marine erosion

961 Port Leuca

” ”

Co. Down.

Photographed by R. Weucn, Belfast. (Per Belfast Naturalists’ Field
Club. ) Size 8 x6 inches.

983 Grey Abbey . ; . Erratic block (basalt, 500 tons)
984 Newcastle . : . Sand dunes and raised beach
985 Edenderry . . ‘Esker drift’
986 Happy Valley, Mourne General view

Mountains

Photographed by Wu. Gray, M.R.1.A., Mount Charles, Belfast.
Size 12 x 10 inches (£.)

983A Cloughmore : Block of Mourne granite
984A The Butterlump, Erratic block (basalt) resting on New Red
Strangford sandstone

985A On the shore, Lough, Silurian rocks
near Bloody Bridge
986A Ballyquinten Point . Vertical beds, Silurian rocks

Photographed by Miss M. K, Anprews, College Gardens, Belfast.
Size 4x 3 inches.
912-913 Bloody Bridge : . Granite boulder

914 Belmont é . Spheroidal basalt
998-1000 Newcastle, Glen River . Junction of granite and Silurian rocks
1001-1003 Kilcoo . : . Moraine, cut through by river

1004-1006 Dundonald, Ballyoran . Boulder clay on Trias

2007-1008 Dundonald, Ballyoran, Boulder clay
Cairowreagh saved

2009-1011 Neilby Hill . . Current bedded drift sand

Co. Dustin.

Photographed by Dr. VALENTINE Batu, C.B., F.R.S., Dublin.
Size 8x6 inches.
916-919 Howth . d é . Cambrian boulder-bed

920,921 Stake Rock . , + Cambrian quartzite, with drift on ice-planed
surface

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 283

Regd. No.
922 Howth . : - . Cambrian quartzite (showing bedding)
923, 924 Sutton Shore, Howth . Glacial drift
925 “F 5 . Drift on ice-truncated edges of Cambrian
slates
926 = ts . Carboniferous limestone partly altered into
dolomite

Co. FERMANAGH.

Photographed by R. Wuucu, 49 Lonsdale Street, Belfast. .
Size 8 x 6 inches.

958 Enniskillen . ‘ . The‘ Marble Arch’

Co. GALWAY.
Photographed by H. L. P. Lows, Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow.
Size 6 x 4 inches.

877 Pass of Salruch, Little Erosion of river valley
Killery River, Conne-
mara

The Circulation of Underground Waters—Twentieth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. E. Hutu (Chairman), Sir DouGLas
Gauron, Messrs. J. GLAISHER, Percy KenpaLL, Professor G. A.
Legour, Messrs. E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, Professor PREst-
wicH, Messrs. I. Roserts, THos. 8. SrooKE, G. J. Symons,
W. Torey, C. TyLpeN-Wricut, E. WETHERED, W. WHITAKER,
and ©. E. pE Rance (Secretary). (Drawn up by C. E. DE Rance.)

THE reporter has made good progress with the digest of the previous
nineteen reports, which will be ready for publication this year, giving the
details grouped in geological formations and counties.

The reporter, through unavoidable circumstances, is unable to be
present this year, and is anxious to point out that not only has the Car-
diff Naturalists’ Society sent a valuable contribution, but several other
societies federated to the British Association intend to furnish informa-
tion; this being the case, he ventures to point out that it appears
desirable to continue the work of your Committee, and that it is evident
that if the work entrusted to them in 1874 be terminated in 1894 it
will be continued by the federated societies, but the details of sections
and analyses will be scattered over many publications and will not be
of general use and access to engineers and sanitarians, and the results
obtained will be published under various modes and conditions not
admitting of common reference, as is the case in the reports emanating
from your Committee.

The Committee would therefore venture to suggest that, as valuable
information can still be obtained through the agency of local societies, they
be reappointed without grant.

Your Committee have to deplore the death of one of their original
members, Mr. Wm. Pengelly, F.R.S., who contributed most valuable infor-
mation in the early days of the investigation, and throughout has taken
an active interest in the work.

284 REPORT—1894..

SoutH WALEs.

Section of Well-boring at Messrs. J. Hdwards & Co.'s, Aerated Water
Manufacturers, Llandrindod Wells.

Information collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society per Mr. F. T. HowARD,
chiefly from Messrs. IsLER and Co., London.

— Feet Inches Feet Inches
Old well 6 6 — —_
Clay and stone 1 _ 7 6
Stone : 4 — 11 6
Clay and stone c - . 26 6 38 _
Yellow clay . : F ° 6 44 —
Stone. 5 . 5 ° 4 — 48 —
Clay and stone ¢ : . 19 6 67 6
Clay : 5 6 — 73 6
Loam 15 6 89 —
Shale 5 — 94 —_—
Rock 42 6 136 6

Lined to 95 feet with 3-inch internal diameter tube, the top of which

stands 2 feet below surface. Supply, 360 gallons per hour. Water not of

satisfactory nature ; the boring is to be continued. Water first touched
at about 90 feet from surface.

Section of Well at S. B. Sketch’s, Esq., Pembroke Dock.
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

|

| — Feet Inches Feet Inches
Marl and stone 3 ne es see
| Red rock 10 —=- 13 -—
| Sand : 1 6 14 6
; Red rock 4 — 18 6
Sand 1 6 20 —
| Red rock 10 = 30 —
| Stone 1 = 31 —
Red rock 4 9 35 9
Rock — 6 36 =
| Red rock 6 3 42 6
Rock . 7 = 49 6
Stone 1 6 51 —_
Rock 5 6 6 57 6
Red rock 4 — 61 6
Red rock ] 6 3 —_—
Red rock 37 — 100 —
Red rock 12 6 112 6
Red rock ¢ 6 120 —

Lined with 5-inch tube to 30 feet. Supply, 3 gallons per minute.

Water level, 8 feet from surface. Water first touched at about 10 feet.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 285

Section of Well at E. T. Lydden’s, Esq., Llanishen, near Cardiff.
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

-— Feet Inches Feet Inches
Pit through clay and stones . 5 — -- —
Clay and stones : 5 -- 10 —
Ballast . 6 — 16 =
Running sand 2 — 18 —
Ballast . 5 — 23 —
Red gravel 5 -- 28 —_—
Sand. : : ; : : 1 — 29 —
Red gravel (Upper Old Red Sand- 5 — d+ —
stone)
Red marl : 6 — 40 —-
Red rock ; . 9 — 49 —
Conglomerate rock 1 — 50 —
Red rock ; . 2 52 =
Conglomerate rock 2 54 ses:
Red rock ll 6 65 6
Stiff red marl 1 6 67 =

Lined to 40 feet with 4-inch tube from surface. Water level, 23 feet
from surface. Supply pumped down in five minutes with 4-inch pump,
but rises again directly. Water first touched at 47 feet from surface.

Section of Well, Ely Brewery Company, Limited, Ely, near Cardiff:
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

_— Feet Inches Feet Inches
Dug well ‘ ; “ 4 5 7 — — —
Ballast and sand . : d - 17 — 23 —
Marl and cobbles . : : : 10 — 33 —
Marl and radyr stone . A : 8 — | 41 —
Radyr stone . : ; : ; 34 — | 75 —
Red marl ‘ j : : é 54 — 129 —
Rock . ; 5 : 3 132 —
Stone 1 6 133 6
Rock 13 2 146 8
Marl 2 6 149 2
Rock : E A : 4 2 153 4
Radyr stone . 4 : = 25 — 178 4
Limestone . 7 5 r . 1 3 179 7
Radyr stone . : c , . 13 11 193 6

|| ___. Se SS ee ST

25 ft. 84-in. tube, 4 ft. 6 in. below surface.
125 ft. 74-in. tube, 4 ft. below surface.

Supply, 72 gallons in 74 seconds. Level of water, 7 feet from surface.
Water first touched in rock about 125 feet from surface.

286 REPORT—-1894.

Section of Well at Messrs. H. Anthony & Co.'s, Castle Brewery,
Great Frederick Street, Cardiff.

Collected by the parte Naturalists’ eae:

_ Feet Inches | Feet Inches

| el 2
Dug well (Alluvial deposits) . a 5 _— | = ==
Marl | 2 — | 7 —
Clay aa boulders of Millstone Grit | 3 = 10 met
Clay and pebbles ey zen) ) 10 — 20 =
Red marl 23 _ 43 —
Rock 3 ; 8 é 2 3 45 3
Red marl . ‘ ; 5 a 17 9 63 —
Ron era amc | 3 6 66 6
Red marl 5 4 ‘ : - | 53 6 120 —-

Lined with 45 feet of 85-inch internal diameter tubes, tops of which
stand 8 feet 6 inches helper surface, and 115 feet of 7+-inch internal
diameter tubes, tops of which stand 3 feet 6 inches below surface.
Water level, 21 feet below surface. Supply, over 1,080 gallons per hour.
- Water first touched at 23 feet from surface, when the level was 16 feet
from surface. This well is important as indicating a third possible
horizon from which water may be obtained. The usual horizon is the
junction of the dolomitic conglomerate and the red marls. This bed is
approximately 200 feet higher in the series. The water was hard, con-
taining Mg and Ca sulphates and carbonates, also NaCl.

Section of Well at Messrs. Bird & Son’s, East Moors, Cardiff:
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

— Veet | Inches Feet Inches |

Dug well : : et a 22, «| — — — |
Pebbles (alluvium) : es | 12, | — 34 iL |
Loamy marl . ‘ 3 ¥ ty 10 | = | 44 = |
Marl : 4 5 : 5 =i 57 | —- 10 _ |
Blue marl. / : ; wd yaa = 108 — |
Marl. ; : ; oe ae ay 221 “= |
Marl and gypsum ; : : : Tea = 228 = |
Marl . -! 3 oe aa Ate 346 a Apail
Rock. : , : A ‘ 3 — B49 _- |
Red marl : : b 4 4 | 6 353 6
|

Lined with 25 feet of 114-inch tube, top of which stands 22 feet
velow surface, and 100 feet of 10-inch tube, top of which stands 21 feet
below surface. Water level, 20 feet below surface. Supply good. Water
first touched at about 150 feet from surface.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 287

Section of Well at Messrs. Brain & Co.’s Old Brewery, Cardiff:
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

= Feet Inches Feet Inches
| OS GS See | a =i ws
Gravel! . ‘ F % ; : 15 6 25 6
Red marl é : ‘ Bh tp 6 279 —
Rock ‘ G 3 : $ P| 1 —~ 280 =
Red marl c : F : . | 21 , 301 6 |
Grey rock . : : : : 19 9 321 3
oo 36 10 BY. 38t 6 |

Lined with 30 feet of 84-inch tube, top of which stands 9 feet 9 inches
below surface, then with 166 feet of 74-inch tube, top 9 feet 6 inches below
surface. Water level, 26 feet 6 inches below surface. Supply, 2,600
gallons per hour. Supply tapped at about 322 feet from surface.

Section of Well at Messrs. Owen & Co.'s, Limited, Ely Paper Mills, Cardiff:
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

— Feet Inches Feet Inches
Pit : : ; < : : 6 == — em
Made ground F F : oa 10 = 2h eS
Sandstone . : : : 3p 8 ve 18 _—
Gravel . 2 é 5 : : 10 = | 28 —
Rock . : Z : : ; 8 = 36 —
Red marl 5 ; c c : 14 = 50 =
Rock . . : 5 < ; 41 — 91 =
Red rock 5 . 6 5 : 4 =A 95 noid.
Hard red marl, with layers of rock 7 = 102 is
Hardrock . ; h : : 2 2 104 2
Hard red marl f : : 14 10 119 —
Hard red marl, with layers of rock | 6 = 125 =
Rock ee kote.” “ake 8 | Ds) fe ae ali ailee S2
Redandgreenmarl . . .| — | 6 || 126 6
Hard red marl : 6 = 132 6
Hard red and green marl 4 — 136 6
Greyrock . F : , 8 | = 144 6
Red and green marl and rock 2 | — 146 6
Rock 1 6 148 t=
Grey rock 7 ae 165 —-
Rock 39. | 2 194 2
Grey rock 3 10 198 es
Hard rock 20 eh es 218 —_—
Blue rock 4 6 222 6
| Hard rock 21 6 244 | —

Supply, 12,000 gallons per hour, Water level, 11 feet from surface.
Supply first tapped at about 157 feet from surface. Lined with 25 feet
of 13-inch tubes, from 4 feet 6 inches from the surface.

1 Alluvial

288 REPORT—1894.

Messrs. W. Hancock & Co.’s, Limited, Phenix Brewery, Cardiff.
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

— Feet Inches | Feet Inches
Dug well 5 cl ¢ 5 5 20 | — =
Marl. F : 5 ; A 38 = 58 =
Rode (ete OR, 2 6 ol" aes 6
Marl and rock : < : 5 65 6 ] 126 —
neg ©) 90a eee Dee os ycilpae Ee
Marl and rock ‘ : ‘ : 7 6 || 242 6
Bi ateagiee-( coctron wobat| waben 6S veled aa
Rock . : : > 4 aa 2 6 265 6
Marl. ; A : : : 20 6 286 —
Rock - : ‘ : 1 9 287 9
Red rock , 5 ; : : 2 6 290 3)
Rock . . i F ; ‘ 20 3 310 6 } 3
Red rock : . ‘ ‘ é 20 == 330 6
Rock . : : ; : : 5 3 335 E)

Sand with grains of ‘ gold’ [? sulphuret of iron] and hematite. Boring
in progress.

Section of Well at Rhymney Railway, Cardiff.

—_ Feet Inches | Feet Inches
Bape be 8 Peg 62 Be tae bey ces —
Red marl ; 3 : - : 88 = 150 =
Pood | Oe 27 ee a ee
Conglomerate : : : : 13 — 190 ==
Red marl é . : : 9 = 199 =
Rock . - : 5 : 137 _— 336 —

Lined with 30 feet of 83-inch tube, 53 feet below surface. 120 feet of
7y-inch tube, 51 feet below surface. N.B. 100 feet of 74-inch tubes are
perforated. Water level, 39 feet from surface. Supply good. Water
tapped at about 130 feet from surface.

1 Small crystals of selenite.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.

Well sunk at South Wales Portland Cement and Lime Works,

Penarth, near Cardiff, in 1892.
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

Ground Levei

Feet

Bottom of the Lias : :
Laminated black bituminous shale
Blue clay - :

Paper shale . : : : :
Hard bluish stony magnesian marl
Stone .

Marl

Stone

Marl

Stone

Stone 2

Stony mar! .

Stone

Stony marl .

Stone

| Shale
Stone .
Shale .
Stone .

|

|

!

|

|

|

Marl
Stone .

Hard shale . j “i
Stone . 5 - -
Stone .

Shale

Stone . ;

Marly shale .

Light stone

Dark stone |

Light stone )

Dark stone

Very hard dark blue and light
green stones

Lightish and white marl

Hard red marl

Whitish hard marls “ S
Stony matter, greenish marls,
gypsum, and hard red marls
| in thin bands
Red marl for about 120 fr.
' sum band at base

Gyp-

The water level varies within a range of 25 feet.

oll lewlel ll oeleal

About 15
ue LO

lls

Inches

Remarks

_

wieK

| ol

bo
OW COM RP NOWKRNwDWOOCOWS RH OO

e
SCrneaonwnmnwlhs ow

_
=
—

oo lo o

‘|

Strong sulphurous spring.
Much iron pyrites in
bed.

’

(ee stones ;’ no water

or fossils.

No water.

Much water; thin band
only 10 ft.; about 2,000
gallons per hour.

Very much water from
gypsum bands.

Not connected with

the tides, but a regular ebb and flow within limits of 4 or 5 feet.
Analysis shows the water to be highly charged with CaSO,, almost to

saturation ; also much CaCO,.

Naturalists’ Society.
1894.

U

Smaller quantity of MgSO,, NaCl, MgCl,.
Information from the manager (W. J. Cooper, Esq.) through Cardiff

290 REPORT—1894.

Nortno WALES.
Section of Well at Kelsterton Brewery Co.'s, Flint.
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

—_— Feet | Inches Feet Inches
Dug well - “ é A : 9 — = as
Rock) |: 5 - 2 . 5 195 == exe —
Rock . : s : 5 id — — 204 ee

Lined with 55 feet of 74-inch tube, 2 feet below surface. Supply
touched at about 130 feet below surface. Water level, 7 feet from surface.
Supply good.

Section of Well-boring at King’s Head Hotel, Holywell, Flint.
Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

| — Feet Inches Feet / Inches
Dug well : ; : : ; 60 — = —
Green sand . 5 % “ : 5 — 65 —
Sand and pebbles . - 5 3 13 — 78 =
Rock. - - c 2 18 6 96 6
Rock and sand a ; : . 3 6 100 —
Rock . 7 = P 2 s — 6 100 6

Lined with 30 feet of 4-inch tube, top of which stands 55 feet below
surface. Supply good. Water supply overflows top of bore-pipe. Supply
tapped at about 89 feet from surface.

Section of Well at A. J. Chadwick's, Esq., Burton Brewery, Wrexham.
4-inch Boring.

Collected by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

= Feet Inches Feet Inches
Dug well . . : : : 4 — = —
Red sand : . : . : 25 -= 29 —
Red clay . : ; 10 —- 39 —_
Blowing sand e 11 -— 50 _
Brown sand ° 32 — 82 =
Blowing sand . 5 : : 21 -— 103 —
Brown clay . : . : = 8 — 111 =
Blowing sand . A : 36 — | 147 —_
Red clay and pear ; F : 17 — | 164 —
Rock 7. - é fs 4 — 168 —
Stones and clay ; 5 5 ‘ 9 — wes =
Stone . 5 = < 6 = 183 —
Stones and clay : é : ; 18 — 201 —
Clay i : : : : 22 — 223 —
Stones and clay : : : : 39 — 262 —
Clay 2 5 3 . 14 — 272 H —
Stones and clay ‘ : ; 12 — 284 —
ey at, e\Sare metas Eee 47 = 331 |.

Lined with 280 feet of 4-inch tubing. Water level 3 feet from
surface. Supply, 8 gallons per minute. Water first touched at 162 feet,
when artesian level was 14 feet from surface.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 291

_

Collected by C. E. bE Rance from Dr. Luoyp Roserts, Medical Officer
of Health, Denbigh.

Pont Ystrad Pumping Station.
Well 20 feet 9 inches deep.—Denbigh. Water Company.

Fie. 1.—Pont Ystrad Pumping Station. Section of Well and Bore-hole.

Surface of Ground.

’ 9ft. Gravel.
} 3it. Clay.

9 ft.
12 ft.

ry: ne Pgs 14ft.6in. Gravel.

26 f%. 6 in. Bears sates BEE

30 ft. 3 ft.6in, Red Sandstone.

i— <

ad

66 ft.9in. Variegated Marl,

96 ft. 9 in.
108 ft. 7 in.

Bottom of Lining
Tubes, 104 ft.

115 ft. 6 in.

5ft.10in, Red Sandstone.

11ft.10in. Red Sandstone
Rock,

ae are = 74 ft.lin. Variegated Marl

pecs I Ste ne thé
ae —S
2 ©

Vertical Scale,
25ft.tolin. _-
Horizontal Scale,
4 ft. to Lin.

Depth October 7, 1879.
169 ft. Gin. epth on Octo 7,

Analysis made by Dr. CAMPBELL BRownb, April 14, 1882.

Parts per 100,000.

Total solids in solution P A 20°4

Organic carbon }

Organic —_e I Citaces, only)

Ammonia . : - : : 2 003

Ammonia from organic matter, by distillation with) ‘009
alkaline permanganate 3 ; d : : J

Nitrogen, as nitrates and nitrites . : 7 5 : “069

Combined chlorine

A é - ; 2-059
Hardness, temporary : ; : ; - E : 75°
* permanent . é & : 2 4 . ° 6:0°
Total fe Aly i ops. .,.<u-ce cat ae IRS

This is an excellent water for domestic use.

292 REPORT—1894.

Bore-hole at Pont Ystrad.—Denbigh Water Company.

Analysis made by Dr. CAMPBELL BROWNE, November 1, 1879.

Mark of sample: B. Ww.
Parts per 100,000.
Total solids in solution A F ‘ : . 85:0 34-4

Organic carbon

Organic nitrogen \ Traces only in each

Ammonia . = 002 “0038
Ammonia from organic matter, by alkaline dis- Asm Pa
tillation i : 004 005
Nitrogen, as nitrates and nitrites : : . “000 04
Combined chlorine . : : : é . 2°84 3°55
Hardness, temporary . 3 . ; : F 15122 70°
55 permanert ; . : 3 5 31:78° 14:2°
Tail eee es Pe ee 4g -g0o ea

‘B.’ contains a larger proportion of mineral salts than is usual in even
the hardest water used for domestic supply, but there is nothing injurious
in these salts except that they waste soap and prevent the water from
cleansing the skin even with a great quantity of soap, as well as from
cooking such things as tea without great waste.

There is no organic matter and no products derived from any previous
sewage contamination ; it is free from common salt.

‘W.’ is not quite so free from organic matter, but the quantity of
organic matter derived from it is very small.

The hardening salts and the other mineral salts are within ordinary
limits.

As a general rule the deep bore waters are safer than upper waters.

Deep Bore-hole Water. Pentre Meadows, Llanrhaiadr.
Analysis made by EGBERT G. HOOPER, Esq., F.C.S., of Somerset House, April 7, 1888.

Organic matter: very slight in quantity.
Physical properties: neutral, bright and clear, tasteless and odourless.

Grains per Gallon.

Total solids : : : - : 5 : 5 - 14:0
Loss on ignition . : ; : : . : : ; 4:0
Mineral matter . : : ° : : 5 : : 10:0
Hardness, permanent . : : - S E : A obo
a total . j . : ; Z f 7:02

Nitrates and nitrites (absent)
Ammonia, free (none)

albuminoid -004 part per 1,000,000
Chlorides equal to 1°81 grain of common salt per gallon

Mineral constituents : Grains per Gallon.
Chalk ; - - 4 A : : : :
Magnesium sulphate . . : p ; : : ; 1:03

¥ carbonate. : 5 : - - : 0:56
Common salt . é 5 a - c < 4g : 1:81

9°20

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 293

This water is one of the purest commonly found, and with care to avoid
surface contamination would be most suitable for domestic and for table
use. For brewing purposes, however, and especially for ale-brewing, it is

Fic. 2.—Secticn of Llanrhaiadr (Pentre Meadows) Bore-hole.
June 14, 1875.

Surface of Ground. Yds, ft. in.
YYW,
ever eat S. 7 1

Gravel Es Vee) lO
+. ;
'
Clay t Seipoy
H
H
!
Red Sand : rn ef
H
H
H
}
H
'
1
\
1
1
'
'
t
t
4
'
'
'
4
1
1
t
‘
‘
'
'
!
‘
i
'
H
:
Red Sandstone Rock, { 74 0 0
unbottomed. ‘
i
‘
a
’
'
t
1
t
1
'
,
i
'
'
i)
\
:
i
1
i
!
'
1
i
‘
t
'
| 96 2 2

‘

too soft, and therefore cannot be recommended, though for stout-brewing
it would offer some advantages, and should a suitable supply not be
obtainable additional hardness might be added to the water artificially.

294 REPORT—1894.

There is some slight evidence of organised impurity, indicating admix-
ture, to a small extent, with surface water, which would need to be
guarded against if the supply were adopted.

Prestatyn Wells. Analysed by Dr. Luoyp Roserts, August 10, 1888.

Smithy Well, Prestatyn.

A surface (dip) well.
Parts per 100,000. Grains per Gallon.

Total solids - cs $ . 124-4 87:22

» afterignition . 5 - 62-4 43°68
Chlorine . . ; F ei2 7'8=14'8 of NaCl
Free ammonia . : - part per 1,000,000 130
Albuminoid ammonia 5 : A ; : 390
Nitrates

Nett | Very evident traces.

Parts per 100,000.
Hardness, temporary . : p : . 24
% permanent “ . ° . 17

Total . - . 41=28°7 grains per gallon.

Rectory Well (Pump), Prestatyn.

Chlorine: 6:4 parts per 100,000 = 4°48 grains per gallon.

Parts per 100,000.
Hardness, temporary . 4 m 5 5 3 = . 12
55 permanent 5 3 E 5 “aS ks - 18

Total . . . e ° ‘ ° 30

Nant Hall Pump, Prestatyn.

Parts per 100,000.
Hardness, temporary . . ° ° . . . . . 26
” permanent . ° . . . . Pets)

Total . ~ = 5 e . « 44

Nant Mine Overflow, Prestatyn.

Parts per 100,000.
Hardness, temporary . . : . . . ° . 140
3 permanent . = Fy . . ° ° - 140

Total . . . ° ° . . 28:0

Plas Newydd, Trefnant.

A surface (dip) well, in red sand.
Parts per 100,000.
Hardness, temporary . 5 : ° ° . «p20
1p permanent . rn c r - C » 200

Total . A Mk eel) geet ° 3124-0)

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 295

Bronwylfa Garden, St. Asaph.

Surface well, in red sand.

Deep Well at Hafod-y-Green, Trefnant.
About 90 feet deep.

Analysis made by Dr. CAMPBELL BROWNE, December 15, 1877.
Parts per 100,000.

Total solids A c 5 c - 148:0 (including Fe and sulphates)
Ammonia . : t F - : 004
Ammonia from organic matter by | -028

alkaline distillation : r
Nitrogen, as nitrates and nitrites. “46
Combined chlorine. , 5 . 275=45°32 grains of common salt
Total hardness . : : 5 . 46:0

This water contains a little organic matter and the remains of oxidised
animal matter of some kind ; but the quantity is not large, and probably
the water might be easily kept sufficiently pure so far as these constituents
are concerned. It contains a very excessive proportion of common salt,
and a considerable proportion of chloride of calcium and sulphate of
calcium and other phosphates. If this can be accounted for by the
infiltration of sea water through the sand, or by the occurrence of salt
deposit in the rock, the saltness may be considered not to affect the
wholesomeness of the water; if the saltness cannot be accounted for in
this way the water must be considered a suspicious one.

SHROPSHIRE.

Collected by Mr. Tuos. A. Stooxs,.C.£.

1. At the Shropshire and Montgomery Counties Lunatic Asylum, Bicton, near
Shrewsbury. 2a. In 1891 and 1892. 2. 267 feet above Ordnance Datum.
3. Depth of well 117 feet, diameter 6 feet. Depth of bore-hole 190 feet, diameter
8 inches. 3a. 1073 feet to the top of Storage Heading ; length, 31 feet ; contents,
11,400 gallons. . Water stands about 1053 feet below the surface before pumping,
and is lowered about 2 feet when the usual day’s supply is pumped. The ordinary
water level is restored in about three hours. 42. 106 feet was the point of water
level in the well; but when the bore-hole was put down the level was raised nearly
1 foot in the well, to which point it barely rises now. 5. In May 1893 the
duplicate engines and pumps were worked together, pumping off 7,200 gallons
per hour, at the rate of 172,800 gallons in the twenty-four hours, with the following
results, the valve controlling the supply from bore-hole being fully open, viz.—

Ft. in.
With 4 hours’ pumping the depth of watier was 4
6

” ” ” ” 4
€
” 9 ” ” ” 4

” 10 ” ” ” 4

osawe

No further reduction in the water level was made. The average quantity pumped is
about 45,000 gallons daily. 6. Only as before referred to Query 4a. 7. Not affected
by rainfall. The water stands about 5 feet above the summer flow of the River
Severn, &. Analysis by Mr. Blunt, Public Analyst for Shropshire :—

296 REPORT—1894.

Grains per Gallon.
Solids in suspension (none)

Solids in solution dried at 140° C. . : , - 22:0
Oxygen absorbed in four hours at 15° C, : - 0014
Saline ammonia . : : : a : - 0003
Albuminoid ammonia . : ; : : . 0:0055
Nitrogen in nitrates : : : é - 0:26
Nitrites (none)
Chlorine in chlorides. 2 : 3 ; hy alto
Hardness, temporary. - c 2 : . 113°
5 permanent . : : : - , 63°
Total ; o wissOm

An approximate analysis of solids gives the following results :—
Grains per Gallon.

Carbonates of alkaline earths, principally lime . 160
Sulphate of magnesia . : : ; Z og SO
Chloride of sodium . : ; : . - se gee

22:0

This is an excellent drinking water, free from all trace of animal contamination; it
is, perhaps, a little hard for general purposes, as is the case with all the water of the
district. Water used for laundry purposes is softened.

Ft.

9. Yellow clay with pebbles . - : , A 9
Sandy red clay ¢ ; ; : : : : 4
Sandy gravel . : : : F - : : 3
Sandy grey and red loam ; : , ; = ytd)
Coarse gravel . : : ; é : - : 3
Red sandstone rock (Bunter beds) . : ; Pa epi?
Grey * Lh 2 3 ; : 6
Red ee ‘ ; , , EN bcs)
190

9a. A steadily increasing yield of water was met with from 106 feet. The
greatest increase was from the bore-hole below 150 feet, which caused the water
level to rise in the well. 10. Yes. 212. Yes, the well is lined with iron cylinders to
the depth of 85 feet. 12. The Permian measures outcrop about 700 yards south of
the site. 13. No. 214. No. 15. An old welleunder the asylum buildings has been
abandoned and filled in on account of the surface water finding its way into it.

Collected by Mr. Tuos. A. Srooks, C.E., Shrewsbury.

1. Hinnington, on the Hatton Estate, about 2} miles south of Shifnal, Salop.
ia. Tube wells driven in 1889. 2. 172 feet O.D. approximately. 3. Three 2-inch
tube wells are driven to the depth of about ten feet, and connected by a horizontal
pipe under the ground surface. 3a. —. 4. Water stands about two feet under the
surface of the ground outside the tube. 4a. Wells; it is lowered only ths of an
inch while pumping. On ceasing to pump the ordinary water level is at once
restored. 5. The yield of water flowing freely through the pipe connecting the tube
wells together was found to be 64,800 gallons in the twenty-'our hours, Pumping
into a storage reservoir containing 30,000 gallons takes place twice during the week ;
the daily consumption is about 3,000 gallons. 6. Water level does not vary,
(7) and is not affected by rainfall. 8. Analysis.

Grains per Gallon.

Total solid contents ‘ : ‘. , - ‘ . 13:0
Chlorine in chlorides . é . ; ; f - O95
Nitrogen as nitrates . 3 5 ; 4 é . 0:08
Oxygenabsorbea . : : ; : j : . 0-009

Total hardness ‘i 2 . ; ‘5 ? x . 105

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 297

‘A pure and excellent water both for drinking and general domestic use.’

9. Section gave 18 inches of soil with a little clay, and a sharp white and red sand
on (9a) the Bunter series of the New Red Sandstone. 10. No. 11. 12. The Permians
outcrop about one mile on the west. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 26. Wells on
the north-east of the estate, after being deepened on several occasions, have been
abandoned on account of the steadily decreasing water levels in the Bunter beds,
occasioned by the pumping operations at the Cosford well and bore-hole of the
Wolverhampton Corporation Water Works.

Messrs. Walker's Works, Donnington, Salop. Particulars received from
Messrs. Timmins & Sons, Bridgwater Ironworks, Runcorn.

1. At Messrs. C. and W. Walker's works, Donnington, Salop. 1a. Well deepened
and bore-hole put down May 1886. 2. Approximately 236 feet O.D.

Ft. in. Ft. in.

3. Depth of well 30 O Diameter 4 38
Depth of bore-hole 234 0 % 0 6

7 ns 302 4 5 0 4

3a. No drift ways. . Natural water level 26 feet under the surface. 4a. No
record. §. 27,648 gallons in twenty-four hours. 6. Not known to have diminished.

Ft. in.
9. Red sandstone to about : : : ler a)
Soft loamy sandstone, requiring casing tubes 167 4

302 4
Gallons in 24 Hours.
9a. The yield of the wellalone . - 5 : 500
With bore-hole at the depth of 212 feet . 5 5,760
On the completion of bore-hole y : -) 27,648
NorrinGHAMSHIRE,

The Worksop Waterworks Co.
Collected by Mr. TYLDEN WRIGHT.

%. Worksop, Notts. Ona hill north of the town. 4a. 1876. No. 2. 200 feet.
Ordnance map. 3. Well 150 feet deep, 5 feet diameter; 365 feet from surface to
bottom of bore hole, 10 inches diameter. 3a. No drift ways. 4. 130 feet before
pumping, 145 feet after pumping. 1 hour. 4a. No record. 5. 300,000 gallons.
190,000 gallons daily quantity. 6. Slightly ; the supply is better in swmmer than in.
winter. 7 No.

Per Million Gallons.
8. Freeammonia . : ; : : F j : . 10375
Ammonia from organic matter . ‘ : : : oerO475

Grains per Gallon.
Chlorine. s - : : : : P J 2:53

Dissolved mineral matter . ‘ : 5 : : . 80°00
Hardness, temporary 5 Fi ; F ; : ibe
i permanent ’ F 4 : : ; : 14°
Total . ; 21°

10. No drift. 11 to 15. No.

298 REPORT—1894.

_ New Town, Backwell, Mr. Bagnot’s Brewery. Made and communicated
by Messrs. Domra.

Collected by Mr. W. WHITAKER, F.R.S.
Dug 5 feet, the rest bored.

— Thickness Depth

Ft. Ft.

Red marl : ¢ : : Z : : AT 47
Hard red sandstone - : . : : 13 48}

Red marl, with veins of grey. 555 104
Hard grey stone é 25 1063
Red marl 1 1073
Grey stone 1 1084
Red marl : : : : - 1 1094
Grey stone. . . - - : = 1 1105

LINCOLNSHIRE.
Particulars of Bore-holes.

Collected by C. E. DE RANCE from Mr. E. C. B. Tupor, C.E., Goole.

1. Hook Road, at N.E.R. cottages. Total depth, 200 feet; 4-inch bore-hole for
domestic supply. Warp.—Blue marl, with gypsum (Keuper marls). Surface level
about 10 feet above the Ordnance Datum; bottom of boring 190 feet below it.

2. Armin, village supply, boring 200 feet ; all in soft New Red sandstone. Surface
level about 10 feet above O.D.; bottom of bore-hole 190 feet below it.

3. Booth Ferry Road, Goole Local Board, 6-inch trial bore, 366 feet deep. Pro-
bably the first 28 feet was drift, the remaining beds being sands and sandstones,
with 80 feet of marls in six beds. The surface level is 10 feet above O.D., and that
of the bottom of the bore-hole 356 feet below it.

4. Rawcliffe Bridge, Goole supply. Well 60 feet deep, 10 feet diameter. No
boring works were commenced in 1882. The engine-house floor is level with the
canal, which is 11:5 feet above O.D. The water stands at 28 feet below the surface,
and at 40 feet after 24 hours’ pumping, or 17 feet and 29 feet below O.D. respectively.
Before any pumping took place it stood at 22 feet from the surface, or 11 feet below
O.D. The average quantity of water pumped is a quarter of a million gallons;
working the two pumps double that quantity can be lifted.

4a. Pulp Works, about 400 yards to N.E. Well-boring 300 feet deep, of 12 inches
diameter, in red sandstone. Yield 1} million gallons per day, which lowers the water
level of No. 4 3 feet. Level above O.D. about 12 feet.

5. New Bridge, near Snaith. Goole Local Board trial boring, 500 feet, with
6-inch diameter. The boring is about 17 feet above O.D., the bottom 483 feet below
it. The section in abstract is as follows :—

Feet.

46 feet brown warp, peat, and loam : : : +4 ee
51 ,, gravel, magnesia limestone fragments : F 5
500 ,, red marly sand and variegated marls . 4 : . 449

Of the red measures 32 feet consist of coarse red sand, 11 feet of variegated marls,
the balance of marly sands; the whole I regard as belonging to the Keuper Water-
stones, and call the ‘Goole Beds.’ They appear to be part of the series found at the
Booth Ferry Road, and if so the beds must be repeated by a fault; but, if so, the
latter can have no great, north and south range, for if it had no water from the west
could pass through it, and no water would be found at Rawcliffe and Goole. But it
is quite possible that an east and west fault, with a southerly downthrow, ranges

_

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 299

through the district, and may be connected with the fault at Addy Wood in the
Permians, or these beds may be thrown in by a very local trough fault, which view
is supported by the small supply of water met with.

6. East Cowick. Village supply. Boring 4 inches diameter, 90 feet deep.
Through ‘ pan sand’ (drift sand cemented by oxide of iron) and very soft red sand-
stone. Water good. Surface level 20 feet above O.D., bottom level 70 feet below O.D.

7. West Cowick. Village supply. Depth, diameter, and section same as No. 6.
Surface level 25 feet above O.D. Site close to ‘ Bay Horse Inn.’

8. West Cowick. Trial boring N.N.W. of No. 7. Surface level, 25 feet above
O.D.; depth, 80 feet. Marl, &c., here pointing to some disturbance.

9. West Cowick. Hartley’s Brewery. Surface level, 25 feet above 0.D.; depth,
1,050 feet; bottom level, 1,025 feet below O.D.

Section (1,050 feet) :— Feet.
Red gravel. - 4 : : : i : : . 55
Red sandstone : ‘ : 2 ; é e . 623
Beds not reported . : : < 7 ¢ 6 5 - 312

Total hardness of water, 14:0°.

10. South Field. Trial boring for Goole supply, south of Park House Farm.
Surface level, about 15 feet above O.D.; depth, 152 feet; level of bottom of bore-
hole, 137 feet below O.D. Water stated to be good.

10a and 10d. Trial borings for Wakefield Corporation, west of Heck railway
station, where the sandstone rock is visible. Surface level, 40 feet and 50 feet above
O.D. The late Dr. Letheby reported as follows on these samples, on October 22,
1875. Sample A, bore-hole in Mr. Drewer’s land, taken at 12 P.M., September 16,
1875; Sample B, from No. 2 bore-hole, taken October 13, 1875 :—

Grains per Gallon Sample A Sample B
Actualammonia . 3 : - - : “0002 ‘0001
Ammonia from organic matter. : : “0000 “0002
Nitrogen, or nitrates . : é : : 0735 0585
Total solids : - : : é - 19:30 13°33
Hardness—temporary . : - 2 A 14:3° 10:0°

= permanent . : . . A 70° 6-0°

This water is thoroughly free from organic impurity and of moderate hardness, and
in every way thoroughly suited to be a source of public water supply.

11. Pontefract Water Supply Well. One mile §.W. of Aire, at Chapel Had-
dlesey, which is the highest point to which the tide flows. Surface levels, 25 feet
above O.D.

Dr. Franklin Parsons, of the Local Government Board, was good enough, in
February 1892, to give some very valuable information to the Committee as to the
quality of the water of the Goole district, from which report the following abstract
has been made :—

The water from the red sandstone at Goole is of a peculiar character, containing
a large amount of free ammonia, of solid matter and soap-destroying salts, chiefly
magnesia and iron in a ferrous state ; though clear at first, it afterwards throws down a
rusty sediment, at the same time losing its chalybeate taste and smell, which at first
is very apparent. At Selby, and to a less extent at Rawcliffe, this is not the case ;
and he points out that, in the first case, the sandstone is covered with impermeable
clays; in the second, the gathering ground is either bare rock or rock covered with
porous gravels; and justly observes that the water in the red sandstone is ‘aérated
in one case and not in the other.’

300 REPORT—1894..

Water from Booth Ferry Road—Trial Boring.

4 Oct. 30, | Nov. 8, | Nov. 29, | Nov. 30.
Date Aug. 12, 1875 Sept. 16, 1875 1875 1875 1875 | 1875”
Depth . G 5 . 5 4 96 feet ? 300 feet — 366 feet —
Character . . 5 3 - | Rusty sediment | Becomes turbid| Ditto | Ditto — _—
Free ammonia 3 - «| ‘62 per million 83 1:40 119 2:40 1:94
Albuminoid ammonia 5 - | *08 ~ 035 05 “05 055 *03
Hardness, total . 5 : A 20°0 — 21:0 24:0 26-0 24-5
a permanent . . 10°0 = 8:5 10°5 12:0 12°5
' Total solids . . A . . 33°0 36°0 32°5 33°0 37-0 33°0
Chlorine. : 5 2 : 15 Nal 12 1:2 14 14
Nitric acid . 5 ° _ — = = = _
Tron) = . A : ‘ - Much — 0- _ Much 0-4
Sulphuric acid . ci : 5 Moderate — _— = — —

The last sample gave 12°5 grains per gallon of carbonate of magnesia.

At Rawcliffe Station Well samples taken September 16, 1875, showed the same
chalybeate taste and smell which obtains at Goole, but the quantity of ammonia is
less, thus:

Per Million Parts.
Free ammonia . : % : : ; ; . °03
Albuminoid ammonia. : : i a 3 e208

The hardness is also less, the total being 12°5, and permanent only 4-5. The total
solids were only 30 grains per gallon, but the chlorine is 2:3.

At Rawcliffe Hall Well, 250 feet in the New Red Sandstone, the temperature of
the water is 51°; it has no taste or smell, and only contains 27 grains of solids to the
gallon.

At Selby Waterworks a sample of water taken July 27, 1874, yielded the fol-
lowing :—

Per Million Parts.

Free ammonia 3 ; < k 4 : Oar
Albuminoid ammonia - : : : : > 02a
Hardness, total : : : : ; . “95e
99 permanent : : 5 E 3 . 45°
Chlorine . : : : : ; : Sane ke

These results establish the fact that on approach to the outcrop of the New Red
Sandstone there is direct increase of purity, both as regards ammonia, total solid
impurity, and amount of hardness, and they agree with the results of Dr. Letheby,
at Heck, taken a month later in the same year.

BERKSHIRE.
New Lodge, Windsor Forest. Professor Hutt, F.R.S.

Feet.

Bagshot Sand :
oe London Clay . . ; ‘ : > } ae
Chalk . ; C : ; ‘ ; : 725
CRETACEOUS. Upper Greensand . ? ; ; F ; 31
Gault Clay . ; : ‘ ; : ; 264
Lower Greensand . : ; ‘ : ; 7
Total R L 1,241

Very little water was struck till the borer reached the Lower Green-
sand, when it came up with great force, 7 feet above surface of ground.
The position is very near the centre of the London Tertiary Basin, and
the level about 230 feet above O.D., but of this I am not quite certain.

' For section of this well see reprint of author's papers in Proc. of Yorks. Poly-
technic and Geological Society.

an ls i ee

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 301

WILTSHIRE.

Boring at Gas Works, Fordingbridge, Salisbury, 1887, by Messrs. Trnuey.
Details furnished by Messrs. TILLEY and E. WESTLAKE, F.G.S.

Thickness in Depth in
= Feet Feet

Soil—

Black mould . : : : , : 2 : 2 ae
River gravel—

Broken subangular gravel in a good deal of sand. 12 14
Lower Bagshot (Base of ?)—

Fine grey quartz sand, clayey in places 6 20
London clay, 118 feet—

Grey sandy clay 8 28

Sand and pebbles . - - - : c 2 30

Hard stiff clay ; : F . : 10 40 |

Sand, with pebbles at the base 4 44

Sandy clay 6 50

Septarium containing fossils, Turritella imbrica-

taria, kc. 6 1 51
Clay 8 59
Hard stone : : 5 : A 3 : 1 60
Dark clay ‘ 4 7 67
Dark clay with shells, probably Pholadom, ya 3 70
Dark bluish clay . : 14 84
Hard stone . 4 44
Dark bluish clay ‘with a few small. pebbles— :. a

Cardita planicosta, Rostellaria lucida, Sow.,

Turritella imbricataria . : - - c 7 git
Hard stone . : 4 x ‘ 4 , 4 92°
Clay P i < 8 100
Brown clay, very hard and compact . 4 104
Septarium (met with at same depth in "both

borings) 2 oP 1054
Sand and clay, with water under the stone : 5 20 1251 |
Sand and water 3 1384
Sandy clay . fi 1354
Sand, shale, and pebbles (Basement bed ? Doubt- i

ful if pebbles are more than 6 inches thick) 3 1384

Reading Beds, 74 feet— =
Light grey clay laminated with grey sand : 6 1444
Greenish-brown loam with a little glauconitic *

sand and lignite. 114 156
Buff-coloured calcareous stone, 4 inches 7 156}
Light brown clay . 32 160
Brown clay 2 162
Mottled clay, 31 feet—

Whitish-grey or pale green ee with occasional

streaks of red 4 A 3 14 176

Light grey pipe clay . 1 177

Redclay . 8 180

Yellow clay, greyer towards the base 8 188

Dark-brown or chocolate-coloured clay 2 190

Purple clay streaked with ochre 3 193
Marl, 9 feet—

Pale bluff-coloured marl 3 196

White highly calcareous marl 4 200

Pale green or olive-coloured marl with ‘small

calcareous lumps 2 202
Greensand (glauconitic quartz and iron grains)

with oyster shells 10 212

Chalk 7 219

302 REPORT—1894..

Level of ground 88 feet above Ordnance Datum. Water from the
sand at 125 feet rose to 13 feet above the ground. The flow of water is
about 2,000 gallons per day. No appreciable additional quantity of water
was obtained from the Reading Beds or from the Chalk, and the pipes
were withdrawn to the base of the London Clay.—(E. W.)

List of Queries circulated.

1. Position of well or shafts with which 7. Is the ordinary water level ever
you are acquainted ? affected by Jocal rains, and, if so,

La. State date at which the well or shaft in how short a time? And how
was originally sunk. Has it been does it stand in regard to the level
deepened since by sinking or of the water in the neighbouring
boring, and when? streams or sea?

2. Approximate height of the surface | 8. Analysis of the water, if any. Does
of the ground above Ordnance the water possess auy marked
Datum (mean sea level) ? peculiarity ?

3. Depth from surface to bottom of | 9. Section, with nature of the rock
shaft or well, with diameter. Depth passed through, including cover
from surface to bottom of bore- | of drift, if any, with thickness ?
hole, with diameter ? 9a. In which of the above rocks were

3a. Depth from the surface to the hori- springs of water intercepted ?
zontal drift-ways, if any? What | 10. Does the cover of Drift over the rock
is their length and number ? contain surface springs ?

4. Height below the surface at which | 12. If so, are these land springs kept
water stands before and after entirely out of the well?
pumping. Number of _ hours | 12. Are any large faults known to exist
elapsing before ordinary level is close to the well ?
restored after pumping ? 13. Were any brine springs passed

4. Height below the surface at which through in making the well ?
the water stood when the well was | 14. Are there any salt springs in the
first sunk, and height at which it | neighbourhood ?
stands now when not pumped ? | 15. Have any wells or borings been dis-

5. Quantity capable of being pumped continued in your neighbourhood
in gallons per day of 24 hours? in consequence of the water being
Average quantity daily pumped? more or less brackish? If so, please

6. Does the water level vary at ditferent give section in reply to query
seasons of the year, and to what No. 9.
extent? Has it diminished during | 16. Kindly give any further information
the last ten years ? you can.

The Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills—Second Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. H. Traquair (Chairman),
Professor T. RuPERT JONES, and Mr. MaLcoitm Laurie (Seeretaiy).
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Durine the past year a considerable amount of time has been spent in
developing the material already acquired. The grant of money was chiefly
expended in securing the assistance of Mr. Henderson, the original dis-
coverer of these fossil beds. Thanks to his able assistance a considerable
part of the material has been worked over with very satisfactory results,
though much yet rémains to be examined.

The specimens already obtained include five species of Eurypterice

a —————E——————— — - -

ON EURYPTERID-BEARING DEPOSITS OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 303

belonging to four genera. One of these, a specimen—unfortunately badly
preserved—of Pterygotus, is new to this locality, and is in all probability
new to science. It is allied by the form of the telson to Pé. anglicus
from the Old Red Sandstone rather than to the common Silurian form
Pt. bilobus. It is the first species with a pointed telson from the Silurian,
of this country, though this form of telson has been described by Pohlmann
from the Buftalo Limestones of America.

The genus Lurypterus is also only represented by a single specimen,
which, though much larger than the type specimen, I am inclined to refer
to Lurypterus conicus.

Stylonurus ornatus, the large form from these beds, is represented by a
considerable number of specimens, mostly fragmentary. One specimen
shows the body minus the carapace and telson to have been 10 inches in
length. The details of a number of the appendages have been made out,
including the two posterior pairs which are the Jong walking legs charac-
teristic of the genus. The posterior of these has a length of 9 inches, the
anterior of about 74 inches. In front of these two appendages I have
made out representatives of two other pairs of limbs, both of which are
furnished with long spines. The detailed description of these and other
points of interest must, however, be postponed till a more thorough investi-
gation has been made.

The other species of Stylonwrus which occurs in these beds—S¢. mac-
rophthalmus—is well represented. One specimen is almost complete, only
wanting the telson and part of one side of the body. It shows four
appendages down one side. The two posterior limbs are more unequal in
size than is usual in this genus, the anterior one being far more slender
than the posterior and only two-thirdsits length. The appendages in front of
these do not appear to be so well furnished with spines as in St. ornatus.
Another specimen of this form, though very fragmentary, has shown, after
careful development, five legs down one side of the carapace. They have
not yet, however, been fully worked out. There are various other fragments,
showing parts of the body, tail spines, &c.

Of the other form occurring in these beds, Drepanopterus pentlandicus,
we have been fortunate enough to secure one almost perfect specimen,
which shows the form of the body and three pairs of limbs. The form of
the last pair of limbs but one confirms the relationship of this form to
Stylonurus. There are many other more or less fragmentary specimens,
which may be expected to yield further information as to the details of
this interesting genus.

Besides the Eurypterid the bed has yielded a considerable number of
other fossils, among which may be mentioned : Graptolites, various Poly-
zoa, a species of Gomphoceras, Lingula and other brachiopods. These,
when properly identified, may be expected to yield important information
as to the exact horizon of the beds.

In view of the large amount of material which yet remains to be
examined and the interest of the results which are briefly referred to above,
your Committee ask to be continued for another year with a further
grant.

304 REPORT—-1 894.

Stonesfield Slate-—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. B.
Woopwakb (Chairman), Mr. KE. A. WaLForp (Secretary), Professor
A. H. Green, Dr. H. Woopwarpb, and Mr. J. WINDOES, appointed
to open further sections in the neighbourhood of Stonesfield in order
to show the relationship of the Stonesfield Slate to the underlying
and overlying strata. (Drawn up by Mr. Epwin A. Watrorp,
Secretary.)

Tue basement beds of the Great Oolite in the Midlands and in the south-
west counties of England have been hitherto supposed to be well defined.
For in all the records of the many writers on this geologic subdivision,
to the Stonesfield Slate has been assigned the line of separation from
the Fuller’s Earth or Inferior Oolite, or, where the Stonesfield Slate is
absent, as in the extreme west, to the Minchinhampton beds has been
given the same position. Undue prominence has been given to so incon-
stant a series of beds as the Slate, as much from the ease with which
fossils for its study have been collected as from the varied character
of the fauna and flora found in it. From the days when the finding of
the mammalian remains in the Slate called the attention of geologists
prominently to it, every text-book of geology has found a place for it at
the bottom of the Great Oolite limestones. Though, however text-books
and papers have defined the lower boundary of the Great Oolite so clearly,
the officers of the Geological Survey in their work in the neighbourhood
of Stonesfield found the lines so difficult to define that it became neces-
sary, where the Slate had disappeared, to adopt an intermediate colour-
ing, a kind of no-man’s-land. Since then an argillaceous stratum, ‘the
Rift bed,’ has been recognised as the lowest of the Great Oolite beds in
the Banbury and Hook Norton area.

The endeavour of the work, for which the British Association made a
money grant in 1893, has been to ascertain the thickness and composition
of the beds underlying the Slate, for hitherto no account of these beds has
been obtainable, Professor Ed. Hull’s record! of 70 feet being the only
assumed thickness of the Great Oolite, and to this he adds 30 feet for the
Inferior Oolite. Though their thicknesses seem to be over-estimated, no
correction or account of a series of rocks so important has since then been
written. Nearer Chipping Norton, however, Mr. J. Windoes, Mr. W. H.
Hudleston,? and your Secretary? have worked at some of the debatable
beds above the Clypeus grit, one of the highest of the Cotswold divisions
of the Inferior Oolite. To the bulk of these beds has been given the name
of the ‘Chipping Norton Limestone’ by Mr. Hudleston,” and though the
beds have not been reached in the section, they may be seen in the lane
sections and near the spring on the banks of the Evenlode, south of
Stonesfield. Your Secretary in 1892-93 sank a shaft near Ditchley, Oxon,
to find out the true position of the Slate beds there ; but of this an account
will be published elsewhere.

The progress of the work, so far, at Stocky Bank, Stonesfield, has

' Report Brit. Assoc., 1860, p. 82 (Sectional Proceedings).

2 W. H. Hudleston. Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. v. No. 7.

3 HE. A. Walford, ‘On the Relation of the so-caile¢d Northampton Sand of N. Oxon
to Clypeus Grit,’ Y9.J.G'.S., vol. xxxix. p. 235.

ON STONESFIELD SLATE. 305

consisted in scarping the bank for 33 feet, and in continuing the section
by carrying a shaft of 20 feet in depth through the lower bank. The
purpose of the work has been so far successfully carried out by showing the
existence of 30 feet of rock with some thin clay courses below the Slate.
These limestones and clays (see accompanying section on p. 306) are of Great
Oolite type. To reach the Clypeus grit will need an extension of time.

Your Secretary has, by the discovery of numerous species of corals on
the ploughed fields on the bank top, been able to define the coral bed
(Rift bed) ! so prominent a feature in the near section at Ashford Bridge.
Seventeen feet below the coral bed a course of Slate is met with, almost
thinned out at that point, and only from 5 to 7 inches in thickness ;
the total thickness of it and the associated beds (10, 12, 13 of the section)
being about 5 feet. The usual fossils, Z’rigonia impressa, &c., occur. In
the lower limestones, 15 and 17, are greenish clay inclusions.

The great mass of buff limestone below the slate is almost unfossiliferous,
and neither its mineralogical character nor its few fossils give sure evi-
dence of its relationship to neighbouring beds.

Prominent in the lower half of the section is the breaking up of the cal-
careous series by small clay beds, and of these No. 23, with its dark compact
clays, is in part made up of oyster-shell fragments. It contains numerous
compressed shells, Perna quadrata, Nucula, &e., but washings of the beds
yield hardly any microzoa. The limestone above the clay yields well-
known Great Oolite shells, Mytilus Sowerbyanus, Rhynchonella concinna,
and Ostrea Sowerbyi. The shelly limestone below the clay is in part an
Oyster iumachelle, and passes into a blue-hearted limestone with Perna.
quadrata, large Cyprine, Corbula, and Macrodon. Here, again, both
petrological facies and fauna are dissimilar to any of our known Oxford-
shire Oolitic rocks, and, like each of the succeeding lower beds, should be-
classed as Great Oolite ; one of the latter, a hard very oolite freestone,
has also as distinctive a character.

In conclusion, it should be stated that though, when Professor Ed.
Hull reported to your Association at its Oxford meeting, thirty-four years
ago (1860), the presence of seventy feet of Great Oolite limestone under
the Stonesfield Slate, it seemed to be an over-estimate, yet the result of
the present investigation has been to prove the presence of an important.
and overlooked section of the Great Oolite, and to entitle place for it in
future accounts of that subdivision. That Professor A. H. Green doubted
the existence of so great a series of beds as those quoted by Professor
Hull is proved by the absence of any account of them in his excellent
memoir ‘On the Geology of the Country round Banbury, Woodstock,
Bicester, and Buckingham,’ published in 1864.

Mr. James Windoes, Mr. Wilfred Hudleston, Mr. H. B. Woodward,.
and your Secretary have also worked in later years at the determination
of the equivalent of these lower Bathonian beds in the neighbourhood of
Chipping Norton.

To: his Grace the Duke of Marlborough, to the Right Hon. Lord
Dillon, to Mr. John Barrett of Stonesfield, and to Mr. 8. Shilson of
Charlbury, the thanks of your Committee are due for aid in this and other
relative work.”

The probable extension of a lower division of the Great Oolite below

1 E. A. Walford, 9.J.G.S., vol. xxxix. p. 230.
2 Mr. R. F. Tomes has kindly named the corals.

1894. x

306 REPORT—1894.

the limit reached by. us, large enough with that already discovered to
entitle it to a place as a sub-formation, makes a continuance of the work
a necessity for the right understanding of the lower Jurassic rocks of
Great Britain.

Section at the S.W. end of Covert, Stocky Bank, Stonesfield, Oxon, 1894.

Ft. In.
1. Humus with limestone fragments containing Verinewa, Crypto-
cenia Prattii KE and H, Cryptocenia sp., Isastrea microphylla
Tomes, Jsastrea linitata Lamx., [sastrea near to limitata
Lamx., Thamnastrea Lyell EK and H and HONORE P-

‘RIFT BED’ 5 0 9
2. Grey Marls with Ostrea, Placunopsis, and Rh ynchonella concinna 4 O
3. Fawn-coloured Sands and Marls—oyster bed . ‘ . ara 0
4. Grey shelly compact Limestone weathering cream-coloured e, 6.20
5. Hard grey Marls with Rhynchonella concinna . : BPR VS a
6. Shelly Limestone ‘ : ; : P : . 70° 6
Toe Wael, «1. 4 4 4 3 : ‘ : . : ° aa | oe
8. Limestone. . ee
9, Marls with Oysters, ta. Spe ARTS:
10. Limestone, shelly oolitic ‘and cream-coloured ‘Roof’ of Slate. 1. &
11. Stonesfield Slate, ‘Top hard,’ compact, grey Paar HAD . 5in.to0 7
12. Soft fissile Sandstone ‘ Pendle’ - -9in.tol 0
13. Limestone, coarsely fissile and enlace, arate clay inclusions,
concretions, black carbonaceous markings and fragments of
Rhynchonella and Trigonia impressa . : . . wane
14, Marl, brown fissile and sandy 0 3
15, Shelly Limestone, laminated and banded with clay inclusions
in the upper part ; fawn coloured with Oysters , : 7. 240
16. Soft fissile Sandstone with carbonaceous markings . : 0 5
17, Limestone, compact, close-grained, fawn-coloured with carbon-
aceous markings and clay inclusions. . . . ey 0 36
18. Limestone, close-grained, buff-coloured . 4 si ‘i 79 5456
19. Clay J ‘ ‘ . . : pict f46
20. Limestone, compact, buff-coloured . . : : - «838
21. Marl. oy et
22. Limestone, white, shelly and crystalline, with Mytilus Sower-
byanus, Rhynchonella concinna, and Ostrea Sowerbyr Lr93
23. Black Clay, crowded with Placwnopsis in places, with Perna,
Nucula, and Ostrea Long
24. Shelly earthy Limestone, made up mainly of Oyster fragments,
and passing into a brown, blue-hearted Limestone crowded
with shells, Perna quadrata, large Cyprina, Corbula, and
Macrodon . : : . : ‘ ; , . ales ig
25. Black Clay . 0 11
26. Hard oolitic Freestone, blue- hearted, made up of whitish oolites
in blue or brown base , : : . : . ‘ of fd
27. Rubble . ‘ : . 1°03
28. White fine-grained ‘Limestone with few shells : ‘ <n 2

ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 307

Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava,
Chapelhall, and other Localities. (Chapelhall Section.) Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. HoRNE (Chairman), Mr. Davip
Rosertson, Mr. T. F. Jamieson, Mr. JAMES FRASER, Mr. Percy F.
KENDALL, and Mr. DuGALp BELL (Secretary).

APPENDIX—On the Chapelhall Clay, by D, ROBERTSON . . - - Page 313
I. Locauiry AND Previous NortIcEs.

CHAPELHALL is a little mining village situated in the north-eastern part
of Lanarkshire, about twelve miles east from Glasgow and two miles south
from Airdrie. Its name has been well known to geologists for more than
thirty years past from its being usually mentioned in works relating to
the science as the highest locality in Scotland where ‘ shelly clay ’ has been
found (510 feet above the sea). That of Clava, near Inverness, which the
Committee reported upon last year, is of more recent discovery, and has
not been so generally referred to.

It may be useful, first, to present a summary of the hitherto existing
information regarding this ‘ deposit.’

(i.) Mr. Smith, of Jordanhill—tThe ‘shelly clay’ at Chapelhall was
first brought into notice by Mr. Smith, of Jordanhill, in a paper read to
the Geological Society in 1850, and republished in his well-known little
volume of ‘ Researches in Newer Pliocene and Post-Tertiary Geology,’ in
1862. The following is the passage referring to this ‘deposit : ’—

‘Having been informed by Mr. John Craig, F.G.S., that a bed of
shells had been discovered near Airdrie, much higher than any previously
found in Scotland, I considered it of importance to ascertain the exact
amount of the elevation above the present level of the sea, as well as the
species of the shells, and the nature of the deposit in which they are
found. Mr. Craig kindly accompanied me to the locality, which is near
the Monkland Iron Works, and about fourteen miles to the south-east of
Glasgow.

‘The shelly deposit in question proved to be a bed of the Tellina
proxima, Brown (7'. calcarea? Linn.), an Arctic species extremely abun-
dant in the Clyde Pleistocene beds overlying the till, and which I had
formerly procured from a brick-work in the same neighbourhood.’ The
shells in the present instance were discovered by Mr. James Russell, an
operative miner, in digging a well.’

Mr. Smith then states that he ascertained the elevation of the place
to be, on the surface, 524 feet above the sea, which is ‘at least 150 feet
higher than the highest level at which any shelly deposits have been
hitherto discovered in Scotland.’ He continues :

‘The most remarkable circumstance attending the present discovery is
that the shells were imbedded in the stratified clay below the till.

‘Mr. Russell states that at the depth of 14 feet from the surface,
after passing through the till, he came to a bed of brick-clay containing

1 This refers to shells previously stated to have been found by Mr. Craig near
Airdrie, at a height of 350 feet. See Researches, &c., p.17. (The ylace, an old

brickfield, has long been filled up.)
x2

3808 REPORT—1894.

the shells, which were therefore 510 feet above the level of the sea. I could
entertain no doubt as to the nature of the superincumbent matter, as that.
part of it which had been thrown out was left lying at the mouth of the
well. It was unquestionably the true till. Indeed, if I had entertained
any doubt as to this point, it would have been removed by the discovery
of a small granite boulder, which was found about 2 feet above the bottom
of the till. The nearest granite rock in that direction (N.W.) is at
Cruachan, about sixty miles N.W. of Airdrie... .

‘I may add that Mr. Russell states that after passing through the
shelly bed of brick-clay, he came again to the till, thus proving indispu-
tably what has always been suspected, that there has been more than one
deposition of the till or boulder-clay.’ !

(ii.) Six Archibald Geikie.—In the preparation of his valuable memoir
on ‘ The Phenomena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland,’ published in 1863,”
Sir Archibald Geikie visited the spot, also under Mr. Russell’s guidance.
He described it as situated ‘on the crest of a ridge which, rising high
above the surrounding country, commands an extensive view across the
lower part of the basin of the Clyde. On the water shed of this high-
lying ridge a well was sunk some years ago, and while the excavations
were in progress the shells were found.’ Sir Archibald then gives particu-
lars corresponding with those stated by Mr. Smith, adding that the till
underneath the shelly clay was ‘about 24 feet thick, and lay directly on
the Carboniferous strata of the district. The brick-clay at its thickest.
part,’ he continues, ‘measured 2 feet 1 inch in depth, but thinned away
rapidly on every side, so as to allow the upper and lower till to come
together. From a number of additional wells, sunk on purpose, Mr.
Russell ascertained that the clay lay in a hollow of the undermost till,
and that this hollow measured about 19 feet long by about 5 feet broad.
Pits which were dug beyond the boundary of this little trough showed a
great depth of the usual till, but without a trace of brick-clay. The
shells consisted entirely, I believe, of Yellina prowima. Usually the
specimens were broken, but a good many were taken out entire, with
both valves together.’

(iu.) Dr. Crosskey.—About the same time as Sir A. Geikie’s visit,
or apparently before it (though the account was later in being published),
Dr. Crosskey visited the locality, and made some observations which were
communicated in a paper to the Geological Society in January 1865.4 He
remarked : ‘One of the most perplexing cases in Scotland, upon any theory
of the formation of boulder-clay, has been the alleged occurrence at
Chapelhall, near Airdrie, of a bed of clay containing 7'ellina calcarea,
intercalated between the masses of true boulder-clay.

‘The facts relating to the discovery of these shells have been recorded
by Mr. Smith. . . . The present paper will simply examine the question
whether the superincumbent matter was, without doubt, the true till.’

After defining what he means by the term ‘a compact, unstratified
clay, with a large proportion of striated stones, chiefly of local origin,’ and
stating that ‘the glacial shells in the west are never found within the
boulder-clay proper,’ but ‘invariably above it,’ Dr. Crosskey proceeds :

‘Mr. Russell (the original discoverer of the shells) reports that the

' “On the Occurrence of Marine Shells in the Stratified Beds below the Till.”
Op. cit. pp. 1389-142.

2 Trans. Ceol. Soe. Glas. vol. i. part 2. 8 Tbid. pp. 58-9.

* Quar. Jour, Geol. Soc, vol. xxi.

ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 3809

shell-clay occupied a kind of basin in the lower till, the section being the
following :—

If. in.
‘1. Clay (supposed to be true boulder-clay) . ? 2) Ue 30
2. Clay, tiner, containing smaller stones, with TZellina
calearea, Cuprina Islandica, and a large Balanus,
in the deepest part, but gradually thinning out ‘ Dv bel

3. Boulder-clay resting on carboniferous beds : : —

‘With great kindness, Mr. Russell sank a fresh well seven yards from
the old one, and the following section was exposed :

Ft. in.
‘1. Surface soil . : : : 4 . C 70
2. Upper clay . : ‘ : : : ; : iS as:
3. Boulder-clay not pierced through : é : : SG

‘There were decided distinctions between the upper and lower clays.
. . . The upper clay was looser and more easily worked than the lower.
. . . The junction between the two clays was recognised by Mr. Russell
as the exact position at which he had found the original shell-bed.’

Dr. Crosskey added :—‘ There is no evidence whatever that the Chapel-
hall fossils were 7m the boulder-clay, in any sense which would make that
clay a marine formation.’

From the foregoing quotations it is apparent that the references made
by Mr. Smith, Sir A. Geikie, and Dr. Crosskey, to the occurrence of
shelly clay in the Chapelhall well section, rested solely on the statements
of Mr. James Russell.

With the view of obtaining further information the Committee re-
solved to re-examine the well section and to put down a series of trial
bores.

Il. EXAMINATION BY THE COMMITTEE.
1. The Well Section.

Mr. James Russell, the original authority regarding this shelly clay at
Chapelhall, died about fourteen years ago. The cottage which he built
and occupied, and in the garden of which the ‘well’ is situated, stands at
the west end of Chapelhall, and somewhat higher than the village, near
the summit, as has been said, of the ridge on which the village is built.
It is called ‘Wanlock Cottage,’ and is now occupied by Mr. James
Lindsay, a mining foreman, who purchased it several years ago from
Mr. Russell’s son.

Mr. Lindsay, having been informed of the object of the proposed
examination by the Committee, kindly agreed to afford every facility for
the work and assist it by every means in his power.

An arrangement was accordingly made that the well should be
emptied and the stone-work removed, so as to expose the section all
round to a depth of at least 15 or 16 feet.

Mr. Robert Dunlop, of Whiterigg, Airdrie, obligingly assisted Mr.
Lindsay in the operations, and the Secretary of the Committee repeatedly
visited the spot during their progress.

On Saturday, March 24 last, the section being then exposed to a
depth of fully 15 feet from the surface, the Chairman, Mr. Horne, met

310 REPORT—189 1:

Mr. Dunlop and the Secretary by appointment at the well, and made a
careful examination of the section.!

Underneath 2 feet of surface soil they found the materials composed
entirely of the typical boulder-clay of the district, full of stones, sub-
angular, and more or less striated, chiefly from the adjacent Coal
Measures, with a few red sandstones, conglomerates, and schists from the
West Highland border. Two grey sandstone boulders of considerable
size appeared on the sides of the well, one on the N.W. side and the other
nearly opposite on the 8.E. side, at a depth of between 12 and 13 feet
from the surface.

No trace of any shelly clay or of shells was found.

Samples of all that could be obtained, viz. the boulder-clay, were
taken :—

(1) From a depth of 14 feet to 14 feet 6 inches.
(2) + 14 feet 6 inches to 14 feet 11 inches.
(3) on 15 feet to 16 feet.

On Monday, March 26, Mr. Horne, Mr. Bell, and Mr. Dunlop again
met at the well, and in their presence the examination was carried down
another 2 feet, making the greatest depth reached about 174 feet from the
surface. Samples were then taken :—

(4) From a depth of 16 feet to 17 feet.
(5 and 6) ” 15 feet to 16 feet.

Portions of the whole were despatched to Mr. David Robertson for
examination, and also to the office of the Geological Survey in Edinburgh,
Mr. Robertson’s report is subjoined.

2. Boring Operations Around the Well.

The result of the excavation of the well being so far negative, the
Committee deemed it advisable, lest former operations had removed or
concealed the shelly clay from the sides of the well, to put down some
bores at various points at a short distance around it. For this purpose
they employed Mr. James Pollock, whose services had been obtained in
their former investigations at Clava. Mr. Pollock was first instructed to
put down four bores at various points around the well to a depth of about
17 feet. The position of these bores (Nos. 1 to 4) is shown in the
following diagram.

The diameter of the well after the masonry had been removed was
4 feet 9 inches at the surface, and 4 feet 3 inches at a depth of 15 feet.

The distances of the bores from the sides of the well were in each case
about 24 feet.

Owing to a large boulder, No. 4 bore had to be abandoned, and bores
4a and 4b were put down first westward and then southward from No, 4
(see ‘ Borer’s Journal’).

After these bores had been put down and reported on by Mr. Pollock
it was suggested that, as a considerable space intervened between bores
Nos. 1 and 4, and again between Nos. 3 and 4, it was possible that a bed
of clay of some breadth might extend diagonally between these without

? When the operations were in progress, the Chairman and Secretary examined
the title-deed conveying the small property from the late Mr. Russell’s son to
the present owner, Mr. Lindsay, and obtained other evidence of the location of the
well.

ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 311

being touched by them. It was considered advisable, therefore, to put
down two other bores in the positions marked (No. 5 and No. 6). These
additional bores were also done by Mr. Pollock.

One2.
N
N°3.
Oo .
. w E
Nol
oe
rd s
° ! No 4. 26)
(nes) x bare
ing O4¢ ;
at
fe)

Finally, another bore, No. 7, was put down from the bottom of the
well in order to reach the rock, which Sir A. Geikie had been informed
was 24 feet beneath the shelly clay.

When the boring was in progress Mr. Macconochie, of the Geological
Survey, at the request of the Chairman, visited the spot to examine the
material and report if any change was observable. Mr. Dunlop and the

Secretary were also present.
The following is Mr. Pollock’s journal of the bores and remarks :—

Journal of Bores at Lindsay’s Well, Chapelhall.

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
im East of Well North of Well West of Well
Ft. Ft. in. Ft.
Surface and ashes . - ‘ 1 1 0 2
Brown sandy clay and stones . 9 9 O 8
Blue clay and stones 7 6 10 ve
Total . P 7 $ 17 16 10 17
No. 4a No. 46
No. 4 > = :
— ° 1 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. S. of 4
South of Well W. of 4 andl ta
Ft. in Ft. in. Ft. in
Surface and ashes . ; Pr. oO 1 O 1 6
Brown sandy clay and stones . oak, 7 O 8 6
Blue clay and stones 3. «6 ZEOS 7 0

a
Total . - Stopped by large boulder. 17 0

312 REPORT—1894k.

Journal of Bores at Lindsay’s Well, Chapelhall—(continued).

No. 5 No. 6 No.7 |
-— South-west South-east From bottom |
(between 4 and 3)|(between 4 and 1); of Well
Ft. Ft. \iiitec as
Surface and ashes . ; j 1 2 Hal 17 0
Brown sandy clay and stones . 9 8 s
Blue clay and stones : i 7 8 30 = =10
— | — ———— |—
Total . ; IPT 18 Rock not reached

With regard to Nos. 5 and 6, which were put down to divide the space
between the others, and touch any bed that might extend diagonally
between them, either to S.W. or S.E., Mr. Pollock wrote: ‘I have
found no difference in the stuff I went through.’ And with reference to
No. 7, which was put down in the expectation of touching the rock at
24 feet from the bottom of the well (or 40 feet from the surface), as
reported, he wrote: ‘I have finished bore in well, and put it down 47 feet:
and got no rock, and found no difference in clay from top to bottom ; it
was all blue clay and small free-stones.

‘James PoLock.
‘Plains, April 11, 1894.’

Further, in answer to an inquiry on the point, Mr. Pollock wrote :—

‘T don’t believe the ground had been disturbed in any way, at any of
the places where I put down bores at Chapelhall, because they were all
mostly the same—the brown clay on the top, then the blue clay under it.
They all seemed to be quite naturally formed, and in no way disturbed.
Even the bottom of the well was the same.

BS BA

The Committee may here remark that, as is well known, a deposit of
boulder-clay is generally browner in colour and looser in texture towards
the top, owing to the action of the ordinary weathering agencies upon it,
and not to any special change of conditions during its deposition.

Mr. Macconochie reports as follows :—

‘T was present at Chapelhall (April 6, 1894) when Mr. Pollock brought
up the materials from bores Nos. 1 to 6, from depths exceeding 14 feet.
They consisted of the ordinary boulder-clay of the Chapelhall well section.

‘A. MAcCcONOCHIE.’

III. Conctusion.

As the result of their investigations, the Committee beg to state that
they have found no evidence in proof of the occurrence of shelly clay at
Chapelhall either in the original well section or in the trial bores.

The Committee recommend that they should be reappointed with a
grant to investigate the shelly clays at Tangy Glen, near Campbeltown, and
on the Lag and Rosie in Arran.

ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 315

APPENDIX.
Report on the Chapelhall Clay. By Mr. Davip Rosertson, F.G.S.

Millport, May 5, 1894.

The samples of clay that were submitted to me for examination from
Chapelhall from depths of 14 to 17 feet were, as taken from the pit, of a
dark slatish colour, and when dry of a light grey- colour. The mud
referred to in the following list is that portion of the clay that passed
through a sieve of 96 meshes to the inch, and the sand is what passed
through a sieve of 24 meshes to the inch, and the stones are those retained
in the same sieve. That which is commonly called ‘ floats’ is that which
rises to the surface of the water when the clay is dissolved, after having
been dried. The dissolved clay, when stirred up, retained its dark colour,
but after standing a little a reddish brown formed on the surface.

The ‘ floats’ are not referred to in the subjoined list, as they were all
alike in being quite barren of animal remains, and almost of everything
else.

From the Well.—No. 1. Depth, 14 ft. to 14 ft. 6 in.

Mud 5 é : ; : . 50 per cent.
Sand P : ; - 5 + - 10 Ff
Stones . ‘i 4 F 3 » 38 -

The sand consists of white and black grains, the white preponderating
greatly, or, I may say, with a small mixture of black grains, both
apparently rough or angular.

The stones mostly water worn, a few portions angular. Few striations
were noticed. This may be accounted for as few of the stones are such as
would readily take and retain the markings.

No. 2. Depth, 14 ft. 6 in. to 14, ft. 11 in.

Mud : - ° : : . 62 per cent.
Sand : : - : y lz =
Stones . ; : 3 H - 26 ce

The sand consists of white and black grains, mostly white, both angular.

The stones more or less water worn, but not to any great extent.
Many pieces were angular, some appear to have been crushed. No stria-
tions were noticed.

No. 3. Depth, 15 ft. to 16 ft.

Mud . ° . E 2 . 50 per cent.
Sand ~ : : R 5 «Ag 5
Stones . C ‘ : ; A) 0) re

. The sand light grey composition as above.
Stones much the same as No. 2.

No. 4. Depth, 16 ft. to 17 ft.

Mud : - ‘ : < . 60 per cent.
Sand 3 p 2 3 . 14 i
Stones . ; : : A . 26

”

The sand consists of white and black grains, chiefly white.
Stones mostly water worn. The pieces of shale generally more or less
striated, or indented, or both, and a few bits of coal, some with marks

314 REPORT—1 894.

of abrasion. Also bits of vitrified stone. These show no marks of
rubbing or of having been much rolled about. In this sample a small frag-
ment of a valve of a bivalve shell imbedded in a piece of Carboniferous
shale.

No. 5. Depth, 15 ft, to 16 ft.

Mud F P . . . « 60 per cent.
Sand a b F P : . 14 a
Stones . deca, - oo aeons

The sand consists of white and black grains, the white prevailing
greatly.

Stones mostly water worn, the lesser portion more or less angular.
Most of the bits of shale are striated or indented. The coal here has
traces of water action.

No. 6. Depth, 15 ft. to 16 ft.

Mud : . 5 : - . 60 per cent.
Sand A = : 3 Q 5. 14 A
Stones . , e : a +1» 25 .

The sand light grey.
Stones mostly water worn. Many pieces of coal and small pieces of
slag.

From the Bores.—Bore No. 1. Depth, 14 ft. to 17 ft.

Mud P < : 2 . 592 per cent.
Sate Ree RT IN, See Tee Seow te
Stones . , H d J 7G 7

The sand light grey.
Stones mostly water worn. Many small pieces of coal, some abraded,
and three small bits of slag.

Bores Nos. 2 & 3. Depth, 14 ft. to 17 ft.

Mud ; 2 f ; : ; 385 per cent.
Sand. - . : c = GS os
Stones . = : : : . 44 ”

Sand light grey.
Stones mostly water worn, only one piece noticed striated. A few
pieces of coal, some with marks of rubbing. Some bits of slag.

Bore No. 4. Depth, 14 ft. to 17 ft.

Mud F : - S P . 66 per cent.
Sand 3 : : ; : Pie rg S
Stones . x ; : : red LT ,

The sand light grey.

In this bore the stones are all small, and from the absence of larger
and heavier ones the proportion of mud is more and that of the stones less.
No striation was noticed. Coal and small bits of slag were present.

As stated above, the floats were not taken into account, as they were
all alike in being quite barren of animal remains and almost of everything
else, which is a very different condition of things from the abundance of float

ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 315

that we generally find in the post-Tertiary shell-bearing clays. The
samples of sand are of a very uniform colour, and any little variation that
appears may have been caused by the black grains being lighter and
coming more to the surface than the white in one case than another.

From the abrasions on the above samples of coal, there can be little
doubt that it belonged to the deposit.

As no rubbing is noticed on any of the pieces of slag, and the fractured
edges appearing sharp, it is most likely that it got into the clay accidentally.
At the same time it is curious that it is met with in so many of the
samples both of the pits and bores.

So far as I can judge from the samples of the clay and the average
proportion of stones and mud, also the paucity of the floatings, and the
entire absence of animal remains (with the exception of a small fragment
of shell embedded in a piece of Carboniferous shale), I have no doubt
whatever that the deposit is characteristic boulder-clay.

The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its Neighbourhood.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Baurrman, Mr. F. W.
Rupier, Mr. J. J. H. Teaut, and Professor H. J. JoHNSTON-
Lavis. (Drawn up by Professor H. J. JoHNsToN-LavIs.)

Vesuviws.—Since the last report lava has continued to pour forth from
the top of the new lava-cone in the Atrio del Cavallo, sometimes in small
quantities, at others in considerable abundance. On no occasion, how-
ever, did the lava issue beyond the limits that it had reached in the years
1891-92. In fact, the whole of that eastern part of the Atrio known as the
Val d’Inferno has not been invaded at all by the new lava during or
since its issue in the spring of 1891. The consequence of this has been
that it has continued to pile itself up around the line of fissure by which
it issued, and still further add to the dimensions of the great lava-cone
that it had built up in the Atrio. So great has this cone become that it
constitutes a prominent feature in the outline of the volcano as seen from
Naples. The eminence of Somma is separated from Vesuvius by the
depression of the Atrio. This notch, so to speak, in the general outline
was terminated below by an almost horizontal line, which is now replaced
by an obtuse cone, so that many people speak of three summits to the
Vesuvian volcano. This is rather an exaggeration, for although the new
lava-cone is of very considerable dimensions, for the time occupied in its
growth, yet it cannot compare with that of the cone of Vesuvius on one
side or the ridge of Somma on the other.

The whole of this new cone is entirely built up of lava, by far the
greater part being of the pahoehoe or corded type ; only now and then
during marked activity has there been produced any lava with a rugged
scoriaceous surface. The occasion was therefore a very valuable one to
determine the slope of such a lava-cone. This was done only normally to
the line of fissure by which the lava issued, and which makes the cone ter-
minate in an elongated ridge rather than in a point. Practically all these
clinometric observations, which were taken with great care, gave angles
varying from 13° to 15°.

Comparing this angle with that of such mountains as Etna or
Mauna Loa, we must consider that both are composite cones, have experi-
enced many disturbing influences such as the formation of parasitic erup-

316 REPORT—1894..

tive outlets from which lava streams have issued far away from the sum-
mit, and have thus diminished the general slope of the volcano. Those
mountains are usually considered to have an average slope of 10°. The
Hawaiian lavas are, as is well known, exceptionally fluid, and we could
hardly expect cones of greater slope than 10°. At Etna the lavas have
always been more viscous from their lower temperature and the compound
or false viscosity given to them by the large number of porphyritic crystals
already existing in the magma at the time of emission, just as earth mixed
with water may produce a viscous mud. These new lavas of Vesuvius, as
is the case with all those that issue high up on the volcano and in small
quantities, were very viscous owing to their low temperature and advanced
crystallisation, so that soon after the material poured out it was prevented
from flowing by slight further cooling. We may take therefore this aver-
age slope of 14° as the best and most correct estimate for a lava of this
nature.

This recent outflow exhibits most of the varieties of surface to be met
with in the type of lava above mentioned, such as corded shapes of different
kinds, irregular globular surfaces, sheets, and plates either in position or
reared on end, and tunnels of every variety, frequently with continua-
tions as walled canals, of which a good example is seen in the photograph
exhibited. A magnificent lava hump is to be seen in another photograph,
and was formed right under the escarpment of Somma. The origin of
these humps is still obscure. They are common on most large flows of
corded lava of Vesuvius, but unfortunately I have never been present at
their formation, nor do I know of anyone who has.

The points of issue of the lava occurred at various spots along a line cor-
responding with the strike of the radial dyke to which it owes its origin, so
that the new lava has as a summit an irregular ridge running nearly north
and south. Of course the actual highest point is nearly always that where
the last lava issued. Generally more than one spot along this line gave out
lava at the same time. The fluid rock flowed sometimes on one side,
sometimes on the other, so that the general public at Naples were only
from time to time treated to a glimpse of Nature’s fireworks, and when the
lava flowed in the opposite direction it was often announced that it had
altogether stopped.

During the last year several new conical spiracles were formed, but
none of them comparable in perfection of form to those described in the
last two reports, or exhibiting equally interesting features.

No very interesting minerals were produced as sublimates. In fact,
uly two species are worthy of mention. Onone occasion a sinall quantity of
tenorite was formed in one of the spiracles. Soon after the lava had entirely
stopped flowing in February, sublimates of potash-bearing halite were
very abundant around about the vents, in beautiful fern-like skeletons, in
which a number of feathery branches radiated at right angles from a stem
representing usually about three edges of a cube, and were themselves so
many edges of smaller cubes. Sometimes this halite was grey, from minute
hematite crystals being deposited with the salt, which likewise was in
some cases greenish from copper impurities. Most, however, was of a
beautiful snow white. One small cave in particular, about the size of a
man’s body, was clothed with the most glistening white lining, and from
the roof and walls showers of crystals fell from time to time. These were
not visibly red-hot in bright diffused daylight, but looking towards the
shaded inner extremity of the cavity a bright red incandescence was visible.

ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 317

In a short time, with suitable apparatus, I collected over two kilogrammes
of this material absolutely free from mechanical impurities.

Along many of the cracks of the lava beautiful glassy crusts of halite,
more or less impure, were formed, and often showed a dull red heat in
daylight. These crusts on being removed become rapidly opaque and milky
in hue, and audibly cracked into starch-like columns, due to the rapid con-
traction on cooling—producing, in fact, a miniature basaltic structure.

About February 5, 1894, the lava was issuing in very small quantity,
and by the 7th showed no trace of movement, Yet even in May cracks
in the lava near its point of exit were incandescent some distance in, and
the saline incrustations mentioned above were in full perfection.

Coincident with the arrest of the lateral outflow, the lava rose in the
chimney and the red reflection from the top of Vesuvius that had been
absent for so long, with rare exceptions, was again almost daily visible.
The level of the lava in the main chimney soon rose to the bottom of the
new crater that had been forming, and increasing in size during the time
the lateral issue of lava had been going on, and commenced the filling up
of that cavity by the formation of a cone of eruption, so that almost coin-
cident with the arrest of the leakage of lava laterally the central activity
changed from the crater- and dust-forming stage to the lava cake- and
cone-forming stage.

I made a careful examination of the summit of Vesuvius about the
middle of May. The crater in an east and west direction was about 150m.
in diameter, and its depth, then decreasing, was about the same. The
walls were remarkably steep, in some places even vertical or overhanging.
The bottom could be seen with difticulty owing to the crumbling nature
of the edges. The walls are nearly all covered by sublimates or dust.
that has adhered and crusted them over, so that several dykes both solid
and hollow can no longer be distinguished. This is especially the case
with the one formed during the 1891 outburst. The details of the great
rift of the 1880-81 and subsequent eruptions on the east side of the great
cone were still easily discernible. On the south side, and a little to the
east, a wall of rock stands out from the side of the crater and is directed
nearly towards the centre. It is capped by a pinnacle of rock, and is really
the old dyke of the 1885 eruption.

Just to the east of that wall, and partly owing to its existence, the slope
of the inside of the crater is less in that direction. Here the guides had
made a little path for a few metres down. On examining carefully the
condition of things from its lower termination, which so far aided little
the view of what was going on at the crater-bottom, I found that by ex-
tending it down a slope, and then cutting a ledge farther round to the
east at a suitable point, a bracket-like platform some metres square could
be reached, which is about half-way down the crater. Later the path was
further widened by me and made more commodious, and now gives easy
access to the platform from which one can look right into the vent of the vol-
cano and watch with ease the boiling up of the lava and the ejection of the
great blobs and cakes that are rapidly filling up the crater. Unfortunately,
owing to the well-like shape of the crater, the shadows due to the vapour
column spreading out overhead, and the dark colour of the rocks, instan-
taneous photography could not be utilised to record this interesting and
ever-changing scene.

As is usual at some period after an eruption, feathery gypsum is a
common product in the cavities of the old scorie, and is associated at the

318 REPORT—1894.

fumaroles with a little sulphur (an exceedingly rare mineral at Vesuvius)
with abundance of molysite and kremersite. :

In the Campi Phlegrzi little of novelty has come to light.” A tunnel
and a deep shaft which is being constructed in Naples to complete the
drainage works have brought several interesting sections to light, but not
of sufficient completeness to be yet worth recording.

The Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea.—-Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor A. C. Happon, Professor G. B. Howes,
Mr. W. E. Hoye, Mr. I. C. THompson, Mr. A. O. WALKER,
and Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman and Reporter).

[PLATE I]

Tue work has chiefly been carried out by the three last-named members
of the Committee along with their colleagues of the Liverpool Marine
Biology Committee and other naturalists who have been working at the
Port Erin Biological Station during the year. The present report is
drawn up by the Chairman, with contributions from the various specialists
mentioned below in connection with the several groups of animals. The
extensive lists and notes received from Mr. Walker and Mr. Thompson
should be specially acknowledged.

The limits and more prominent physical features of the region of the
Irish Sea which this Committee was appointed to explore were sufficiently
described in last year’s report, and may be readily seen from the accom-
panying chart (Plate I.), which is a modification, with some additions, of
the chart given in the former report.

The work this year, in addition to the further exploration of the
district by dredging, trawling, and tow-netting, for the purpose of adding
to the records of the fauna, has consisted largely of the determination of the
submarine deposits spread over the floor of the Irish Sea—their nature,
probable origin, relation to depth, and effect upon the distribution of the
fauna. The reasons for undertaking this extension of the work were—-

1. There can be no doubt that the nature of the bottom has a profound
influence upon the assemblage of animals at a particular spot, and limits,
perhaps, as much as any other factor the distribution of non-pelagic
species in the sea.

2. That being so, it becomes of importance to determine, if possible,
why there is a particular deposit at a special spot, and how much connec-
tion there is between the geological formations of a shore and the sub-
marine deposits lying off that coast.

3. Some of the deposits described in our last report proved of such
interest to the geologists at the Nottingham meeting that the Committee
of Section C supported the application for the reappointment of this
committee on the grounds that a collection of typical deposits from the
floor of the Irish Sea would be of geological interest. Sir Archibald
Geikie asked that such a series should be formed and sent to the Jermyn
Street Museum ; so on all the expeditions during this year sample bags of
the deposits met with have been preserved, and, after examination, have
been sent up to the Geological Survey. These deposits will be discussed
in a later part of the report.

The object of the Committee, then, has been, not merely to collect
animals, but to investigate the condition of the sea-bottom in the various
parts of the area, and correlate, if possible, the fauna with the environment.

av

oe ee he

Plate |.

ENGLAND

XMELOBESIA, Ac
STONES, GRAVEL.
ASHELLS.

MUD.

SAND.

ESHELL CONCRETION

Seotion across tho Trish Sea, through Douglas.
Hor. Scale 4’ =about 8 miler.
Vert, Scale sh’ =10 faths.

weeds ACES Lanstom
Alustrating the Report of the Committee on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sca.

eee

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 319

THE DREDGING EXPEDITIONS.

The Committee have organised the following expeditions since the last

report :—

ry, August 22.—The Committee hired the steam trawler ‘Albatross’
for dredging from Port Erin to the south and west, round the Calf Island,
as follows :
’ 1. Off Halfway Rock and Bay Fine, half a mile from shore, 15 fathoms;
bottom small gravel and broken shells. Conspicuous animals :' Antennw-
laria ramosa, Sertularia abietina, Aglaophenia myriophyllum, Cellaria
fistulosa, Sarcodictyon catenatum, Porania pulvillus, Galathea intermedia
(with the Bopyrian parasite Plewrocrypta intermedia), Ascidia plebera,
A. mentula, Cynthia morus. :

2. From off Kitterland to Halfway Rock, half a mile off, 17 fathoms ;
bottom stones and large shells, with Cliona celata (massive form), Opht-
opholis aculeata, Ascidia venosa, Cynthia morus.

3. North of Kitterland, three-quarters of a mile off, 18 fathoms ;
bottom small gravel and shell sand, with Sarcodictyon catenatum, Lepralia
edax, Cellepora pumicosa, Echinocyamus pusillus, Ophiocoma nigra, Xantho
tuberculatus, Inachus dorsettensis, Ebalia Cranchii, Ascidia mentula, A.
plebeia, Perophora Listeri, Capulus hungaricus, Murex erinaceus.

4. Off the north-west corner of Calf Island, a quarter mile off, 17
fathoms ; bottom stones ; very many Ophiocoma nigra, with Stichaster
roseus, Ophiothri« fragilis, Ocnus brunneus, Lineus longissimus, Cynthia
Morus.

5. South end of Calf Sound, half a mile off, 15 fathoms ; rough hard
ground, probably rock in situ. Several large stones came up, covered
with Sertularia abietina, encrusting polyzoa, and Ciona intestinalis.

6. North-west of Calf Island, half a mile off, 18 fathoms ; bottom
stones with many Ophiocoma nigra, with Sycandra ciliata (large), Chatop-
terus sp., Ophiopholis aculeata, Solaster papposus, Thyone fusus, Ascidiella
scabra, and Ciona intestinalis.

7. North-west of Calf Island, further out, 20 fathoms, bottom stones,
shells, and echinoderm spines, with Sarcodictyon catenatum, Aglaophenra
tubulipora, Spatangus purpureus, Aphrodite aculeata, Pectunculus glyci-
meris, Ciona intestinalis, and Perophora Listeri.

8. From off Kitterland to across Port Erin Bay, 2 miles off, 15
fathoms ; bottom large shells, with Perophora Listeri, Ascidia mentula.

9. West of Port Erin Breakwater, a mile out, 17 fathoms ; gravel
and rotten alge, with Lyonsia norvegica (alive).

II. On September 11 some of the Committee dredged from a large
rowing boat between Port Erin and the Calf Island ; half a dozen hauls
were taken about Aldrick and Bay Fine, half to a mile off shore ; depth
15 to 18 fathoms. The hauls overlapped, so all may be considered one
locality. Amongst the animals obtained were: Folliculina ampulla (in
quantity, alive), Astrorhiza limicola, Antennularia ramosa and other
hydroids, Sarcodictyon catenatum, Antedon rosacea, Amphiporus pulcher,
Terebella nebulosa, Halsydna gelatinosa, Conilera cylindracea, Anthura

1 The few species picked out for mention in each haul are not to be regarded as
the rarest forms observed. In some cases they are the commonest. They are the
forms which at the time seemed to us the most conspicuous and characteristic of the
haul—the most noteworthy inhabitants of that ground.

320 REPORT—1894..

gracilis (new to the district), Hurynome aspera, Galathea nexa (with
Bopyrian parasite Pleurocrypta nexa, n. sp., Stebbing), Doto fragilis,
Velutina levigata, Ostrea edulis, Ascidia plebeia, Ascidiella venosa, A.
virginea, Cynthia morus, Polycarpa pomaria, Corella parallelogramma, and
Syngnathus acus.

TIL. March 20-25.--At Easter the Committee spent some days in
shore-collecting at the southern end of the Isle of Man, and hired the
steam trawler ‘ Lady Loch’ for two days’ dredging. On the first day the
floor of the sea to the north of Port Erin from Fleshwick to Contrary
Head at Peel was worked at twelve stations within four miles of the coast,
and at depths from 10 to 20 fathoms. On the second day nine stations
off the west of the Calf Island at depths of from 20 to 25 fathoms were
dredged.

March 24.—1. West of Fleshwick Bay, a quarter mile off shore, 13
fathoms ; bottom fine sand and broken shells, with Cliona celata, Gemel-
laria loricata, Canda reptans, Ophiura ciliaris, Galathea intermedia, Por-
tunus arcuatus, Aporrhais pes-pelicani, Trochus magus, Ascidia virginea.

2. West of Fleshwick, further north, half mile off shore, 15 fathoms,
bottom small gravel and shells, with Cycloporus papillosa, IHyas co-
arctatus, Macropodia longirostris, Venus fasciata, Lissocardiwm norve-
gicum.

3. West of Fleshwick, further north, half a mile off shore, 15 fathoms ;
bottom large shells, a little gravel, with Pecten tigrinus, Venus casina,
many common crabs.

4. One mile north of Fleshwick, half mile off shore, 14 fathoms ;
bottom much fine gravel, with Pecten maximus, Trochus magus, Antedon
rosacea.

5. Off the Cronk, a mile off shore, 14 fathoms ; bottom small gravel
and some Melobesia, with Tellina crassa (alive), Thracia pretenuis.

6. One mile further north, a mile off shore, 10 fathoms; bottom
Nullipores (Melobesia and Lithothamnion), with compound ascidians.

7. West from South Barrule, a mile off shore, 12 fathoms ; bottom
Nullipores, with Antedon rosacea.

8. Off Niarbyl Point, a mile out (several hauls), 12 fathoms ; rough
hard ground, with Antedon rosacea, Echinocardium flavescens.

9. Off Glen Meay, 4 miles out, 20 fathoms ; bottom ‘ reamy ’ (sand
and mud), with Ophiopholis aculeata, Porania pulvillus.

10. Off Glen Meay, half a mile further north, 21 fathoms ; with many
Pecten opercularis, Cucumaria Hyndmani, Ebalia tuberosa, Cellaria fistu-
losa, Scalpellum vulgare.

11. West of Contrary Head, 4 miles off, 18 fathoms ; bottom Melo-
besia and stones, with Lugyra glutinans.

12. West of Contrary Head, one and a half mile off, 13 fathoms ;
bottom muddy sand with some stones and many ophiuroids, with Cliona
celata (massive form), Astarte sulcata, Pecten maximus.

TV. March 25.—1. Off Aldrick (south of Port Erin), a mile out,
18 fathoms ; bottom dead shells, shell sand, and echinoderm spines, with
Spatangus purpureus, Echinocyamus pusillus, Porania pulvillus, Henricia
sanguinolenta, Murex erinaceus, Xantho tuberculatus.

2. Off Kitterland, 14 mile out, 18 fathoms; bottom dead shells with
Ascidia mentula, Cynthia morus.

3. North-west of Calf Sound, 2 to 3 miles off ; 19 fathoms, bottom sand
and shells, with Palmipes placenta, Luidia ciliaris, Stichaster roseus,

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. aul

Thyone fusus and T. raphanus, Cellaria jfistulosa, Ascidia plebeia, Poly-
carpa comata.

4. North-west of Calf Island, 3 miles off, 20 fathoms ; bottom sand and
shell fragments, with Pectunculus glycimeris, Modiola modiolus, Pecten
MAXIMUS.

5. North-west of Burrow Rock, 3 to 4 miles off, 22 fathoms ; bottom
shells, with Pectunculus glycimeris, Lissocardium norvegicum, Pecten
maximus.

6. North-west of Chicken Rock, 5 miles off, 25 fathoms ; bottom dead
shells and some sand, with Sarcodictyon catenatum, Chetopterus sp., Ebalia
tuberosa, Ascidia plebeia.

7. One-and-a-half mile off Bradda Head, 18 fathoms ; bottom large
shells and broken fragments, with Asterias rubens (very large'!), Porania
pulvillus, Ciona intestinalis.

8. Two to three miles N.W. of Bradda Head, 21 fathoms; bottom
muddy sand, with many ophiuroids, Cucwmaria Hyndman.

9. Four miles N.W. of Bradda Head, 23-25 fathoms (several hauls) ;
bottom sandy mud, many ophiuroids.

V. May 27.—The Committee hired the steam trawler ‘ Lady Loch,’ and
dredged the following localities :—

1. South-east of Calf Sound, a mile from Kitterland, 20 fathoms ;
bottom subangular gravel (? glacial material), many ophiuroids and Bucci-
num undatum, a few large shells, Mytilus edulis, and Venus casina.

2. South-east of Calf Sound, half a mile further out, 19 fathoms ; some
coarse sand and broken shells with the subangular gravel (stones much
encrusted) Spatangus purpureus, many encrusting polyzoa, Venus, Trochus,
Pecten, Serpula, Echinus, and Lithothamnion fragments.

3. South-east of Calf Sound, further on, 2 miles from Kitterland, 20
fathoms ; bottom white, shelly (calcareous) sand, mainly organic, lamelli-
branch and gastropod shells, echinoderm spines and plates, Cellaria fistu-
Josa and Cellepora pumicosa.

4. South-east of Spanish Head, 2} miles off, 20 fathoms ; bottom sand
and broken shells; a few small stones—Triassic sandstone, slate, and
pebble of felsite.

5. South-east of Spanish Head, 3 miles off, 22 fathoms ; bottom more
shelly (fragments Jarge), and a few small pieces of slaty rocks.

6. Off the Chasms, half a mile out, 17 fathoms ; bottom muddy sand with
much Lithothamnion and Melobesia, a few shells and small stones, small sub-
angular fragments of slate, grit, Carboniferous limestone (with Productus),
and pebbles of coarse sandstone.

7. Off the Chasms, a mile out, 19 fathoms ; bottom mud and small
gravel (small subangular grit and granite), Amphidotus and Echinus
remains, and some shells.

8. Off the Chasms, 2 miles out, 21 fathoms ; mixed bottom, sandy mud,
small subangular stones and shell fragments.

9. South-east of the Old Mines, near Perwick Bay, quarter mile to a
mile off shore, 15 to 18 fathoms (two hauls) ; bottom Nullipore and gravel
{angular grit, slate, vein-quartz) ; a few shell fragments.

' The specimens we dredge are very much larger than those we find on the rocks
of the neighbouring shore. Are there two varieties in the species, a smaller shore
and a larger deep-water form, or do the individuals move outwards from the shore as
they grow older /

1894. Y

322 REPORT—1894.

10. Off mouth of Perwick Bay, half a mile off, 12 fathoms; bottom
small gravel.

VI. July 8.—The Committee had the use of the Lancashire Sea
Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell,’ and dredged at the following localities :—

1. West of Dalby, 5 miles out, 30 fathoms ; bottom mud, with Anten-
nularia ramosa, Ophiura ciliaris and O. albida, Pecten opercularis and
P. pusio, Turritella terebra, Hyas coarctatus, Ascidia virginea, and Hugyra
glutinans.

2, Six-and-a-half miles west of Contrary Head (Peel), 38 fathoms ;
bottom fine mud, with Brissopsis lyrifera, Lipobranchius Jeffreysit.

3. Seven-and-a-half miles west of Niarbyl Point, 45 fathoms ; bottom
fine mud, with Calocaris Macandree, Gonoplax rhomboides, Panthalis
Oerstedi.

4, Five-and-a-half miles west of Glen Meay, 34 fathoms ; bottom mud,
many Zwurritella terebra with Sagartia Herdmant.

5, Four-and-a-half miles west of the Cronk, 22 fathoms; bottom broken
shells and small stones, with many ophiuroids, Lbalia tuberosa, Eurynome
aspera, Atelecyclus septemdentatus, many encrusting polyzoa (twelve species
identified), including Ascopodaria nodosa, hydroids (fifteen species identi-
fied), including Dicoryne conferta, new to the district ; also the cumacean
Campylaspis macrophthalma, Sars, new to Britain.

It may be of some use to place on record the course of procedure at
each dredging station on these expeditions. The plan for the day is
arranged with the captain of the steamer, and when the first locality is
reached the spot is determined on the chart, and the depth verified by
casting the lead. Then the dredge (measuring 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot,
and weighing from 30 to 40 lbs.) is sent down with a tow-net tied on to
the line about two fathoms from the dredge. Very often a smaller dredge
with a bag of cheese-cloth is sent over on the other side of the ship. One
or more surface tow-nets are also put out. The tow-nets, both surface and
deep, are looked after by Mr. I. C. Thompson, who, after hauling them,
first turns out their contents into a clear glass jar of sea-water, and then,
after noting the general character of the catch and any specially conspicu-
ous forms, strains off the water through a small bag made of very fine
miller’s silk, and then transfers the ‘plankton’ left adhering to the silk
into a tube containing a special preservative fluid formed chiefly of spirit,
glycerine, and water.

When the dredge is brought up it is emptied on deck, and after a note
of the general character of the deposit and assemblage of animals has been
taken, any specially large or rare specimens are picked out and transferred
to buckets or jars of sea-water or to store-bottles of spirit. Then the heap
is spread out so as to form a layer not more than one or two inches in
depth, and one or two members of the Committee (Professor Herdman and
another) now settle down beside it to pass the entire mass in review inch
by inch, working it across a small space of bare deck and turning over
every shell, stone, and specimen with an iron spoon, so as to ensure that
nothing escapes observation and due record in the note-book. In the
meantime the contents of the bottom tow-net have been dealt with by
Mr. Thompson, and the apparatus has been lowered for a second haul, or
the vessel is steaming on to a new locality. Then Professor Herdman
selects a fair sample of the deposit for preservation (for the Geological
Survey) in a small canvas bag (10 x5 inches), care being taken to include

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ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 323

some of the characteristic bottom animals—shells, ophiuroids, polyzoa, &c.
After this sample has been removed and any special animals required have
been picked out and put into store bottles, the whole of the remainder of
the haul is passed gradually through our set of three sieves (meshes 4 inch,
+ inch, and } inch respectively), which work up and down in a tall iron
cylinder filled with sea-water. The sieves are disconnected and examined
at intervals, and in this way many of the smaller animals of all groups
are detected and picked out. Finally, the water in which the sieves have
been plunging is all strained by Mr. Thompson through his fine silk net,
and in this way many of the rarer bottom Copepoda are obtained, while
the finer sandy and muddy deposits retained by the finest sieve or in the

_ bottom of the cylinder are packed in canvas bags by Mr. Alfred Leicester

for further examination at home. These contain, of course, many minute
Mollusca, Ostracoda, and Foraminifera. By the time all these processes
have been completed the dredge has usually been hauled again, and a
fresh heap is lying on the deck awaiting investigation. On a successful
trip the members of the party, on an average four to six in number, are
kept constantly occupied, each man at his own work, from the commence-
ment of the first haul till the steamer is turned homewards, and after that
the packing and labelling of specimens fill up the time until land is
reached.

ADDITIONS TO THE FAUNA.

As most of the expeditions took place round the Isle of Man the
material was generally brought back to the Port Erin Biological Station,
and sorted out into groups in the laboratory there, and then sent to the
specialists. Taking the groups in zoological order the most notable
additions as the result of this year’s work have been—

Sponces.—Dr. R. Hanitsch reports that the only actual addition to
our sponge fauna made during the last few months is Leiosella (Spongio-
nella) pulchella, Sowerby, which was dredged on May 14, 1894, at 14 miles
N. by W. from the Liverpool N.W. Lightship. This species was previously
known from the coast of Durham, the Skerries, Shetland, the west coast
of Ireland, the east coast of Greenland, and the North Pacific. A few
other doubtful species await further investigation.

We are indebted for a list of the Hyproip Zoopuyres and Potyzoa
which we have collected to Miss L. R. Thornely, who has proved that the
Lafoéa pigmea of Alder possesses an operculum, and therefore belongs to
the genus Calycella, and also has Gonothecse which were previously un-
known. The total number of species of hydroids in our area is now eighty-
nine, and the last dredging expedition has given us an interesting addition
to our fauna in Dicoryne conferta, which was growing on an Aporrhais
shell ; it was only known previously from Cullercoats, Orkney, and
Shetland. Of polyzoa 123 species and fourteen varieties have now been

‘recorded. The most recent find is Crisia ramosa, which was recently de-

scribed by Harmer from Plymvuth, and which we find also at Port Erin.
Mr. E. T. Browne has, during some visits to Port Erin, paid special

‘attention to the Mrpus®, and has kindly supplied us with a list of a
dozen species, one of which, Amphicodon fritillaria, has not previously

been recorded for British seas. He has also found on several occasions a
Siphonophore (probably Halistemma) in Port Erin Bay and Lesweuria
vitren, both new to our district, and the Halistemma, probably an addition
to the British fauna.

¥2

324 REPORT—1894.

Amongst Worms new to the record are the turbellaria Fecampia (the
pear-shaped white cocoons of this form are not uncommon on stones in
pools at Port Erin), and Stylocoplana maculata (identified by Mr. Gamble),
and the annelid Gattiola spectabilis (Johnston) collected at Port Erin by
Mr. Beaumont.

Professor G. 8. Brady has kindly examined two gatherings of
OstracopA from dredged material, and reports the following species :—
I. Off the Calf Island, 20 fathoms :

Pontocypris trigonella, G. O. Sars; P. mytiloides, Norman ; Bairdia
inflata, Norman ; Cythere Jonesii, Baird; C. emaciata, G. S. Brady ;
Loxoconcha tamarindus, Jones; Cytherura cornuta, G. 8. Brady ; C.
striata, G. O. Sars; C. sella, G. O. Sars ; Pseudocythere caudata, G. O.
Sars; Cytheropteron latissimum, Norman ; Sclerochilus contortus, Nor-
man; Paradoxostoma ensiforme, G. 8. Brady ; and Philomedes inter-
puncta, Baird.

II. Off Contrary Head, 40 fathoms, the following were found :—
Cythere tuberculata, G. O. Sars; C. emaciata, G. 8S. Brady ; C. Dunel-
mensis, Norman ; C. antiquata, Baird ; C. Jonesii, Baird ; Krithe Bar-
tonensis, Jones; Loxoconcha impressa, Baird; L. guttata, Norman ;
Cytheropteron latissimum, Norman; C. alatum, G. O. Sars ; Cytheridea
papulosa, Bosquet ; Bythocythere acuta, Norman ; B. turgida, G. O. Sars ;
Macherina tenwissima, Norman.

In regard to the Copepopa, Mr. I. C. Thompson has drawn up a
general report upon the additions to our knowledge of the group (see

325); while Mr. Andrew Scott, ‘fisheries’ assistant to Professor
Herdman, has supplied the following notes upon some new species of
Ectinosoma and other Copepoda, at which he has been specially working :—

‘ Longipedia minor (T. and A. Scott).—<A few specimens of this species
were collected by hand-net in the rock-pools at Hilbre Island in March.
It is easily distinguished from Z. coronata (Claus) by its much smaller
size.

‘ Ectinosoma Normani, n. sp. (T. and A. Scott).—Several specimens of
this Eetinosoma were obtained in material from Barrow Channel collected
by Professor Herdman in May. When fresh this species has a brilliant
red spot on the lower angles of the cephalothorax, and in this respect it
agrees with ZL. erythrops, Brady.

‘Eetinosoma Herdmani, n. sp. (T. and A. Scott).—This species was
found in considerable numbers in the stomachs of young dabs (PJewronectes
limanda) sent to the fisheries laboratory from Blackpool, as many as
sixteen specimens being obtained from a single stomach. We have also
obtained specimens of this new species from the Firth of Forth.

‘ Hetinosoma gracile, n. sp. (T. and A. Scott).—One or two specimens
of this species were obtained among dredged material collected at Port
Erin by Professor Herdman, Easter, 1894.

‘Ectinosoma pygmeum, n. sp. (T. and A. Scott).—This species was
obtained from the same material as the last, and is the smallest Hetino-
soma known to us: it measures only 7th of an inch (-33 mm.).

‘ Bradya minor, n. sp. (T. and A. Scott).!'—A few specimens of this new

Bradya were obtained in rock-pools at Hilbre Island, along with Longipedia
nveiv0r.

' The above species of EHetinosoma and Bradya are figured and described in a
revision of the British species of Copepoda belonging to the two genera Eetinosoma
and Brady, by T. and A. Scott, which is to be published at an early date.

ee

EE

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 325

‘ Dactylopus rostratus (T. Scott).—A single specimen was obtained
among some dredged material collected at Port Erin by Professor
Herdman, Easter, 1894.

‘ Pseudanthessius Sauvaget (Canu).—A few specimens were obtained
by washing a number of Spatangus purpwreus which were trawled in
the central area, 21 miles W.N.W. from Morecambe Bay Lightship, on
April 3. This rare species was only added to the British fauna last year,
when it was found in the Firth of Forth, and the present is the second
time it has been observed in the British area.’

Mr. Thompson reports as follows :—

‘Eleven species of Copepoda new to the district have been recorded
during the past year, viz., Cyclops magnoctavus, Cragin ; Cyclops Ewarti,
Brady ; Canuella perplexa, Scott ; Ameira longicaudata, Scott ; Acontio-
phorus elongatus, Scott; Ectinosoma Herdmani, Scott ; Eetinosoma Nor-
mani, Scott; Ectinosoma elongata, Scott ; Cancerilla tubulata, Dalzell ;
Lepeoptheirus pectoralis, and Anchorella appendix. Also one species new to
science, viz., Psewdocyclopia stephoides, n. sp. This crustacean has not yet
been described, but its description and figure will be shortly published in
the ‘Transactions of the Liverpool Biological Society.” It combines some
of the characters of the genus Stephos with those of Psewdocyclopia, the
latter predominating sufficiently to determine its position in that genus.

‘Surface tow-nets have been continuously employed during the several
marine expeditions undertaken by the Committee, also tow-nets attached
to the rope a few fathoms above the dredge. The latter device has
proved a success, collecting some good species of Copepoda as well as
Cumacea and Amphipoda, which are seldom or never obtained on the
surface. Amongst the Copepoda thus obtained were several specimens of
Pseudocalanus armatus, found along with a shoal of Psewdocalanus elon-
gatus. A widely extending shoal of Anomalocera Patersonii was observed
off the Isle of Man in May, the only occasion on which we have taken this
species during the year. On several occasions, notably in the early part
of June, the surface organisms have been singularly scarce.

‘Special care has been taken to wash and sieve through fine silk as
much as possible of the material brought up by the dredge during marine
expeditions, and it is by this means that several of the above-mentioned
Copepoda new to the district have been obtained, as well as the new
species Pseudocyclopia stephoides. Large quantities of ophiuroids, chiefly
Ophiocoma nigra and Ophiothrix fragilis, are amongst the dredged material,
and it is probably from one or other of these that the two specimens of
Cancerilla tubulata, Dalyell, a male and female, were taken, as the species
is parasitic on ophiuroids. The first record of this rare copepod occurs in
Dalyell’s ““ Powers of the Creator,” 1851, and it has since been taken by
Mr. Gamble at Plymouth, and by Mr. Scott in the Forth, but not before
in our district. Cyclops magnoctavus, Cragin, was found along with
quantities of Zemorella affinis and Tachidius brevicornis in tow-nettings
taken by Mr. Ascroft in low-water marine pools at Lytham. These being
brackish species, it is evident that a considerable amount of fresh water
finds its way into the Lytham pools.

‘ Cyclops Ewarti, Brady, although first taken in the Forth estuary, was
suspected by Brady to have a fresh-water origin. Ours are evidently
strictly marine, two specimens, both males, having been dredged at 20
fathoms by Mr. Thompson off Port Erin.

‘Professor Herdman’s fish laboratory has yielded two species of parasitic

326 REPORT—189-4.

Copepoda, viz., Lepeoptheirus pectoralis, found on the flounder, taken off
Morecambe, and also from Arnoglossus megastoma, and Anchorella appendix
from the gills of the hake.’

Mr, A. O. Walker reports as follows upon the HicHer Crustacea :—

‘Collections have been examined from the following places, viz.—

‘1. Off Port Erin at various points, dredged in (usually) 10 to 20
fathoms by Professor Herdman and Mr. I. C. Thompson in August and
September 1893, and March 1894.

‘9. Off the Little Orme, North Wales, 5 to 10 fathoms, in October
1893 (dredged by A. O. Walker).

‘3. In the Menai Straits, near the Suspension Bridge (both above and
below), on April 2 and May 31, 1894 (dredged by A. O. Walker).

‘ The following additions have been made to the list published in last
year’s report.

‘ BRACHYURA.

‘Gonoplax rhomboides, Linn., one specimen on July 7, 1894, on mud,
45 fathoms ; 7 miles W. of Niarbyl, Isle of Man.

‘ Atelecyclus septemdentatus, Mont., two specimens from N.W. of Port
Erin, 22 fathoms, on July 8.

‘ Pisa biaculeata, Mont, off Port Erin, Easter, 1894.

* MACRURA.

‘ Paleemonetes varians, Leach, in a small pool by the Afonganol, Colwyn
Bay, in company with Veomysis vulgaris. The pool had probably been
filled by a combination of flood in the little river and a high tide, but
seemed to have been long cut off. The pool was full of Ruppia maritima.
The Paleemonetes were 40 mm. long, and females had ova in the pouches ;

the Veomysis, on the other hand, were small, females with ova being only
14 mm. long.

*SCHIZOPODA.

‘ Leptomysis lingvura, Sars, Colwyn Bay, in tidal pools ; and Port Erin.

‘ CUMACEA.

‘ Nannastacus unguiculatus, Bate, one specimen from Menai Straits.

‘ Campylaspis macrophthalma, G. O. Sars, one female from 4} miles west
of the Cronk, July 8, 1894, 22 fathoms. This is a Mediterranean species,
new to Britain.

‘ Petalosarsia declivis, Sars, 8 miles W. of Fleshwick Bay, 33 fathoms ;
14 miles N.W. of Liverpool N.W. Lightship (A. Scott). This species,
first recognised in our district by Mr. Scott, is only known elsewhere in
British seas from the Firth of Forth and the Moray Firth.

“ISOPODA.

‘Anthura gracilis, Mont., off Port Erin.
‘ Conilera cylindracea, Mont., off Port Erin.
‘Cymodoce truncata, Leach, off Port Erin.

CE

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 327

* AMPHIPODA.

‘ Lysianax longicornis, Lucas ; Menai Straits.

‘Nannonyx spinimanus, n. sp., Menai Straits, differs from the only
other known species in the following points : Anterior coxal plates about
the same depth as the body ; eyes very large, dark brown ; propodos of
first gnathopod with five or six strong denticles on the hind margin ; third
joint of last pereiopods but little expanded behind ; maxillipedes also
different.

‘ Tryphosa nana, Kr. ; Menai Straits.

‘ Socarnes erythrophthalmus, Robertson ; Port Erin, 15 to 20 fathoms,
March 24, 1894 ; Menai Straits.

‘ Urothoé brevicornis, Bate ; off Kitterland, 20 fathoms, one male.

‘ Phoxocephalus Fultoni, Scott ; Port Erin, 15 to 20 fathoms ; Menai

- Straits.

‘ Ampelisca macrocephala, Lilljeborg ; Port Erin.

‘ Metopa Alderi, Bate ; Menai Straits, Jarge specimens, male and female,
6 mm. This species has not been met with in the L.M.B.C. district,
except at Puffin Island.

‘ Metopa rubrovittata, Sars ; Menai Straits, Little Orme.

‘ Leucothoé Lilljeborgii, Boeck ; Port Erin, 15 to 20 fathoms.

© Monoculodes carinatus, Bate ; Port Erin, outside harbour.

‘Stenopleustes nodifer, Sars, erroneously reported last year as WS.
Malmgreni, Boeck. In the specimens taken the elevated lobes on the
hind dorsal margin of the first two pleon segments were reduced to a mere
emargination of the segment.

‘Lafystius sturionis, Kroyer, one specimen from the Liverpool
Fisheries Laboratory, found under the pectoral fin of a cod.

‘ Iphimedia minuta, Sars ; Colwyn Bay, Port Erin.

‘ Husirus longipes, Boeck ; Port Erin.

‘Dexamine thea, Boeck ; Port Erin Harbour.

‘ Triteta gibbosa, Bate = 7’. dolichonyx, Nebeski, 3. Very abundant
among sponges, Menai Bridge. All the specimens that had the elongated
flagellum and furred upper surface of the peduncle of the lower antennie
characteristic of the adult male had also the peculiar notched anterior
margin of the propodos of the first gnathopods as in 7’. dolichonyx, while
none of the females or young had it. JI believe I have once seen an adult
male (dug out of the test of an ascidian) with the first gnathopod as in the
female. This may possibly be a case of dimorphism.

‘ Liljeborgia pallida, Bate ; Port Erin.

‘ Mera semiserrata, Bate ; Port Erin.

‘Mera Batei, Norman ; Port Erin.

‘ Guernea coalita, Norman ; Port Erin, 15 and 20 fathoms.

‘ Leptocheirus pectinatus, Norman ; Port Erin, Menai Straits.

‘ Autonoe longipes, Lilljeborg ; Menai Bridge.

‘ Janassa capillata, Rathke ; Port Erin.

* Podocerus cumbrensis, Stebbing and Robertson ; Menai Straits,Colwyn.

‘ Colomastix pusilla, Grube ; Menai Straits.

‘ Corophium crassicorne, Bruzelius ; Little Orme.

‘Corophium Bonellii, Milne Edwards ; Little Orme, Port Erin.

‘There still remains a quantity of material to be examined.’

The Bopyrians parasitic upon Galatheas, which were referred to in last

328 REPORT—1 894.

report, have since been identified by Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing as Pleuro-
crypta galatee, Hesse, Pl. intermedia, Giard and Bonnier, and Pl. neaa,
n. sp., from Galathea newa (see fig. 1). They are all on the right-hand
side of the hosts’ carapace, and all Jaden with eggs.

Fig. 1.—Pleurocrypta nexa, Stebbing, male and female (from a drawing kindly
sent by Mr. Stebbing).

Mr. Alfred Leicester of Southport, who has taken part in most of the
expeditions, and has collected and identified the Mollusca, reports that the
year’s work has added fifty-one fresh records to the lists for the southern
part of the Isle of Man, and that of these the following nine are new to
our district of the Irish Sea :—Cardiuwm minimum, Phil., Psammobia ves-
pertina, Chem., Scrobicularia nitida, Mull., Chiton marginatus, Penn.,
Propilidium ancyloides, Forb., Rissoa inconspicua, Ald., Cecum trachea,
Mont, Aclis Gulsone, Ch., and Philine angulata, Jeff.

Finally two additions have been made to our list of local fishes, viz.,
Zeugopterus unimaculatus, four specimens trawled 10-12 miles west from
Morecambe Bay Lightship in May, depth 23 fathoms ; and Gobius pictus,
Malm, caught by Mr. Walker in shore pools at Colwyn Bay.

THE SUBMARINE DEPOSITS.

Turning now to the submarine deposits, the determination and dis-
tribution of which the Committee feel to be a very important part of their
work, it is still too soon to attempt anything like a detailed account of
the floor of the Irish Sea, but still sutticient observations have perhaps
been made to warrant the following preliminary account. The accom-
panying chart (Plate I.) shows the zones of depths in the district, 0-10
fathoms, 10-20 fathoms, 20-50 fathoms, and upwards of 50 fathoms, being
separated from one another. At those places where the Committee (or the
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee) have obtained samples of the bottom,
conventional symbols are placed on the chart! indicating, O stones, A shells,

C mud, [x| sand, x nullipore deposits (J/elobesia and Lithothammion),

* One mark frequently stands for a number of different dredgings in the same
neighbourhcod.

ae

a a a a

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 329

and ee shell concretions. The chief conclusions we have arrived at so

far are :—

1. The most extensive shallow-water deposit is sand. In most
localities along the coast of Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales, from
the sea-shore out to the 10-fathom contour the bottom is formed of more
or less pure quartz sand. Occasionally in spots there are local patches of
stones, of shells, or of mud ; but these can generally be accounted for by
tidal or estuarine currents, by the entrance of fresh-water streams carrying
down alluvium, or by the presence of littoral or sub-littoral boulder clay.
These spots are all, however, of small area, and the great extent of the
bottom down to 10 fathoms is sand.

2. Further out, however, between 10 and 20 fathoms, the sand becomes
greatly mixed with mud, and much diversified by large tracts of shelly
deposits or by patches of gravel, and the fauna on the bottom also becomes.
much more abundant. In some spots, at about 20 fathoms, it is made up
over considerable areas almost entirely of ophiuroids (Ophiocoma nigra and
Ophiothrix fragilis), which fill the dredge haul after haul. At two localities.
off the Isle of Man, viz., along the east coast from Clay Head to St. Ann’s.
Head, and off the west coast between Contrary Head and Niarbyl, at
depths between 10 and 20 fathoms, are great nullipore deposits formed
of Melobesia and Lithothamnion, which have a most characteristic appear-
ance, smell, and fauna.

This area of the sea-bottom, from 10 to 20 fathoms, extends across
from the north of Lancashire to the Isle of Man, so that opposite Barrow,
for example, there is a wide extent of about 50 miles in length of sea-floor
at depths of not more than 15 or 16 fathoms (see section at foot of
Plate I.).

3. Depths of over 20 fathoms are only found to the west, north, and
south of the Isle of Man (see Chart, Plate I.) ; and depths of from 20 to
50 fathoms give us the most varied bottom deposits and the richest fauna.
Asa rule the sand is more or less mixed with mud, and as the bottom
goes deeper the amount of mud gets greater. When there is a consider-
able admixture of mud with coarse sand, that forms what is known to the
trawlers as a ‘reamy’ bottom, and that is the ground upon which the sole
and some other fish are generally found spawning.

Shells and other hard parts of animals play an important part in the
deposits at depths of about 20 fathoms and upwards. In places the dredge
comes up filled with Pecten shells, dead and alive, chiefly P. opercularis
and P. maximus. At other places the deposit is practically composed of the
shells of Pectwneulus glycimeris. These and other shell beds form a rich
collecting ground to the naturalist, as they support an abundant and varied
fauna. Zoophytes and polyzoa are attached to the shells, and these serve
as shelter for nudibranchs and other small mollusca, worms, and ascidians.
On the whole the heterogeneous deposits support a richer fauna than do
the homogeneous deposits, such as sand or mud, and it is chiefly in the
zone of depth we are now considering that the heterogeneous deposits.
occur.

4. The depths over 50 fathoms contain a pure dark bluish grey mud
which is very tenacious, and sets when dried into a firm clay. This is
abominable stuff to dredge in and to work with on deck. It clings to every-
thing that touches it : it is almost impossible to see what is in it, and to
get the animals out of it uninjured ; it is too solid for the sieves, and the

330 REPORT—1894.

hose can be played upon masses of it almost indefinitely without dissolving
it. The fauna of this zone is, in our district, quite peculiar and character-
istic. In its shallower parts, about 50 fathoms, it contains great numbers
of living and dead Turritella terebra, upon many of which are attached one,
two, or three specimens of the little red anemone Sagartia Herdmani,

Fic. 2.—Sagartia Herdmani (Haddon).

Haddon. In its deeper parts, up to 80 fathoms, are found Calocaris
Macandree, Hyalinecia tubicola, a small Lumbriconereis, Panthalis
Oerstedi, Lipobranchius Jeffreysii, Brissopsis lyrifera, Amphiura Chiajii,
and Isocardia cor. Great quantities of large sausage-like muddy tubes,
formed of stratified layers of interlacing threads of mucus in which the
mud particles are closely entangled, are brought up in the dredge. These
are almost certainly the tubes of Panthalis Oerstedi, and the living annelid
has several times been found in the tubes, but most of those we dredge
up are empty, and the tubes are certainly far more numerous than the
worms. Possibly the explanation is that the Panthalis forms a tube as it
-lies in the mud, and then when it moves away leaves its tube behind it
(one can scarcely imagine the animal dragging such a tube through this
tenacious deposit), and after a time forms another in a new situation.
These are the leading conclusions we have come to so far in regard to
the distribution of submarine deposits in our area. Two further questions
now present themselves: first, the biological one—the effect upon the
fauna ; and secondly, the geological one—the origin of the deposits. In
regard to the importance of the nature of the bottom to the animals living
upon it there can be no doubt. Probably the nature of the deposit is the
most important of the various factors that determine the distribution of
animals over the sea-bottom within one zoological area. It is certainly
more important than mere depth ; a muddy bottom will support a similar
fauna at ten fathoms in one place and at fifty fathoms in another. Pro-
bably the most important influence in the environment of a lower animal
is its food, and once beyond the narrow sub-littoral zone in which alge
flourish—and to which, of course, certain phytophagous animals must be
restricted—it is probably chiefly the nature of the bottom which deter-
mines the food.! Many animals feed upon the deposit, others browse upon
the polyzoa and zoophytes which can only attach themselves and grow
where there are sufficiently large objects, such as shell valves, from which
they can get the necessary stability ; while others, again, feed upon their
neighbours, which subsist on the deposit or are attracted by the zoophytes,
&c. ; for example, soles are frequently caught upon ground (known to
fishermen as ‘sole ground’) where Flustra foliacea lives in abundance, and
the provable connection is that the fish are dependent upon the numerous
amphipoda and other small animals which frequent the tufts of /Justra.
The same locality may vary so much from time to time in the temperature,
the salinity, and the transparency of the water, that it is probable that

‘ The only food supply quite independent of the bottom is dead piankton, from
the water above, which may reach the bottom uneaten,

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. ool

none of these factors—so long as the variations do not exceed certain
limits—have so much influence upon the fauna as the nature of the deposit
has. It is therefore quite to be expected that the fauna should vary from
place to place with the nature of the bottom, and that is what we have
observed frequently in our work round the Isle of Man. In practically
the same water, identical in temperature, salinity, and transparency, at the
same depth, with, so far as one can see, all the other surrounding con-
ditions the same, the fauna varies from place to place with changes in the
bottom—mud, sand, nullipores, and shell beds, all have their characteristic
assemblages of animals.

As to the further, and very important, question of the origin of the
deposits, that is partly a geological inquiry, and one which cannot, until
we have accumulated a much larger series of observations, be fully dis-
cussed ; but there are a few matters which may be briefly pointed out as
giving some idea of the range and bearing of the question.

1. It is necessary to make a most careful examination of the deposits.
For example, all muds are not the same in origin. A deposit of mud may
be due to the presence of an eddy or a sheltered corner in which the finer
particles suspended in the water are able to sink, or it may be due to the
wearing away of a limestone beach, or to quantities of alluvium brought
down by a stream from the land, or to the presence of a submerged bed of
boulder clay, or, finally, in some places to the sewage and refuse from
coast towns.

2. We have kept in view the possibility of some correlation between
the geological formations along the beach and the submarine deposits
lying off the shore. There is no doubt that the nature of the rock forming
the shore has a great influence upon the marine fauna, and has some-
times some effect upon the neighbouring deposits. For example, the
contrast between the deposits lying off the two prominent headlands, the
Great Orme, in North Wales, and Bradda Head, in the Isle of Man, is
well marked. The Great Orme is composed of mountain limestone, and
the result of its weathering and erosion is that large blocks are found
lying scattered outside its base on the fine sand ; but there is no deposit
of smaller stones, gravel, and resulting sand farther out, probably because
in the wearing of the rock and the large detached blocks by the sea a great
deal is removed in solution and the rest in suspension as very fine mud—
this we have found to be the case round Puffin Island, which is also
mountain limestone. Bradda Head, on the other hand, is a schistose
metamorphic Silurian rock, which breaks up into large fragments, and
these into smaller, and so forms deposits of dark slatey more or less
angular gravel, and then very coarse sand, extending for some way out from
the foot of the cliff.

The influence of the shore rocks upon the littoral fauna is an important
subject upon which we have accumulated some observations ; but the
matter requires further work and detailed discussion, and must be left
over for a future report.

3. Probably the great bulk of the siliceous sand which forms so large

a part of the floor of our sea is derived proximately—whatever may have
been its ultimate source '—from the great deposits of drift which were
formed in the neighbourhood during the Glacial period, and large tracts of
which may since have been broken up by the sea.

1 Probably, to a great extent, Triassic sandstones.

302 REPORT—1894.

4. As examples of a few peculiar and specially noteworthy deposits
which are not simply ‘terrigenous’ in their origin, the following may be
mentioned :—

South-east of the Calf Sound, about two miles out, at a depth of 20
fathoms, there is a white shelly sand which seems to be almost wholly
composed of animal remains. There are broken fragments of the lamelli-
branchs Pecten, Anomia, Pectunculus, Mactra, Venus, and Mytilus, of the
gastropods Cyprea, Buccinum, Emarginula, Purpura, and Trochus, of
various calcareous polyzoa such as Cellaria fistulosa, Cellepora pwmicosa,
and lepralids, of Balanus and Serpula, and of various echinoderm plates
and spines, and the whole shells of Echinocyamus pusillus. The deposit,
when it comes up in the dredge, is of a gleaming whiteness, and has a very
characteristic appearance. Such a deposit as this would form a rock
almost wholly made up of fossils, and might compare well with some
Tertiary fossiliferous deposits, such as the Coralline Crag.

A little further north, along the east coast of the Isle of Man, at
about a corresponding depth and distance from land, we meet with a
purely vegetal deposit formed of the nullipores Lithothamnion and
Melobesia. On the other side of the island, again, between Port Erin and
the Calf, at a depth of 18 fathoms, there is a tract of sea-bottom which,
when brought up on deck, looks at the first glance like a peculiarly fibrous
sand, but a closer examination shows that it is entirely composed of the
comiinuted plates, and especially the spines of echinids, chiefly Spatangus.

The variety that is noticed in submarine deposits round the Isle of Man,
from depths of 15 to 35 fathoms, as brought up in the dredge is very
striking. It is remarkable how differing proportions in the mixtures of
sand, gravel, and shells give rise to very different colours and general
appearance in the mass. As seen when tumbled out of the dredge on to
the deck, some deposits are white, some yellow, some grey, some reddish,
of various tints from pink to ruddy brown, and others darker, of all
shades of brown and dark grey. It is curious how, even in a compo-
site deposit made up of many different constituents, there is usually a pre-
vailing tint ; for example, the bottom at Station 6 on May 27, although
composed (see p. 321) of mud, sand, nullipores, shells, and stones, was dis-
tinctly of a rich ruddy brown tint. The importance of this presence of
prevailing colours in the various submarine deposits is obvious in its
bearing upon the colours and habits of animals.

Another very remarkable sea-bottom is one which takes the form of
irregular calcareous masses, cementing together the dead shells and sand
grains which are lying on the bottom, and making lumps like ‘clinkers.’
Hence the spot where it is found is called by the trawlers the ‘ Black-
smith’s Shop.’ It is about 25 miles 8.8S.W. of the Calf of Man (see
Pl. I.), in ordinary clear weather the Chicken Rock Lighthouse just
dipping and the stack at Holyhead just rising above the water, and the
depth is about 25 fathoms. We have also heard of a similar bottom of
cemented shells between Ramsey and North Lancashire. Mr. Leicester
has found the following shells in the concretions :—Pecten opercularis,
Cyprina islandica, Venus lincta, Cardium echinatum, Nucula nucleus,
Scrobicularia alba, Lucina borealis, and Turritella terebra. There is
a fine lump of this deposit in the Biological Station at Port Erin, and
we have presented another piece to the Jermyn Street Museum in
London. Mr. W. W. Watts, of the Geological Survey, has made a
careful examination by thin sections of the latter specimen, and he has

ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 333

kindly sent the following notes in regard to it :—‘The microscopic ex-
amination shows that it is practically a fine-grained grit made up of the
usual constituents of fragmental rocks cemented together, the cement
being in greater quantity than the grains. These grains are chiefly chips
of quartz, but I have also seen microcline, orthoclase felspar, plagioclase
felspar, brown mica, a tew grains of glauconite, and green and brown
pseudomorphs, probably after grains of some ferro-magnesian mineral
like augite, hornblende, or even possibly olivine—which it is impossible
now to say, but I think most probably hornblende. There are one or
two opaque grains, and several clear grains containing a good deal of
minute magnetite. The grains vary in size within small limits; the
largest I have measured is 0:02 inch and the smallest 0:002 inch, but the
average size would be about 0-004—0-005 inch in longest diameter. They
are therefore minute grains, and, as might be expected, extremely angular,
not one in a hundred showing rounded outlines. They are chiefly such
grains as would come from the denudation of granitic rocks or sediments
derived from them.

‘ The cement is carbonate of lime, with a small impurity of carbonate of
iron, present chiefly in certain layers, but not there in any considerable
quantity. The cementis clearly crystalline in immediate contact with the
grains, and also where lining cracks and cavities. Elsewhere it is more
opaque, and less conspicuously crystalline. The section cuts across
numerous shell fragments and a few polyzoa, and where there are any
hollow structures, as in the inside of lamellibranchs or gastropods, they
are filled up with a substance indistinguishable from the bulk of the
concretion.

‘The specimen shows no particular reason for the local deposit. of
cement, and the other constituents are doubtless the ordinary materials
of the sea-bed. I cannot find any evidence that the cementing is due to
any organic agency, and the thoroughly well-developed crystals of car-
bonate of lime quite agree with this. It may be that the Carboniferous
limestone crops out on the sea-bottom under the deposit, and, if so, there
would very likely be submarine springs laden with carbonate of lime
which might be precipitated there under less pressure or local loss of
carbonic acid. It may be added that Mr. Clement Reid could not see in
the specimen any identifiable shells of other than recent age.’

Another possible explanation is that the smaller calcareous particles
on the bottom have been dissolved in the sea-water and then re-deposited
so as to cement together the larger shells and the sand grains.

As was mentioned earlier in the report, sample bags of all the more
important submarine deposits we have come upon have been sent, at
Sir Archibald Geikie’s request, to the Museum of the Geological Survey
in Jermyn Street. They are being examined there by Mr. Clement
Reid, F.G.S., who writes the following preliminary note in regard to
them :—

‘On comparing these samples with British deposits of Tertiary date
one finds a marked difference in lithological character. Dredgings from
the Irish Sea, and also from the North Sea, are characterised by a
much coarser and more gravelly texture than one would expect at such
depths—coarser, in fact, than one finds in Pliocene deposits, yielding a
similar fauna, indicating similar or even smaller depths. A glance at
these dredgings shows the reason of this, for they are largely composed
of unworn or little-worn fragments of rock, often entirely encrusted by

304 REPORT—1 894.

organic growth. The stones evidently have not been transported far by
water, or they would be well rounded, like the pebbles found in our
‘Eocene beds, The encrusting organisms show also that the fragments
have lain undisturbed on the sea-bed, yet they have often been derived
from far-distant sources. Though no Glacial strize were observed, and no
undoubted sub-fossil arctic shells have yet been found at these localities,
yet there seems little doubt that the bulk of the material on the sea-
bottom over this area has been derived from the breaking up of pre-
existing Glacial deposits. This may occur at a depth of several fathoms
through the gradual washing away of the muddy and sandy matrix of a
boulder clay or Glacial gravel. Coarse gravel is thus caused to accu-
mulate at a spot where the currents may be too feeble to transport
anything but sand.

‘This submarine origin of angular gravel deposits should not be for-
gotten, for it affects the lithological character of the sea-bottom over
most of tke area which was formerly glaciated, even as far south as
Cornwall. On the other hand, it does not affect, except to a small
extent, the sea-bed beyond the former limit of the ice, and it does not
affect pre-Glacial deposits. Thus we must always expect to find at
similar depths the same fauna associated with deposits of finer texture
as soon as we leave the glaciated area, or when we go back into Tertiary
times.

‘It is also worth noting that the occurrence of a stony bottom at
twenty or thirty fathoms—where normally there would be no deposit
coarser than sand—will probably lead to a disproportionate increase of
all encrusting organisms, and of all organisms needing a solid base. This
has certainly taken place, as anyone studying our shoal-water Tertiary
deposits will have observed. They contain few stones, and though each
stone or dead shell may be covered with encrusting organisms, yet the
relative proportion of these to the free forms is far smaller than seems
commonly to be the case in the seas that now wash our shores. The
sole exception to this rule among the British Tertiary strata is found in
the Coralline Crag, in which the contemporaneous consolidation of the
limestone was sufficient to provide the necessary solid base for the
encrusting and fixed organisms so abundant in that deposit.’

In conclusion, it is clear that this investigation of our modern sub-
marine deposits, their distribution, nature, origin, and associated fauna,
has geological applications, and that our results may be of some importance
to paleontologists in determining the conditions under which the fauna
of a particular horizon existed in the past ; but, from our point of view,
the matter is a purely Biological one. We consider it of primary impor-
tance, in studying the distribution of the marine animals in our district, to
investigate as minutely as possible their environment, and that not merely
because it gives us some of the factors and possibly the explanation of the
distribution, but also on account of the light it may throw upon the
habits, variations, and other important characteristics of the species.

The Committee apply to be reappointed, with a small grant to
defray part of the expenses of the dredging expeditions.

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 335

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—LReport of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScLATER, Professor HH. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor J. Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Foster,
Mr. A. Sepewick, the late Professor A. M. Marswaun, and Mr.
Percy SLAvDEN (Secretary).

APPENDIX PAGE
I.—On the ‘ Reduction Division’ in the Cartilaginous Fishes. By J. H.5.

Moore : : A 2 : ; . ¢ c : . .
II.—A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from

the end of June 1893 to the end of June 1894 : : ; . 3840
III.—A List of Papers which have been published in the year 1893 by the
Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zoological Station . » oak

Durine the past year the table hired by the British Association in the
Naples Zoological Station has been occupied by Mr. J. E. 8. Moore, and
your Committee have pleasure in directing attention to the important in-
vestigations carried on by him, and to the carefully worked-out results
which are indicated in the accompanying report sent in by Mr. Moore.
In the opinion of your Committee this report alone is sufficient to justify
them in strongly recommending the renewal of the grant.

An application for permission to use the table during the ensuing year
for a period of six months, commencing at the end of September, has been
received from Mr. M. D. Hill, who wishes to continue his researches on
fertilisation in the eggs of Echinoderms, Mollusks, and Annelids. Your
Committee hope that the Association, by continuing the hire of a table as
in previous years, will enable them to afford to their applicant and to
other British naturalists the chance of participating in the advantages of
this justly predominant and well-managed institution. In further support
of this expression the Committee beg to lay before the Council the cogent
remarks of Professor Anton Dohrn contained in the following letter
addressed to their Secretary. This letter furnishes at the same time a
report—by the one best qualified to give it—of the present position of the
station, as well as a statement of its claims upon the naturalists of other
countries, and especially upon all broad-minded scientific workers who
advocate the importance of international co-operation :—

Naples: July 5, 189.

Dear Mr. SuapEN,—To give in a few words my report on the progress
of the Naples Zoological Station, I may be permitted to say, ‘ Vivit, floret,
erescit’ in all its parts,

In fact, this is the plain truth : the life of the station is best proved
by the number of those who use its opportunities for research ; its flourish-
ing state by the quality and the quantity of scientific publications produced
there in the course of one year; and its growth by the addition of new
arrangements for library, laboratory, and administration. As figures speak
for themselves, I may add that 800/. sterling have been spent this year for
the latter purpose alone.

All this is too well known by those who take an interest in the
development of this institution to require a new or detailed explanation.
What is less generally known, but often considered by the best and most
confiding friends of the Zoological Station as the greatest drawback and

336 REPORT—1894.

danger in its whole constitution, is the uncertainty in which its future
lies. The fact that individual initiative and individual responsibility have
hitherto been appealed to exclusively for the existence of the Zoological
Station has caused in many minds apprehension as to what might befall
such a highly complex organisation if individual initiative and responsi-
bility should become unable, by the natural course of events, to guarantee
its further development, and even its existence.

At the Jast International Medical Congress in Rome a voice was heard
pointing out the danger which threatened the Zoological Station, and this
voice was that of my friend Professor Michael Foster, of Cambridge. I
venture to make a few remarks on what my friend Foster said on that
oceasion. Speaking of the desirability—nay, the necessity—of inter-
national organisation, he said: ‘ An example of this is the work done at the
Zoological Station at Naples. This is in reality an international institution,
although it has been chiefly originated by one man ; such an institution
ought to be international, and ought not to depend for its existence upon
the energy of one man.’ In thanking Professor Foster heartily for the
credit which he gives me for originating the station, I must after all
express my belief that the Zoological Station will, even in the future, find
it safest to depend upon one man’s energy, if the one man is ready and
able to take upon himself the burden of the responsibility. It will take
some time before the ideal of which Professor Foster spoke—‘ international
organisation of science ’—can be realised. We are still too deeply imbued
with national prejudice and national ambition to acknowledge readily any
scheme which might be offered to help science by combined international
action. I have had on many occasions to experience the power of these
influences during my career at the head of the Zoological Station, and
even now I can hardly say that the character attributed by Professor
Foster to the Zoological Station is so firmly established as to justify fully
the title international. De facto it is Germany which pays half the sum
necessary for the maintenance of the Zoological Station at Naples, though
Germany does not claim any privilege over other contributors. I tried to
arrange with the Prussian Ministry of Public Instruction for a transfer of
the direction of the station in case of my death or inability ; it was not,
however, accepted on account of the difficulty of governing an institution
of this complex nature without endangering its cosmopolitan character.
On the other hand, many countries receive direct or indirect advantages
from the existence of the Zoological Station at Naples, but do not accept
any or a due share of the burden of its maintenance.

Years ago I undertook to organise the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht ’ on
the footing of international contributions, and failed to such an extent
that I had almost to give up the whole Jahresbericht. National prejudice
and private interest could not be moved to give way to higher aims. I
could easily furnish interesting material in regard to the manner in which
these endeavours came to be frustrated, but I will rather defer it to another
occasion, since I am still resolved to try again, and perhaps on a greater
‘scale, the undertaking which failed fifteen years ago. Professor Foster’s
own speech and many other utterances of authoritative character prove
undoubtedly that what I attempted in 1879 will soon be generally taken
up, and will doubtless prove one of the most important steps in the
organisation of science. Meanwhile I have been busy preparing for the
continuance of the station’s monarchical constitution by winning over
the municipal authorities of Naples to revise the original contract, which

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 337

did not give me the right to establish the inheritance of the Zoological
Station on one of my four sons. The revision has now been carried
through, and my eldest son is directing his studies in order to be pre-
pared to continue the administration of the station when the time comes
that his father is unable to carry it on. The right of inheritance being
extended to all my four sons, [ hope the future of the Zoological Station
will be considered somewhat better established now than it was some
years ago.

I am further endeavouring to render the task easier for my sons by
collecting funds, which may serve as a reserve and pension fund for times
of depression, or when-age and disease should deprive me and the station
of the valuable co-operation of any of my faithful staff, thus establishing
the station on the footing of an industrial or commercial enterprise, but
without the drawback of having to pay dividends to shareholders. The
progress made in this direction is naturally slow and only possible with
Germany’s generosity ; but it is to be hoped that such funds once esta-
blished, and their existence made known, even private help may be obtained
for their more rapid increase.

In giving you this information, dear Mr. Sladen, I hope rather to
augment than to diminish the readiness for help which, from the very
beginning, the Zoological Station has met with in Great Britain, and to
facilitate the maintenance of the table which the British Association has
so many years kept up in an institution which has become—Professor
Foster’s own words prove it—a forerunner of many other institutions to
be created in the next century on an international basis for the promotion
of research.—Yours sincerely,

Anton Donry.

The progress of the various publications undertaken by the station is
summarised as follows :—

1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ the monographs
by Professor Spengel on ‘Enteropneusta’ (758 pp., 37 plates), and by
Professor Della Valle on ‘Gammarini’ (948 pp., 61 plates) have been
published ; and the monograph by Dr. W. Miiller on ‘ Ostracoda’ is nearly
ready.

2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
vol. xi., parts i. and ii., with 13 plates, have been published, and part iii.
is in the press.

3. Of the ‘Zoologischer Jahresbericht,’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1892
has been published, and the ‘ Bericht’ for 1893 is nearly ready. There is.
also in the press an Alphabetical Index for the years 1886 to 1890.

4. A new edition (entirely rewritten) of the ‘Guide to the Aquarium ’
(in German) is being prepared.

The details extracted from the general report of the Zoological Station,,
which have been courteously furnished by the officers, will be found at the
end of this report. They embrace lists (1) of the naturalists who have
occupied tables since the last report ; and (2) of the works published
during 1893 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station.

The preserved specimens sent out by the station during the year
ending June 1894 comprised 194 consignments, amounting to 17,687.70 fr.,
as against 171 consignments, amounting to 13,334.95 fr. in the preceding
year.

1894. Z

308 REPORT—1894.

APPENDIX.

T.—On the ‘ Reduction Division’ in the Cartilaginous Iishes.

By J. EH. 8. Moore.

In availing myself of the unrivalled opportunities for investigation
offered by the marine laboratory at Naples, I had in view the continua-
tion of some researches, concerning the nature of the origin of the repro-
ductive elements in forms which it was difficult to obtain under suitable
conditions while at home.

No great amount of reliable descriptive matter relating to the origin
and anatomy of the reproductive cells is really available from a modern
cytological standpoint ; but notwithstanding this paucity of material
wherewith to build, the intellectual activity of the time has been able
to fit it to a vast superstructure of speculation which in the minds of not
a few observers of to-day has only been built to fall.

Wherever theory far outstrips the facts, and by its own light pene-
trates where actual observation has not yet been made, its explanations
are always subject to a long and close revision, as the bricks of the
actually known mount up and their theoretical substitutes are individually
weighed and left to stand or thrown away as wanting.

The demonstration of a number of nuclear chromosomes constant for
each species both for animals and plants was no sooner found to be a
universal truth than the discovery of a reduction by one half of this
number in the origin of the two pronuclei, as described by Hertwig in
the case of Ascaris, led up to the belief that in this phenomenon lay the
secret of that blending of hereditary characters which naturalists had so
long sought in vain.

In the case of the invertebrates in which the reduction divisions were
first described, the chromosomes are said to pass undivided to the
daughter cells in such a way that there are only half as many in these
as in the parent, and the assumed universality of this phenomenon forms
the keynote of that part of Weismann’s theory which deals with the
balancing of the hereditary stuffs at fertilisation. Some experience of
the phenomenon of maturation in the spermatogenesis of Mammalia had
convinced me that, although there was a numerical chromatic reduction,
this phenomenon was brought about in a manner quite different from
what was generally supposed; and I determined during my stay in
Naples to study the same phenomena as presented in Elasmobranchs,
so that we should be able to arrive at definite conclusions in another
great group of vertebrates.

It had been my intention at the same time incidentally to make an
embryological study of the developmental histology of the whole repro-
ductive gland, but the limited amount of material available for this
purpose necessitated the restriction of my work to somewhat narrower
lines.

A preliminary account of this was published in the ‘ Anatomische
Anzeiger,’ in a note ‘On the Germinal Blastema and the Nature of the
so-called “ Reduction Division ” in the Cartilaginous Fishes,’ which I had
completed on February 28. During March, April, and May I was able
to revise and extend the results I had hitherto obtained.

It will be seen that my observations respecting the reduction phe-
nomena fit in admirably with the half theoretical anticipations of Boveri,

—

ON i eel

Pe

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 339

as well as with what I had already found to be the case in the spermato-
genesis of Mammalia, and what Brauer regards as the more correct ren-
dering of the same phenomena in Ascaris.

The last two divisions of the Elasmobranch spermatogenesis are quite
distinct from those which go before.

There are twelve chromosomes in the penultimate division, whether
we count them when emerging as chromatic rings from the reticulum of
the previous resting nucleus in the ‘monaster,’ or as the divided loops
when nearing the opposite poles of the spindle figure as suggested by
Boveri.

The daughter nuclei produced pass into a condition of complete
repose prior to the last division of the spermatogenetic series, and the
initial phases of the last mitosis, as well as its whole course, proceed in
exactly the same way as in the penultimate division, except that only six
chromosomes emerge from the resting reticulum instead of twelve.

A close examination of these twelve chromosomes of the penultimate
division reveals the fact that they are each built up of four small conden-
sations or primary elements united together in the form of a ring, while
those constituting the individual loops or rings of the final division are
far more numerous. The small size and crowding of the parts in the
latter phase render counting very difficult, but numbers of readings
satisfied me that in this division they are eight—i.e., the twelve fourfold
chromosomes of the penultimate division are rearranged in the form of
six eight-fold chromosomes in the last division, while both divisions are
normal mitoses, in which there is no passage of unsplit chromatic masses
to the poles.

In the spermatogenesis of this fish, then, there is reduction only in the
number of the chromosomes when they reappear from this rest in the final
as compared with the penultimate division. But this change is not
brought about by either division ; it occurs during the resting condition of
the nucleus between the two, and exists simply as a rearrangement of the
arts.

. From Brauer’s work it seems that the so-called ‘reduction’ in the
spermatogenesis of Ascaris is brought about during an intervening rest
between the last mitoses, just as in the case of the Mammalia, and we now
have it also in the cartilaginous fish, so that it follows that in these
widely separated groups the last two divisions of the spermatogenesis do
not correspond to the successive extrusions of the polar bodies, because
between the two mitoses which bring about this extrusion there is no rest
phase, and the supposed absence of this between the last divisions of the
spermatogenesis was the very fact from which Hertwig argued their
similarity.

Moreover, Boveri seems conclusively to show that there is no ‘reduc-
tion’ accomplished in any division up to the formation of the first ovicyte,
nor yet in either division by which the polar bodies themselves are formed.
Yet there are only half as many chromosomes in the divisions which form
the polar bodies as there are in the mitoses prior to the formation of the
first ovicyte, and so ab infra the reduction must occur in the rest after the
division which forms the cell.

If a comparison can be made at all, the spermatogenesis of the forms
under discussion stops short at a point corresponding to the formation of
the first ovicyte in the ovigenesis.

23"

340 REPORT—1894,

Such, then, are the bare facts of the chromatic reductions in these carti-
Jaginous fishes. But it must not be supposed that they are more than the
grossest features presented by a mass of material which will take many
months in fully working up.

Nor yet are they in a strictly anatomical sense by any means the most
interesting features in relation to these cells ; the large clear elements of
the Elasmobranch testes present a splendid field for more purely cyto-
logical research, and I gave the briefest account of the direction in which
such investigations seemed tending in the article above referred to. Very
little is really known respecting cellular metamorphosis, or the morpholo-
gical value of the intercellular structures relating to it ; in fact, we are only
just beginning to extend morphological conceptions to cellular anatomy at
all. Consequently it is with the profoundest interest that I find among
other things the archoplasmic vesicle of the Elasmobranch spermatid to
have an intra-nuclear origin, although it remains identical in structure
and minute relationship with that of the Mammalia, a purely cytoplasmic
construction.

In conclusion, I would express my thanks to the British Association
for the opportunity of completing my work, and to the Directors of the
Naples Laboratory for their unremitting kindness during my stay.

TI.—A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from

the end of June 1893 to the end of June 1894.

'Num- State or Institution Duration of Occupancy
beron| Naturalist’s Name whose Table =

| List was made use of Arrival Departure
748 | Dr. A. Russo. . | Italy July 1,1893| Dec. 31,1893:
749 | Prof. A. Della Valle. if “svi POH Aas ety 235 sa
750 | Prof. 8. Trinchese ” Aug. 8, ,, Dee, 3k,, ss
751 | Dr. G. Mazzarelli “4 asta | Cee as —_
752 | Stud. V. Diamare . 3 uP Onan. ==
753 | Prof. F. S. Monticelli ¢ ses —
754 | Signa. B. Ferrari Bs sree Ge Sept. 6, ,,
775 | Sig. F. Crevatin » : ; . ss bo Daas 9 vis
756 | Mr. George Bidder Zoological Station . Pee ee —
757 | Dr. U. Flora Italy a LOS sy df NONE ass
758 | Dr. G. Zambrano iy POP Alaieee Oct; 14,.%,;
759 | Dr. N. Iwanzoff . | Russia aoe Nov. 25, ,,
760 | Prof. A. de Korotneff ~ ' Sept. 24, ,, | Oct. 2, ,,
761 | Dr. Th. Schaeppi Switzerland OGtia ress, 99 Dee. 1, ,,
762 | Dr. P. Samassa. Baden : Dae os. | ea Dua los egos:
763 | Prof. G. Fornario Italy : , : a LO 55 _—
764 | Mr. J. E. 8. Moore British Association . ey HLGSE 5, "| 7 Re aes
765 | Dr. R. Whassak Switzerland Noy..3, ,. | Marais
766 | Dr. Th. Beer . Austria : d ne iat se | iayall2siees
767 | Mr. G. Fairchild Smithsonian Institu- oly LSoh a9? ile Metal tyes

tion
768 | Dr. W.M. Wheeler . Ms a Decss0se ass Apr. 14, ,,
769 | Prof. S. Trinchese Italy A , . | Jan. 1,1894 oo
770 | Dr. G. Jatta Zoological Station . suede 2,3 —_
771 | Dr. A. Russo Italy asf Aeliseeys _
772 | Dr. H. Klaatsch Prussia be lle yeuss —
773_| Dr. 8. Fuchs . . | Austria : : els. 55. | GUO ROM iss
774 | Prof. H. C. Bumpus . | Smithsonian Institu- se Oy. 55). | MAD Eagan es
tion

775 | Prof. A. de Korctnet | Russia Feb. 5, ,, Feb. 14, ,,
77%... Prof. J. Klein . | Hungary . rye teulehy 8), cp

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. d41
Il.—A List oF NATURALISTS—continued.
_ eee ee
| Num- | State or Institution Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of Arrival Departure
777 | Prof. R. Ewald . Strasburg ; . | Feb. 15,1894] May 9, 1894 |
778 | Dr. H. Stehlin . Switzerland . : PoterilGsy a. JTMe WS ees an
779 | Cand. A. Schmidt Holland . - lp latedss San i> —
780 | Prof. H. Ludwig Prussia . A dj at hats, Apr, Sy es
781 | Dr. R. Krause . : 5 : OS et ss Mari 27-) 9,
782 | Dr. H. Duerck . Bavaria . 3 ; ert dies eer Apr. 26, ,,
783 | Dr. E. Bruns ¥ ; 3 ; Dy Pe oer
784 | Prof. W. His Saxony . ; . Fo HBS Bs Mar27)- + |
785 | Dr. W. Nagel Wiirtemberz . i Sea Gi leADEaL a ssn
786 | Mr. J. H. Riches Cambridge . : PS aa —
787 | Baron J. Uexkiill Prussia . , A Be tes June28, ,,
788 | Mr. HE. Rice Harvard College . yy es, "505 | Maym 2s” ss
789 | Dr. M. Golenkin Russia. Fi , se hy POUNe Zs) a5
. 790 | Cand. P. Ehrmann Saxony . 5 f eDiets, =| Mayra
791 | Mr. H. Vernon . . | Oxford . 3 : Seat AS i ae a —
-792 | Dr. J. F. Heymans . | Belgium . : A Aiprasaieas o = Se llOs Ss
793 | Dr. A. Borgert . . | Hamburg : “ feu eee —
794 | Dr. L. Murbach Smithsonian Institu- Ay. i, ae Wechilaley-by ry)
tion
795 | Dr. C. Crety Italy : , . | May 6, ,, | May 16, ,,
796 | Prof. S. Apathy . | Hungary . : ; sa ale a 4) —
797 | Prof. C. W. Hargitt . | Amer. ‘Davis’ Table eee | —
798 | Dr. G. Valenza . Italy : Se Oia a} —
799 | Dr. T. List Hesse. : - COON see | —
} 800 | Stud. G. Tagliani Italy ; : jeune: 1, —
g0L | Dr.C. Child. Harvard Colleg oe was — |
802 | Dr. C. C. Schneider . | Saxony . : . | P e —- |
803 | Dr. E. Giacomini

“lik et hal anim ials a eke tae ee rT Pe

IIL.—A List of Papers

R. von Erlanger

&. Herbst

”

A. Pasquale

4. Willey

§. Bonaduce . 4

which have been published in the year 1893 by the

Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zoological Station.

Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung
einiger mariner Prosobranchier. ‘ Zool. Anzeiger,’ 1893.

Ueber die kiinstliche Hervorrufung von Dottermem-
branen an unbefruchteten Seeigeleiern, nebst einigen
Bemerkungen iiber die Dotterhautbildung tiberhaupt.
‘ Biol. Centralblatt,’ 1893.

Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber den Einfluss der
veriinderten chemischen Zusammensetzung des umge-
benden Mediums auf die Entwickelung der Thiere.

II. Theil. Weiteres iiber die morphol. Wirkung dr
Lithiumsalze und ihre theoretische Bedeutung. ‘ Mitth.
Zool. Station Neapel,’ 11. B., 1893.

Vergleichende Untersuchungen tiber Streptokokken.
‘Beitrige zur pathol. Anatomie u. allg. Pathologie,’
12. B., 1893.

Studies on the Protochordata. I. On the origin of the
branchial stigmata, preoral lobe, endostyle, atrial
cavities, etc., in Ciona intest., etc. ‘Quart. Journ.
Mier. Sc.,’ vol. 34, 1893.

Studies on the Protochordata. II. Development of the
Neurohypophysical System in Ciona intest. and
Clavellina lepadiformis, etc. JZ@d., vol. 35, 1893.

Ueber die Beziehungen des Blutserums von Thieren zur

342

A. Russo. »

” . .
W. Kruse a
A. Goette

G. Mazzarelli .

”» .
G. Cano ,. .
” . 2

H. Driesch .

A. Kreidl ~

P. Knoll . “i

G, Antipa

G. Miiller °
R. Heymons .
G. Field

K. Zimmermann

F. 8S. Monticelli

y ”
A. Newstead .
C. Crety.

G. Jatta .

G. von Koch

D. Carazzi

REPORT—1894.

natiirlichen Immunitiét. ‘Beitr, zur pathol. Anatomie
u. allg. Pathologie,’ 12. B., 1893.

Sulla connessione dello stomaco ed il circolo delle lacune
sanguigne aborali nelle Ophiothrichida.’ ‘ Zool.
Anzeiger,’ 1893.

Specie di Echinodermi poco conosciuti e nuovi viventi
nel Golfo di Napoli.” ‘Atti R. Accad. Sc. Fis. e Mat.
Napoli,’ vol. 6, 1893.

Bemerkungen tiber Infection, Immunitiit u. Heilung.
‘Beitrige zur pathol. Anatomie u. allg. Pathologie,’ 12.
B., 1893.

Vergl. Entwick.-Geschichte von Pelagia noctiluca.
‘Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie,’ 55. B., 1898.

Monografia delle Aplysiidee del Golfo di Napoli. ‘Soc.
Ital. di Se.’, vol. 9, No. 4, 1893.

Ricerche sulle Pettidze del Golfo di Napoli. ‘ Atti R.
Accad. Sc. Fis. e Mat. Napoli,’ vol. 6, 1893.

Sviluppo e Morfologia degli Oxyrhynchi. ‘ Mitth. Zool.
Station Neapel, 10. B., 1893. ’

Dorippe. Studio morfologico. ‘Atti R. Acc. Sc. Fis. e
Mat. Napoli,’ vol. 6, 1893.

Zur Verlagerung der Blastomeren des Echinideneiss.
‘Anat. Anzeiger,’ 8. Jeg., 1893.

Entwickelungsmechanische Studien. VII. Exogastrula
u. Anenteria. VIII. Ueber Variation der Mikromeren-
bildung. IX. Ueber die Vertretbarkeit von Ectoderm
u. Entoderm. X. Ueber einige allg. entwickelungs-
mechanische Ergebnisse. ‘ Mitth. Zool. Station Neapel,”
11. B., 1893.

Weitere Beitriige zur Physiologie des Ohrlabyrinthes.
I. Mitth. Versuche an Fischen. ‘ sitz.-Ber. Wiener
Akad.’, Abth. IIL, 101. B, 1893. II, Mitth. Versuche
an Krebsen. Jbid., 102. B., 1893.

Zur Lehre von den Structur u. Zuckungsverschieden-
heiten der Muskelfasern. I. Zuckungsnerven von
Schliessmuskeln der Lamellibranchiaten. Jbid., 101. B.,
1893.

Ueber die Herzthitigkeit bei einigen Evertebraten u. deren
Keeinflussung durch die 'l’emperatur. /bid., 102. B., 1893.

Mine neue Stauromeduse. Capria Sturdzii. ‘Mitth, Zool.
Station Neapel,’ 10. B., 1893.

Ueber Lebensweise u. Entwickelungsgeschichte der Ostra-
coden. ‘Sitz.-Ber.k.Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin,’ 23. B.,1893.

Zur Entw.-Geschichte von Umorella mediter:anea. ‘ Zeit-
schr. f. Wiss. Zool.,’ 56. B., 1893.

Echinoderm Spermatogenesis. ‘Anat. Anzeiger,’ 8. Jgg.,
1893.

Studien iiber Piementzellen. 1. Ueber die Anordnung des
Archiplasmas in den Pigmentzellen der Knochentische,
‘ Archiv f. mikr. Anat.,’ 41. B., 1893.

Cotylogaster Michaelis. ‘ Festschrift Leuckart.,’ 1893.

Studii sui Trematodi endoparassiti. ‘ Zool. Jabrb., Sup-
plementheft 1IT., 1893.

On the perivisceral cavity of Ciona. ‘ Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sc.,’ vol. 35, 1893.

Intorno alla struttura delle ova delle Oloturie. ‘ Boll.
Zool. ed Anatom., Univers. Torino,’ v. 8, 1893.

Sopra Il’ organo dell’ imbuto nei Cefalopodi. ‘Boll. Soc.
Nat. Napoli,’ vol. 7, 1893.

Photographische Abbildungen von lebenden Seethieren,
‘Mitth. Zool. Station Neapel,’ 11. B., 1893.

Revisione del genere Polydora e cenni su due specie che
vivono sulle striche. ‘ Mitth. Zool. Station Neapel,’ 11.
B., 1893. ;

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 343

A. Ostroumoft 2 . Studien zur Phylogenie der iiusseren Genitalien bei Wir-
belthieren. I. Theil. did.

A. Hansen. . . Ueber Stoffbildung bei den Meeresalgen. did.

M. Bedot 5 : . Révision de la famille des Forskalidae. ‘ Revue Suisse de
Zool.,’ t. 1, 1893.

J.Schaffer . . e Ueber den feineren Bau der Thymus u. deren Beziehungen
zur Blutbildung. ‘ Sitz.-Ber. Wiener Akad.,’ I1I. Abth.,

102. B., 1893.

R. Hesse . F . Beitrige zur Kenntniss des Baues der Euchytraeiden.
‘ Zeitschr. wiss. Zoologie,’ 57. B., 1893.

V.Faussek ., ° . Ueberden sog. weissen Kérper, sowie tiber die embryonale

Entwickelung desselben, der Cerebralganglien und des
Knorpels bei Cephalopoden. ‘Mém. Acad. St.-Péters-
bourg,’ t. 41, 1893.

P. Klemm : F . Ueber Caulerpa prolifera, ein Beitrag zur Firforsch. der
Form und Richtkriifte in Pflanzen. ‘Flora, oder allg.
botan. Zeitung,’ Heft 5, 1893.

J. von Uexkiill : . Ueber paradoxe Zuckung. ‘ Zeitschr. f. Biologie.,’ 30. B.,
1893.
“ - . Physiolog. Untersuchungen an Eledone moschata. II. Die
Reflexe des Armes. bid.
F. Réhmann , . Ueber den Stoffumsatz in dem thiitigen electrischen Organ
des Zitterrochen, etc. ‘Arch. Anat. Physiol.,’ Phys.
Abth., 1893.

Lhe Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Fourth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. Newton (Chairman), Dr.
W. T. Buanrorp, Dr. S. J. Hickson, Professor C. V. Ritey, Mr.
O. Satvin, Dr. P. L. ScraTEr, Mr. E. A. Smirx, and Mr. D.
Suarp (Secretary).

Tue Committee were reappointed to continue their report on the
present state of our knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich Islands
and to take steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the fauna,
with power to co-operate with the committee appointed for the purpose
by the Royal Society, and to avail themselves of such assistance as may
be offered by the Hawaiian Government.

During the past year your Committee have been harmoniously co-
operating with that appointed by the Royal Society, and Mr. Perkins’s
labours in the islands have been satisfactorily continued. Since your Com-
mittee last reported Mr. Perkins has been diligently exploring in succession
Molokai, Lanai, and Maui, from the first two of which very considerable
collections in almost all branches of the terrestrial fauna have already
been received, while one is shortly expected from the third. By the last
accounts he was about to proceed to Kauai.

Although far from having completed the zoological exploration of the
archipelago, the Committee have thought it best that Mr. Perkins should
return home in the course of the autumn, and have instructed him accord-
ingly. They hope to obtain his assistance, in conjunction with that of
other competent zoologists, towards working out his extensive collections,
the value of which it is difficult to over-estimate, since evidence of the
growing scarcity of many, and of the extinction of not a few members of
the endemic fauna becomes stronger the more the subject is investigated.

In view of making arrangements necessary for this purpose your Com-
mittee request that they may be reappointed, with the same powers as before,
but they do not ask on the present occasion for any grant of money.

344 REPORT—1894.

The Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of
the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to Investigate
ascertained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora.—Seventh Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScLaTer (Chairman),
Mr. GreorGe Murray (Secretary), Mr. W. CarrvutTHers, Dr.
A.C. L. G. Gtnruer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. DuCanE Gopman,
and Professor A. NEWTON.

Tus Committee was appointed in 1887, and it has been reappointed each
year until the present time.

The Committee have to report satisfactory progress in obtaining
reports on the collections made by the Committee’s collectors, and this
task of working out the results has engaged their exclusive attention during
the year. The following reports have been published (or are complete and
ready for publication) since the last annual report :—

1. Report on the parasitic Hymenoptera of St. Vincent by Messrs.
Riley, Ashmead, and Howard (Linnean Society). The corresponding
group from Grenada has been sent to these authors.

2. Report on the Hemiptera of St. Vincent by Dr. Uhler (Zoological
Society).

3. Report on the Ants of St. Vincent by Professor Forel (Entomo-
logical Society).

4. Part III. dealing with the Diplopoda and Protoacheata of Mr.
Pocock’s report (Linnean Society), with a supplement on the Pedipalpi.

5. Report on the Trichopterygide and Corylophide by the Rey. M.
Matthews (Annals and Magazine of Natural History)

6. Report on the Attide of St. Vincent by Mr. Peckham (Zoological
Society).

7. Report on the Diptera of St. Vincent by Professors Williston and
Aldrich (Linnean Society).

8. Report on the Hepatice of St. Vincent and Dominica by Richard
Spruce (Linnean Society).

9. Report on the Freshwater Algz (including those of the boiling lake
of Dominica) by Mr. William West (Linnean Society).

10. Report on the Spiders of St. Vincent, Part II., by M. Simon
(Zoological Society).

The report on the Musci has been completed by Mr. Gepp, and will
be presented to the Linnean Society. The Marine Alge have been
named by Mr. George Murray, who does not consider the result worth
separate publication, and the Lichenes (the only remaining group of
plants) are in the hands of Professor Wainio for determination. The
large collection of Coleoptera from St. Vincent and Grenada, numbering
27,980 specimens, has been arranged by Messrs. Sharp and Gahan, and its
treatment will receive the Committee's immediate attention.

The Committee recommend their reappointment, with the following
members :—Dr. Sclater (Chairman), Mr. George Murray (Secretary), Mr.
Carruthers, Professor Newton, Mr. Godman, Dr. Ginther, and Dr. Sharp.
They also recommend that a grant of 200/. be placed at their disposal to
enable them to continue their work and to adequately provide for the
exploration of Margarita.

ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 345

Iuvestigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion at Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
KH. Ray LanKkester (Chairman), Professor M. Foster, Professor
S. H. Vines, and Mr. G. C. Bourne (Secretary).

On the Development of Aleyonium. By Dr. 8. J. Hickson.
On the Later Stages in the Development of Decapod Crustacea. By EDGAR J. ALLEN.

Tue Committee were appointed for the purpose of enabling Dr. 8. J.
Hickson to investigate the development of Alcyonium at the Laboratory
of the Marine Biological Association, Plymouth.

The Committee have received the following report from Dr. Hickson, and
a supplementary report from Mr. Edgar J. Allen, who occupied the table
during June and July 1893 :—

On the Development of Alcyonium. By Dr. S. J. Hickson, M.A.

On my arrival at Plymouth early in the month of December last I
experienced a great difficulty in obtaining a sufficient quantity of material,
in consequence of the severe storms then raging. The few specimens of
Alcyonium I obtained contained large quantities of ripe ova or sacs con-
taining ripe spermatozoa. They spawned freely in the tanks of the
aquarium, but I was not successful in fertilising the ova artificially, as the
water of the tanks affected injuriously the spermatozoa. I succeeded,
however, in obtaining a few young embryos by keeping the specimens in
fresh sea-water in buckets. Soon after Christmas the sea became calmer
and I obtained plenty of colonies, but they were nearly all spent and
useless for my investigations.

The results I have obtained confirm those of Kowalewsky. I can find
no trace of any karyokinetic division of the first segmentation nucleus,
although these figures can be easily demonstrated in the later stages.
While I was waiting for sufficient material to study the embryology of
Alcyonium, I devoted a considerable amount of time to a study of the
minute anatomy and physiology of the genus. A full account of these
investigations will appear in a paper now nearly ready for publication.

Researches on the Later Stages in the Development of Decapod Crustacea.
By Evear J. ALLEN, B.Sc. London.

My attention during the months, June and July 1893, when I occu-
pied the Association table, was devoted chiefly to the study of the
nervous system. After repeated trials on a number of decapod embryos
and larve, a satisfactory subject for research was found in the embryonic
lobster, many of the nerve elements of which stain excellently in dilute
solutions of methylene blue. My observations, after being continued and
extended, were published in a preliminary paper read before the Royal
Society in April 1894, whilst a fully illustrated account will shortly
appear in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’

The following nerve-elements are amongst the most important of
those which I was able to demonstrate during the time which I occupied
the Association table :—

(1) Elements starting from a cell in one ganglion of the thorax and
giving off a fibre, which, after sending numerous arborescent branches to

346 REPORT—1894.

the neuropile of that ganglion, ends in a small tuft of fine branches in the
next ganglion behind.

(2) Elements starting from a cell in one ganglion of the thorax,
giving off a fibre which sends out lateral arborescent branches in the
ganglion, passes forwards to the next ganglion, where it gives off a small
tuft of branches, and finally ends in a tuft of branches in the ganglion
next but one in front of that in which the cell lay.

The terminal tuft of each element lies close to the lateral tuft of the
corresponding element of the next ganglion, and opposite the terminal
tuft of the elements of Group 1.

(3) Elements starting from a cell in a ganglion giving off a fibre,
which passes through one of the lateral nerves and finally breaks up upon
a muscle.

The Influence of Previous Fertilisation of the Female on her Subsequent
Offspring, and the Kffect of Maternal Impressions during Preqnancy
on the Offspring.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. A. RusseL WALLACE (Chairman), Dr. JAMES CLARK (Secre-
tary), Dr. G. J. Romanes, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Professor E. A.
Scuarer, and Dr. J. N. LANGLEY. (Drawn up by the Secretary).

Tue members of this Committee wish to express their deep sense of the
irreparable loss they have sustained in the death of Dr. Romanes, whose
previous experience in this dithcult field of inquiry rendered his judg-
ment and advice invaluable.

During the past year the efforts of the Committee have been mainly
directed to collecting facts and statistics relating to Telegony. In this
they have received considerable assistance from the principal agricultural
clubs in the country, and have been offered assistance by several societies
in France, Switzerland, Germany, and America. Twenty-five preliminary
reports have also been received from veterinary surgeons in Scotland and
the North of England. In all over 900 letters and reports have been
received. The majority, however, are too vague to be of any service, and
many correspondents send generalisations ‘ based on personal observation
and experience,’ instead of recording facts. In the description of actual
cases, too, the data supplied are generally too meagre. On account of the
difficulty of obtaining reliable and sufficient data, the Committee consider
it advisable to defer the publication of the collected facts until the im-
portant points connected with each can be verified or corroborated.

An examination of the pedigree cattle and of the stud-books and prize-
bred horses of Yorkshire is also in progress, and will, it is hoped, be
completed in the course of a few months.

The belief in Telegony among breeders and fanciers is very widely
spread, The general consensus of opinion among our correspondents is
that it frequently occurs in cats, occasionally in dogs and horses, rarely in
birds, and almost never in cattle and sheep. The majority of the writers
further insist that it is the first fertilisation only that has any effect
upon subsequent offspring by a different male.

On account of the amount of work that still remains to be done, the
Committee respectfully request that they may be re-appointed for another
year.

——S

ON THE ‘INDEX GENERUM ET SPECIERUM ANIMALIUM.’ 347

Tndex Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of a Committee, con-
sisting of Sir W. H. Ftower (Chairman), Dr. P. L. Sciater,
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. W. L. ScLaTER (Secretary).

THe proposed ‘Index Generum et Specierum Animalium’ is being
compiled by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, at the British Museum (Natural
History).

The work on this index, which includes all animals, whether recent or
fossil, has proceeded steadily since June 1890.

The manuscript now consists of 180,000 slips, representing 90,000
species and genera recorded in duplicate.

One set is sorted under genera for the convenience of students and the
other set is kept under ‘ books,’ so that it is possible at any moment to
obtain a complete list of every genus and species described in a particular
volume.

As the work proceeds much valuable information as to the dates of
books is obtained, and this if sufficiently important is published: e¢.g.,
Sowerby, ‘Genera of Shells,’ see‘ Annals and Mag.,’ April 1894 ; Schreber,
‘Siiugthiere,’ see ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ Jan. 1892 ; ‘Encyclop. Méthodique,’
see ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ June 1893.

The small grant of 207. made by the British Association in 1892 is
the only financial help yet received towards the work, and has been ex-
pended upon paper. The Committee therefore ask for a new grant of 50/.
toward a work which daily increases in importance and usefulness.

The Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eqgs.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S. (Chairman),
Professor ALFRED NEWTON, I’. R.S., Rey. Canon Tristram, I R.N.,
Mr. Jon Corpesux, Mr. W. H.. Hupson, Mr. Howarp
SaunpeErs, Mr. THomas H. Tuomas, Dr. C. T. VACHELL, and Mr.
H. BH. Dresser (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary).

Your Committee beg leave to report that in the early portion of the pre-
sent Parliamentary Session a fresh Bill to amend the Wild Birds Protec-
tion Act, 1880, was brought into the House of Commons by Sir Herbert
Maxwell, Bart., M.P., and others, which Bill was on April 3 ordered by
the House to be printed.

Your Committee had already been in communication with Sir Herbert
Maxwell on the subject, and it was arranged to hold a meeting to discuss
the clauses of this Bill, and a meeting was accordingly held on April 6,
at which Sir Herbert Maxwell attended. The present Bill differs from
that brought in by Sir Herbert Maxwell last Session (1893), in prohibiting
the taking of the eggs of any specified kind within the limits of the
country, or part or parts thereof, or else the taking of the eggs of any
species within a certain stated area ; it being left in the hands of the
County Council to adopt either alternative. After some discussion it was
decided by your Committee to approve the draft Bill as prepared by Sir
Herbert Maxwell. This Bill has since passed through both Houses with
but slight opposition, and has now come into force.

348 REPORT—1 894.

Migration of Birds.—Interim Report of a Committee, consisting of
Professor A. NEWTON (Chairman), Mr. Joun CorpEavux (Secretary),
Messrs. R. M. Barrineton, J. A. Harvie-Brown, W. EAGLe
CLaRKE, and the Rev. E. P. KNuBLEY, appointed for the purpose
of making a Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds
at Lighthouses and Light-vessels.

THE Committee have to report that the systematic tabulation of the various
items in the schedules has at length been completed by one of their
number—Mr. W. Eagle Clarke—and that they are now prepared to
approach the subject of the final report, which it is hoped will be ready
for presentation at the meeting of the Association in 1895 or, at the latest,
at the meeting in 1896.

The Committee trust that the Association will reappoint them as
before.

Lhe Climatological and Hydrographical Conditions of Tropical Africa.—
Third Report of a Committee consisting of Mr. KE. G. RAVENSTEIN
(Chairman), Mr. BaLpwin Latuam, Mr. G. J. Symons, and Dr.
H. R. Miu (Secretary). (Drawn up by Mr. E. G. RAVENSTEIN.)

Your Committee, up to the end of July last, had issued five sets of
meteorological instruments at a cost, including forms, carriage, &c., exceed-
ing 100/. The first of these sets was entrusted to Mr. J. W. Moir (British
Central Africa), the second to Mr. Buchanan (British Central Africa),
the third to Captain Gallwey (Warri, Benin), the fourth to the Rev. C.
Bonzon (Lambarene on the Ogowe), and the fifth to the Rev. R. Glennie
{Bolobo, Congo). A sixth set is kept in reserve for British East Africa.

Two of these sets, namely, those in the hands of Mr. Buchanan and
Mr. Glennie, include Fortin barometers, whilst that granted to Captain
‘Gallwey includes a black bulb thermometer.

Observations up to the latest possible date have been received from
Mr. Glennie, Mr. Bonzon, and Dr. Roth as representing Captain Gallwey.

Instructions have been issued to the officials of the Royal Niger
Company to make their observations in future in accordance with the
rules laid down by your Committee, and the like step is contemplated by
the British East Africa Company.

Summaries of meteorological returns are appended to this report.
Your Committee are quite aware that these observations are not in every
instance as complete and trustwortlry as could be desired. In some cases
the hours of observation are ill chosen (a very common occurrence), in
others the instruments are defective or the corrections to be applied to the
readings are unknown. If they are published notwithstanding, it is done
because they refer to localities concerning which nothing or very little is
known at the present time.

Quite a number of meteorological records offered to the Committee for
publication have had to be rejected as being on the face of them utterly
untrustworthy. It seems a pity that so much time and labour should
have been wasted upon recording observations which with a little fore-
thought and caution might have furnished important information on the
climate of Tropical Africa.

The grant of 5/. made to the Committee last year was not claimed.

349

ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TROPICAL AFRICA.

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1894.

3804 REPORT—1894.

The Exploration of Hadramout in Southern Arabia.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. H. SEEsoHM (Chairman), Mr. J.
THEODORE Bent (Secretary), Mr. E. G. Ravenstern, Dr. J. G-.
Garson, and Mr. G. W. Buoxam. (Drawn up by Mr. BENT.)

Our expedition left Aden on December 15, 1893, for Mokulla, the sea-
port from which we were to start inland for the Hadramout valley. The
coast-line of this part of Arabia is peculiarly harbourless, and the only
ports for the Hadramout valley are Mokulla and Sheher, the former being _
only available during the north-east monsoons, and the latter being merely
an open roadstead. Sheher was until late years the most flourishing of
the two places, but the transfer of the suzerainty over these places to the
Al Kaiti family has resulted in Mokulla becoming by far the most thriving
of the two, and Sheher is gradually falling into ruins.

Before describing the interior it will be well to explain the conditions
of political affairs in the Hadramout and the origin of the Al Kaiti family
which rules there. At present this is the most powerful family in the dis-
trict, and is reputed to be the richest in Arabia.

About five generations ago the Sayyids of the Aboubekir family, at
that time the chief Arab family in the Hadramout, who claimed descent
from the first of the Caliphs, were at variance with the Bedouin tribes,
and in their extremity they invited assistance from the chiefs of the Yafi
tribe, who inhabit the Yafi district, to the north-east of Aden. To this
request the Al Kaiti family responded by sending assistance to the Say-
yids of the Hadramout, and putting down the troublesome Bedouin tribes,
and establishing a fair amount of peace and prosperity in the country,
though even to this day the Bedouins of the mountains are ever ready to
swoop down and harass the more peaceful inhabitants of the towns. At
the same time the Al Kaiti family established themselves in the Hadra-
mout, and for the last four generations have been steadily adding to the
power thus acquired. Mokulla, Sheher, Shibam, Haura, Hagarein, all
belong to them, and they are continually increasing by purchase the area
of their influence in the collateral valleys, building substantial palaces,
and establishing one of the most powerful dynasties in this much divided
country. They get all their money from India and the Straits Settlements, for
it has been the custom of the Hadrami to leave their own somewhat sterile
country to seek their fortunes abroad. The Nizam of Hyderabad has an
Arab regiment composed entirely of Hadrami, and the Sultan Nawasjung,
the present head of the Al Kaiti family, is its general: he lives in India,
and governs his Arabian possessions by deputy. His son (thalib rules in
Sheher, his nephew Manassah rules in Mokulla, and his nephew Salah
rules in Shibam, and the governors of the other towns are mostly connec-
tions of this family. The power and wealth of this family are almost the
only guarantee for peace and prosperity in an otherwise lawless country.

The configuration of the country is interesting and very peculiar ; the
coast-line all the way from Mokulla to Saihut is hopelessly arid and un-
productive, except where hot springs come out of the ground. That at
Ghail ba Wazir, about twelve miles from Sheher, is utilised for the culti-
vation of tobacco, palms, and fodder ; that at Al Hami is exceedingly hot,
so hot that when it rises the hand can hardly bear it ; that at Dis also

——

or

ON THE EXPLORATION OF HADRAMOUT IN SOUTHERN ARABIA. 305

fertilises a considerable area, and there are several others. Beyond these
natural streams, or ghails as they are called, the coast-line is both water-
less and featureless, and it is very narrow : in most parts the line of moun-
tains begins to rise about six miles from the coast, and continues an
abrupt and almost unbroken line all along the coast. Several caravan
roads penetrate into the interior up the short valleys, but in every case there
is a very steep ascent, exceedingly arduous for camels and beasts of burden.
At an elevation of 5,000 feet there is a plateau extending on all sides, as
far as the eye can reach, divided by nature into two storeys, the upper one
being about eighty feet higher than the lower, and representing what is
left of a higher surface gradually disappearing in the course of ages. On
the upper storey vegetation is entirely absent, and in many places the

' ground is covered with black basaltic stones scattered over the surface as

if from a gigantic pepper-pot. In the gullies of this upper storey there
are considerable traces of vegetation, and it is here that the myrrh trees
and frankincense trees grew which once formed the wealth of this district.
The subject of frankincense and myrrh is of course one of the most interesting
in connection with the Hadramout, as this portion of Arabia was the one
which supplied the ancient world with these precious drugs ; and when one
considers how they were anciently used, both for private and religious
purposes, one can readily understand the commercial importance of these
commodities. Claudius Ptolemy gives us accurate information as to the
caravan routes by which the drugs were conveyed to the Mediterranean
from the country of the Hadramite, or Chatramitz as the Greeks, from their
inability to sound the initial H, called it. Pliny also affords us valuable
information on the subject, as do also the Arabian geographers of the
earlier centuries of our era. From personal observation I should say that
the ancients held communication with the Hadramout almost entirely by
the land caravan route, as there are absolutely no traces of antiquity to be
found along the arid coast-line, whereas the interior valley and its collateral
branches are very rich in remains of the ancient Himyaritic civilisation.
Evidently the trees which produced these drugs grew on the plateau.
Myrrh trees are still very common on it, and every year Africans come
over from Somaliland for the purpose of collecting the sap. During our
wanderings we only once came across a specimen of the frankincense tree :
it has evidently almost entirely disappeared from this locality, but is to be
still found in abundance, I am told, further east, in the country of the
Mahri tribe.

It is highly probable that the systematic destruction of the timber on
this plateau during the course of countless ages has much to say to the
present deplorable condition of the Hadramout and its collateral valleys.
These are all being silted up by sand, which invades them from the
central desert on the north and from the plateau on the south. This
sand in many instances is forty feet deep, and entirely covers the running
waters which for the purposes of cultivation have to be brought up by
wells and led to the land intended for cultivation by an elaborate system
of irrigation. There are very few running streams in this district, and
every year we were told they are becoming fewer, and will undoubtedly
very soon disappear altogether. The inhabitants of the Hadramout
have a hard struggle to maintain against this invasion of their country
by a natural catastrophe, and were it not for the custom of the in-
habitants of going abroad to seek their fortunes, there is no doubt that

long ago the country would have been abandoned, and the struggle for
AAQ

306 REPORT—1894.

existence given up. The strong fanaticism of the inhabitants and their
belief in the sacredness of their country have been another very im-
portant factor in perpetuating its existence. Every man who leaves the
Hadramout in search of fortune hopes to return and die in the odour of
sanctity. No woman ever leaves the country, and there are cases on
record of a wife being separated from her husband for forty years.
On their return the wanderers relapse into the same condition of
fanaticism and hatred of all external influence which has obtained in
this country from time immemorial, and all they have gained is money
with which to continue to live in their own valley, and erect the castles
and palaces with which the whole line of the Hadramout is thickly
studded.

The plateau when reached extends, as I have said, to an apparently
unlimited extent in every direction ; after one day’s journey, however,
it will be seen that valleys running northwards are cut out of this flat
surface like slices out of a cake. The principal valleys which run into
the big central valley from the south are the Wadi Al Isa, Al Eyn,
Dowan, Rachy, Adym, and Ben Ali; there are many others which we had
not the time or opportunity to visit. The chief peculiarity of these
valleys is that they descend very rapidly, and are at their head very
nearly as deep as during the rest of their course. They seem as if they
had formed part of a great inland fiord, from which the sea retired at
some remote period, leaving the successive marks of many strands on the
sandstone and limestone walls which shut in these valleys. Everywhere
the descent into them is rapid and difficult, and no place I have ever
seen in the world can possibly be more shut off and hemmed in by
natural features as the broad main valley known as the Hadramout and
its collateral branches. The old Arabian story of Sinbad descending
into a deep valley on the back of a roe must have originated in some
such country as this. It is remarkable how the camels contrive to get
to and fro, and frequent accidents to the animals take place during the
ascent and descent from the plateau. As seen from above, the aspect of
these long narrow valleys is exceedingly curious ; the walls of rocks are
almost precipitous, about 1,000 feet in height. In many places the
valleys are not a mile wide, and present one long unbroken line of
villages, each with its palm grove, its cultivated land, its big castles
and houses, and its surrounding hovels for the lower classes. Even the
Bedouins have big houses here and settled abodes when on a journey
or pasturing their flocks ; they have no tents, and are little better than
naked savages. But when they return home to their valley we find
them living in large commodious houses several storeys in height, with
the antlers of antelopes decorating them outside, and though only built
of sun-dried bricks their architecture reminds one of the medieval
towns on the Rhine. In fact, if one could substitute a flat surface of
sand covering the river bed and place almost treeless mountains on either
side one might well compare these valleys to those of Germany. The
town of Hagarein is built on an isolated hill in the middle of the
Wadi Kasr, with its walls and battlements, its turrets and machi-
colations : it looks at a distance exactly like one of the fortified medieval
towns of Europe.

In most cases the narrower valleys are the most fertile, the water
supply is far better than it is in the main valley, for at the head of the
main valley are the salt hills of the Shabwa district, from which, as in

ON THE EXPLORATION OF HADRAMOUT IN SOUTHERN ARABIA. 3057

the days of Makrisi, the Bedouins bring caravans of salt : this impreg-
nates the water of the main valley with strong alkaline deposits, and the
water from the wells, especially in the centre of the valley, is very dis-
agreeable. This, however, is not the case in the narrower valleys, and
from the Wadi Adym, the Wadi Al Eyn and Dowan, come the best
dates and the best honey, which form two of the principal productions of
the country.

Tn many places the main valley of the Hadramout is very wide—even
near Shibam it is three miles wide, and where it is entered by the collateral
branches considerably more. We were only able to trace its course as
far as Terim, but beyond that, as it slopes towards the sea of Saihut, I
have reason to believe it assumes magnificent proportions, but owing to
the hostility of the tribes in that direction we were unable to proceed, as
we had wished, along the whole length of it ; and even the Arabs, under
the rule of the Al Kaiti family, are themselves ignorant of this route,
always going down to the sea by the plateau roads, as the long valley
road is unsafe for caravans.

Our investigations were principally confined to the main valley and
its arteries. The Sultan of Shibam hospitably entertained us in his
palace at Al Katan for three weeks, from which point we were able to
visit a large number of the places of interest in the vicinity. At El Meshed
we visited the ruins of a very large town at the mouth of the Wadi
Dowan, and brought home several inscriptions therefrom. Also at two
or three other spots near Shibam we got inscriptions ; but the expedition
which most repaid us was that up the Wadi Ser to the north of the main
valley, by which we were able to determine the position of the great
central desert at this point, and also, from inscriptions, one of the old
caravan roads which led northwards from the frankincense country. In
this valley too we visited the Kabr Salah, one of the tombs held sacred
by the Bedouins, and particularly watched over by them as distinct from
the Arab shrines : it is a long tomb forty feet in length, and is one of many
tombs popularly supposed by the Bedouins to belong to a race of giants
which are to be found at several points in the Hadramout. There is no
question about it that the Bedouins represent an older civilisation and
practise an older cult than the Arabs in this district. The Sayyids and
Sherifs of the Arab population look down on the Bedou, referring to them
as heathen who only outwardly conform to the laws of Mohammedanism
when absolutely compelled.

The inscriptions and archeological results of our Hadramout expedition
are now in the hands of the great Himyaritic scholar, Dr. D. H. Miiller,
of Vienna, and I have confident hopes that he will be able to produce for
us some interesting results.

The map of our expedition and a survey of the country which we
traversed have been made by Imam Sherif, Khan Bahadar, who was sent
out by the Indian Government. It is particularly valuable as being the
first attempt at surveying anything beyond the coast-line in this part of
Arabia, and I have hopes that he will accompany us again next year to
continue this work.

There is a remarkable absence of mammalia in the Hadramout ; we
only saw a few gazelle and heard of the ibex as dwelling in the moun-
tains near Siwun. The fact that we constantly saw the rotting carcasses
of sheep proves the total absence of carnivorous beasts and birds, which is
doubtless due to the lack of running water. There are also very few birds

358 REPORT—1894.

of any sort in the valley, though in the cultivation near Al Katan we saw
quantities of swallows, evidently hibernating there. The naturalist sent
out by Dr. Anderson, however, made an excellent collection of snakes,
lizards, and other reptiles which abound in the rocky mountains. These
are at present being arranged by Dr. Anderson, and a complete set will
be presented to the Natural History Museum at South Kensington.

Owing to the fanaticism of the natives we were unfortunately unable
to take any anthropometric observations; in fact, it would have been
extremely dangerous to do so in the interior. I have hopes, however,
another season to be able to do this at some of the coast towns, where the
Bedouins from the interior go down in considerable numbers. They are
very interesting as types of an early race, being very different from the
Bedouins of Northern Arabia. They are short, thin, and wiry, with
handsome, refined faces, aquiline noses, and thin lips, almost as dark as
negroes in their skin, and with long black hair, which they tie up in a
knot at the back of their heads. During our long stay at Al Katan we
were able to collect many interesting points with regard to their manners
and customs, but the same difficulty that prevented us from taking
measurements also confronted us in trying to take photographs of this
interesting type of humanity. They have a fixed objection to sitting for
their portraits, and the few we took at haphazard do not give a very
satisfactory idea of the type.

Mrs. Bent was, however, able to take an interesting series of views of
the Hadramout valley, the palaces and buildings, &c., which give a good
idea of the country,

The botanist (W. Lunt) who was sent out by the authorities of Kew
made a collection of the flora of this district, which is rather meagre, but
very interesting, as being the first collection brought from Arabia east of
Aden. In it there are four new genera and thirty new species, which is
remarkable, considering that the collection did not contain much over 200
varieties ; and it has also established the fact that the flora of Arabia
corresponds most closely to that of Abyssinia.

We purpose to return to Arabia during the coming winter, and, if
possible, to enter at Muscat and make our way thence to the Hadramout,
which will give us an opportunity of surveying the whole inhabitable line
of country along the coast of South-eastern Arabia. We therefore hope
for the reappointment of the Committee, with a grant of money.

Geographical, Meteorological, and Natural History Observations in South
Georgia or other Antarctic Island.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Mr. CLemEents R. Marxwam (Chairman), Dr. H. R. Mii
(Secretary), Mr. J. Y. Bucnanan, and Mr. H. O. Fores.

Tue Committee met on two occasions and considered the possibility of
carrying out Mr. Bruce’s plan for spending a year on South Georgia or other
land within the Antarctic Circle. It was found to be possible to obtain
a passage for Mr. Bruce either to South Georgia or possibly to the Antarctic
land south of Australia ; but no guarantee would be given by the Norwe-
gian whalers and sealers making experimental voyages in these waters
that they could return for him after a year. In the circumstances the
Committee decided that it would be undesirable to encourage Mr. Bruce

GEOGRAPHICAL, ETC. OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTH GEORGIA. 359

to run the risk of an expedition the return from which was so uncertain,
and the sum of 50/. drawn by the Committee and held in readiness to add
to Mr. Bruce’s funds in case he should be able to make satisfactory
arrangements will be repaid to the Treasurer.

The Committee desire to impress upon the Association the desira-
bility of memorialising Government on the great scientific advances
which will certainly follow a well-equipped expedition to the Antarctic
regions. The success attending the recent voyages of Norwegian whal-
ing and sealing vessels in the discovery of new lands of great interest is
fresh evidence of the work which may be done in high southern latitudes
by protected steamers.

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools——Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GuLapstoxe (Chairman),
Professor H. E. ArmstronaG (Secretary), Mr. 5. Bourne, Mr. G.
Guapstong, Mr. J. Heywoop, Sir Jonny Luspock, Sir PHILip
Maaunus, Professor N. Story MaskELyNE, Sir H. E. Roscog, Sir
R. Tempe.e, and Professor 8. P. THompson. (Drawn wp by Dr.
GLADSTONE. )

APPENDIX.—Addition to Alternative Courses in Elementary Science . » page 364

Last year your Committee were able to report a rapid advance in the
adoption of elementary science as a class subject in the day schools, and
the great provision made for it in the New Code for evening continuation
schools. This year they have only to report progress in the same direction.

The number of departments of schools in which the following class
subjects were examined by Her Majesty’s Inspector during the eight years
1882 to 1890, when English was obligatory, were as follows :—

’ : S
Class Subjects Departments 1882-83 1883-84 | 1884-85 1885-86 | 1886-87 1887-88 1888-89 1889--90 |
| |

|
Reneliche ess) ss | es] 18863 | 19,080 | 19,431 | 19,608 | 19,917 | 20,041 | 20,153 | 20,304
|

| | |
12,0385 | 12,058
39 | 36

|

12,775
51

12,336 | 12,055 12,171 | 12,307
45 | 43 36 32 |

Geography 5 : : a 12,823
Elementary Science as 48

The numbers during the last three years, when managers and teachers
have had full liberty of choice, have been as follows :—

Class Subjects—Departments | ‘1890-91 | 1891-92 | 1892-93 |
English . . . / |) 919,825 18,175 | 17,894 |
Bmeeraplivecccs seycblea > ban ii oa| 12,806 13,485 14,256
Elementary Science . : . | 173 788 1,073

It will be noticed that during the former period, while the study of
English Grammar increased with the natural increase of schools, the study
of scientific subjects positively decreased ; but since that time, while
Grammar has rapidly declined, Geography, and especially Elementary
Science, which was almost non-existent before, have rapidly increased.

360 REPORT—1894.

The number of scholars examined in the scientific specific subjects
during the eight years 1882-90 has been as follows :—

Specific Subjects——Children | 1882-83 | 1883-84 1884—85 | 1885-86 | 1886-87 | 1887-88 | 1888-89 | 1889-90
¢
Algebra . 0 5 - | 26,547 | 24,787 25,347 | 25,395 | 25,103 | 26,448 | 27,465 | 30,035
Euclid and Mensuration . 5 1,942 2,010 1,269 1,247 995 1,006 928 977
Mechanics, A. . . «| 2,042 | 3,174] 3,527] 4,844] 6315 | 6,961 | 9,524] 11,453
Be By . 5 - — 206 239 128 33 331 127 209
Animal Physiology. 5 - | 22,759 | 22,857 | 20,869 | 18,523 | 17,338 | 16,940 | 15,893 | 15,842
Botany . . . . «| 3,280] 2,604] 2,415] 1,992] 1,589 | 1,598] 1,944] 1,830
Principles of Agriculture .| 1,357] 1,859] 1,481| 1,351] 1,137| 1,151! 1,199] 1,228
Chemistry 5 : 1,183 1,047 1,095 1,158 1,488 1,808 1,531 2,007
Sound, Light, and Heat. B, 630 1,253 1,231 1,334 1,158 978 1,076 1,183
Magnetism and Electricity . 3,643 3,244 2,864 2,951 2,250 1,977 1,669 2,293
Domestic Economy. .° .| 19,582 | 21,458 | 19,437 | 19,556 | 20,716 | 20,787 | 22,064 | 23,094
Total 4 a 5 - | 82,965 | 84,499 | 79,774 | 78,477 | 78,122 | 79,985 | 83,420 | 90,151
Number of scholars in Stan- 4
dards V., VI., and VII. } 286,355 | 325,205 | 352,860 | 393,289 | 432,097 | 472,770 | 490,590 | 495,164

The numbers during the last three years are :—

Specific Subjects.—Children 1890-91 1891-92 1892-93
Algebra : : : ; : 31,349 28,542 31,487
Euclid. : 5 : : 3 870 927 1,279
Mensuration : r é F 1,489 2,802 3,762
Mechanics . 4 i 5 : 15,559 18,000 20,023
Animal Physiology . : : 15,050 13,622 . 14,060
Botany A ; 2 4 P 2,115 1,845 | 1,968
Principles of Agriculture . E 1,231 1,085 909
Champs. a) eee 1,847 1,935 | 2,387
Sound, Light, and Heat 7 ¢ 1,085 1,163 1,168
Magnetism and Electricity . ; 2,554 2,338 | 2,181
Domestic Economy , = - 27,475 26,447 29,210

otal oh ee engigad 98,706 | 108,434

It is interesting to see what have been the changes of popularity in the
different subjects recorded above. The most striking change has been the
rapid and continuous increase in the study of Mechanics of from 2,000
to 20,000 scholars. Animal Physiology, Botany, and the Principles of
Agriculture show a steady decrease. The separation of Euclid and
Mensuration has had a good effect upon the teaching of both, especially
the latter. The physical sciences have fluctuated from time to time, but
have never commanded any great amount of attention. Domestic Economy
shows a considerable 2ctual increase, but not in proportion to the number
of girls in the higher standards.

Estimating the number of scholars in Standards V., VI., and VII. at
535,000, the percentage of the number examined in these specific subjects
as compared with the number of children qualified to take them is 20:2 ;
but it should be remembered that many of the children take more than
one subject for examination. The following table gives the percentage for
each year since 1882 :—

In 1882-83 ‘ : : ; . 29-0 per cent.
», 1883-84 : 2 é ears
», 1884-85 : : : . 22°6

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 361

In 1885-86 ; ‘ ; ; . 19-9 per cent.

», 1886-87 : : ; ‘ > 18-1 x

', 1887-88 Law awolibeoteyd, of i TEOy Lp

,, 1888-89 : f : s ae 1 7-Or tgs

»» 1889-90 ; ; ‘ : OF 189h 7 ony

», 1890-91 F : : : My DO Bins,

,, 1891-92 ; : ; : ed eee
1892-93 : : : , Pee DOD veins

The returns of the Education Department given above refer to the
whole of England and Wales, and are for the school years ending with
August 31. The statistics of the London School Board are brought up to
the year ending with Lady Day, 1894. They also illustrate the great
advance that has been made in the teaching of Elementary Science as a
class subject, and they give the number of children as well as the number
of departments.

Years | Departments Children
1890-91 | 11 | 2,293
1891-92 | 113 26,674
1892-93 | 156 40,208
1893-94 183 49,367

The alterations in the New Code bearing upon instruction in Science
are as follows :—

1. The addition of Domestic Economy (for girls) to the list of class
subjects. Hitherto it has only been recognised as a specific subject, which
limited the instruction to the higher standards. If taken as a class
subject, it will, of course, have to be taught throughout the school.

2. The addition of Hygiene to the list of specific subjects.

3. The inclusion of Horticulture in the Schedule of Alternative Courses
in Elementary Science. This is practically the same as Horticulture
treated as a specific subject, but spread over the seven standards.

4. The insertion in the same Schedule of an entirely new course, called
‘Experimental Arithmetic, Physics and Chemistry.’ This is so great a
departure from ordinary methods, and is likely to effect so decided an im-
provement in the mode of teaching, that it is thought desirable to set out
the programme in full detail. It will be found in the Appendix to this
Report. It follows somewhat on the lines of the Elementary course in
Practical Science which appeared in the Evening School Code of last year,
and to which your Committee drew particular attention in the Report pre-
sented at the Nottingham meeting. This will go far to realise the hope
then expressed that these improved methods of instruction may be largely
adopted in the day schools.

The changes in the Code with regard to the instruction of pupil teachers
in science subjects are in an opposite direction. The whole of the pro-
vision hitherto made for the encouragement of the study of science by the
pupil teachers has been swept away. But it is understood there is an
intention to put in its place an obligatory course of Primary Science, which
may form the basis for any further special science which may be taken
optionally. If this idea is carried out, it will place Natural Science for the
first time in its proper place inthe curriculum. In the meantime, however,
no marks can be obtained at the Queen’s Scholarship examination for

362 REPORT—1894.

passes in any science subject at the Science and Art Department examina-
tion, or for the holding of University Extension certificates in science.

For several years past the Instructions to Inspectors have contained a
clause stating that, among the things provided by a good school, may be
‘an orderly collection of simple objects, geological and botanical specimens,
examples of industrial processes or other apparatus, chiefly designed to
illustrate the school lessons, and formed in part by the co-operation of the
scholars themselves.’ This year the Department have taken the further
step of stipulating that ‘a classified list of the objects and other articles of
interest in the school museum should also be kept.’ This will render the
school museums more valuable instruments of education, and prevent
them from degenerating into a mere miscellaneous assemblage of objects.

In regard to evening continuation schools, there is no alteration in the
Code that calls for remark. But in the Revised Instructions to Her
Majesty’s Inspectors my Lords say : ‘ The subjects taught in the day school
should be such as to form a solid foundation on which the higher studies of
the evening may be built. The knowledge of the scientific principles which
underlie the technique of the industries of the neighbourhood . . . is
among the most important of such subjects. It might help to secure the
continuity of school life if the day scholars were allowed occasionally to
attend some of the more attractive evening lessons, such as travels illus-
trated by the optic lantern, ora science lecture illustrated by experiments.’
Optic lanterns are now of so excellent a character that they can be used
for illustrating lessons in the daytime without darkening the room. The
London School Board has recently purchased a dozen with that view.

For the last four years there has been a clause in the Code stating
that, ‘in making up the minimum time constituting an attendance, there
may be reckoned time occupied by instruction in science (amongst others),
whether or not it is given in the school premises or by the ordinary
teachers of the school, provided that special and appropriate provision,
approved by the Inspector, is made for such instruction, and the times for
giving it are entered in the approved time-table.’ The London School
Board have made several attempts to get leave from the Education
Department to allow of occasional visits to such places as Kew Gardens,
South Kensington Museum, &c., to be so counted. But although ‘the
Science and Art Department recognise attendance at such places, pro-
vided that the attendance is for not less than for one hour, that the visit
is made for the purpose of the scholars receiving instruction, and that the
scholars are instructed during the visit by the teacher of the class,’ the
Education Department still require the literal fulfilment of the above-
mentioned clause, which is framed to meet the conditions of centre
teaching, and not of visits to other institutions of an educational character.
A recent deputation from the Manchester Art Museum on the subject of
bringing picture galleries, public museums, &c., into requisition in teaching
art and science was, however, very favourably received by Mr. Acland,
and he promised increased facilities for this purpose in next year’s Code.
Your Committee trust, therefore, that, not only will the London School
Board be allowed to make the use they propose of such institutions, but that
the provision may be made general, so as to apply to all the schools in the
provinces wherever the means exist of obtaining such practical instruction.

On January 6 last the Education Department issued a valuable
circular (No. 332) on the subject of instruction in the lower standards.
The general scope of the circular is to promote in the schools for older

i

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 363

scholars the natural methods of instruction adopted in the best infants’
schools, by which the children are trained to use their powers of observa-
tion and reasoning. With reference to the matters in which your Com-
mittee are more immediately concerned, it states: ‘It should be borne in
mind that object-lessons cannot be dispensed with if habits of observation
are to be duly fostered, and they should be treated as a means for mental
exercise, and not merely as opportunities for imparting miscellaneous
information. Objects should always be present and in sufficient numbers,
and the chief aim should be to call into activity observation and the con-
struction of clear mental pictures, so that the intelligence of the pupils
may be exercised and developed. Geography, where it is a class subject,
should be treated in a similar way, and should be taught by visible illus-
trations and by actual modelling in sand and clay, for the production of
miniature rivers, mountains, &c.’

Reference has been made in previous reports to the important work
being done by the science demonstrators under the London School Board
in introducing practical lessons into the schools—lessons in the course of
which the children are not merely orally instructed, but are led to carry
out themselves a series of simple measurements and to make experiments
with the object of solving easy little problems, being thus taught both to
be accurate and to be self-reliant. The vacancy in the staff caused by
the appointment of Mr. Gordon, who has been so eminently successful in
this work, as one of the Inspectors under the Science and Art Depart-
ment has been filled by the appointment of Mr. Heller, an Associate of
the City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of
Technical Education. He will carry on the instruction under the scheme
given in the Appendix, which is no ideal scheme, but an outline of the
work actually done in a considerable number of London schools during
the past three years. No other School Board appears as yet to have
attempted to give systematic practical instruction on such lines with the
object of training children to gain their knowledge by their own efforts,
thereby training them to help themselves and to think logically ; but the
work of the London Board has been carried on with such satisfactory
results, and the method adopted is of such promise, that it is to be hoped
that the example of this Board will be generally followed. The immediate
difficulty that will be met with in this direction, however, arises from the
lack of suitable teachers, and it cannot be too strongly urged that no time
should be lost in organising classes for teachers and placing them under
competent instructors. As County Councils have in some places already
shown willingness to assist in this direction, it is to be hoped that progress
will not be prevented by want of funds, and that School Boards and
County Councils will effectively co-operate in this great work, the national
importance of which must ere long be recognised.

Practical lessons similar in character to those which have been given
in some of the boys’ schools are about to be added to those now given in
some of the girls’ schools under the London Board. The results of this
experiment will be awaited with the greatest interest, although there can
scarcely be a doubt as to their proving to be equally satisfactory. When
the character of the household work done by women is taken into account,
it is obvious that training can be imparted at school in the course of such
experimental lessons as are to be given to the girls which will be of direct
practical value, and the most effective preparation possible for much of
women’s work. If girls can be taught to weigh and measure accurately,

364 REPORT— 1894.

and to understand the use of a thermometer, and if they acquire but the
most elementary understanding of the nature of food and of the opera-
tions incidental to cooking by actually experimenting while at school, the
foundation of habits will have been laid and knowledge will have been
gained which will make them far more careful, competent, skilful, and
trustworthy when, later on, they become cooks or nurses or wives or
mothers. It is not too much to hope that a really satisfactory method of
teaching domestic economy and housewifery may ultimately be devised on
the basis of experience gained in the course of lessons such as are here
referred to.

Your Committee observe with satisfaction that the Royal Commission
on Secondary Education comprises direct representatives of the Board
School system, and some who have interested themselves much in technical
instruction. In the present reorganisation of our scholarship arrange-
ments it is to be hoped that the proper co-ordination of the studies in
Natural Science will be duly cared for.

APPENDIX.
Addition to Alternative Courses in Elementary Science.

Course H.—Experimental Arithmetic, Physics, and Chemistry.
N.B.—Instruction in this subject should be experimental, the experi-
ments being carried out by the scholars.

Standards I. and II.—Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division of whole numbers experimentally ascertained by measurement of
lines in inches and centimetres, the number of squares in a given area of
squared paper ascertained by counting.

Standard I[I.—Decimals. Inch and centimetre rulers to be used, the
inches and centimetres being divided into ten parts. Addition and sub-
traction, the same method to be used as in Standards J. and II. Results
in each case to be recorded in columns. Multiplication and division of
above by whole numbers.

Standard IV.—Metre, its subdivisions. Addition and subtraction of
lengths containing them. Results to be recorded in columns, as in
Standard III. The gramme and its subdivisions treated similarly. Ap-
plication of above to numbers generally.

Standard V.—Measurement of length, area, volume, and weight.
English and French systems, relative weights of liquids and solids. Baro-
meter. Thermometers, graphic representation. Distillation. Filtration.

Standard VI.—Evaporation. Wet and dry bulb thermometer. So-
lubility. Chalk and lime, their properties. Heat and acids on chalk,
limestones, &ec. Chalk=lime+chalk gas. Chalk gas on lime and lime
water. Chalk gas in the air. Mortar.

Standard VII.—Substances burnt in air, such as coal, sugar, &c., also
metals, such as iron, copper, &c. Investigation into the increase in weight
of certain metals when burnt. Rusting of iron. Candle, phosphorus,
sulphur burnt in air confined over water. Active and inactive parts of
air. Composition of air. Dilute acids on zine and iron. Inflammable
air and the formation of water therefrom. Inflammable air over heated

red lead. Composition of water. Steam over heated iron filings. Hard
and soft water.

:

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 9865

¥.

¢

a a ee ee, ee ae eee ee eee

Methods of Economic Training in this and other Countries. Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor W. CUNNINGHAM (Chairman),
Professor E. C. K. Gonner (Secretary), Professor F. Y. HpGE-
“worTH, Professor H. S. Foxweti, Mr. H. Hiaas, Mr. L. L. Price,
and Professor J. SHIELD NICHOLSON.

APPENDIX PAGK
I.—On the Methods of Economie Training adopted in Foreign Countries.

By &. C. K. GONNER : ; . : < - c . 366

Il.—On Economic Studies in France. By H. Hiees . : . : . 384
Tll.—On the Condition of Economic Studies in the United Kingdom. By
E.C.K. GoNNER . : : : : . : < 5 d

387

In furtherance of the above purpose three reports have been drawn up
after due inquiry and laid before your Committee.

These reports, which are appended, bring out very clearly some features
of difference between the position of such studies in this and in foreign coun-
tries, and, with other information before your Committee, seem to them to
call for the following observations. Before proceeding to the consideration of
certain particular points they would remark that the growth of economic
studies, and in particular the development among them of the scientific
study of the actual phenomena of life (both in the past and in the present),
have important effects, so far as the organisation of the study and its suit-
ability for professional curricula are concerned. It may be hoped, indeed,
that when the empirical side is more adequately represented, the import-
ance of the careful study of Economics as a preparation for administrative
life will be more fully recognised both by Government and the public.

(a) The Organisation of the Study of Economics.—While fully recog-
nising the great energy with which individual teachers in this country
have sought to develop the study of this subject, your Committee cannot
but regard the condition of economic studies at the universities and col-
leges as unsatisfactory. As contrasted with Continental countries and
also with the United States, the United Kingdom possesses no regular
system. In one place Economics is taught in one way, and in connection
with some one subject, not infrequently by the teacher of that subject ; in
another place in another way, and with another subject. Very often it is
taught, or at any rate learnt, as little as possible. In most places this
lack of organisation is due to the weariness of introducing elaborate
schemes for the benefit of problematic students. At Cambridge the pass
examination which has recently been devised only attracts a few. With
regard to the higher study of Economics, Professor Marshall, among others,
has written strongly of the comparatively small inducements offered by
Economics as compared with other subjects. He adds: ‘Those who do
study it have generally a strong interest in it ; from a pecuniary point of
view they would generally find a better account in the study of something
else.’ Some considerations bearing on this point are offered below, but
here it may be observed that the attempts to introduce more system into
the teaching of Economics, and to secure for it as a subject of study fuller
public recognition, should, so far as possible, be made together.

In the opinion of your Committee Economics should be introduced into
the honour courses and examinations of the universities in such a manner
as to allow students to engage in its thorough and systematic study without
necessarily going outside the range of degree subjects.

366 REPORT—1894..

(b) The Position of Economics with regard to Professional and other
Curricula.—In most Continental countries Economics occupies a place
more or less prominent in the courses of training and in the examinations
through which candidates for the legal profession or the civil service
have to pass. In Austria, Hungary, and the three southern states of
Germany this connection is very real, and the nature of the study involved
very thorough. The same cannot be said with regard to the Northern
States of the latter empire, where the importance attached to this sub-
ject is so slight as to make its inclusion almost nominal. To some extent
or in some form it is regarded as a subject obligatory on those preparing for
those callings, or, to speak more accurately, for the legal calling and for cer-
tain branches of the civil service in Italy, Spain, Sweden, Norway, Denmark,
and Switzerland. In Hollandand Belgium, while a certain general know-
ledge only is required for a few posts or branches of the civil service, a very
thorough study is incumbent on those qualifying for the higher branch of
the legal profession. In both France and Russia it is an integral and
necessary portion of the legal curriculum.

The two studies are cognate, and according to the view of your Com-
mittee not only would the institution of an examination in Economics at
some stage of legal degrees and qualifications be advantageous professionally,
but the work of those who had enjoyed a legal training would react favour-
ably on the advance of the science. In addition, Economics should receive
2 much more important place in the Civil Service Examinations, and should,
if possible, be made compulsory on those entering the higher branches.

APPENDIX I.

On the Methods of Economic Training adopted in Foreign Countries.
By E. C. K. Gonner.

The comparative study of the Continental and other foreign systems
of Economic Education brings out in clear relief certain features of either
difference or coincidence which relate respectively to the impulses or
circumstances giving this particular study its importance, to the method
of study, and, lastly, to its organisation and the degree of success attained
in the various countries.

(1) Putting on one side the purely scientific impulse to learn for
learning’s sake, which can, after all, affect comparatively few, the induce-
ment to a large or considerable number of students to interest themselves
in any particular study must consist in its recognition, either positive or
tacit, as a necessary preliminary to some professions or to certain
positions. This may, as has been suggested, be either direct and positive,
or indirect and tacit ; direct and positive, that is, in the case of Economics
when in either one or more branches they are made part of the examina-
tions admitting to the legal profession and the higher civil service ;
indirect and tacit when public opinion demands economic knowledge as
necessary in those holding prominent positions as citizens or anxious to
direct and control their fellows, either by the pen as journalists, or by
act or word as statesmen or politicians. The importance of both these
motives is, of course, largely increased when they exist in close connection
with the purely scientific impulse. By itself this is not sufficient. The
exclusion of one study, as Economics, from professional or technical curri-

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 367

cula, unless counteracted by the existence of a very powerful popular
sentiment in its favour, practically removes it from the reach of students
who have to make themselves ready to earn their living. Of the two
influences, described above, the former, or the actual and positive recog-
nition, is given, in some shape or other, in Austria and Hungary, the
southern states of the German Empire, France, Belgium, Italy, Spain,
Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russia, and Holland. In
America, and to some extent in Canada, popular sentiment and interest
supply the needful impetus by making Economics a tacit requisite for
those exercising particular callings. In both Germany and Austria there
are signs of the growth of Economics in popular appreciation. In Austria,
indeed, the circumstances are peculiarly fortunate. Economic instruction
is recognised as a matter of serious importance, while, on the other hand,
economic knowledge is one of the subjects of the State examinations for
the legal and administrative service. In addition, its careful and scientific
study is pursued by a fair number of advanced students. In this way
Austria occupies a central position among the various nations which range
themselves with America at one extreme, where there is no positive or
direct obligation in favour of economic study, and at the other extreme,
the Scandinavian and lesser Latin countries, where all recognition that
exists is positive, but where this positive recognition is largely nominal.

It has been urged that the ill-success of economic studies in these
latter countries is largely an argument against their inclusion in obligatory
curricula—a proposition which probably those who make it would hardly
apply to the cases of other subjects. But from the evidence furnished by
the countries before us this ill-success can be traced to other causes. It
is due, firstly, to differences in the methods of study, and, secondly, to
the differences in the thing made obligatory. In South Germany, Austria,
and Hungary, Economics is obligatory on certain classes of students, and
the study of Economics is making rapid and satisfactory progress; but
then in South Germany, Austria, and Hungary, the method of study is
one which commends itself to advanced students and educational critics,
and the knowledge required in the examinations is thorough. In the
lesser Latin countries, as Spain and Italy, the knowledge which the
candidate is expected to show is elementary in itself, largely confined to
elementary theory, and a marked unreality is imparted to the whole
study, an unreality recognised alike by examiners, teachers, and students.
On the other hand, the advantages which Economics may receive from its
public and positive recognition are borne witness to by those best
acquainted with the condition of the study in Germany, where the usages
of the north and south differ. Broadly speaking, they consist in the
removal of Economics from the category of unnecessary to the category of
necessary acquirements. Many of those who begin the study from com-
pulsion continue it from choice. In America, indeed, the strength of
popular sentiment and the ever-present interest of politics together with
the action of the universities, where nearly all studies, and not Economics
alone, are put on a voluntary footing, give it an adequate position ; but
failing the combination of conditions such as these, its absence, both from
all professional curricula and from the earlier stages of education, cannot
but be regarded as disastrous and unjust.

(2) The method of economic studies is of a certain importance with
regard to the subject last discussed. Though it would be unfair to
estimate the work, or to judge of the scope of schools of economic teaching

368 REPORT—1894,

from their extreme tendencies, these afford not unsatisfactory means of
distinction. Speaking broadly, they may be placed in two groups—those in
which the dominant influence is realistic or empirical ; those in which it is
theoretical or abstract. Very few economists, whether teachers or writers,
are wholly realistic or wholly theoretical. Some bias, however, they
nearly all have, and it is by that they may be ranked for the present
purpose. Nor must it be supposed that the distinctions drawn in one
country, with regard to these opposing lines of study, at all correspond
with those existing in another. In Germany, for instance, the attitude of
Professor Wagner is attacked by the members of the historical school—
one branch of the empirical—but judged by the standards of France and
England he would rank in the main as an empiricist. The theorists of
Germany and Austria do little more than assert that theoretical study
has its due place and is a necessary part of the equipment of an eco-
nomist.

When discussing the assertion that compulsory Economics, however
enforced, tended to issue in perfunctory attendances and poor results so
far as interest was concerned, it was urged that these consequences
depended largely on the method and nature of study. This is remarkably
illustrated by the fact that the countries where such evils are regretted
or anticipated are those where the study of Economics is mainly theoretic,
or where Economics is distinctly and openly subordinated to other subjects.
Lessons of this latter kind are never thrown away upon students. But
with regard to the former, it is not from the southern states of the
German Empire, or from Austria, that we hear these complaints. There
economic study is obligatory, and the economic study involved is two-
thirds of it empirical in character. In the Latin countries the state of
things is very different. The basis of study is, if I may say so, text-book
theory, and the position of Economics, so far as progress is concerned, is
unsatisfactory in the extreme. This has been particularly dealt with in
the paragraphs relating to Italy.

In two of the great nations the mode of study practised is largely
empirical. In Germany, despite the contrast between different leaders of
thought, the importance of this method is well illustrated by the position
which the study of Practical or Applied Economics invariably occupies.
In America, the study of economic history and of modern economic fact
grows into greater prominence year by year.

(3) Turning to the question of success, the question arises at once as
to the tests whereby such may be measured. Of these, many, varying
from popularity to eclecticism, have been suggested, but possibly the one
most suitable is the ability of a system to produce a high general level
amongst a good number of students. Something more is required of a
system than that it should bring together large audiences for elementary
courses ; while, as for the production of a few very good students, a few
will always press to the front through all difficulties, despite systems good
or bad, or in the absence of any system at all. But asystem that is to
be deemed good must place within the reach of all industrious and apt
students the means of a good general economic training, while stimulating
him to prosecute original and independent work. Further, it should
provide these advantages regularly and not intermittently. The way in
which these two needs are met in practice can be stated briefly. General
training is provided by a systematic series of courses which should include
at least Theory of Economics, Applied Economics, and Finance. The

)_ EE” a ee ee ee ee

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 369

seminar, or classes organised like the seminar, offer opportunities for
guiding a student into the ways of original work.

Seminar instruction is given regularly in Germany, Austria, Hungary,
in the better equipped universities of America, Switzerland, and to some
extent in both Sweden and Holland. In Russia the professors may and
sometimes do organise seminars or discussion classes. In Belgium, classes
are held in connection with some of the courses.

With regard to the systems of providing for a good ground knowledge
of the leading branches of Economics, classification is rendered difficult
by the different methods adopted in the various countries. Some are
more, some less thorough. Among the former we may put without hesi-
tation the countries already singled out for notice—Germany, America,
Austria, and Hungary.

From the accounts given in detail below it is clear that in these
countries the study of Economics is advancing. The training is systematic.
A fair proportion of students pass from the more general into the more
special or advanced courses. The production of work, not necessarily of
the first order, for with that we are not dealing, but of the second, or
third, or fourth order, is great and still increases.

AUSTRIA.

The position of Economics in Austria is largely determined by its
relation to legal studies—by the place, that is, which its various branches
hold in the examinations qualifying for the legal profession and for the
juridical and higher administrative services. According to the system till
recently in force, but now somewhat modified, candidates intending to
enter these had to attend certain courses at the universities, and to pass
certain examinations varying according to the positions sought. Those
entering the legal profession had to pass the first State examination in

addition to the three political rigorosa of the university, success in which

latter conferred the degree of Doctor. Other candidates only needed to pass
the three State examinations. These latter were as follows :—The first
(Rechtshistorische Staatspriifung) was held at the end of the second year
of study, and comprised the following subjects : Roman Law, Canon Law,
and German Law in its historical aspect. The second (Judizielle Staats-
priifung) was held towards the end of the eighth semester, in the follow-
ing subjects: Austrian Law, civil, commercial, and penal ; Austrian Civil
and Criminal Procedure. At the end of the four years came the third

and final examination (Staatswissenschaftliche Staatspriifung), which alone

is of importance so far as the legal recognition of Economics is concerned.
The subjects examined in were Austrian Public Law, International Law,
Economics (including Economics, the Science of Administration, Finance,
and Statistics). The political rigorosa, while they correspond in outline to
the State examinations, have some few points of difference both with
regard to method and subjects. They, too, are three in number, and may
be described as the Austrian rigorosum, corresponding to the second State

' examination, the Romanist, corresponding to the first State, and the

Staatswissenschaftliche, which closely resembles the third State examina-
tion, though not including Statistics or Administration. There is no
regulation as to the order in which they are to be passed, but that indi-
cated above is fairly customary. Their greater severity may be judged from
1894. BB

370 REPORT—1894.

both the additional length of preparation prescribed and the manner in
which they are conducted. The earliest date at which a candidate may
pass his first rigorosum is at the end of the fourth in place of the
second year. The second and third may follow at respective intervals of
two months. The Staatspriifung is an examination taken by groups of
four students, each group being under examination for two hours ; but in
the rigorosa each candidate is under examination for two hours, spending
half an hour with each examiner. Both State and university examina-
tions are oral, and the latter are said to impose a severe strain on both
examiner and candidate. In the latter the examiners are the university
professors, while in the State examinations these are variously composed
of professors, functionaries of the State, and barristers of good standing.

By the Law of April 28, 1893, which came into effect in October, the
system sketched above underwent certain alterations. A complete
separation will be effected between the university examinations or rigorosa
and those qualifying for the legal profession and State services, the
former no longer serving as a possible substitute for the second and third
of the latter. In addition, some slight change has been introduced into
the curriculum and examinations imposed upon students designing to
enter these. They will have to attend courses and to be examined in—
(a) The Science of Administration (Verwaltungslehre), and with special
reference to Austrian Law ; (b) Economics, theoretical and practical ;
(c) Public Finance, and especially Austrian Finance. In addition they
must attend lectures (without subsequent examination) on Comparative
and Austrian Statistics. These alterations will leave the number of
students in the more elementary subjects unaffected, and, so far from
operating in discouragement of economic and political studies, will, it is
hoped, lead to their more thorough prosecution, by raising the degree to a
more scholarly position.

The marked recognition of Economics by the State, and the large
number of students whose prospects are involved in its successful study,
naturally affect the teaching organisation provided by the universities
and other bodies.

This is fairly uniform throughout Austria, as apart from Hungary,
though the extent to which the subject is pursued, and the variety of its
forms, depend mainly on the enthusiasm of particular teachers and the
greater opportunities offered by particular universities or other institu-
tions. At the universities | the ground plan of work may be described as
identical, Economics being taught in the faculty of law. There are
certain courses which must be delivered, and at which attendance is
obligatory for certain classes of students. These are on National Economy,
Finance, Statistics, and the Science of Administration (Verwaltungslehre),
which includes instruction in practical economics, public health, army,
matters of policy, justice, kc. But in addition to these the teachers, whether
professors or privat-docents, may, and often do, deliver special courses
dealing with more particular subjects. These are not necessarily or
usually the same from year to year ; and may be described as instruction
of an unusually high order, inasmuch as each teacher is accustomed to
select for treatment such branch of science in which his own activities
and studies lie. The large? voluntary attendance at such lectures is a

1 Vienna—Prag (German), Prag (Dohemian), Graz, Innsbruck, Krakau (Polish),
Lemberg (Polish), Czernovitz.

2 At Vienna the attendance at special courses varies from 50 to 100.

EE — eS

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 371

testimony to the regard in which eeonomic studies are held among a large

’ body of students.

Seminar instruction is customary, as in Germany. At Vienna there
are two seminars, one for Economics (Staatswissenschaftliche), one for
Statistics, while in addition there is an Institute of Political Science,
attached to all of which are libraries and places for the members to carry
on their work in close contact with their professor or his deputy. The
members consist in part of young doctors of the university who have
recently graduated, in part of those preparing for the examinations of
the university, and include, as a rule, several foreigners who have come
to Vienna to pursue their studies. The arrangements at the other uni-
versities are similar, though in some they lack the completeness displayed
at Vienna.

Students who, having passed their examinations with credit, or other
wise performed their work to the satisfaction of their teachers, wish to
carry on their studies in other countries are eligible for Reisestipendia
(travelling scholarships). These are rewarded to encourage study in
foreign universities, or to enable their holders to carry out investigations
which necessitate a journey. Unfortunately they are but few in number,
and as they are open to students of all faculties, few economists can hope
to obtain them. Among the more recent holders in Vienna are Professors
Boéhm-Bawerk, Robert Meyer, Von Phillipovich, and Dr. Stephen Bauer,
the two latter of whom published reports on matters studied abroad.

In this way a method of economic instruction has been developed in
the Austrian universities which not only provides a large number with a
carefully systematised series of courses, but offers to those disposed to
more thorough or more special study ample opportunity. The more eager
and energetic pass through the courses compulsory for the law degree, in
themselves a fitting preliminary to more detailed work, to attendance at
the special courses and membership of the seminar ; from these they may,
if fortunate, advance into the position of travelling or research scholars of
their university. Though most of the students at the economic lectures
are jurists, the attendance frequently includes members qualifying in
other faculties, or even more general ‘hearers.’ At Krakau, students
of the philosophical faculty form some 20 to 25 per cent. of the total.
All these students are entirely free so far as their choice of economic
courses is concerned. It is not possible to give the exact numbers of
the students to be described respectively as elementary and advanced.
The particulars, however, furnished by the various universities permit a
rough general estimate. Not fewer than one thousand students undergo
the more general courses, thus attaining to a fair systematic acquaintance
with the main branches of economic study, while out of that number more
than two hundred take special courses and enter the various seminars.
This account rather under than over estimates the extent to which
economic studies extend. As to the character of the advanced work
there is no doubt. As has been pointed out, it is of a high order. But
some question.has been raised as to the value of the knowledge likely to
be attained by the more general student. The variety of subjects required
in the examinations either of the university (political rigorosa) or of the
State, and the number of courses obligatory on the students, do not allow
of an early specialisation.! Buta glance at the nature of the examination,

! This, as Professor von Milewski contends, interferes with the scientific character
BB2

372 REPORT—1894:

and at the syllabus of the various courses, forbids the inference that
the instruction given is of a purely rudimentary nature. :

Much, it is true, depends upon the ‘personal enthusiasm and force of
the teacher, for, despite the obligation of attendance,a dull and unin-
teresting lecture will rarely obtain the audiences registered to him,
many students preferring to buy copies of the course hectographed from
the notes of their predecessors in the lecture room, and only troubling
themselves to appear at the beginning and end of the semester.

In the University of Krakau, Economics is obligatory, both in
study and examination, for the students of agriculture who attend
special lectures, apart, that is, from the law students. Instruction
in Economics (Political Economy, Finance, and Statistics) is given also
at all the Technical High Schools (Technische MHochschulen) in
Austria,! while attendance at the courses (though without examination)
is obligatory at the schools of agriculture, where similar conditions pre-
vail. At the Commercial Academies (Handelsakademien) of Vienna and
Prague a course of lectures is given with particular reference to the
economic branches which throw most light on commercial facts and
features, and on the relations existing between the various classes engaged
in industry and trade. To obtain the diploma of these institutions the
lectures are followed by an examination. Courses are provided for the
consular service at the Oriental Akademie in Vienna, and for the
service of the administration of the army.? There is also a Fortbildung-
schule for officials of the railway, where political economy is taught and
examined in. Members of these courses are considered specially fitted
for the attainment of the higher posts in their service.

A knowledge of Economics, duly and doubly certified by registered
lecture courses and by examination, is a necessary preliminary to certain
careers. Attendance at the university lectures and the attainment of the
juridical degree are the qualification for the higher branches of the legal
profession (advocate, &c.), and like attendance and degree, or, in the
place of the latter, the diploma of public service, are required for all
branches of the legal profession and for the whole civil service. Entrance
into the consular and diplomatic services may also be obtained through
the courses of the Oriental Academy. Further, as has been pointed out
above, a certain acquaintance, or supposed acquaintance, with economic
studies is considered necessary in some other vocations.

At the present time very considerable importance is attached to
economic studies in Austria. Their scientific character is a general
matter of care, and an extension of the sphere in which they are obli-
gatory, or at least advisable on the part of those who seek success in their
particular calling or profession, is earnestly advocated by some. In the
first direction the reforms in the juridical studies at the universities. will
operate. As Dr. Mataja writes :—‘ Economics will have greater and not

of the various studies required for the degree. As each has to take up several sub-
jects, and to pass examinations in these, he cannot give very special attention to
Economics or any other branch of social science in which he may happen to be
interested.

1 Of these there are six :—Vienna, Briinn, Graz, Prag (German), Prag (Bohemian),
Lemberg (Polish). After examination diplomas are granted, which are necessary
for those becoming teachers in agricultural schools, and are, it is said, a strong
recommendation in the eyes of landlords when engaging their officials, agents, &c.

? An Intendanz-Class for officers willing to serve as Intendanten for the provision
of the arn y.

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 9373

less weight.’ On the other hand, and in the other direction, different
suggestions have been made. Some advocate the extension of compulsory
study to engineers who will become officials and directors in factories, to
the employés of the fiscal service, to those attending the more elementary
technical schools. Others would like to see schools of political and social
science (including Economics) founded in the great industrial centres.
Whether these suggestions be carried out or not, they serve to illustrate
the feeling which exists, at least on the part of some, with regard to the
value of Economics both as a special and as a branch of general study.

HUNGARY.

Economics holds a position somewhat similar to that in Austria, It
is obligatory on all students in the faculty of law and political science at
the two universities,! and in the Rechtsakademien (legal faculties, as at
Kassa), who must take courses in Economics and Finance before the end
of their second year, when they have to pass an examination, among the
subjects of which these are included. After the second year their studies
bifurcate, according to the degree which they seek (Dr. Juris, or Dr.
Politics). In order to obtain the former, they must also pass an ex-
amination in financial law. But if they wish to take the latter degree
(Dr. Politics), they must pass two rigorosa, among the subjects of which
are Economics (theoretical and practical), Finance, Finance Law, and
Statistics. The knowledge required in this case is exceedingly thorough,
and the degree is of high value in the public service. There ar2 also
State examinations which serve as qualifications, though to a lesser extent,
for the legal and administrative services. Though easier, they correspond
closely with the above. In the universities the system of economic study
in its general features resembles that in vogue in Austria, the chief
courses being those on Economics and Finance ; but both at Budapest and
Klausenburg (Kalozsvar), as, for instance, at Strassburg to take a parallel,
these studies belong not to a sole legal faculty, but to a legal and political
faculty (Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultiit). In addition to
successful examinations the candidates have to present a thesis. The
possession of the degree of Dr. Cameralium implies a very sound economic
training, and it was till lately the chief means of entering the higher civil
service both of the kingdom and of the States. Considerable attention is
paid to Economics, the seminars being well frequented, and the interest
and activity of students great. This is particularly true of Budapest,
where the lectures are varied and delivered by a numerous and able
staff.

GERMANY.

The differences in the history and regulations of the various States
composing the German Empire have led, not unnaturally, to considerable
differences in the positions which economic studies occupy. On the one
hand, they are affected by the diversity of usage existing as to their con-
nection with the course of study required for the legal profession and the
civil service. On the other hand, the particular faculty in which they are
included has been determined by reasons possessing little but historical
validity.

1 Budapest, Klausenburg (Kalozsvar).

374 REPORT—1894.

1. Prussia,.—At the Prussian universities Economics belongs to the
faculty of philosophy, and, speaking generally, to that section of this
faculty known as the Sciences of the State. A student takes his degree
in Economics entirely apart from law, the position of which as a separate
faculty unfortunately precludes a student who presents a thesis in one of
these two subjects from selecting the other as one of the two collateral
subjects which he is bound by regulation to offer himself for examination
in. Further, it must be noticed that the degree of doctor in this country,
and, indeed, in Germany generally, is not a qualification, as was till recently
the case in Austria and still is in certain of the Latin countries. Some
assistance it may be in a judicial career, buteven then the degree of Doctor
Juris has naturally much more value than that of Doctor of Philosophy
in the State Sciences.

Nor does Economics occupy an important place in the State examina-
tions which qualify for the legal and administrative services. To enter
these a candidate must pass examinations, the first of which is common to
both services (referendar Examen). This consists of two parts, the first
written and dealing with law, the second oral, which includes, among
other matters, the elements of Economics. So subordinate is this subject
that, in the opinion of many critics, it hardly counts in the decision as to
the eligibility of candidates. The course of examination then bifurcates,
some taking that for Justiz-Assessor, others for that of Regierungs
Assessor, for neither of which is Economics required. At the latter of
these (Reg. Assessor) some knowledge of Economics in its applied branches
is said to be highly desirable ; but inasmuch as the examination takes
place some five years after the conclusion of the university course, the
demands it makes are chiefly met by knowledge supplied from books.
With regard to the constitution of the examining boards, it should be
noticed that, even at the referendar Examen, it is not in accordance with
common practice to include professors of Economics.

2. Saxony. —The system recently adopted in Saxony is, in so far as the
subordination of Economics is concerned, nearly identical with that of
Prussia. In one point it is more favourable to the interests of this
subject, the professoriate being invariably represented on the board of
examiners.

3. Reichsland.—In the Reichsland Economics is of no more importance
than it is in Prussia.

4. Saxe- Weimar.—In Saxe- Weimar, too, it is of but nominal import-
ance in the juridical examinations. There, too, the board of examiners is
constituted irrespective of economic requirements, and, as has been causti-
cally said, it is rare to find the examiners academically qualified in the
subjects in which they are supposed to examine. The position, in the
main, is very similar to that prevailing in Prussia.

5. Bavaria.—In the chief southern and south-western states Eco-
nomics holds a more important position in the legal and civil service
curricula. Thus, in Bavaria, all students of law, administration, and
forest (Landwirth) have to pass an examination in which it forms one of
the subjects. The time of the examination is at the conclusion of the
four years devoted to legal or other studies respectively, and the presence
of the Professor of National Economy among the professorial examiners
necessitates due attendance at lectures and thorough study. The second
examination for the civil service is technical in character, and only

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 375

requires economic knowledge in its connection with practical developments
and issues.

6. Wiirtemburg.—In Wiirtemburg, though Economics forms no part
of the strictly legal examinations, in the other State examinations for
administrative students it is of very great importance. For these there
are two examinations, the first of which, more general in character than
the other, takes place at Tiibingen, and involves a very considerable
acquaintance with Economics.

7. Baden.—Every legal student, as well as every candidate seeking
entrance into the higher employments in the State departments of revenue
and administration, must, in his time, attend lectures on, and pass exami-
nations in, the economic and financial sciences.

The varying positions which Economics holds in the examinations
qualifying for State and legal employment in the different German States
affect a large number of university students who have to pass these
examinations but do not of necessity take a degree. To them the con-
nection of Economics with one faculty or the other in the university
cannot be a matter of much importance, but with others the case is
different. Students reading for the degree are, as has been already said,
restricted now on one side, now on another, as to their choice of collateral
subjects for examination. Sometimes they can offer Heonomics in connec-
tion with law, sometimes they cannot. In addition, the influence which
kindred studies taught in one faculty may bring to bear on the methods
of instruction may, in some instances, prove of not inconsiderable import-
ance even in the case of the students studying for the doctorate. Professor
Brentano, however, whose personal experience extends from Leipzig to
Strassburg, from Vienna to Breslau and Munich, contends that the
varieties of combination matter less than might seem probable. The
facultative position of Economics varies considerably. In Prussia and
Saxony they find place among the many heterogeneous subjects grouped
together in the faculty of philosophy, though in certain places, as at
Berlin, they fall into a distinct subdivision. At Berlin they belong to
the Staats- Cameral- und Gewerbewissenschaften. At Strassburg (Reichs-
land) they combine with law to form a Rechts- wnd Staatswissenschaftliche
Facultét. At Tiibingen (Wiirtemberg) a Staatswissenschaftliche Facultat
exists independent of the law, a practice identical with that current at
Munich (Bavaria). At some universities, as for instance at Jena, economic
lectures are largely attended by the students of Landwirthschaft.

A comparison of the studies preliminary to the doctorate in Germany
with those in Austria reveals two chief points of difference. At German
universities there is little prescription of the course of study, or, indeed,
of the methods to be adopted by the student, who within certain wide
limits has a perfectly free choice of subjects. But this comparative
freedom from restraint is closely connected with the great importance
attached to the thesis, a custom which, its critics urge, leads to premature
specialisation. In both countries candidates for the civil and legal services
are much more closely restricted to definite courses.

In their practical working the systems of the different universities
bear a close resemblance, at any rate in their earlier stages. There are
three main courses, delivered annually, on pure Economics, Applied
Economics, and Finance, all of which, even the first, involve a careful study
of economic fact as distinct from hypothesised theory. The extent to
which the method adopted in the first course is empirical depends, of

376 REPORT—1894.

course, on the position of the teacher as an adherent of one or other of
the opposing schools of economic thought ; but, speaking generally, even
the least empirical among them would be deemed empirical by those
accustomed to English methods. But, in addition to these three annual
courses, lectures are delivered on special subjects. At Freiburg (in
Baden), in the summer semester of 1891, these were :—

History of National Economy and Socialism.
Agrarian and Industrial Policy, including the Labour Question.
History of Statistics.

The list of special lectures at Berlin, to take the most completely equipped
of the universities, shows more clearly the wide range of subjects dealt
with under the term Economics. In the summer term, 1892, besides the
ordinary annual courses, there were courses of lectures on the following
subjects :—

Theory of Statistics.

History of Statistics.

Statistics of the German Empire. ,

The Economic and Social History of Germany from the end of the:
Middle Ages to the Peace of Westphalia.

History and Modes of Industrial Undertakings.

Money and Banking.

Early Commercial and Colonial Policy (till 1800).

Industrial and Commercial Policy.

The Social Question.

Forms of Public Credit.

In addition to lectures, necessarily more or less formal, opportunities are
afforded for systematic instruction in classes and in the seminar. The
Jatter institution varies considerably, according to the character of the
students frequenting particular universities, for its efficiency, and accord-
ing to the position of the professor undertaking it, for the direction of its
studies. Each teacher collects around himself a group of students who
follow his method, adopt his attitude, and frequently devote themselves to
those branches of economic research which have occupied his attention.
Thus, at Strassburg, Professor Knapp’s seminar deals chiefly with agrarian
questions ; at Berlin, Professor Wagner’s influence is seen in the pre-
dominance of finance and financial topics among the subjects discussed.
At Munich, to pass to the question of organisation and method, the two
professors join in holding a seminar in which ‘there are about twenty-four
young men taking part. Each of them has to undertake some work : the
younger ones get a book to read, and have to report on it; the more
advanced have to treat a subject after reading several books on the
subject ; the most advanced have to make a work themselves, the pro-
fessors aiding them in furnishing material and giving assistance.’ At
some universities there are two seminars, at others one. It is a matter
for regret that, with all these opportunities, a comparatively small number
of students are ranked as advanced. The explanations offered are many,
but probably a very adverse effect on the study is produced by the paucity
of the positions to which a thorough economic study can serve as an intro-
duction. Teaching posts are few, and the requirements in the State
examinations for the legal and administrative services are, if not as in
many cases nominal, strictly limited to an elementary knowledge.

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 377

Tn some of the technical schools, and in all the schools of commerce,
instruction in some branch of Economics forms part of the regular course,
and, in these latter, an examination is held. In the former, however, the
subjects thus taught are distinctly subordinated to the technical sciences,
which occupy the chief attention of the students, while in the schools of
commerce only those branches receive adequate treatment which bear or
appear likely to bear upon commerce in its practical aspects.

HOLLAND,

The connection between the universities and the legal profession is
close in Holland, none but doctors of jurisprudence being qualified to
practise as advocates. This is a circumstance which has a material effect.
upon the study of Economics, inasmuch as this, in its more elementary
branches, forms one of the obligatory subjects of the first examination for
the degree. Thus, so far as this one profession is concerned, a certain
knowledge of Economics is necessitated.

In the higher administrative service no such knowledge is obligatory,
but it is considered that officials who possess the degree of Doctor of
Political Science have better chances of promotion. For this degree a
thorough study of Economics is required. In certain other Government
services demand is made for acquaintance with certain branches of the
subject. In the examinations for the consular service the ‘General
Principles of Economics’ and the ‘Elements of Statistics,’ chiefly with
regard to trade and shipping, form subjects of examination. A similar
knowledge is required for the diplomatic service. In none of these cases,
it should be noted, is attendance at specified courses compulsory. The
subject forms part of the examination.

The requirements indicated above explain to some extent the position
which Economics occupies in the four Dutch universities. It is a neces-
sary subject for two degrees—the doctorate in laws and the doctorate in
political science. But the nature of the knowledge required differs
greatly. In the former it is elementary, not going beyond the first
principles of the theory, while in the latter case the examination necessi-
tates a really careful and detailed study. In addition to the general
course of lectures taken by all, candidates for this latter distinction
usually attend two other courses, one in capita selecta (taxation, finance,
socialism, &e.), and another in statistics. These courses, unlike those at
German universities, extend throughout the academic year—i.e. from
September to July. For advanced students discussion classes are held,
where the students, after a previous study of a chosen subject, meet to
discuss it among themselves and with the profess... Before proceeding
to the degree of Doctor a candidate has to write, and afterwards to
defend, a dissertation on some branch of the general science which he has
taken up. Thus, in the case of political science, the thesis may be on
some economic question. Outside the universities the chief study of
Economics takes place in the intermediate schools, where, during the
fourth and fifth years of the five years’ curriculum, it is taught for two
hours weekly by a Doctor of Political Science, or by another teacher duly
qualified by a special examination. At the Polytechnic at Delft there
is a chair of Economics, but neither is attendance at the course obligatory,
nor does it form one of the subjects of examination.

378 REPORT— 1894.

BELGIUM.

By the Law of 1890, which provides the regulation for higher
instruction, political economy is made obligatory for the attainment of
the degree of Doctor of Laws, a distinction proving a professional qualifi-
cation, and for the grade of engineer, the course for the former involving
some forty-five lectures, that for the latter some fifteen. In both cases
the subject is taken in the earlier years of study. Students training for
these professions would appear to form the great bulk of those attending
economic lectures at the universities. In neither case can the course be
said to furnish more than elementary instruction.

The universities have made provision outside these State requirements
for more advanced students. The candidates for the degree of Doctor
of Political Science have to show a more thorough acquaintance with
economic subjects. At the University of Ghent the course which is
provided for them is considerably longer ; still more stringent regulations
prevail at the University of Louvain for the degree of ‘docteur en
sciences politiques et sociales.’ The important regulations are as
follows : —

ART, 5.
Pour étre admis a l’épreuve du doctorat il faut :
(a) Avoir acquis depuis une année au moins le grade de docteur en droit.
(>) Avoir pris une inscription générale aux cours du doctorat en sciences

Z

politiques et sociales et avoir suivi les cours sur lesquels porte l’épreuve.
(e) Présenter, sous l’'approbation du président de l’Kcole, un travail imprimé sur
un sujet rentrant dans le cadre du doctorat.

ART. 7.

L’épreuve comprend un examen oral d’une heure et demie. Cet examen porte :—

(a) Sur six branches portées comme principales au programme de l'Ecole.

(6) Sur deux branches au moins choisies parmi celles qui sont portées comme
branches libres au programme de lcole ou—avec I'autorisation du président de
1 fcole—parmi celles qui sont portées au programme de l’université,

(ec) Sur le travail présenté par le récipiendaire.

The list of lectures for the two years’ curriculum, 1892-3, 1893-4, is
as follows :—

For the first year—Histoire parlementaire de la Belgique depuis 1830,
la législation ouvriére comparée ; le droit public comparé ; de la neutralité
de la Belgique et de la Suisse ; du régime légal des sociétés commerciales
en droit comparé.

For the second year—Histoire diplomatique de l'Europe depuis le
Congrés de Vienne ; !’évolution économique au XIX siécle ; les institu-
tions de la France et de Allemagne ; le régime colonial et la législation
du Congo ; les associations en droit comparé.

Seminar or class instruction is given at the universities, though the
particular form it takes varies with the other organisation provided, and
the character of the students. At the University of Ghent a class
supplementary to the lectures is formed, where discussion takes place ;
at Louvain Professor Brants directs a ‘cours pratique,’ '! the members of
which (some dozen in number) write treatises, discuss economic move-
ments, and make excursions to centres presenting features of economic
interest.

' Conférence d'Economie Sociale. Rapport sur ses travaux, 1891-92. Louvain.

:

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 379

ITALY.

Outside the universities there are in Italy but few institutions which
give much instruction in Economics. Though courses are delivered at the
superior schools of commerce, as, for instance, at Genoa, Venice, and
Bari, and the Polytechnic School of Milan, which compare in their nature
with those existing at similar places in Austria and Germany, the main
aim of such schools, and the limited extent to which they are frequented,
prevent them from obtaining any control over the development of
economic teaching in the country. It is, then, to the universities that
we must look for information as to the methods chiefly employed. At
them Economics is studied as a subsidiary subject to law, being taken by
students in their second year. There are three courses at which attend-
ance, or, to speak more accurately, inscription is obligatory on legal
students. In the case of the three obligatory courses the attendance is
fairly regular, owing, it is said, to the combined effect of the latitude
allowed in the teaching of the subject and the position of the professor as
examiner. Without passing the economic examinations students cannot
attain to legal degrees. The courses are those in Economic Theory and
Administration, Finance, and Statistics. According to the condition of
the university these are taught by the same or different teachers, in most
cases by the professors who are appointed and paid by the State. In
addition to these courses others are given at the option of the teachers,
either professors or docents. The attendance at these is not good, though
in many cases a large number of students enter themselves as a mark of
courtesy towards the lecturer. It costs them nothing, as they pay a
compound fee, and it benefits him considerably if a docent, as he receives
from the State a payment proportionate to the number of students
registered for his courses. In addition to the examination, a candidate
for the legal degrees presents a thesis which may, and not infrequently
does, deal with some economic subject.! The study of Economics is,
moreover, obligatory on students seeking the higher official careers.
Many complaints are made as to the position occupied by economic
studies in Italy. Their connection with law creates no doubt a certain
and a large audience in the lecture room ; but, as one Italian professor
points out, students do not remain there long enough to acquire anything
like a sufficient knowledge of the subject. They come from the schools
wholly unprepared, and they leave the university without having under-
gone a training thorough enough to counterbalance the loose economic
notions gathered from their more diligent study of the newspapers. The
study of economic facts does not seem to have had sufficient place in the
universities of Italy. Attempts are now being made to remedy this
defect by the formation of discussion societies among the students of
Economics, and the encouragement of research into statistical and similar
questions.

At the minor technical schools lectures are delivered on Elementary
Economics, Finance, and Statistics.

! Professor Tullio Martello calculates that at the University of Bologna some
15 per cent. of those graduating in Law present a thesis dealing with Economics.

380 REPORT—1894.,

RUSSIA.

The conditions under which Economics is taught in Russia bear a
superficial resemblance to those prevalent in the Latin countries, where it
is annexed to the study of law, and pursued very much as a subject of
secondary importance. Here, too, it forms part of the regular training
through which a jurist must passin his four years’ curriculum. There are
three economic courses which he must attend, and in the subject-matter
of which he must display sufficient knowledge in the May State examina-
tions. These are on Economic Theory, Statistics, &c., and Finance. In
addition to formal lectures, the professors in charge of the subject may,
and sometimes do, organise classes, discussion societies, or seminars,
though attendance at these is not obligatory.

The provision for further and more detailed study is considerable.
A student who has finished his law studies with a diploma of the first
degree can remain in the university, if he wishes, for more special research in
one or other subject (Roman Law, Political Economy, Private Law, Financial
Law, &c.), under the supervision of the special professor or professors. Such
a student is examined, and, if successful, obtains the title of Magistrandus
of the subject in question. Then he must present a dissertation and
defend it, after which he obtains the degree of Magister. After a second
dissertation and disputation he attains the higher degree of Doctor of his
special subject.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

The conditions under which the study of Economics is carried on in
the United States of America are widely different from those which pre-
vail in the countries of Continental Europe. On the one hand, there is no
inducement held out to students by its inclusion among the subjects of
State or professional examinations. On the other, there is evidence in the
importance which such subjects have assumed at the universities and
colleges of a strong public sentiment in favour of their careful study far
exceeding that in existence either in these countries or in the United
Kingdom. In one respect the regulations of the colleges have had an
important effect, independent of the action which they have taken in re-
spect of the strong public demand. Owing to the freedom of the students
in most of these institutions from prescribed and compulsory courses of
study in most stages of their career, Economics has escaped being rele-
gated, as, for instance, in England, to the position of a subject outside the
usual curriculum, and optional only in some one or, perhaps, two stages.
Where such prescription does exist it is not deemed a subject necessarily
unfit to form part of a compulsory general course. Its inclusion, to some
extent, would probably be demanded by the strong public opinion which
has grown up during the past twenty years.

The causes of the popularity of Economics are stated with fair unani-
mity by various writers, though their respective importance is very
differently estimated. In the first place, the very novelty of economic
studies is itself in favour of their ardent prosecution. Till comparatively
recently, it has been said till between 1870 and 1880, they were disre-
garded because unknown. Now they are seized, studied, and followed
because they offer, or seem to offer, an explanation of the vast and com-

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 381

plex economic condition which is in process of rapid evolution in this
country—at once so great and so new. So, too, in England some half-
century back or more the theories of the economists of that time were
received by large numbers as an intellectual gospel. Butin the next place
the circumstances attending this ‘novelty’ of study have considerable
consequences. That the study of Economics is a novel study is important,
but it is of equal importance that it is novel at the present time and under
present conditions. The American economists have not to shake off the
half-uttered, half-silent opprobrium attached to their subject through the
action of the more numerous though less conspicuous of their predecessors
in their rigid adherence to incomplete or ill-founded theories. They are
fortunate in entering upon their teaching at a time when the need of in-
ductive inquiry and training is more fully recognised. This gives a
more systematic aspect to the economic instruction demanded from them
than was the case in England. In the third place, the campaign in
favour of civil service and tariff reform has drawn a great deal of
attention to those departments which deal with finance and the more
prominent aspects of political life. Lastly, it is urged that the political
eagerness which so largely affects the younger generation of Americans
combines with the foregoing to crowd the economic lecture rooms with
anxious and willing students. Economics is needed by politicians, and
‘we are all politicians,’ writes one professor ; it is needed by journalists
both because they are keen for political knowledge themselves and
because they write for politicians.

The same causes which stimulate economic students have often led to
its connection with political science, with history, and in some instances
with general sociology.

Returns from several of the universities show the large number of
students who attend economic lectures, and the comparatively large number
who pass into advanced courses. The universities differ so much among them-
selves that no common standard of teaching exists. In some the elementary
courses are very elementary, in others more thorough than might be con-
cluded from the name. Thus at Harvard these include a study of Mill’s
‘Principles of Political Economy,’ lectures on general theory, or on what is
termed Descriptive Economics, including a survey of financial legislation ;
while in addition a course is provided on the Economic History of England
and America since the Seven Years’ War. In some cases a great part of
the junior work consists in the use of text-books, and proceeds rather by
class instruction and interrogation than by lecture. Turning to the con-
sideration of the courses organised for the more advanced students, it is
highly satisfactory to note the very considerable proportion which these
form of the total number engaged in economic study. According to the
information collected from various quarters, at Harvard they amount to
some 38 per cent., at Columbia College to 41 per cent., at Cornell to
26 per cent. At some others they do not present so favourable an appear-
ance, though at Michigan I am informed that the twenty returned as
‘advanced’ consist entirely of very advanced students, all the others
being included under the heading of elementary. No doubt students
described as advanced at one institution may not be so regarded at others,
for, as has been already suggested, these vary very greatly as regards both
their courses and the attainments of their students. With regard to the
former, those provided at some of the better known and more highly
developed and equipped universities afford a description of the nature of

382 REPORT—1894.

the training offered in the United States. At Harvard the advanced
courses for the year 1892-93 are as follows :—

Full courses—

Economy Theory—Examination of Selections from leading writers.

The Principles of Sociology —Development of the Modern State and
its Social Functions.

The Social and Economic Condition of Working Men in the United
States and in other Countries.

The Economic History of Europe and America, to 1763.

Half courses—

History of Tariff Legislation in the United States.
Railway Transportation.

The Theory and Methods of Taxation.

History of Economic Theory down to Adam Smith.
History of Financial Legislation in the United States.

At Columbia College the courses are as follows :—

Elements of Political Economy.
Historical and Practical Economics.
History of Economic Theories.

Science of Finance.

Science of Statistics.

Railway Problems.

Financial History of the United States.
Tariff and Industrial History of the United States.
Communism and Socialism.

Taxation and Distribution.

Sociology.

At Cornell the lectures which succeed the purely elementary ones are
not quite so full, but consist of courses on—

Economic Reforms.

Finance.

Economic Legislation.

Statistics.

Economic History.

Financial History of the United States.

There are few universities which do not offer some courses beyond
these on elementary theory and history. As a rule, finance and some
other branch of Applied Economics are added. Where graduate schools
have been established, as, for instance, at Harvard and at Michigan, the
study proceeds very much on the lines indicated above, so far as the
former is concerned. At Michigan, the advanced courses are distinguished
into intermediate and graduate. Intermediate courses treat of the follow-
ing :—The Transportation Problem. Principles of the Science of Finance.
Theory of Siatistics. History and Principles of Currency and Banking.
History of the Tariff in the United States. History and Theory of Land
Tenure and Agrarian Movements. Industrial and Commercial Develop-
ment of the United States. History and Theory of Socialism and Com-
munism. History of Political Economy. Graduate courses :— Critical

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 383

Analysis of Economic Thought. Critical Examination of the Labour
Problem and the Monopoly Problem.

Most universities have, in addition, established seminars, where study
proceeds on the lines with which Continental students are familiar. In-
dividual members, in most instances graduates, and all advanced students,
undertake particular subjects, on which they prepare reports or treatises
to be read and discussed at the weekly meeting. During their researches
they are more or less under the direction of the professor or teacher who
undertakes the courses in connection with the department of Economics
under which their subject falls. At Yale there are two seminaries and
one discussion society ; at Columbia College there is one for students
who have studied only one year, two (in Economics and Finance) for
those who are more advanced. The value of the work produced differs,
of course, with the character of the university. At Harvard and the other
more highly developed universities it is naturally very high.

In certain other countries the attention given to the subject of
Economics demands for different reasons less detailed notice. In some
instances the resemblance to countries already described renders further
description superfluous ; in others the geographical limitations of the
country, or the comparative absence of opportunities for such special
branches of the higher education, necessitate a much slighter notice than
that given to the foregoing countries.

In Spain the connection between economic and legal studies is very
similar to that existing in Italy. Students of the first and second year
attend courses in Economics and Finance, Statistics being apparently
nowhere insisted upon. At some of the universities an attempt is made
to supplement these elementary courses by conferences and by visits, both
to industrial undertakings, as factories, mines, &c., and to financial
establishments, as banks ; while the introduction of sociological institutes
or seminars is looked for at others, as, for instance, at Oviedo.

In Sweden ‘there are two professors of Political Economy, one at the
University of Upsala, one at the University of Lund, both belonging to the
Faculty of Law, and teaching in addition to Political Economy some
purely juridical subjects. There are also two professors in Politics and
Statistics, one at Upsala, one at Lund, both belonging to the Faculty of
Arts, and teaching at their discretion Public Law, either Swedish or
foreign, and Statistics.’ ‘The two professors of Political Economy in the
Faculty of Law have to prepare and examine all the students who go in
for the State examinations for entrance to the different branches of the
civil service. But as Political Economy possesses very little importance
in any of the three forms of these examinations, as compared with Juris-
prudence,’ little stress is laid on its study in this faculty. Of the two
other professors, one (at Upsala) lectures chiefly on Politics, the other on
Statistics, both these studies being optional for the two Arts degrees. The
theory of Political Economy is not taught. Seminar instruction is ar-
ranged to supplement that given in the lecture courses.

In Norway, at the University of Christiania, the system is nearly
identical with that of Sweden. There, too, it is found that, owing to the
complete subordination of Economics to Law, the knowledge required is
elementary in character.

The same impulses which direct the attention of young Americans
to the study of Economics are felt in Canada. At the University of

384 | REPORT—1894..

Toronto the importance attached to such studies is adequately shown by
the large attendances present at the several courses. These courses are
carefully arranged and graduated so as to furnish the student with a
sound knowledge of the various branches of the subject, and to fit him to
undertake, as he is expected to do in his latter years, research into some
branch of economic fact.

In Switzerland, the position held by economic studies is, on the whole,
at least as favourable as that in the southern countries of Germany. A
knowledge of Economics is obligatory on those entering the legal profession,
while, owing to the arrangements made, the duty of examining the can-
didates may, and in practice, I believe, does fall largely on the university
professors. Moreover, in the university curricula, the place of Economics,
so far as Berne is concerned, is very fortunate. True, the subject is
optional, as indeed are all subjects for the doctorate, but it may be
taken for either the legal or the philosophical doctorate (Dr. Juris or Dr.
Phil.). At the Ziirich Polytechnicon it is taught, being obligatory in
some form or other for the diplomas of Forestry and Agriculture. Inaddition
there is a fair voluntary attendance at these lectures. The system of
instruction presents no features requiring particular notice. The chief
courses are on National Economy and Finance, with the frequent addition
of Practical Economics. These are supplemented by special courses at
the option of the teacher, and by the seminar.

APPENDIX II.

On Economic Studies in France. By Henry Hees.
y

Economic teaching in I'rance, so far as it consists of lectures regularly
delivered at the same place by the same person, is to be looked for in—

(i.) The College de France, Paris ;

(ii.) The Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, Paris;

(iii.) The Université de France, consisting of the aggregate of local
‘universities,’ or faculties officially recognised, in Paris and the
provinces ;

(iv.) The free or unofficial faculties and schools in Paris and the pro-
vinces, including all the Catholic ‘ universities’ (which cannot
come to terms with the State on the question of the faculty of
theology), the Heole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Paris, and
others.

A certain amount of economic instruction is also imparted in the
Ecoles supériewres du Commerce, generally endowed by the municipalities
of commercial towns. Elementary notions of Economics are officially
prescribed as part of the programme of elementary schools.

(i.) It is at the College de France that one expects to find leading
teachers of Economics in France. The traditions of its chair (which
was founded in 1830), and the authority vested in its occupants,
added to the attractions of a scientific post in Paris, have been a sufficient
inducement for the most eminent economists to offer themselves for
appointment here. The stimulus of contact with growing, vigorous, and

we |

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 385

inquiring minds is not, however, afforded to the professors, and they have
to fight against a tendency to fall into prosy sermons and easy repetitions
of old theory. No fees are charged to the students, nor is any record kept
of their names unless they wish to obtain certifieates. The lectures are
delivered twice a week (two on Economics by M. Leroy-Beaulieu, and two
on Statistics by M. Levasseur), in the afternoons. The auditors are for
the most part a casual collection of shifting persons, of whom many are
foreigners passing through Paris, who attend once or twice out of curiosity
to see the lecturer. There is no discussion either during or after the
lectures. The professors are paid a fixed stipend by the State. They
appear to regard their lectures in the main as vehicles for the dissemina-
tion of generally received economic theory. So far, however, as they
employ their leisure in prosecuting original research, their stipends may
be regarded as an endowment for the advancement of Economics. Their
personal examples are stimulating. It would be difficult to mention two
more active economists in Europe. But in their lectures they are perhaps
too dogmatic to supply students with the zest of grappling with ‘ unsettled
questions,’ or with the incentive to enlarge, however little, the bounds of
knowledge by pointing out to their hearers the frontiers of ignorance
which are often in sight.

(ii.) The oldest chair of Political Economy is in the Conservatoire des
Arts et Métiers, and was first filled, in 1819, by J. B. Say. The instruction
now given here is of a more popular character, consisting of lectures
addressed to the working classes at a late hour of the evening. M. Levas-
seur delivers a five-year cycle of about fifty lectures a year on Economics,
and M. de Foville a four-year cycle on Industry and Statistics. There are
on the average from 300 to 400 auditors. They pay no fees. The pro-
fessors are appointed and paid by the Government.

(ui.) By a law passed in 1877 Economics was for the first time officially
incorporated into the organisation of higher education in France, by being
made an obligatory subject in the second year’s studies of the faculties of
law. Economics in France has, it is said, laboured under the disadvantage
of offering no opening for a career. On the other hand, the youth of the
country flock to the schools of law, for to lawyers all careers are open—
politics, journalism, literature, education, legal practice, and many official
appointments. The professor of Law is overworked, and the professor of
Economics underworked. The faculty of Law, therefore, generally expects
of its professor of Economics that he shall be able to help in legal instruc-
tion and examinations ; and there has been a tendency to select a lawyer
rather than an economist for these chairs. This reproach, however, is
rapidly being removed, and the new professors of Economics are in many
cases vigorous and promising in their proper spheres. Economies has
recently been transferred from the second to the first year’s programme.
The law students are said to show a better intelligence of law now that
they also study Economics. It can hardly yet be stated what effect this
organisation will produce on Economics itself.

_ An addition to this obligatory study, Economics may be taken as one of
the eight optional courses at a later period of preparation in the Law
faculties. For this purpose there is generally a special course of lectures
on Finance, in which financial legislation is a prominent topic ; but the
option in favour of Economics is not much exercised.

The professors and lecturers in Economics and (in italics) in Finance
in the official faculties of Law are as follows :—

1894. cc

386 REPORT—1894.

Paris . MM. Beauregard, Alglave, and Ducrocg; Fernand Faure (Statistics) ; Planiol
(Industrial Legislation) ; Maroussem (Monographs).

Aiz . . M. Perreau. Lyons . . MM. Rougier, Berthélémy.
Bordeauz . MM. St. Mare, de Boech. Montpellier. MM. Gide, Glaise.

Caen . . MM. Villey, Lebret. Nancy . . M. Garnier.

Dijon . . MM. Mongin, Lucas. | Poitiers . MM. Bussonnet, Petit.
Grenoble . MM. Rambaud, Wahl. Rennes . MM. Turgeon, Charveau.
Lille . . MM. Deschamps, Artus. Toulouse . M. Arnault.

There are also at Montpellier lectures on industrial legislation by W. Laborde.

(iv.) The position of the Catholic ‘ universities’ has already been
referred to. While following the lead of the State in associating Economics
with Law, they have the advantage of recruiting among their students a
large number of those who desire to enter the Church with a training in
economic science as an aid to the study of social problems. The respective
professors are MM. Jannet (Paris), Baugas (Angers), Béchaud (Lille),
Rambaud (Lyons), and Peyron (Marseilles).

The Heole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Paris, directed by M. Boutmy,
is perhaps the most hopeful academic institution in France for the promo-
tion of economic study. Lectures are given by MM. Cheysson (Economics);
Stourm, Dubois de Lestang, Plaffin, Courtin (Finance) ; Levasseur (Sta-
tistics) ; Dunoyer (History of Economics since Adam Smith) ; Arnauné
(Foreign Trade and Customs Laws) ; Lévy (Banking); P. Leroy-Beaulieu
(Colonia! Systems) ; Paulet (Industrial Legislation) ; and Guieysse (In-
dustrial Problems). In addition to these lectures, which are well attended
by paying students, there are discussions and classes for original work on
the seminar plan. Travelling scholarships are also given, and excellent
work is done, to which the general scheme of instruction largely contri-
butes. The primary function of the school is the thorough intellectual
equipment of young officials for the State. Foreign languages, travel, and
comparative study of laws and social institutions are encouraged, together
with an intelligent interest in history and politics. The personal assist-
ance rendered to individual students by the professors, the seminar, and
the scholarships, the comprehensive breadth of view, and the rigid impar-
tiality of this school are, as yet, unique in France.

Other economic lectures in Paris which require mention are those of
M. Colson, at the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (where the
Government non-military engineers and road surveyors are trained), of
M. Cheysson at the Hcole Nationale des Mines (also under Government),
of M. F. Passy at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales (endowed by
the municipality), of M. Emile Chevallier, &ce. Lectures (by M. Guérin)
are organised by the Société d’Hconomie Sociale, founded by Le Play.
M. Demolins, the leader of a secession from this school, also delivers a
course of lectures. There is, on the whole, too much diffusion of separate
economic lectures in Paris.

An impressive plea has lately been published by M. Chailley-Bert for
the recognition of distinct economic faculties, and for such endowments as
will spare professors from the need of spending their time and brains upon
accessory sources of income.

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 387

APPENDIX III.

On the Condition of Economic Studies in the United Kingdom.
By EK. C. K. Gonner.

Though the full extent of the disadvantages under which economic
study in this country suffers can only be realised from a fairly detailed
account of its position in the various universities and with relation to
certain professions, it will not be out of place to preface this report with a
few words as to their nature.

(a) In the tirst place it is a matter of serious concern that Economics
is not regarded as a necessary part of any professional curriculum. This
particular hardship, however, might be faced with comparative equanimity
were there existent in this country, as for instance in the United States
of America, a strong body of popular feeling in support of its study and
its efficient teaching. But, despite frequent assertions to the contrary, I
believe, and in this I shall have the concurrence of many colleagues engaged
in teaching, that there is no such body of feeling. Its absence has been
variously accounted for. To a great extent it is no doubt part of the
legacy of distrust and misunderstanding due to the false view of Economics
placed before a former generation, and it will probably be a long time
before the popular conception of an economist as a compound of text-book
theory and ignorance of fact can be entirely dispelled.

(b) Owing largely to the early prominence of the abstract school of
economic thought in England, the position which the subject holds in the
university curricula is far from satisfactory. It is often treated as a subject
narrow in scope and subordinate—necessarily and naturally subordinate—
to other subjects. But this is by no means the position which it should hold,
and now that the importance of the studies of economic fact and adminis-
tration is more clearly seen, the impossibility of effective teaching within
the prescribed lines has become glaringly apparent. At present indeed
English economic teaching is without a regular system. It is usually sup-
posed that prescribed university courses should offer a means of systematic
training in the various subjects, the pass courses of ordinary training, the
honours courses of advanced and thorough training. So far as Economics
is concerned, this is precisely what the universities do not provide. With
some possible exception they offer at the present time little more than
general opportunities of showing economic knowledge in examinations
primarily devoted to other subjects.

In the United Kingdom the encouragement of the study of Economics
rests entirely with educational bodies. So far as professional examina-
tions and curricula are concerned it meets with almost universal neglect.
This is wholly so with regard to the examinations qualifying for the
practice of law, either as barrister or solicitor, and partly so in the case of
the Civil Service Examinations. For these latter Economics may be taken
up, as may almost any other subject included in the Sciences and Arts.
It is not recognised, that is to say, as more cognate to the administrative
_ callings for which these examinations qualify, than is chemistry, for
instance ; indeed, in comparison with many of these other subjects it is at
a discount owing to the smaller maximum of marks assigned to it. In

other wor!s, it is excluded from the legal curriculum; in the Civil
cc2

388 REPORT—1894:.

Service Examinations it is an optional but not an important subject.
Elementary Political Economy is one of the optional subjects in the
examination for chartered accountants, and is obligatory on candidates
for the voluntary examination recently instituted by the Institute of
Bankers.

At the universities it receives an insuflicient recognition in the degree
courses, but as its position varies a great deal a brief summary of the
usages of the various universities with regard to it may be given.
Degrees are granted in England by the five Universities of Oxford, Cam-
bridge, Durham, London, and Victoria; in Scotland by the Universities
of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews ; in Ireland by
Trinity College and the Royal University of Ireland.

ENGLAND.

At Oxford it is an optional subject, which may be taken up as one of
the three selected subjects for the pass B.A. degree. As studied for this
examination it is mainly elementary and largely theoretical, many of the
questions relating to certain prescribed portions of the works of Adam Smith
and Walker. To pass this examination, for which the yearly number
of candidates presents an average of two hundred, demands common-
sense and a fair general acquaintance with leading economic topics.
A paper on Economics is included among those set in the Honour School
of Modern History.

At Cambridge the position occupied by Economics in the university
curricula is far more satisfactory. In some shape or other it forms part
of three degree examinations. All candidates for the ordinary pass B.A.,
after passing the general examination, have to take up a special subject
for their concluding study. Of these, sixteen in all, there are seven Arts
special subjects, one of which is Economics. The special examination in
Economics (Political Economy) consists of two parts, which may be taken
at separate times :—

Part I.—Three papers.
Two in General Economic Theory.
One in Economic History.

Part I1.—Three papers.
Two in Taxation and Economic Functions of Government, with
History of Trade and Finance, 1760-1860.
One in General Theory of Law and Government.

In the Moral Science Tripos (Honour B.A.) there are six obliga-
tory papers, two being assigned to Political Economy, while in addition
advanced Political Economy ranks as one of the specified subjects, two
of which must be passed in by a candidate desirous of being classed.
Lastly, in the Historical Tripos (Honour B.A.), one paper is in Economic
History, the paper on general History of England also being supposed
to require some economic knowledge. Further, candidates who desire it
may take Political Economy and Theory of Government with International
Law as an alternative to the study of a second special subject. Of these
three examinations, those which seem most satisfactory, so far as Econo-
mics is concerned, are the special for the pass B.A., which embraces
at once the four important branches of administrative, theoretical, his-

ON ECONUMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 389

torical, and financial Economics, and the Moral Science Tripos so far as
that part is concerned which affects students taking up advanced Econo-
mics.

In the University of Durham, in addition to the obligatory subjects,
two optional subjects have to be chosen by candidates for the degree.
These are selected out of a number of subjects, of which Economics is
one. The knowledge required is not of an advanced nature.

In the University of London Economics holds no position but the
somewhat unfortunate one of a subject for candidates proceeding from
the B.A. to the M.A. degree in Moral Science, a position which at once
restricts the number of students likely to study it, and prevents its
study from extending much beyond the knowledge of general theory.
It is not a subject, either optional or obligatory, at any other examina-
tion.

In the Victoria University Economics, comprising Political Economy
and Economic History, forms one of the twelve optional subjects, of
which two have to be selected for the final year of study by candidates
for the pass B.A. degree, the two other subjects being more or less
restricted. Economic Theory or History may also be taken in con-
junction with Modern History as one subject by candidates who wish,
for instance, to take Modern History but not Ancient History. As,
however, nearly all the other subjects are, with some difference of
standard or period, subjects at the intermediate or second-year ex-
amination, in some instances compulsory, and again in certain cases
subjects at the final examination, the study of Economics, involving as it
does the entry of the student upon a wholly new subject during his
final year, is naturally discouraged. Further, Economic Theory (Political
Economy), like any other Arts or Science subject, may, by permission, be
substituted for one of the two selected general subjects, Ethics or Modern
History, at the intermediate stage of the Law degree (LL.B.). A course
of lectures in Political Economy has to be attended by candidates for
the Honours degree in History. It is not a subject in the examination.

SCOTLAND.

By the regulations of the Commission applicable to all Scotch Univer-
sities, Economics holds a twofold position.

(a) With regard to the ordinary M.A. examination, it is one of the
three optional subjects which have to be selected out of the usual Arts and
Science subjects. In all, seven subjects must be taken, but of these four
are more or less prescribed. The course which must be attended consists
of at least 100 lectures.

(6) It is further a compulsory subject for the first examination for the
Agricultural B.Sc. In this case the knowledge required is much.slighter,
and naturally much more closely related to rural economy.

IRELAND.

At Trinity College Economics is part of one of the seven groups in
which the Honour degree may be taken, the other subjects in this group
being History and Law. All candidates for the Law degree must be
graduates in Arts, but not necessarily graduates in Honours, or if in

390 REFORT—-1894.

Honours, in this particular group. It is also included among the options
for the pass degree.

In the Royal University of Ireland Economics (Political Economy) is
an alternative with Ethics in one of the three groups, one of which must
be passed by candidates for the ordinary pass B.A. In the examinations
for the Honour degree (B.A.) it, with Civil and Constitutional History
and General Jurisprudence, constitutes one of the six groups open to the
student. It holds a very similar position in the examination for the M.A.
degree.

The foregoing account shows clearly how little opportunity is given
for the systematic study of Economics as a preliminary to degree examina-
tion, and especially in the case of Honours. It is certainly very unfortunate
that an able student anxious to graduate in Honours is almost precluded
from devoting a large amount of attention to the study of Economics.

In face of this tacit discouragement, so far as examinations are con-
cerned, the provision for teaching made in many places by colleges and
universities is almost a matter for surprise. At both Cambridge and
Oxford it is satisfactory in all but one respect. It is varied and comprehen-
sive, but—and this is a matter of regret—it is not sufficiently systematic.
At each of these universities there is a professor engaged in active teaching,
while other lecture courses are provided by college lecturers. At the
universities and colleges in the rest of England the provision for teaching
is of necessity less complete. At those best equipped, instruction in
Economies depends on the energy and vigour of a single teacher, supple-
mented, perhaps, by an occasional course of lectures by some other
economist ; while at the rest, if taught at all, it is attached to the
duties of a teacher principally engaged in, and probably principally in-
terested in, teaching some other subject, for, as a general rule, the teaching
of Economics in conjunction with some other subject has meant little more
than that the teacher of some other subject has had to give a course of
lectures on General Economics. At two of the three colleges of the
Victoria University Economics has separate teachers—at Liverpool one
holding the rank of professor, at Manchester one holding that of a
lecturer. At Leeds, on the other hand, there is no teacher of Economics.
At the other university colleges in England the two London colleges
possess each a professor, though the professor at King’s College delivers
Economic lectures only during the six winter months. At the University
College, Nottingham, Economic lectures are delivered by a professor at
the same time engaged in teaching history and literature. The other
colleges (Birmingham, Bristol, Sheffield, and Newcastle) at present make
no provision for teaching a subject which they find so discounted as a
subject for examination.

In Wales two of the University Colleges (Aberystwith and Cardiff)
have made some sort of provision for Economic teaching by the appoint-
ment of lecturers in History and Political Economy ; while at Bangor
Economics is tacked on to the duties of the Professor of Moral
Philosophy.

In Scotland there is a fully instituted chair of Political Economy at
the University of Edinburgh, and measures are in progress for the endow-
ment of a Professorship at Glasgow, where the Economic work has recently
been performed by a lecturer acting as assistant to the Professor of Moral

ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 391

Philosophy. At St. Andrews a yearly course of lectures is delivered by
the Professor of Moral Philosophy.

In Ireland, at Trinity College, Dublin, there is a Professorship of
Economics. At the Queen’s Colleges of Belfast, Cork, and Galway this
teaching is combined with that of Jurisprudence, and limited to a very
short portion of the year.

Owing to the great differences existing between the courses delivered
at the various institutions, and the entirely diverse character of the
respective audiences, it is impossible to give any satisfactory statistics. of
attendance. From most quarters come complaints. Indeed, with the
two possible exceptions of Oxford and Cambridge, it is difficult to imagine
amore complete indifference to the scientific study of Economics than that
displayed at the present time.

In addition to lectures, more informal instruction is often imparted to
more advanced students, but the formation of a seminar in Economics has
been undertaken but seldom, if at all. That this is due not to lack of
will on the part of the teachers in those colleges where Economic teach-
ing is entrusted to a separate teacher, but mainly to the singular deficiency
in advanced or even moderately advanced students, is shown by the
readiness with which individual instruction, often involving much sacrifice
of time, is given to such students when they do present themselves. Such
an institution can be successfully introduced only when Economic studies
are so recognised as to be able to attract the abler students in a university
or college.

Attempts to develop popular Economic instruction by means of even-
ing classes, and separate courses of lectures, have been made by the
university colleges and other institutions, and by the Societies for the
Extension of University Teaching ; and at some of the former particular
attention has been paid to the Economic teaching, noticeably at Owens
College, Manchester, and University College, Liverpool. The class of
students attracted to these lectures may be spoken of very favourably.
From the reports and information supplied by the Societies, it would
seem that though the attendance at Economic courses, when given, is
good, the demand for them is not very great. The interest shown in the
subject in some one or other of its branches is said to be reviving—cer-
tainly to be greater than it was some few years ago. There has been a
decided increase in the demand for lectures on Economics, and subjects
partially economic, during the last two years.

Economie studies in England require at the present time organisation
and encouragement. As to the ability of English Economists and the
quality of their contributions there can be no doubt ; but, when compared
with Continental countries, England is sadly lacking in the number of
Economic students. Where they have many, she has few. As has been
said, this is largely due to the unfortunate position to which Economics
has been relegated in many universities, and its neglect so far as profes-
sional callings are concerned. On the other hand, the revival of interest
in Economic matters, so abundantly manifested, makes it exceedingly
desirable to provide means and opportunities for sound scientific training.

392 REPORT—1 894.

Methods of Determining the Dryness of Steam.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir I. J. BraMwei, Bart. (Chairman),
Professor T. H. Beare, Mr. JeremiaAnd Heap, Professor A. B. W.
KENNEDY, Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, Mr. Mark RuMuey, Mr.
C. I. Witson, and Professor W. C. Unwin (Secretary).

THE determination of the quality of steam, or its wetness, has come to be
of very great importance both in boiler trials and engine trials. It was
in the classical researches of G. A. Hirn at Logelbach in Alsace in
1854-57, and in subsequent experiments by MM. Grostéte, Hallauer, and
Leloutre, and other members of the Société Industrielle of Mulhouse,
that the great importance of the action of water in the steam-engine
cylinder was first clearly recognised. It was perceived that the water
present in the cylinder, and which may amount to 50 per cent. of the
steam introduced, was due to three distinct causes: (a) initial wetness
of the steam ; (4) condensation in the mass of steam due to adiabatic
expansion ; (c) the action of the cylinder wall. An accurate discussion of
the results of an engine test is impossible if the initial condition of the
steam is unknown, both because the total heat per pound of steam
received by the engine depends on its dryness, and because water
introduced with the steam increases the prejudicial action of the cylinder
wall.

In boiler tests the evaporative efficiency is measured in pounds of
water converted into steam per pound of coal. But if part of the feed
water supplied leaves the boiler as water entrained in the steam, the real
evaporation is less than the apparent evaporation. The entrained water
must be allowed for in estimating the evaporative efficiency of the boiler.
Further, a boiler which supplies wet steam is a bad boiler, because wet
steam is prejudicial to the efficiency of the engine, and it should be one
object of a boiler trial to determine whether the steam is of good quality.

The earliest attempts to determine the amount of moisture in steam
which have come to our knowledge were made during some boiler trials
by a committee of the Société Industrielle of Mulhouse.! This committee
tried three methods: 1. A Method of Separation.—The whole of the steam
was taken through a spare boiler, without fire, in the expectation that the
moisture would be deposited. The increase of water in the spare boiler
during a trial was measured, and that part of the increase due to con-
densation by radiation was determined by a special experiment. 2. A
Condensing Method suggested by Hirn.—Some ot the steam from a boiler
under trial was condensed and its total heat determined. By comparing
the total heat per pound with that of dry saturated steam the amount of
moisture was ascertained. 3. A Chemical Method.—Salt was introduced
into the boiler, and the diminution of saltness of the boiler water during
a test determined. It was assumed that moisture in the steam would be
of the same saltness as the boiler water, and therefore the amount of salt
removed measured the wetness of the steam. In these early trials only
the second method appeared to give reasonable results. But the com-
mittee did not place full reliance on any of the methods tried.

Origin of the Water Suspended or Entrained in Steam.—There are
three sources of the water found in steam :—

1 «Report of MM. E. Burnat and E. Dubied,’ Bulletin de la Société Industrielle de
Muthouse, 1859.

iad

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 395

(1) By ebullition boiler water is projected into the steam space. Part
falls back, but part is carried on in the steam current. The extent to
which wetness may be thus produced depends on the activity of the
ebullition, the area of the water surface, the volume of the steam space,
the position of the steam valve, the density of the steam, and other
circumstances. In certain conditions of the boiler water, it foams, and
the steam space is filled with vesicles. Under such circumstances the
mechanically produced priming may be excessively severe.

As to priming of this kind some observations of Mr. Thornycroft on
a boiler with glass ends are very instructive! He states that ‘waters
which cause priming on boiling produce foam, consisting of a mass of
bubbles of various sizes. Water which is very bad produces bubbles so
durable as to remain a considerable time without breaking, and by them
the steam space of a boiler may be entirely filed. So soon as this takes
place, instead of simply steam leaving the boiler, the discharge consists of
foam, which is broken up in its rapid passage through the steam pipe.’
With pure water, steam retains no film of liquid for sufficient time to be
seen.

(2) The steam in the boiler is subject to variations of pressure.
Bubbles formed under water rise to a region of less pressure. Fluctua-
tions of pressure arise from the intermittent demand for steam. During
expansions water must be formed as mist throughout the mass of the
steam. It is difficult, however, to suppose that any great quantity of
moisture is thus produced.

(3) The steam in the steam space of the boiler, and when flowing
through the steam pipes, loses heat by radiation from the boiler roof and
the surfaces of the pipes. To this must correspond condensation of part
of the steam. Probably in some cases very considerable amounts of
moisture are produced in this way.

Methods of Determining the Wetness of Steam.—Very different methods
have been tried by different observers to determine the amount of moisture
in steam. Some method is required sufticiently accurate for practical
purposes, and not involving excessively delicate measurements or com-
plicated apparatus. It is proposed to describe all the methods which
have been tried which scem at all likely to be useful, and finally to give
the results of some comparative trials made for the committee which
throw light on their relative trustworthiness.

I. Weighing Method.—A wethod of direct weighing of a known
volume of a sample of steam has been proposed by Guzzi? and Knight.*
A copper globe is used as a measuring vessel, which is placed in a receiver
connected with the boiler or steam pipe. After filling, it is taken out and
weighed. Let V be the volume of the globe, w the weight of wet steam
in it. Let (1—«)w be the moisture and aw the steam in the globe, and
let v be the volume in cubic feet per pound of dry steam in the same
conditions of pressure and temperature. Then

(1—x)w=w— a
v
z= V /ow
The method is one obviously of excessive difficulty.
' Circulation in the Thornycroft Water Tube Boiler,’ Trans. Inst. Naval
Architects, 1894.

2 Revue Industrielle, 1878, p. 102.
3 Journal of the Franklin Institute, 1877, p. 358.

894 REPORT— 1894.

II. Separating Method.—Attempts have been made to ascertain the
amount of moisture in steam by measuring the quantity of water trapped
in a separator, between the boiler and engine, through which the whole of
the steam passed. Probably such separators are too small relatively to the
amount of steam flowing through them to detain the whole of the moisture.
Mr. G. A. Barrus, in using a small separator in connection with a super-
heating calorimeter, noticed that very nearly the whole of the moisture
was caught by the separator. In that case the quantity of steam passing
through the separator is small.!_ More recently Professor Carpenter, of
Cornell University, has brought out a form of separating calorimeter of
small size which can be applied almost anywhere on a steam pipe or boiler,
and which can be used with very great facility.

The separating calorimeter (fig. 1) consists of a vessel, A, about
12 in. x3 in., consisting of an inner chamber and a jacket. The steam
from the steam pipe, 8, passes first into the inner chamber, where the
moisture is separated, and thence into the outer chamber. The separating
chamber is consequently almost perfectly protected from radiation. As
the water accumulates in the inner chamber its level is shown by a gauge
glass, g, and the amount can be read off on a scale. A very small orifice
at the bottom of the outer chamber regulates the amount of steam dis-
charged. The steam as it escapes passes through a flexible tube to a
simple form of condenser, C. The increase of weight of the condenser in
any given interval of time is noted, and the amount of water deposited in
the same time in the separator. If x is the dryness fraction of the steam,
w the weight of water caught in the separator, and W the weight of steam
condensed,

Ww

o> W+e

The scale on the separator is graduated to ;},ths of a pound. There
is also a gauge glass and scale on the condenser, graduated to read pounds
and tenths at a temperature of 110° F. But as the variation of volume
of the water with temperature affects the readings considerably, it is best
to weigh the condenser, or, at any rate, to determine a correction of the
scale for temperature. Professor Carpenter states that the dryness of the
steam after passing the separator was tested in the laboratories of Sibley
College by several observers, and with steam carrying from } per cent. to
60 per cent. of moisture. In every case the separation of the water from
the steam was complete and perfect.? Other tests have been made with
moderately dry steam, using the separating and throttling calorimeter
simultaneously, and the results were practically identical. The instrument
is very simple to use, and requires no pressure gauges or thermometers.

IIT. Condensing Method.—Suppose a known weight of the steam con-
densed and its total heat determined. By comparing this with the total
heat of an equal weight of dry saturated steam, according to Regnault’s
Tables, the amount of moisture in the steam can be determined.

The apparatus designed and used by Hirn in the Mulhouse trials in
1859 (fig. 2) is, so far as we know, the most convenient and perfect
apparatus hitherto used in trials of this method. It consists of an iron
vessel, C, about one foot in diameter, furnished with a loose cover. This

' See Barrus, Boiler Tests, Boston, U.S.A., 1891, p. 258.
* See Luperimental Engineering, by R. C. Carpenter, New York, 1892, p. 400.

395

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM.

Fie. 1.

NA ietracenceceenncnvurnateesyannnesaay

LLIILLILLLLLLLLLLLL LALLA AA

396 REPORT—1894.

is the condenser. A small pipe and cock in the steam pipe deliver steam,
through a small orifice near the steam pipe, into the pipe S. An agitator,
g, and a sensitive thermometer, 7, are provided. The condenser is suspended

YH

MMM AGE at

OLA he

Yi; Yy yy
Ulf) WU G4

Scale

Ina a ° cy 8 ° 1 Fooe”

goer

from a hydrostat, H, which permits extremely accurate weighing of the
amount of steam condensed.

Let x be the dryness fraction of the steam, w the increase of weight of
the calorimeter. Then the condenser has received aw Ib. of dry steam

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 9397

and (1—x)w lb. of water at the steam temperature. Let W be the weight
of water initially in the condenser plus the equivalent reckoned as water
of the condenser itself. Let ¢ be the temperature of the steam, and @ and
f the initial and final temperatures of the condenser water. Then

ow (1116 —0-71t) + (t—f)=W(f—i)

ea W(S—1)- “t—-S)
w(1116—0°7l1)

To arrive at satisfactory results the temperatures must be read to 7'5 degree
at least, and the weight of steam condensed determined very accurately.
Further, it is desirable that the temperature i should be about as much
below the temperature of the place where the test is made as the tempera-
ture f is above it. A correction is easily made for the small fall of
temperature by radiation during the time the agitator is used to secure
uniformity of temperature. Suppose the agitator is used for two minutes,
and the temperature f then noted. The temperature is again noted two
minutes later. The small observed fall is the loss in the interval by
radiation, and is added to the observed temperature f as a correction. In
the Mulhouse experiments the initial and final temperatures of the con-
denser were generally about 60° and 110° F. The following table gives
the results of the Mulhouse tests in 1859. They were made very carefully,
and Hirn himself directed the tests.

The committee at Mulhouse, in discussing these results, point out
their variability, and remark that a mean of numerous observations
should be taken. This is probably true when the test is made on a
small scale. In Mr. Willans’s tests one hundredweight of steam was
condensed in each test, and this gives what is virtually a mean of
numerous smaller tests. In the case of Trial 23, the Mulhouse Committee
thought that the calorimeter underestimated the amount of priming
water.

About 1860, Joule used a calorimeter very similar to the above, in
order to determine the total heat of steam and verify Regnault’s results.
The paper describing the experiments! is interesting as showing that
fairly accurate results can be obtained by this method, used on a small
scale, when the observer is sufficiently skilful. The amount of steam
condensed was only from 8,700 to 14,100 grains in each test. Tem-
peratures were read to three decimal places. The weight of water in the
condenser was about 140,000 grains. The steam flowed into the con-
denser for two minutes. The steam must have been almost perfectly dry,
as the following (mean) results show :—

Pressure of Steam Total Ileat . |
In. of Mercury Observed | By Regnault’s Tables
37°25 | 638°43 638°77
57°52 644:77 642'87
111-58 | 655°45 | 649°60 .

_| The method has been often used in determining the wetness of steam
in boiler trials, but very often the arrangements have been so rough
that no reliance can be placed on the results, A calorimeter of this

i

1 The Scientific Papers of J. P. Joule, vol. i. p. 482.

398 REPORT—1894.

BOILER TRIALS AT MULHOUSE.

Trials with Hirn’s Calorimeter on the Quantity of Water entrained in Steani.

| oy iy S 3
= ra a 3
s Od 4 =
yi ees = ie) gi = Bm = 3 a]
Tat 7859 Boiler 3 5 <4 |s 4 S 6g 3 Remarks
3 | BS |Beo|ee8
| > 2 0d soptoee
| o o ct) o
| 4 a |= =
1 | Sept. 6 | Prouvost 4:0 — | 160 | The water levels are the
1 ie 6 Bid 4:7 == 3°3 heights of the water in
ome 6 % Ss 4:75) — 34 the boiler above bottom
| 4 ce og 4-4 — 3°5 of gauge-glass. |
5 8 As 415) -— 3-4 | Trials 1 to 6 with steam
6 16 4°5 = 3°7 taken from top of |
| steam pipe.
7 | Oct. 5 | Molinos — 4:6 -= 4-6 |In Trials 7 to 14 steam
1 is 6 and — 48 | 37 4:2 was taken from top of |
[eg 6 | Pronnier | — 52 | 547) T1 steam pipe.
10 “8 +28 | 4:75) 19°8 | 2:2 | In Trials 15, 17, 25, steam
‘foam 8 0} 48 | 20°1 1:9 was taken from the
| 12 8 +15] 5:2 | 268] 2:4 outside of a bend in the
13 8 _ 52 | 378 | 48 steam pipe.
14 11 —15| 475) 208] 25
15 11 —15 4:75 | 43°5 68
16 ll —15 | 4:75/120-4 | 12:5
17 Oct.12 | Molinos | —25! 51 40°5 4:4 | Trials 14, 16,18, 24, with
18 12 and -15 | 46 | 173} 20 steam from the under-
19 12 | Pronnier | —35 | 5:0 | 346] 4:2 side of the same bend.
20 12 | —10 47 | 35:8] 3-7 | Trials 14 and 15, 16 and
21 12" | +100; 50 56°4 6:4 17, 24and 25, weremade
22 3 | +210) 5:3 | 46:1] 4:9 at the same time.
23 3 | +250 | 5:25)111°8 | 11°8 | In Trials 27 and 28 steam
24 13 | +190 | 54 | 168] 2:0 was taken by a pipe
25 13 | +220 | S51 | 25:0) 2:8 opening at the centre
26 3 | +180, 51 370 | 4:4 of the steam pipe.
27 14 | — | 51 | 422 | 36 | InTrial 23a great deal of
28 14 +85 50 | 354) 16 water was carried by the
steam and discharged
| by the relief valves.
| 29 | Oct.17 | Zambaux | +70] 44 | 60°99] 69 | Trials 29 and 31 with
| 30 17 +75 | 43 | 106 1:4 the same arrangement
| 31 18 +50 |} 46 | 384) 3:7 as 27 and 28.

Omitting Trial 23, the mean amount of water carried by the steam was 4'4 per cent.

kind is called in America a barrel calorimeter. The barrel test is carried
out thus. An ordinary oil barrel is used, fitted with an outlet valve. A
set of tests are made following each other rapidly, and an average of the
results is taken. The barrel is filled and a trial made, the results of
which are discarded. The object seems to be to heat up portions of the
apparatus and the barrel itself. The barrel is then refilled, weighed, and
the temperature of the water taken. A steam pipe connected to the
boiler is then blown through to warm it, and a movable pipe is attached
leading to the barrel. The steam valve is then opened and the steam

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 399

condensed in the barrel, till the temperature has risen to about 110° F.
_ The valve is shut, the movable pipe removed, the water stirred, and the
barrel again weighed and its temperature taken. It is obvious that the
proceeding is a very rough one. Losses of heat by radiation, &c., tend to
make the observed total heat too small, and therefore the moisture in the
steam too large. On the other hand, evaporation from the barrel tends
to make an error of the opposite kind. It is known that in using this
method in a rough way negative results are sometimes obtained.

Mr. P. W. Willans used this method also to determine the wetness
of the steam in his engine trials.!. Mr. Willans used a very large con-

Fig. 3,

densing tank weighing full about 3 tons, and placed on the platform of
a weighing machine. The tank was first balanced so that the weighing
machine lever just rose. Then a standard hundredweight was placed on
the platform of the machine, and the poise adjusted so that the lever
again just rose. The hundredweight was then removed, the temperature
of the condenser was noted, and steam condensed in the tank till the
lever rose (making an electric signal), The steam at that moment was

1 «Economy Trials of a Non-condensing Steam Engine,’ by P. W. Willans, Proc.
Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. xciii. p. 23.

400 REPORT—1894.

turned off, and the tank contained exactly one hundredweight of con-
densed steam. The condensing water was then stirred and the tem-
perature taken. The thermometers were sensitive (1° C. corresponded to
1 in. in some of them), and they were carefully compared with standard
thermometers. A very small radiation correction was made. The value
of the dryness fraction found on different days was ‘9996, -9638, -9949,
9646, -9976, 9893, 10072, 1:0048, -9987. The mean of all is 0-991],
showing an average of about 1 per cent. of moisture in the steam. In
spite of the large scale on which the experiment was tried and the care
taken, the results are rather discrepant, and two of them give values
which it would seem must be erroneous.

IV. Continuous Condensing Method.—The difficulties of the ordinary
condensing method have led Mr. Barrus, Mr. Hoadley, and other ob-
servers to adopt a process of continuous steady condensation. The steam
may be condensed (a) in the condensing water, or (8) in a surface con-
denser. The first method! may be carried out by the apparatus shown
in fig. 3. Steam passes from the steam pipe, 8, to a small injector, 7.
The condensing water is drawn from the tank A, and the mixed water
and condensed steam are discharged into the tank B. If W, is the
decrease of weight of A in any interval, and W, the increase of weight
of B, then w=W,—W, is the weight of steam condensed. Thermo-
meters ¢, t, give the temperatures of the water entering, and mixed steam
and water leaving the injector. Let ¢,, ¢, be these temperatures, and ¢
the temperature of the steam. Then, if x is the dryness fraction,

w {(t— ty) + 2L} =Wj(t,—¢))
W
i (to—t)) +t,—¢
L

aw

a 1116—0°-71¢

«c:=

Mr. Barrus has used a surface condenser (fig. 4), consisting merely of a
short vertical pipe in a vessel through which cooling water circulates. The
condenser is supplied with cooling water at a fixed rate of flow. Then, as
the condensing surface is constant, the rate of condensation is constant,
and the rise of temperature of the cooling water is constant. Condensation
is carried on for any convenient period, and the condensed steam run off
for weighing. Simultaneously a series of readings are taken of the
temperature of the water entering and leaving the condenser, and of the
condensed steam. The radiation correction can be determined by observing
the fall of temperature in the condenser when the supply of steam and
cooling water is stopped.” The continuous condensing method seems likely
to be more accurate than the ordinary method, but the arrangements are
more complicated.

V. Method by Superheating.—Mr. G. H. Barrus about 1890 devised a
calorimeter in which the steam to be tested passed through a chamber
jacketed with superheated steam. The steam was thus dried and super-

' Carpenter, Lxperimental Engineering, p. 375.
? See Peabody, Zhermodynamies of the Steam Engine, p. 232; Carpenter, EZaperi-
mental Engineering, p. 380. .

—————E

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM, 401

heated. The quantity of heat required was inferred from the fall of tem-
perature of the superheated steam. The orifices of the inner steam pipe
and outer jacket were equal, so that the same weight of steam passed
through each. Hence no weighing was necessary. If ¢, ¢, are the tem-
peratures of the superheated steam entering and leaving the jacket, and ¢, ¢,
the temperatures of the steam entering and leaving the inner chamber,
then the superheated steam in the jacket has lost ¢;—f, degrees of tem-
perature, and the sample steam has been dried and superheated ¢,—f3

Fig. 4.

degrees. If x is the dryness fraction and L the latent heat of the steam
in the inner chamber,

0-48(¢, —#, -J)=L(1—a) + 0°48(¢, —75)
1—a=0°48(¢,-t,——ty +03) +L

lis a small correction for radiation. Only four thermometer readings are
necessary for a determination. The calorimeter is only suitable for nearly
dry steam, and appears to be superseded by the simpler throttling and
separating calorimeters. A description will be found in ‘Boiler Tests,’

1894. DD

402: REPORT—1894,
Barrus, Boston, 1891, p. 18, and in ‘ Experimental Engineering,’ Carpenter,

VI. The Wire-drawing Method.—This was first proposed by Professor
Peabody. Mr. Barrus and others have devised modified forms of the
apparatus. It depends on the principle that slightly moist steam is super-
heated by wire drawing. Fig. 5 shows Mr. Barrus’s arrangement! of the
apparatus. The steam passes from a chamber A toa chamber B through a
very small aperture (;!; inch in diameter). The full steam pressure is in
A, and the pressure in B differs little from atmospheric pressure. Ther-

Fig, 5.

Oe| (Bocho

‘—
eS 4 ‘ama \
Bi
=
G — >
SS

ISSSSNSTITTIEIT TS ay

J
oH

SALTS

=
i
=

C

)

ARVEBELSRRRETSELABELEBLLER ER EarseentinununbeeERRRRarere SASVASASE VESTS TS SSSTS Tp

ASSSMSSSSSSISTSITTUSS SS SSS SONS S SSNS SOOO ETS UU S OUEST UT TUS UST TY

mometers #, ¢, give the temperatures of the chambers. Let ¢, ¢, be the
temperatures of the steam before and after wire drawing, and ¢, the
temperature of saturated steam corresponding to the pressure in B. t,—¢,
is the amount of superheating of the steam in B.

Let h,, L, be the liquid heat and latent heat of steam at ¢, ; 45, L,, cor-
responding quantities for steam at ¢3.

hy +aL,=h3+L;+0-48(¢,—¢;)
_h3—h, +L3+0°48(t, —t,)
L,

' See A Universal Steam Calorimeter. By G. H. Barrus, Amer. Soc, Mech.
Engineers, 1890.

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 403

Or taking the specific heat of water constant :—
ota +L, +0°48(¢,—#,)

1
1116 —#, —0°194, +.0-48¢,
1116—071¢,

No weighing is required, and temperatures only have to be observed.
The apparatus must be in operation for twenty to thirty minutes before
observations are commenced. Then observations may be begun and con-
tinued for as long a period as is desired. It is not a mere small sample
of steam, therefore, which is observed, but a considerable quantity taken
from the steam pipe at a uniform rate. The observations are as simple as
possible, and the apparatus is used with the greatest facility. Presently
some tests will be given tending to show that the instrument is very
trustworthy.

Suppose the steam is initially quite dry. Then w=1 in the formula
above.

h, + L,=23 +L; +0°48(é,—t¢,)
t2=0°604¢, + 0°395¢,

From the small excess of pressure over atmospheric pressure ¢3 is about
214°, Then
t,=0°604¢, + 84°5,

This may be termed the normal temperature in the chamber B for dry
steam. In proportion as the temperature falls below this the steam is
initially moist. If it contains initially more than a certain amount of
moisture, the temperature in the chamber falls to 214° or below it, and
no calculation of the dryness is possible.

If ¢,=220° and t;=214° are taken as the limiting values for which the
instrument can safely be used, there being then 6° of superheating in B,
then

Zuliad obi st24
min T116—O-714,
and 0:292, —65
l-—z2 ata bed IS BAYS 2
(1) mex =T178— O-TI4,

_ give the minimum initial dryness or maximum amount of initial moisture
in steam for which the apparatus is suitable.
Greatest initial

= moisture per cent.
250° 0-80
300 2°44
350 4:21
400 6:13

VII. Combined Separating and Wire-drawing Method—To extend
the usefulness of the wire-drawing method Mr. Barrus added a separator
(C, fig. 5). The steam first passes through the separator, leaving most of
its moisture, and the remainder is measured by a wire-drawing calorimeter.
When thus arranged the use of the instrument is much more complicated,
as the amount of steam flowing through and the amount of moisture

DD 2

4.04. REPORT— 1894:

separated must be weighed. A condenser must therefore be used, at any
rate occasionally, to determine the amount of steam flowing in a given
time. Assuming the orifice to remain unchanged, a formula can be found
for the weight of steam discharged per minute at any given pressure.

VIII. Superheating by Addition of Heat.—A method has been pro-
posed by Mr. W. R. Cummins,' in which a vessel of constant volume is
used, completely surrounded by a steam jacket. Steam is at first blown
through both jacket and vessel till there is a fair sample of the steam to
be tested in both. Next the jacket and vessel are cut off from the steam
pipe and from each other. The steam in the jacket is then heated by
compression (by a steam compressing pump) or by heating. The simul-
taneous rise of pressure and temperature in the vessel containing the
sample of steam are observed. While moisture is evaporating the relation
of pressure and temperature will follow Regnault’s law. From the
moment when superheating begins the pressure will increase much less
rapidly with the temperature. Let ¢, be the temperature of the sample
of steam initially, ¢, the temperature at which superheating is observed
to begin, v, v. the corresponding specific volumes of dry saturated steam,
x the initial dryness of the steam, V the volume of the vessel, and w the
weight in pounds of steam admitted. Then

V=20,w=v,w
Up
ed
i
where the specific volumes v,v, can be calculated from the observed tem-
peratures ¢, ¢;. The method is quite accurate in principle, but it would
involve considerable skill to carry it out accurately, and it does not appear
to have been actually tried.

IX. Chemical Methods.—These suppose that some soluble salt is added
to the boiler water so as to form a solution of known strength, and that of
all the feed supplied to the boiler part is evaporated and flows away as
steam, part as priming water. The former removes no salt; the latter is
of the saltness of the water then in the boiler. Hence, either the decrease
of saltness of the boiler water or the amount of salt present in the steam
can be used in determining the amount of priming water in the steam.
Most commonly table salt (NaCl) has been used because the amount in
solution can be easily determined by the nitrate of silver method. In
other cases sulphate of soda has been used, the sulphuric acid being
determined by precipitating with chloride of barium. It is convenient to
describe three variations in the way in which the chemical method is
applied.

ie Decrease of Saltness of the Boiler Water measured.—Salt is intro-
duced with the feed till the boiler water contains 1 or 14 per cent. of salt.
Then, during a test in which the amount of feed is measured, a sample of
the boiler water is drawn off at the beginning and end of the test. Care
must be taken that the level of the water in the boiler (as shown by the
.gauge glass) is exactly the same when the two samples are taken. Let
‘W be the weight of water in the boiler, and s, s, the percentage of salt in
the two samples. The amount of salt removed from the boiler during
the test is W(s,—s,)/100. Let w be the amount of feed supplied, and x
the dryness fraction of the steam. Then xw Ib. of pure steam are

) Trans. North-east Coast Inst. of Engineers and Shipbuilders, 1893.

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 405

generated, and (l—x)w lb. of priming water carried over. The mean
saltiness of the priming water is (s;+8.)/2. Hence

l—ax)w s,+s, W

a = "= 79981 —*2)
—1—2W 81-8
a W $8,+S8

The method deals with the whole amount of steam produced, and not
with mere samples of it. On the other hand, the disadvantages of the
method are: (1) It measures only priming water mechanically projected
into and carried by the steam, and not moistness produced in other ways.
(2) Great exactness of analysis is necessary, the difference of saltness
being a small quantity. (3) The feed, being continuously supplied at one
part of the boiler, tends to produce, in spite of the circulation, a non-
uniform distribution of saltness throughout the mass of water in the
boiler. If the saltness is not uniform, the difference of saltness of the
samples gives a quite erroneous result. If there is salt in the feed water,
it can be allowed for. This method was first used at Mulhouse in 1859 ;
much later it was revived, and is often called Brauer’s method.

(8) Percentage of Salt in the Steam determined.—At intervals during
a test, samples of the boiler water are taken, and at the same time some
steam is condensed in a small surface condenser. Equal quantities of the
water samples are mixed together, and also equal quantities of the con-
densed steam. Lets, be the percentage of salt in the averaged sample
of boiler water, and s, that in the averaged sample of condensed steam.
If x is the dryness fraction of the steam, each pound contains x lb, of
steam and 1 —z lb. of water of the saltness of the boiler water.

(1-2) s,;=8,

8
e=1—-!

The disadvantages of this method are (1) that very small portions of the
steam are tested, and, as the mechanical action producing priming is
probably irregular, it is very uncertain whether they fairly represent the
average condition of the steam ; (2) the accurate determination of s, can
only be made if the boiler water is uniformly salt ; (3) the amount of salt
in the steam is very small compared with that in the boiler water, so that
the accurate determination of s, is difficult.

(y) Escher’s Method.—A quite different method of considerable interest
has been proposed by Mr. R. Escher, of Zurich.'_ Mr. Escher considered
the case of a boiler fed with impure water. Of the salts in solution
some are thrown down as incrustation, others remain in solution. In
the boiler water during working there is a steady concentration of these
soluble salts, which tends towards a fixed limit. At this limit the priming
removes as much salt in the form of concentrated boiler water as the feed
brings in.

Let s be the saltness of the feed water in pounds per pound of water,
and k, the saltness at any given time of the boiler water. Then each

) Civilingenieur, 1879, p. 51.

4.06 REPORT—1894..

pound of steam removes (l—2) & lb. of salt, while each pound of feed
introduces s lb. of salt. In steady working when the limit is reached

(l—a) k=s
s

Let &/s=c, the ratio of concentration of the boiler water. Then, for
example, if the boiler water contains twenty times as much salt as the
feed, e=1 —,);=0°95, or the steam contains 5 per cent. of priming water.
The method assumes that the feed contains a definite percentage of easily
soluble salt, and that the trial has continued till the maximum concentra-
tion is reached.

But if the boiler is freshly filled it may be a long time before the
limiting condition is reached. Let W be the quantity of water in the
boiler in pounds, and F the quantity of feed per unit of time. Let & be
now the saltness of the boiler water at ¢ from the beginning of the test.
In a short interval, dé, the quantity of salt Fsdé enters the boiler with
the feed, and the quantity F(1—«)hdt is carried away in the priming
water. ‘The increase of salt in the boiler is therefore

Wdk=F {sdt—(1—«) kdt}.

Let W/F=a. Then
adk + (1—«) kdt —sdt=0.
Integration gives
8 C
Sa

é

The constant of integration is obtained by putting k=s when ¢=0.

Let also EE akon Then
a

From this equation, c being ascertained by analysis of the boiler
water, x can be determined at any period of the test. As the equation is
not easily solved « may be approximated to thus. If ¢ is the concentra-
tion after ¢ hours’ working, a first approximation to « is

x;=1—e.
Put this in the expression above for c; a value c, will be obtained

which would be the concentration in the time ¢, if ¢ were the limiting
concentration. Then assume

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 407

This is an approximate value of the maximum concentration in un-

limited time. A second approximation to x is
c

Mr. Escher has not directly suggested how his method could be used
in the case of a boiler fed with pure feed water, or, say, with water con-
taining too small an amount of chloride to give a sufficiently rapid
concentration. But it might easily be applied by pumping in with the
feed, at intervals of an hour, a known quantity, w, of a saturated salt
solution. The quantity w might be so arranged that the concentration
at the end of the test was such that the boiler water contained about
1 per cent. of salt. A preliminary assumption as to the amount of
priming would have to be made in settling what quantity of salt to
introduce.

The salt method by measuring the decrease of saltness of the boiler
water was first used at Mulhouse in 1859. In the trials then it failed to
give satisfactory results. In some of the tests an apparent increase of
saltness of the boiler water was found, which must have been due to the
saltness being ununiformly distributed in the boiler. At Diisseldorf in
1880 the method of measuring the salt in the steam was tried, sulphate
of soda being used.! Ten samples of boiler water and condensed steam
were taken in each test. The results were discrepant, giving 0°21 to
9 per cent. of moisture in the steam in different tests.

Use of the Salt Method in the Berlin Trials of Portable Engines in
1883.—The most careful tests by the salt method which have been found
are some made by Dr. Bunte in Munich, in some trials of portable engines
under the direction of a commission appointed by the German Govern-
ment.2 In these tests both the decrease of saltness of the boiler water
and the amount of salt in samples of condensed steam were determined.
They throw some light, therefore, on the relative trustworthiness of the
two proceedings.

Concentrated salt solution was introduced into the boilers before
beginning a test till the boiler water contained 1 to 1} per cent. of salt.
At the beginning of each trial, and with the water at normal level in the
gauge glass, a sample of boiler water was taken ; at some intermediate
times, and at the end of the trial, similar samples were taken. The
boiler water was taken from a gauge cock. To prevent evaporation in
taking the sample it was drawn off through an india-rubber tube into a
vessel containing 500c.c. of cold distilled water. Exactly 500c.c. of
boiler water were drawn off, so that the sample had half the saltness of
the boiler water. The chlorine was determined by a nitrate of silver
solution containing 10 per cent. of normal solution, with the addition of
chromate solution as an indicator. For the steam samples the steam was
taken from a cylinder or valve-chest cock. From 200 to 1,000 grams
were condensed at intervals of about an hour.

Tn Trial I., on the Dolberg Portable, the boiler-water samples showed
the same saltness at the beginning and end of the test. Intermediate
samples showed very slight variations, attributed by Dr. Bunte to varia-
tions of water level in the boiler. In five samples of condensed steam

1 Untersuchungen von Dampfmaschinen u.s.v. der Generbe-Ausstellung in Diissel-
dorf, 1880 (Aachen, 1881), p. 13.
2 Report by F. Schotte, Civilingeniewr, 1884,

408° + REPORT—1894.

an addition of 0:2 to 0°3 c.c. of silver solution gave a colour reaction. ,
Dr. Bunte calculates that the priming must have been less than 0:1 per:
cent. Both methods, therefore, showed that there was practically no
priming. Identically similar results were obtained in trials of four other
boilers. But in one trial there was considerable priming. In Trial IV.,
on Siegel’s Portable, the sample of boiler water taken at the beginning
showed 199 c.c. of 10 per cent. of normal salt solution, and that at the
end 191lc.c. per 100¢.c. This corresponds to a loss of 4 per cent. of the
salt in the boiler, or to 1:7 per cent. of priming. In the steam tests
different samples yielded 24:3, 20:3, 6°8, 4-0, 0°3, 0-2, 0°3, 25:5, and 7:3 e.c.
of 10 per cent. of normal salt solution per 100 c.c. of condensed steam.
After thoroughly cleansing the apparatus by blowing through, 2,000 grams
of steam were condensed, and gave 9c.c. per 100c.c. The amount of salt
in the steam was therefore extraordinarily variable. The highest result,
25-5c.c. per 100 c.c., corresponds to 12°8 per cent. of priming. Dr. Bunte
thinks that foaming occurred.

Tt will be seen that in most cases the salt test fails to indicate any
appreciable priming. It must be inferred that the mechanical mixture of
boiler water with the steam is ordinarily an action of insignificant im-
portance. In one trial where there was great priming, shown by the
working of the engine as well as by the salt test, the results are extremely
discrepant, and apparently Dr. Bunte thinks that the real amount of
priming was greater than the salt tests indicate.

The salt test was used in some tests of boilers at the Frankfort Exhi-
bition, in 1891, by a committee presided over by Dr. Schréter.! The tests
lasted eight days for each boiler. Salt was fed into the boiler till the
boiler water contained about 14 per cent. After the boiler had been
working a day, two samples were taken, one of the boiler water from near
the evaporating surface, one from the nearest water separator in the
steam pipe. The samples were drawn off through a cooling coil to prevent
evaporation. The amount of salt in the samples was determined by the
nitrate of silver test, and also that in the feed supplied to the boilers.
The following table gives the results :—

Determination of Priming by Salt Test in Trials at the Frankfort Exhibition, 1891.

Salt in
den Sat in ae Salt x ey
P ee ater oiler rom ee in the
Name of Boiler used Water, | Steam | Water, | Steam, ~
percent.| Pipe, | per cent.| per cent.
per cent.
1. Essen Cornish . é . | Ordinary 1524 |000116 | 0:00146 | 0-076
Water Co.
2. Dortmund Water Tube . Purified 1-229 |0:00138 |0:00195 | 0112
3. Ratingen a . | Ordinary 1146 |0:00155 |0:00148 | 0:135.
4, Kaiserslautern ,, : Purified 1-442 | 0:00122 |0°:00193 | 0-085 .
6. Niirnberg , . | Ordinary 1610 | 0:00246 | 0°00164 | 0151

These results are given chiefly to confirm the general result shown in
nearly all experiments—namely, that the amount of priming estimated
from a salt test is an insignificant percentage.

Comparison of the Salt Methods with other Methods.—It is clear that

1 Engineer, June 8, 1894.

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 409

the general result obtained when the salt test has been used is that in
ordinary cases there is very little moisture in the steam. Some trials
made lately by Professors Kennedy and Unwin gave the same result.
On the other hand, some trials simultaneously with the salt method and
one of the other methods, such as the wire-drawing or separating method,
have given this result: that the moisture in the steam indicated by the
salt method was only about one-tenth as great as that shown by the
other methods, and that not in steam taken from a steam pipe at a
distance from the boiler, but in steam taken directly out of the boiler
itself.

It is clear that the salt test can only indicate boiler water mechanically
mixed with the steam by ebullition, not moisture produced in other ways.
It might be expected, therefore, that the salt method would give a larger
dryness fraction than other methods. Whether the great difference is
entirely attributable to this cause, or in part to inherent difficulties in the
salt method, cannot at present be ascertained. It would rather seem that
the Escher method, which apparently has never been tried, would give
the best results, if used in a case where the trial extended over a week or
more.

A subordinate question is this. Some engineers have thought that
the salt method was specially suitable for boiler trials because it gave
directly what may be called the mechanical priming, although other
methods were more suitable for engine trials where what is wanted is a
knowledge of the absolute quality of the steam, This view seems to be
founded on a misapprehension. In determining the efficiency of a boiler
it is necessary to know how much of the feed leaves the boiler as steam
and how much as water. If, in steam taken directly from the boiler, there
is more moisture than corresponds to mechanical priming, that is as much
a deduction from the evaporation of the boiler as if it were mechanical
priming. The product of the boiler is so much wet steam, and the value
of this steam depends on its dryness. The total heat utilised depends on
the dryness. It is not at all important how the moisture came into the
steam provided it is there. The only point to attend to in a boiler trial
is that the steam tested should be taken directly from the boiler, and not
from a steam pipe in which condensation due to radiation may have been
going on. It is equally desirable that in an engine test the steam should
be taken from the steam pipe very near to the engine.

Tests TO DETERMINE THE RELATIVE TRUSTWORTHINESS OF DIFFERENT
MeETHODs.

Test of the Wire-drawing Calorimeter.—The instrument tried was one
received direct from Mr. Barrus. It seemed extremely desirable to get
some kind of absolute test of the trustworthiness of this instrument, as it
is much the simplest to use for nearly dry steam. Especially it seemed
desirable to ascertain whether any correction for radiation or other loss of
heat would be necessary. This can only be tested by using steam of
known condition. The direction given in the instructions accompanying
the instrument is to test it with the steam from a boiler not doing much
work, the steam being then asswmed to be dry saturated steam. But this
is inconclusive.

To test this instrument, a small superheater was constructed, heated
by a row of gas jets. Then there is definitely superheated steam in both

410 REPORT—1894.

chambers of the instrument. Let ¢,’ be the temperature in the first
chamber, ¢,' the temperature in the second chamber after wire-drawing.
Apart from any loss by radiation, and assuming that the kinetic energy
due to passage through the orifice is reconverted by friction into heat, the
difference of temperature in the two chambers can be calculated. Let p,
be the pressure in the first chamber, and ¢, the corresponding temperature
of saturated steam ; p, the pressure in the second chamber, and ¢, the
corresponding temperature. Since the total heat per pound is the same in
both chambers,

1082 +.0:305¢, -+0-48(t,/—¢,)=1082 + 0-305, -+ 0-48(ts! —ty)
t,'—to' =0°3646(é, —t).

In the following experiment the pressure in the second chamber was
slightly greater than atmospheric pressure, and the corresponding tem-
perature was 215°. Putting in this value

ty! — to =0°3646¢, —78°4.

Test of the Barrus Wire-drawing Calorimeter at the Central Technical
College with Superheated Steam.—The steam was taken from a Babcock
Wilcox boiler, and the engine was running. Steam valve opened at
2» 49™, and gas jets of superheater lighted at 3" 1™. Barometer 30-02
=14-75 lb. per sq. in. Pressures taken by a Schaffer and Budenberg gauge.

eae’ nko
tion Tem-) Observe served
bet aed Leama perature | Tempera-| Tempera- Observed Caleu-
Time “Vb per AAR per *| due to | turein | turein | ~47_ 47 lated
Nieid sq.in, |rressure| First | Second | 4 7 | t’—t)
ae 4-7+ | in First | Chamber! Chamber
Chamber
Leeetits t, t,' t,!
3 323 54 68°75 | *301°5 324 292 32 316
2) 385 54 68°75 3015 323°5 292 315 316
3 3735 54:5 69°25 3020 324 292 32 3L7
3 40 54:5 69°25 302:0 325 294 31 317
3 45 54 68°75 B01'5 3245 295 29°5 31°6
3 474 54 68°75 301°5 324 295 29 316
3 50 545 69°25 302°0 525°5 296 29°5 317
38 525 54 68°75 301°5 326'5 296°5 29 316
3 55 53°5 68:25 3010 326 297 29 B14
3 57% 54 68°75 301°5 327 298 29 31°6
4 9 56 70°75 303°4 323 291 32 32'2
4 23 56°5 71:25 303°9 322 288 34 32:4
4 65 54:5 69°25 302:0 325 291 34 31:7
4 7% 54:5 69°25 302°0 329°5 298 315 31-7
4 10 54 68°75 301°5 332 302 30 316
4 123 | 54 68°75 3015 334 3045 29°5 31°6
Means .| — — | sor9 | s259 | 2951 | 30°78 | 31-45

The mean superheat in the first chamber was 24°. That in the
second chamber 80°-1. There could be no doubt therefore as to the quality
of the steam. The observed difference of temperature ¢,'—?¢,’ was remark-
ably constant, and the differences from the calculated values are not great.
The mean difference of the observed and calculated values of ¢,’—é,' is
only 0:67. Necessarily the common pressure gauge readings are only

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 411

approximate, and the difference is less than that which may be due to
unavoidable inaccuracy in reading the pressure gauge. Since in ordinary
use about 20° fall of the temperature ¢,’ corresponds to 1 per cent. of
moisture in the steam, it appears that the calculated value of ¢,' for dry
steam is practically exact. Other experiments (though not over any great
range of pressures) have been made. So far as they have gone, they con-
firm this result. Hence it appears that no correction of the theoretical
calculation is necessary to obtain practical accuracy, and that the assump-
tion that all the kinetic energy at the orifice reappears as heat is prac-
tically true. .

In fig. 6 the temperature curves for the experiment above have been
plotted. The saturation temperature ¢,, due to the steam pressure, calcu-
lated from the pressure-gauge readings, and the actual temperature of
the superheated steam ¢,, are shown by the two upper lines. The tem-
perature of the superheated steam in the second chamber ¢,. is shown
by a full line, and the calculated value of ¢,. by a dotted line. The
thermometer being in an iron tube necessarily lags a little behind the
temperature in the chamber.

Test of a combined Separating and Wire-drawing Calorimeter by Mr.
Barrus.—A. very careful test is given by Mr. Barrus in his paper,! in
which the steam passing through the instrument was condensed in a
surface condenser and measured. Pairs of trials were made under identical
conditions ; in one the separator was in use, and in the other the separator
was shut off. Each trial lasted usually an hour, sometimes two hours.

Pairs of Trials in one of which most of the Moisture was trapped in the
Separator, and im the other the whole measured by Wire-drawing or
Heat Gauge.

Weight o Mois- | Mois- |
Tempera-|Tempera-| Steam | Weight | Total ture | ture
ture by | ture by |condensed| of Water |Weight of| calcu- | caleu-| Dry- | Total
No. upper lower jin Surface] from Steam | lated | lated |ness of| Mois-
Thermo-| Thermo-| Con- |Separator; used per| from | from | Steam} ture
meter meter jdenserper| per hour; hour | Sepa- | Heat
hour | rator | Gauge
Per | Per Per
ty ty Lb. Lb. Lb. cent. | cent. x cent.
1 3124 265°4 53°87 0644 54:51 | 1:18 | 0-40] ‘984 |] 1°58
312°2 239°6 53°89 53°89 1°80 | -982 | 1:80
2 312°5 267:0 53°58 0684 54:26 | 1:26 | 0°30} -984 | 1:56
213°8 241°4 54:97 54:97 1:70 | 983 | 1:70
3 3136 266°4 53°91 1:284 55°19 | 2°33 | 0-40 | -973 | 2°73
3131 225°0 54-40 54:40 2°60 | ‘974 | 2°60
4 3141 2672 54°50 1350 55°85 | 2:42) 0:40 | 972 | 2°82
3141 223'9 55°32 55°32 2°80 | ‘972 | 2°80
5 3143 267°9 55:00 1:809 5631 | 2°33 | 0°40 | -973 | 2°73

3143 227-1 55°82 55°82 2:60 | ‘974 | 2°60

Mr. Barrus has used these results in an attempt to calculate a value
for the specific heat of superheated steam, and gets values ranging from

1 Amer. Soc. Mechan. Engineers, 1890.

412 REPORT— 1894.

0-415 to 0°519, the mean value being 0°475, almost exactly the value
generally assumed. It is hardly to be expected that experiments of this

¥1g. 6.—Barrus Calorimeter using superheated steam at the Central Technical
College, May 21, 1894.

ww
AS
N

#20 4.25

415

Sed Ha a
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chads inl Jee

470

4.5

Si iBbeseees
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356 40

3.50

Fis al as
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STL IZ ; ented

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acre see
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Bae pea eal
creeper

——

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 415

kind are accurate enough to prove that the specific heat varies. On the
other hand, Mr. Barrus has neglected to calculate the dryness fraction of
the steam, and so has missed the striking evidence these results afford to
the general accuracy of the instrument. The separator was not a very
perfect one, and allowed about 0:4 per cent. of moisture to pass. But the
separator results cannot be much wrong, for they are measured results
depending on no assumed constants. The error in calculating the 0:4 per
cent. passing the separator cannot be large enough to much affect the total
result. On the other hand, the calculation from the heat gauge when the
separator was cut out, which depends on the assumed value 0°48 of the
specific heat and on the theory of the instrument, agrees strikingly with
the separator results.

Test of Wire-drawing and Separating Calorimeter combined.—The
following tests have been arranged to determine how far it is true, as
stated by Carpenter, that a separator traps the whole of the moisture,
even with very moist steam. The Barrus calorimeter was used with its
drip box or separator. The amount of water deposited in the drip box
was measured. Observations also were taken of the temperatures in the
two chambers of the wire-drawing part of the instrument. Let ¢, ty be
the temperatures in the first and second chambers of the wire-drawing
part, ¢; the saturation temperature of steam in the second chamber
calculated from the pressure. Then, from the formula given above,

__1116—#,—0-19¢, +0-48¢,
ir 1116—0-71#,

The dryness in each experiment has been calculated by this formula for
the steam passing from the drip box into the wire-drawing part.

Tests of Barrus Calorimeter with Separator attached at the Central
Technical College.

Per cent. of

Date Time t ty ts oe Moisture trapped |
in Separator
h. m. 8. |
ees 18u8 pate \ 2045 2562 | 215 | -996 9 /
piante | 2025 2570 | 215 | -998 9
fede | 289-0 2570 | 215 | -998 9
ay A \ 2905 2549 | 215 | -997 5
be bats \ 286-4 2515 | 215 | -996 BT
ile: 4 iene | 298:0 262-0 | 215 | -997 4-4
Mean . : —- — | —_— | — | “997 | —

It will be seen that, although the steam entered the separator with
more than 44 to 9 per cent. of moisture, the steam passing through the
wire-drawing part had only from 0-4 to 0:2 per cent. of moisture. The
mean dryness fraction of the steam passing to the second chamber in
the six tests was 0°997, so that the error of using the separator without

414 REPORT—1894..

the wire-drawing part would generally, for practical purposes, lead to an
error of no great importance, at any rate, when the steam had initially
more than | per cent. of moisture. Further, the separator on the Barrus:
calorimeter is not quite so well arranged as that of the Carpenter calori-
meter. The steam leaving the latter is no doubt drier than that leaving
the separator of the Barrus calorimeter.

Test of a Carpenter separating Calorimeter, showing the Influence of
Radiation from the Steam Pipe in producing Moisture in Steam.—The
Barrus calorimeter and Carpenter calorimeter were fixed side by side for
comparative tests. A branch pipe 30 feet long brought the steam from
the main steam pipe, which delivered steam to the engine. This pipe was
well clothed with Keenan’s composition. The engine was running, so
that there was a considerable flow of steam along the main steam pipe.

Two pairs of tests were made. In one the Carpenter calorimeter alone
was used, and-the flow of steam along the 30-foot branch pipe was com-
paratively slow. In the other pair, steam was flowing through the Barrus
calorimeter also. As this uses twice as much steam as the Carpenter, the
rate of flow was about three times greater than in the first pair of tests.

Test with Carpenter separating Calorimeter at the Central Technical
College, March 28, 1894.

; Rise of | ctoam | , Water Per ae
No. Duration |Tempera-|,,ndenseq| tapped | cent. of | pressure a4
Mins, ture of | i, Ip in Moisture |“ jp, per’
Condenser * |Separator}in Steam} 7 ls
qs in.
1 4°833 ZT 115 0:20 14:82 67 \ No steam flowing
2 5217 25°8 1°36 0:20 12°82 72 through Barrus
Mean. | 13°82

3 6°60 32°°6 ETE 0:08 4:33 72 Steam flowing
4 8:80 39°°5 2:19 0:08 3°52 68 through Barrus

Mean . 393

The only difference in these two sets of experiments was that the rate
of flow along the branch steam pipe was different. In the first set the
mean moisture was 13-82 per cent., in the second set 3:93 per cent., being
greater when the steam current was slower. The difference is due to
condensation in the steam pipe. The result is important as showing
how large the proportionate condensation may be, even in a well-clothed
steam pipe, when the rate of flow is small, and also how important it is,
in using calorimeters of this kind, which take only a small quantity of
steam, to place them closely adjacent to the engine or boiler tested.

Simultaneous Wire-drawing and Salt Test on a Babcock Boiler at the
Central Technical College.—Steam was taken by a short pipe clothed with
felt from the casting carrying the safety valve at the top of the boiler.
This pipe branched to the Barrus calorimeter and to a worm in a cold-
water tank, closely adjacent to each other. The following table gives the
Barrus calorimeter results in full to show the consistency of the deter-
minations :—

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM.

A15

Test with a Barrus Wire-drawing Calorimeter, June 5, 1894.

Steam valve opened at 11h. 25m. A.M. Barometer, 29°88 in. =14°68 lb. per sq. inch.
Pressure in second chamber, about 4 in. of water, or*14 1b. per sq.in. Temperature
of saturated steam corresponding to pressure in second chamber taken at t,= 213°.

: Teer ae Temperature Tewneratnre Dryness Frac-| Per cent. of
Time Boiler, of Steam, | Wire-drawin g, tion of Steam,| Moisture in
Ib. per sq. in. t t, ot Steam.
11.55 Am. 58 301 241 “986 1-4
573 56 300 240 986 1:4
12.0 56 298 236 “985 15
22 P.M 56 298 240 “987 13
5 57 298°5 237°5 986 14
73 59 298 238 986 14
10 59 300 240°5 ‘987 1:3
123 60 300°5 242 987 13
15 60 300°5 242 987 1:3
173 59 300 241 “987 13
20 585 300 240 “987 1:3
23 58 300 242 988 1:2
25 57°5 300 240 987 13
273 575 299 241 “987 1:3
323 59 299°5 242°5 988 1:2
35 59 300 243°5 989 11
373 59 300 244 “989 Tt
40 59 300 244 989 11
423 59 300 244 989 11
45 58 300 242 988 1:2
473 59 300 244 989 11
50 575 300 244 989 11
523 56 299 243 988 1:2
55 56 298 243 988 1:2
57S 56 298 243 988 1-2
1.0 575 299 243°5 “988 1:2
24 59 300 244 “989 11
5 58 300 244 “989 al
3 59 300 244 “989 fet
10 60 300 244 989 Meat
125 60 201 244-5 988 1:2
15 60 301 244 “988 12
: . 0:9877 1:23

While these calorimeter tests were made, three samples of boiler water
were taken from the gauge cock and three samples of steam condensed in
the copper worm. These were carefully analysed by Mr. Crighton, under

the direction of Professor Armstrong, F.R.S.

The following are the

results :—
| Boiler W ater Condensed Steam A :
j Moisture in
= Steam
: Grams of NaCl : Grams of NaCl :
| Time | in 100 c.c. Time in 100c.c, Ber. ent,
11.50 A.M 1:2678 12.7 P.M “0000919 “0073
12.32 p.m 1:3017 1228i;, -0002297 0181
BBE t.,, 12348 Bab 3 ‘0002756 0217
Mean 1°2681 Mean , - ‘0157

416 REPORT—1894..

The percentages of moisture have been calculated from the mean
saltness of the boiler water. It will be seen they vary considerably.
Further, the moistness from the salt test is only one-hundredth as great
as that shown by the wire-drawing calorimeter.

The temperatures for the Barrus calorimeter are plotted in fig. 7, in -
order to show how remarkably regular and consistent the observations
with a wire-drawing calorimeter are.

Simultaneous Wire-drawing and Salt Test—In the following test the
Barrus wire-drawing calorimeter was used, the observations being taken
by Professor Unwin. Simultaneously Professor Kennedy took samples
of the condensed steam and boiler water, and determined the moisture in
the steam by the salt test.

Test of Water Tube Boiler, using Wire-drawing Calorimeter,
April 11, 1894. —The temperatures of the calorimeter thermometers
given are the means of two to five observations at intervals of about
one minute, taken after steam had been flowing through calorimeter for
about twenty minutes. They were taken as soon as the temperatures
had become steady. Barometer 29-936 in.=14:70 lb. per sq. in. Tem-
perature of saturated steam corresponding to pressure in second chamber
assumed 214°.

| Pressure | Tempera-|Tempera- D
| by Gauge} ture in | ture in Fre cre Moisture
— Time on Boiler,! First Second GE 1) in Steam
| lb. per |Chamber, Chamber, a, per cent.
§q. In. ty to
h. m.
10 144a.M ; agy-7n | - ;
ae ea } 1605 | 360-25 | 281-73 | -990 | 1-0
LOT 5; 21 =9.7 5 By , ;
1019 9 158°0 3)9'75 | 283°0 989 11
April 11 12 14P.M.\! 1600 | 361-0 | 2840 | 990 | 10
| 1918 , 4
220 ., \ : : :
55a. -, ky! 157:4 360°8 2843 990 10
(= SoidGiss ml : “ : : F
| 3 18 fe j 158°3 360°3 284°5 991 9
| Means: = = = = -990 10
” aie 161-6 | 3570 | 2793 | -988 | 1:2
she Ae y 161-0 | 3575 | 2806 | 989 | 14
9 ieee a Ee P.M. | ee S59: a :
1221 ,, | 60°8 59°6 282°8 989 11
9
eee” } 1490 | 3540 | 2813 | -990 | 10
| Means 3 . ¢ — — = a= -989 ll

It is obvious that the salt test shows much less moisture than the
calorimeter, the mean moisture by the former being 1 per cent. and by
the latter only about one-tenth as much. Naturally the salt test which
shows only mechanical priming should give a lower result than the
calorimeter. But the salt tests are so irregular that it is impossible not
to doubt a little the accuracy of the method.

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM.

Fic. 7.—Wire-drawing Calorimeter. Experiment at the Central Tccbnical

College, June 5, 1894.

S
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1894, EE

417

418 REPORT—1894.

The moisture found by condensing some steam and determining the
amount of salt during the same trials was as follows :—

_— Sample Time Dryness Fraction! Moisture per cent.
fee carl a8
1 10 30 A.M. [9997] Less than 0:03 |
2 LIE S89 5s; “9965 0°35
April 10 é 3 12 34 P.M. [9997] Less than 0:03
| 4 ILS ae [9997 ] x
5 Sree [5997 ] is
Mean . £ : — — “9991 0-094
( 1 10 35 A.M. [9997] Less than 0:03
a a 2 EAT pe; "9957 0:43
HUAN SE: || 3 1 40 pM. +9990 0-10
| 4 BE42* ., [9997] Less than 0:03
SSS oe i}
Means . - ¢ — — “9985 0:147

Prehistoric and Ancient Remains of Glamorganshire.-—Second
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. C. T. VACBELL
(Chairman), Lord Bute, Mr. G. T. Cuark, Mr. R. W. ATKINSON,
Mr, FRANKLEN G. Evans, Mr. JAmrs BELL, Mr. T. H. THomas,
Dr. G. J. Garson, and Mr. E. Sewarp (Secretary), (Drawn up
by the Secretary.)

ALTHouGH a list of all the known prehistoric and ancient remains of

Glamorganshire has been compiled on forms issued by your Committee, the

work of specially indicating on maps the ancient remains already regis-

tered has not yet been accomplished.

The desirability of increasing opportunities for work among persons
in the district has been felt, and the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, with
whom the movement originated, have recently formed an archeological
section. This course was to some extent due to a visit of. the British
Archeological Association to Cardiff, during which many objects of pre-
historic and archeological interest were investigated and described. The
archeological section of the Naturalists’ Society consists of about fifty
members, and it is intended that one of its objects shall be to assist in
registering the position of ancient remains on maps. Your Committee
wish to co-operate with the archeological section of the Naturalists’
Society, and request the sanction of the Association for carrying this out.
Such a connection will tend to widen the interest in the work and to
increase the number of those who may be expected to join in it.

It may be stated that the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society have already
carried out useful archeological work within the county. Of the
inspections, reports, and sketches, &c., which have been made, one may
be specially mentioned, viz., a paper by Mr. T. H. Thomas on the
ancient inscribed crosses of Glamorganshire, beautifully illustrated by.
photographs, and published in the Society’s Transactions for 1893.

During June 1894 an examination of certain mounds on the Ely
Racecourse, near Cardiff, was mace by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society. _
These mounds were first discovered by Mr. John Storrie, one of its

ON METHODS OF DETERMINING THE DRYNESS OF STEAM. 419

members. They have proved to be the remains of a considerable Roman
villa, and fragments of hypocaust pipes, Samian ware, and light grey pre-
historic pottery, together with black pottery and Roman coins, have been
found.

Through the Museum Committee of the Cardiff County Council casts
in plaster of two of the most remarkable of these crosses have been
secured. These casts have lately been placed in the Cardiff Museum as
a nucleus of a typical collection of casts of the ancient inscribed stones
and crosses of Glamorganshire.

In addition, the whole of the known inscribed crosses, with two or
three exceptions, have been photographed by Mr. T. Mansell Franklen,
the Clerk of the Peace for Glamorganshire, and these are available for
purposes of study in the Reference-room of the Cardiff Central Free
Library.

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—Second Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Brasroox ( Chair-
man), Mr. Francis Gatton, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A. C.
Happon, Dr. JosepH ANDERSON, Mr. J. Rominty ALLEN, Dr. J.
BeEppDOE, Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM, Professor W. Boyp Daw-
Kins, Mr. ARTHUR Evans, Mr. E. Srpney HartTuanp, Sir H.
Howorti, Professor R. MELDOLA, General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. E. G.
RAVENSTEIN, and Mr. G. W. Buoxam (Secretary). (Drawn wp
by the Chairman.)

APPENDIX PAGE
I. Form of Schedule . ‘ i . : 5 é ; : : - . 426

Il. Directions for Measurement . : a : : : é : ‘ . 428
Ill. The Lthnographical Survey of Ireland.—Report of the Commitice . . 429

1. As in the previous year, the Committee have had the advantage of the
co-operation of several gentlemen not members of the Association, but
delegates of various learned bodies who are interested in the Survey.

_ They have to deplore the loss, by death, of one of these gentlemen, Mr.

H. 8. Milman, director of the Society of Antiquaries, who had been
delegated by that Society and had rendered much assistance in the earlier
stages of the work. His place has been filled by the election by the same
Society of its Vice-President, Mr. Granville Leveson-Gower, of Titsey
Place, as a delegate to this Committee. His colleague, Mr. George Payne,
and Mr. E. Clodd, Mr. G. L. Gomme, and Mr. J. Jacobs, the representa-
tives of the Folk Lore Society, Sir C. M. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., representing
the Royal Statistical Society, Mr. Edward Laws, the Ven. Archdeacon
Thomas, Mr. 8. W. Williams, and Professor John Rhys, representing the
Cambrian Archeological Association, and Dr. C. R. Browne, a representa-

_ tive of the Royal Irish Academy, have continued their valuable services.

Some other members of the Committee are delegated by the Anthropologica!
Institute.

2. In their first report the Committee presented a list of 264 villages
or places which, in the opinion of competent persons consulted by the
Committee, appeared especially to deserve ethnographic study, and they

_ appended to the list observations furnished by their correspondents on the

‘special characteristics of such villages and places, which rendered them

_ typical. This considerable number does not exhaust the supply of names

EE2

4.20 REPORT—1894.

of places, several more having been received since the first report was

prepared.
3. In the first report it was stated that no villages had been suggested

in Northumberland. This omission has since been supplied by the kind-
ness of Mr. R. O. Heslop, who has furnished the following list :—-

Norru.—Zweedmouth, Berwick (Romany influence in folk speech),
Ford, Cornhill, Lowick, Wooler, Belford, Bamburgh, Hmbleton,
Longbroughton, Alnwick, Whittingham, Warkworth, Rothbury,
Harbottle, Elsdon.

Soutu.—-Morpeth, Whalton, Stamfordham, Ponteland.

TyNEsIDE (co. of Durham).—Blaydon, Winlaton Swalwill, Whickham,
Low-Fell, Birtley, Usworth.

NortHuMBERLAND.—Newburn, Wewcastle (keelmen’s quarter), North
Shields.

West Tyne.—Wylam, Hedley-on-the-Hill, Slaley, Blanchland, Cor-
bridge, Hexham (a tinker and Irish quarter), Acomb, Humshagh,
Birtley, Wark, Bellingham, Bardon Mill, Haydon Bridge, Whit-
field.

Sourn-WesrerN (mixture of lead-mining population).—Allendale
Town, Allenheads, Slaggyford, Haltwhistle.

Mr. Heslop thinks that capable observers could be obtained at the
places printed in italics, and has furnished the following summary of the
special features of the district :—

Fishermen (self-contained and intermarried communities).—Berwick,
Spital, Holy Island, North, Sunderland, Newton, Boulmer, New-
biggin, Cullercoats.

Pilots and Boatmen.— North and South Shields.

¢ Pitmen.—Bachworth, Seghill, Acklington.
( Keelmen.—Sandgate, (Newcastle), Dunston, Blaydon, Lemington,
Felling Shore (co. Durham).
The pitmen and keelmen of the Tyne are chiefly descended from
the Border clans.

Shepherds.—Harbottle, Wooler, Head of Reedsdale.. (The Cheviot
men, of the wide district embracing the Cheviot range on the North-
umberland side, would have to be observed from these points.) ,

4. Mr. E. W. Vox, of Bebington, has furnished the following list of
places in the neighbourhood of that part of Cheshire and Lancashire :—

A
Norton, near Runcorn. Fazakerley. :
Farnworth, near Warrington. Formby.
Frodsham. Ormskirk.
Kelsby. Burscough.
Delamere Forest. Altcar. ul
Hale. Sefton. ;
Speke and Oglet. Maghull.
Woolton. Rufford.
Wavertree. North Meols, Lancashire.
West Derby. Mealse, in the district of Meols,
‘Walton. in Cheshire.

Crosby . Grange.

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 421

West Kirby. Storeton.

Caldy. Sedsham.
Thurstaston. Wiilaston.
Heswell. Burton.

Neston. Stoke Thornton.
Easthouse. Buckford.
Bromborough. Bidston.
Birkenhead. Garston.
Bebington.

Mr. Cox describes these as quiet, primitive, and little altered rural
places, having strong characteristics of race. For example, at Crosby
there is a dark, sallow, small tribe, of idle and listless habits, given to petty
thefts, full of superstitions, and difficult to train. Adjacent to these, at
North Meols, the flat district near Southport, is a large, stoutly built race
of light complexion and hair, fresh-coloured, honest, lethargic, good hus-
bandmen, with a Flemish or Dutch type of face and figure. Till the last
century, or the early part of this century, these folks were entirely local
and cut off from association with any considerable town or traffic ; they
have their own ways and customs, fast becoming obsolete.

5. In the peninsula of Lleyn, the 8.W. part of Carnarvenshire, Professor
Anwy] has furnished the following additional names of places :—

Aberdaron.—The men of this village and neighbourhood, at the extreme
end of the peninsula, are known over the greater part of Wales as
‘ewirioniaid Aberdaron,’ or ‘the fools of Aberdaron.’ Many of them
still have probably never seen a railway train, and their acquaintance
with town life is very imperfect. A distinction must, however, be drawn
between the occupiers of the large and flourishing farms of the neighbour-
hood, such as Bodwrdda, Meillionydd, and the like, and the inhabitants of
the mud houses situated on the barren moorland known as Rhos Hirwaen,
in the central part of the far end of the peninsula. The inhabitants of
this extensive waste, dotted with occasional homesteads, are considered by
the neighbourhood around to be inferior in intelligence. However that
may be, their civilisation is at a distinctly lower level than that of the
people living on the main roads between the extreme end of the peninsula
and Pwllheli and Nevin. This is due largely to economtical causes : the
land on which they live is very poor, and consequently they have not the
means of providing the adjuncts of civilisation. Professor Anwyl has
heard one family, whose members are scattered over this moorland, called
‘teulu y Carthod,’ but has not been able to discover why they were so
called. They are looked upon as the lowest in intelligence in the district.
One said to be a member of this family was of a rather swarthy com-
plexion, possessing in appearance a somewhat Mongolian cast of features.
The forehead was small and the hair dark. In visiting the Board school
of Llidiardau, to which the children of this district go, Professor Anwyl
was struck with what appeared to be a marked absence of faces of any
prettiness. On the top of a hill called Mynydd Bodwrdda, in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of this district, there are remains of earthworks. On
a farm called Penybont, at the end nearest Pwllheli of Rhos Hirwaen, is
& very conspicuous monolith. The district of Aberdaron includes the
promontory of Braichypwll, on the coast over against Bardsey Island. On
a plot of ground facing the Pardsey sound there are remains of an old
church, generally connected with the ancient pilgrimages to Bardsey.

A422, REPORT—1894.

Right on the edge of the sea, in the rock, there is a well of fresh water
called Ffynon Fair (Mary’s Well), to which steps have been cut, and with
which doubtless some folk-lore is connected.

Uweh y Mynydd, almost at the extreme end of Lleyn. Here is a
farm called ‘Y Gwyddel.’ A mountain in the neighbourhood is called
‘Mynydd y Gwyddel.’ A farm near is called ‘Bodarnabwy,’ most likely,
as Professor Rhys has suggested, = Bod Gwernabwy = The Dwelling of
Gwernabwy.

Penycaerau and Rhiw, to the east of Aberdaron, on Cardigan Bay.
Rhiw is a somewhat isolated village or hamlet between Mynydd y Rhiw
and Mynydd y Graig. Mynydd y Graig dips into Porth Neigwl Bay,
sometimes called in Welsh Safn Uffern=Hell’s Mouth.

Bodferin, to the N.W. of Aberdaron, on the St. George’s Channel.
The church of this place has long since fallen into ruins, and the parish
been annexed to Llangwnadl. In the neighbourhood of one of the farms
near Rhydlios chapel, called Tyddyn Ffrainc, is a supposed medicinal
well. The water of another well in this district, called Ffynon Leuddad,
or Loewad, is still believed to cure warts. Professor Anwyl suggests
that in studying the ethnology of Wales it would seem preferable, in
districts where there are no villages, to endeavour to observe the physical
characteristics of members of the various places of worship, which are
practically the centres of the different communities,

Llangwnadl and Bryncroes, parishes adjacent to Bodferin. The district
around Bryncroes church is fairly well populated, and in all probability
has been isolated. In medieval times there were some religious houses
here, indicated by the names Monachdy and Ty Fair. In Llangwnadl
parish are several families, the history of which can be traced for a con-
siderable time, and it may practically be taken for granted that families
which were settled in Lleyn early in the last century have been there from
time immemorial, road communication having been till then very imperfect
in the peninsula. In this neighbourhood there is a marked prevalence of
sandy hair and beard and bluish grey eyes. Aquiline noses of fair length
are very common, and the physique generally is good.

Penllech and Tydwetliog, adjoining parishes, are similar in character to
those last mentioned. On one of the fields belonging to Cefnamwlch
estate, in the neighbourhood of Tydweiliog, there is a well-preserved
cromlech called ‘Coiten Arthur,’ and there are apparently the remains of
another close by.

Sarn Leillteyrn, a village about two miles from the cromlech, in the
direction of Cardigan Bay, may repay inspection, but it is doubtful whether
any of the families which inhabit it have been long established there.

Llanestyn, another village not far off, in the direction of Garn Fadryn.

Edeyrn and Nevin, on the St. George’s Channel side of the peninsula.
The population of Nevin (where Edward I. held a tournament) is
largely sea-faring. The inhabitants have one or two marked peculiarities
of dialect : for example, the use of ‘mi olchon’ = ‘ we washed,’ where all
the other inhabitants of Lleyn would say ‘mi ddarun olchi.’ Inter-
marriage is common, and the population has tended to keep itself apart.
Near Porthdinllaen, on a promontory, there are remains of fortifications,.
probably raised by Norsemen, who made descents upon the coast.

Nant Gwytheyrn and Llithfaen, between Nevin and the Eifl.

Speaking generally of the districts of Lleyn, with which he is best
acquainted, Professor Anwyl remarks that a frequent term of abuse is ‘Yr

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 423

Hen Wenhwyfar’ or ‘ Yr Hen Andros.’ Cebyst(r) is also used in this way.
Among the rocks of Creigiau Duon, in Penllech Bay, isa cave called ‘ Ogof
Huw Sion Ychain,’ who is thought to have lived init. There isalso on the
land of a holding called Tyn y Cae an ‘ Ogof Sian,’ and there were stories
designed to frighten children said about it. ‘Mor Gerwyn,’ in the neigh-
bourhood of ‘ Berthaur’ farm, was popularly believed to have no bottom.
Children were told not to go near the river ‘ neu mi neith yr hen lemprog dy
futa di’ = ‘or the old lamprey will eat thee.’ It is believed that snake
bites can be cured by bandaging the finger with the skin of the snake or
the entrails of a newly killed fowl. The flowers of the foxglove are sup-
posed to cause sores upon the hands. Pieces of string placed in a certain
way on wells were supposed to be means of witchcraft. Ghosts are gene-
rally described as being ‘Olwyn mewn olwyn o dan’ = ‘a wheel within a
wheel of fire,’ and not unfrequently as dragging chains after them. It is
considered impious by some to point to a rainbow. The mode employed
for drawing lots is generally the method called ‘tynu byra docyn’ = ‘to
draw the shortest ticket.’ Strangers are generally pressed to keep on their
hats while indoors. The ‘offrwm’ = offering, is still kept up at funerals,
so also the ‘ wylnos’ = vigil night.

6. The number of villages and places enumerated has thus been
increased to 367, and the Committee have every reason to be satisfied
with the result of the first step they took. The second step—that of
settling the form of schedule—has occupied much time, especially the
portion of the form relating to physical observations, which differs to some
extent from that given in the first report. The Committee have to thank
Dr. Garson and Professor Haddon for the attention they have given to
this matter.

7. The form of the schedule of physical types of the inhabitants as
now settled for England is given at the end of this report.

8. The other schedules have not been altered from the forms given in
the first report. Copies of the schedules have-been sent to the corre-
spondents of the Committee, and also to the secretaries of the correspond-
ing societies of the Association, to whom a circular has been addressed,
requesting that the schedules may be brought under the notice of the
council of each society, and containing the following observations :—

‘My Committee venture to hope that your society and its members
will be willing to assist in their work, and I have to suggest for your
consideration whether that might not most conveniently be done by the
appointment of a sub-committee, consisting of persons each of whom
would be willing to undertake one of the heads of the investigation.

‘I may draw your attention to the directions for measurement, by
which you will see that the absolutely essential instruments required for
the physical measurements can be obtained for 1/. 6s. My Committee
quite appreciate that they are asking your members for what may involve
the devotion of some time, and they are glad, therefore, that the cost in
money need not be very great.’

9. Sufficient time has not yet elapsed for obtaining answers from all
the corresponding societies, but several sub-committees have already been
formed or are in course of formation. The Malton Field Naturalists’ and
Scientific Society has formed a sub-committee, of which Dr. Ernest
Colley is chairman. Miss Nina F. Layard, of Ipswich, has taken steps
towards the formation of a sub-committee for that district, and has
obtained the co-operation of Mr. G. Hetherington for the physical

AA REPORT—18)4.

observations, and Dr. Groome, of Stowmarket, for the folk-lore. The
Bristol and Gloucestershire Archeological Society and the Cotteswold
Club have formed a joint local committee, of which Dr. Beddoe and
Mr. Sidney Hartland are members. A research committee has been
appointed by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, of which Mr. F. T. Howard,
of University College, Cardiff, is the secretary. The Northamptonshire
Natural History Society and Field Club is also taking steps in the same
direction. The societies in Manchester and Liverpool and the Glasgow
Archeological Society will, it is hoped, also be able to organise sub-
committees for the purpose. A sub-committee for Wales and another
for Ireland had been formed when the first report of the Committee was
presented.

10. The Sub-Committee for Ireland, consisting of representatives of
the Royal Irish Academy, has, indeed, already completed two memoirs,
which serve as excellent types of what this Committee aims at doing for
the United Kingdom at large. These memoirs have been read before
that Academy and published in its ‘ Proceedings,’ and relate to the ethno-
graphy of the Aran Islands, by Professor A. C. Haddon, secretary of
the sub-committee, and Dr. C. R. Browne ; and the ethnography of
Inishbofin and Inishshark, county Galway, by Dr. Browne. They have
been prepared in pursuance of a plan adopted by the Dublin Anthro-
pomorphic Committee of combining the ordinary work of the laboratory
with local investigation in selected parts of the country. The islands of
Tnishbofin and Inishshark, with some small uninhabited islets, form the
parish of Inishbofin, and are situated outside of Killary Bay, and about
sixteen miles distant from Clifden, the nearest town of any size. The
climate is mild even in winter, but the islands are subject to heavy rains
and fierce storms, which often cut off communication with the mainland
for days. For his observation of the physical types of the people
Dr. Browne used the form of schedule adopted for Ireland by this
Committee, which slightly differs from that above given as adopted for
England. The instruments taken with him were Garson’s anthropometer,
a sliding measure for the limbs, Broca’s compas d’épaissewr and compas
glissiere, a Chesterman steel tape, a portable form of Cunningham cranio-
meter (made specially for field work by Messrs. Robinson, of Grafton
Street, Dublin), and a set of Snellen test-types for estimating keenness of
eyesight, the whole, with notebook and observation forms, fitted in a
canvas knapsack, weighing under ten pounds. He had some difficulty in
overcoming the repugnance of the people to be measured, observed, and
photographed, but succeeded in noting the eye and hair colours of 241
individuals and measuring 40 adult males, being about one-fifth of the
whole number in the islands. The average height of the men was
1,633 mm., or 5 feet 64 inches, slightly less than the Irish mean stature ;
and the women presented the similarity of appearance presumed to be due
to intermarriage of the same families through several generations. Sight
and hearing were very acute. In addition to the observations made on
the living subject, the measurements of a series of crania were obtained,
and some further measurements of crania secured by Professor Haddon
have also been communicated by him to the Academy. These were all
(as were the majority of the living subjects measured) mesaticephalic,
having a mean cephalic index of 77. The population of the islands,
though still dense, is steadily decreasing. In 1891 it consisted of 511
males and 486 females (a difference of 25, not 95, as misprinted in the

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 425

paper). The number of inhabited houses was 215. Of the population
above five years of age 46 per cent. are returned as illiterate. A large
proportion. of the marriages are consanguineous, but no cases of malforma-
tion or congenital disease are ascribed to this. The sanitary state of the
houses is not by any means good. The people contrast strongly with the
Aran Islanders in their taste for music and dancing. The surnames to be
met with on the islands are fifty-one, of which Dr. Browne gives a list ;
the most largely distributed being ‘Scuffle, possibly a corruption of
Scholfield or Scovell, of which there are twenty-two families. The
majority are more or less Anglicised forms of old Irish names. Every
family combines fishing and farming, and has some share in a boat. As
is the case in many fishing communities, the fields are not well kept.
Kelp-burning, formerly one of the industries of the islands, is now prac-
tically extinct. The one tailor still adheres to the old method of measuring
his clients without a tape, using instead a sheet of paper, on which the
several lengths are recorded by notches cut with the scissors. The people
marry young, generally from purely family reasons, the match being
arranged by the parents. Infants are carefully watched after birth, lest
they should be changed. An old Irish dirge is sung at funerals. Alco-
holic liquors are not much drunk. The houses are, as a rule, built of dry
stones without any mortar, and consist of a kitchen, into which at night
the cattle, fowls, and pigs are taken, and one or two bedrooms. The
legendary lore of the islands has been fully dealt with by Lady Wilde in
her ‘Ancient Legends of Ireland’ (London, 1887), but Dr. Browne was
able to collect some additional information. An old woman in Bofin is
considered to be a witch. There are two holy wells on the islands. There
is a legend to account for the name ‘Tnis-bo-finne,’ the Island of the White
Cow, and others, which are given at length in Dr. Browne’s paper. An
impression in the rock is said to be the footprint of St. Leo. The
apparatus used for shark-fishing is very rude and primitive. The archi-
tectural antiquities on the islands are few. The earliest reference to the
district in history is that in the second century A.D. a tribe of the Firbolgs
(Clann Humoir) occupied the neighbouring mainland, and were enslaved
by Tuathal Teachtmar, a Scotic or Milesian monarch. In the seventh
century St. Colman founded the abbey in Knock-quarter. Thence to the
seventeenth, when (1652) the islands surrendered to the Parliamentary
forces, their history is a blank, and indeed they have been seldom men-
tioned since. Photographs of eleven men (including Michael Halloran,
‘King’ of Shark) and five women were taken, and also of the quern and
spinning-wheel, still in use, and the method of washing clothes.

11. Nince this report was in type, a collection of peculiarities of dialect
for Brettenham and Bildeston, in the county of Suffolk, made by Mr. C. G.
de Betham, has been received through Miss Layard.

12. The Committee would be glad to be able to make more rapil
progress with their work, the practicability and utility of which have,
they submit, been clearly shown in this and their previous report. The grant
of 10/. has been more than expended in printing, stationery, and postage,
and in procuring two sets of the cheaper forms of instruments for lending to
observers. They recommend that they be reappointed, and would be glad
if a grant could be made sufficiently liberal to enable them to provide for
the expenses that will be necessarily incurred if observations are to be
prosecuted in any sufficient number of the places which have been indi-
cated to them as suitable.

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*popmmour Ajouy (9) £ astvoo (v) { Barpuvqsyno (q) fae (Cy) : suv

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— “AITOGHHOS AO WUOs

I XIGNHddV

427

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Wypeorg [emosrg | yypeerg xvmoosoquy

WIpvorg,

q93u0T song aoddy

yqsueT

wMruR I
JO 4510,

peo Jo Ws |

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Suggs

surpueys

428 REPORT—1894,

APPENDIX II.
Directions for Measurement.

Instrument required for these measurements :—The ‘Traveller’s
Anthropometer, manufactured by Aston & Mander, 25 Old Compton
Street, London, W.C.; price 3/. 3s. complete; without 2-metre steel
measuring tape and box footpiece, 2/. 10s. With this instrument all the
measurements can be taken. In a permanent laboratory it will be found
convenient to have a fixed graduated standard for measuring the height,
or a scale affixed to a wall. For field work a tape measure may be tem-
porarily suspended to a rigid vertical support, with the zero just touching
the ground or floor. A 2-metre tape, a pair of folding callipers, a folding
square, all of which are graduated in millimetres, and a small set-square
can be obtained from Aston & Mander for 1/. 6s.; with this small
equipment all the necessary measurements can be taken.

Height Standing.—The subject should stand perfectly upright, with
his back to the standard or fixed tape, and his eyes directed horizontally
forwards. Care should be taken that the standard or support for the tape
is vertical. The stature may be measured by placing the person with his
back against a wall to which a metre scale has been affixed. The height
is determined by placing a carpenter’s square or a large set-square against
the support in such a manner that the lower edge is at right angles to the
scale ; the square should be placed well above the head, and then brought
down till its lower edge feels the resistance of the top of the head. The
observer should be careful that the height is taken in the middle line of the
head. If the subject should object to take off his boots, measure the
thickness of the boot-heel, and deduct it from stature indicated in boots.

Height Sitting.—¥or this the subject should be seated on a low stool
or bench, having behind it a graduated rod or tape with its zero level with
the seat ; he should sit perfectly erect, with his back well in against the
scale. Then proceed as in measuring the height standing. The square
should be employed here also if the tape against a wall is used.

Length of Cranium.—Measured with callipers from the most prominent
part of the projection between the eyebrows (glabella) to the most distant
point at the back of the head in the middle line. Care should be taken
to keep the end of the callipers steady on the glabella by holding it there
with the fingers, while the other extremity is searching for the maximum
projection of the head behind.

Breadth of Craniwm.—The maximum breadth of head, which is usually
about the level of the top of the ears, is measured at right angles to the
length. Care must be taken to hold the instrument so that both its points
are exactly on the same horizontal level.

Face Length.—This is measured from the slight furrow which marks
the root of the nose, and which is about the level of a line drawn from the
centre of the pupil of one eye to that of the other, to the under part of the
chin. Should there be two furrows, as is often the case, measure from
between them.

Upper Face Length.—F rom root of nose to the interval between the two
central front teeth at their roots.

Face Breadth.—Maximum breadth of face between the bony projections
in front of the ears. _

Inter-ocular Breadth.—Width between the internal angles of the eyes.
While this is being measured the subject should shut his eyes.

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 429

Bigonial Breadth.—Breadth of face at the outer surface of the angles.
of the lower jaw below the ears.

Nose Length.—From the furrow at root of nose to the angle between
the nose and the upper lip in the middle line.

Breadth of Nose.—Measured horizontally across the nostrils at the
widest part, but without compressing the nostrils.

Height of Head.—The head should be so held that the eyes look straight
forward to a point at the same level as themselves—i.e. the plane of vision
should be exactly horizontal. The rod of the Anthropometer should be
held vertically in front of the face of the subject, and the upper straight
arm should be extended as far as possible and placed along the middle
line of the head ; the shorter lower arm should be pushed up to the lower
surface of the chin. When measured with the square the depending bar
must be held vertically in front of the face (with the assistance of the
spirit-level or plumb-line), and the small set-square passed up this arm
from below in such a manner that its horizontal upper edge will come into
contact with the lower contour of the chin. The distance between the
lower edge of the horizontal bar of the square and the upper edge of the
set-square can be read off, and this will be the maximum height of the
head.

Height of Cranium.—The head being held in precisely the same manner
as in measuring the height of the head, the instrument is rotated to the
left side of the head, its upper bar still resting on the crown, and the
recording arm (or the set-square) is pointed to the centre of the line of
attachment of the small projecting cartilage in front of the ear-hole.

Nors.—It is essential that these rules should be strictly followed in
order to secure accuracy. All measurements must be made in millimetres.
If possible, the subject’s weight should be obtained, and recorded in the
place set apart for remarks. The observer is recommended to procure
‘Notes and Queries on Anthropology,’ 2nd edition, from the Anthropo-
logical Institute, 3 Hanover Square, London, W. ; net price, 3s. 6d.

APPENDIX III.

The Ethnographical Survey of Ireland.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. C. R. Browne, Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM, Dr. 8. Haueuron,
Professor E. PercevAL Wricut, and Professor A. C. Happon (Secre-
tary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

The following is a brief statement of the work done by the Committee
of the Ethnographical Survey of Ireland.

DUBLIN.

A note! on the steps then taken and the chief objects in view was
read before the Anthropological Institute in August 1891. In December
of the same year Dr. Browne made a communication 2 to the Royal Irish
Academy on some instruments.

1 Cunningham, D. J., and Haddon, A. C., The ‘ Anthropometric Laboratory of
Ireland,’ Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xxi. 1891, pp. 35—-38.:

2 Browne, C. R., ‘Some New Anthropometrical Instruments,’ Proc. Koy. Irish
Acad. [3], vol. ii. 1892, pp. 397-399, 2 figs.

430 REPORT—1894.

Measurements and observations have since then been continuously
made in the Anthropometric Laboratory in Trinity College, Dublin, and
up to the present time nearly 500 persons have been measured. The
tabulation of the results has been commenced.

The first ethnographical field excursion was to the Aran Islands in
Galway Bay. Instead of attention being confined to anthropometric data
it was deemed advisable to make a sociological study of the people as well.
The table of contents of the report ° as read before the Royal Irish Academy
on December 12, 1892, is as Sees :—‘I. Intropucrtion ; II. Prysio-
crapuy ; Il]. AnrHropocrapuy. 1. Methods : (4) Hair and Eye Colour,
(B) Head, Face, and Body Measurements, (c) Instruments aa (D) General
Remarks on Methods employed, (E) Photography. 2. (a) Physical
Characters, (B) Statistics of Hair and Eye Colour, (c) Detailed List of
Measurements, (p) Analysis of the Statistical Tables. 3. Vital Statistics
(General and Economic): (A) Population, (B) Acreage and Rental, (c)
Language and “TIlliterancy,” (D) Health. 4. Psychology. 5. Language,
Folk-names. ITV. Socrotoey. 1. Occupations ; 2. Kamily-life and Customs ;
3. Clothing ; 4. Dwellings ; 5. Transport. V. FouK-LorE ; VI. Arcamo-
Ltoey. 1. Survivals; 2. Christian Antiquities ; 3. Pagan Antiquities. VII.
History; VIII. Erunotocy ; 1X. Breriocrapny.’

The second expedition was to Inishbofin and Inishshark, islands off
the North Galway coast. The report,® which was on the same lines as the
previous one, was read before the Academy on November 30, 1894.

The craniology of the Irish has not been neglected by the Committee,
and accounts have been prec of crania from the Aran Islands,*
Inishbofin §, 9, and co. Tipperary.* Dr. W. Frazer also describes two
Trish crania in ‘ Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.’ [3], vol. ii. 1893, pp. 643-647.

For folk-lore papers °, °, 7, and ? may be consulted.

This summer Dr. Browne made a third expedition to the west coast of
Ireland, and has brought back a large series of measurements and obser-
vations from the district of Erris, in co. Mayo, which will be duly published
by the Royal Irish Academy.

BELFAST.

An ethnographical committee has been established in Belfast. An
account of its formation will be found in the ‘Annual Report and Pro-
ceedings of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club,’ iii, 1892-93, p. 542, and

8 Browne, C. R., ‘On some Crania from Tipperary,’ Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 1893,
pp. 649-654.

4 Haddon, A. C., ‘Studies in Irish Craniology: The Aran Islands, Co. Galway,
Ibid.. pp. 759-767.

5 Haddon, A. C., and Browne, C. R., ‘The Ethnology of the Aran Islands,
Co. Galway,’ Zbid., pp. 768-830, 1 fig. pls. xxii.—xxiv.

6 Haddon, A. C., ‘A Batch of Irish Folk-lore’ (with collections by Miss Emily
Fitzgerald, Miss Sinclair, Mr. D. H. Lane, Dr. C. R. Browne, Miss G. C. Campbell,
Miss A. Watson, and others), Folk-lore, vol. iv. 1893, pp. 349-364.

7 Haddon, A. C., ‘The Aran Islands, Co. Galway: A Study in Irish Ethnography,’
Trish Naturalist, vol. ii. 1893, pp. 303-308, pl. viii. (abstract of No. 5).

8 Haddon, A. C., ‘ Studies in Irish Craniology: II. Inishbofin, Co. Galway,’ Proc.
Roy. Ivish Acad. [3], vol. iii, 1894, pp. 311-316.

2 Browne, C. h., ‘The Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark, Co. Galway,’ Zbid.,
pp. 317-370, pls. vill, ix.

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 431

iv. 1893-94, p. 52. The half-dozen papers, '~°, that have been published
by the Belfast Committee are on purely folk-lore subjects. This energetic
club also studies local archeology, which is also, within limits, a branch of
ethnography. Since the Committee has been formed the following papers
have been published :—Gray, W., paper on ‘Worked Flints: Ancient
and Modern’ (vol. iii. pp. 548-569, 3 figs., pls. i—viii.) ; Dickson, J. M.,
‘Relative Antiquity of Rath, Cromleac, and Burial Tumulus, as evidenced
by some Ancient Remains near Dromore, Co. Down’ (vol. iv. pp. 55-70,
1 fig.) ; Bigger, F. J., ‘Prehistoric and Historic Forts and Raths in the
City and Vicinity of Belfast’ (iv. pp. 71-81, 4 plans). Mr. R, Welch, a
member of the Committee, is making a most valuable series of photographs
illustrative of the ethnography of Ireland, especially of Ulster.

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Report of the Committee consisting
of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Mr. A. BuULLEID (Secretary),
Professor W. Boyp Dawk1rys, General Pirt-Rivers, and Sir JoHN
Evans. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue work at the British lake village near Glastonbury has been much
retarded by the flood-water that accumulated during the winter, and by the
heavy rains during the spring. Digging had to be abandoned last autumn
a fortnight after the Association meeting at Nottingham, and it was not
until the early part of May this year that the water had fallen low
enough to allow a recommencement of the investigations ; even up to the
date of writing, July 10, it is still necessary to keep the pumps in daily
use. During the seasons of 1892 and 1893 the time was chiefly taken up
with the examination of fifteen dwelling mounds, and of the causeway
and other stone and timber structures in the peat outside the village
margin. This year, so far, has been occupied with tracing the village
border to the extent of 550 feet, or about one-third of its total circum-
ference ; and the investigations have not only brought to light much
valuable information relating to the size and shape of the village, but
have established the following facts :—

(a) That the village was originally surrounded by the water of a
shallow mere.

(6) That five feet of peat accumulated during its occupation.

(c) That a strong palisading of posts and piles protected the village.

(d) That the groundwork of the village, so far at least as its margin
is concerned, is artificial for the depth of five feet.

The palisading at the edge of the village is formed of piles three to
nine inches in diameter, and from five to eleven feet in length, kept
together by more or less coarse hurdle-work. Although in many places
the piles are much displaced and decayed, yet they form a fairly perfect
and continuous though irregular line—at some parts they are placed so

1 Bigger, F. J., ‘Local Folk-lore, Belfast Nat. Field Club, Ann. Rep. and Proc.
[2], vol. iii. 1892-93, pp. 545-548.

2 Mollan, Lily S., ‘ Pishogues from Tipperary,’ Zdid., pp. 571-573.

3 Patterson, W. H., ‘ Irish Fairies,’ Zdid., pp. 573-583.

4 Blair (Mrs.), ‘ Items of Folk-lore, principally from Co. Down,’ Jbid., pp. 583-586.

5 Patterson, Clara M., ‘A Few Children’s Games,’ JZbid., vol. iv. 1892-94,
pp. 48-52.

6 Gray, W., ‘Our Holy Wells: A Folk-lore Chapter,’ Zbid., pp. 86-95.

A432, REPORT— 1894.

closely together that from fifty to seventy have been counted in the space
of ten feet. The majority slope outwards, having the appearance ot
chevauc de frise, at angles varying with the state of preservation of the
border ; but a large proportion of them were undoubtedly driven in
vertically, and have been either broken off or gradually forced out into
their present position. Some piles barely reach the true peat, whilst
others pierce it for several feet ; occasionally a few vertical piles are still
seen among the slanting : these probably show repairs to the border.

The border of the village has a very irregular outline, the piles being
arranged in varying curves: this unevenness has been proved in some places
to be due to extension of the village. The surface of the border immedi-
ately inside the piles is formed of trunks of trees and large pieces of
timber placed side by side parallel to the margin, and reaching eight to
twelve feet inwards ; underneath these more timber is found, alternating
with layers of clay and brushwood, with which are intermingled patches
of stone, peat, rush, and bracken to the depth of five feet.

Numerous and important objects have been unearthed this season
from the peat outside the village at all depths down to seven feet three
inches, and as far as eighty feet from the village border. Pottery—hand
and wheel made—clay pellets (so-called sling-stones), baked and unbaked,
and bones of animals are still met with at all points in great quantities.
Recently a decorated wheel-made bowl of black ware has been found in
perfect preservation and highly finished, four inches high, and five inches
across the rim, besides numerous other pieces of pottery elaborately
marked with designs of circles, curved and flowing lines, and triangles.
Many of these fragments are doubtless capable of reconstruction.

lint.— Besides several scrapers, one good arrow-head.

Bronze.—The find of greatest importance in this metal has been a
well-preserved bowl measuring 44 inches across the rim. It is made of
two pieces riveted together : the outside decoration consists of the row of
rivet-heads or bosses almost an inch below the rim, and two fine lines of
punched work near the edge ; the under surface is semicircular, and a hole
in it had been evidently made good by riveting on a small piece. Amongst
the other objects of bronze are two more spiral finger-rings and a pen-
annular ring brooch.

Iron.—Of this metal there is a reaping hook, together with its wooden
handle, sixteen inches in length, and a primitive sickle with riveted wood
handle complete, in length ten inches.

Lead.—A spindle whorl decorated with three parallel lines, and a
flattened dise or weight of about one and a quarter inch in diameter.

Bones.—More human remains have been met with this year than pre-
viously, including a complete skull showing several sword or axe-marks :
no other bones belonging to the body were discovered near it.

Professor Boyd Dawkins has examined the sample of animal bones
forwarded to him, and among them he has found the following mammals
and birds represented :—

Domestic Mammals Domestic Birds
Bos longifrons Gallus domesticus
Capra hircus

Ovis aries

Sus scrofa

Equus caballus
Canis familiaris

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE

Wild Mammals

Felis catus ferus
Lutra vulgaris

? Canis lupus
Sus scrofa ferus
Castor fiber
Cervus elaphus

AT GLASTONBURY.

Wild Birds

Crane abundant
Swan abundant
Heron

Diver, species ?
Mallard

Grebe

433

Cervus capreolus
Arvicola amphibia

Many very interesting objects have been found this year made of
cut wood, amongst them being seventeen pieces of a mortised frame-
work, probably part of a second loom, another having been found last
summer.

Portions of a small stave-made bucket with decorated side. The
greater part of a solid cut tub in fragments, six inches high, and about
twelve inches in diameter, the outside decoration being of a very bold and
beautiful description.

Part of the axle of a wheel, with bases of two spokes in situ. The
length of the axle is fourteen inches, its diameter six inches, and the length
of a spoke being twelve inches. The whole is of light construction and
of perfect workmanship, and was probably a potter’s wheel.

A large font-shaped block of timber, three feet high and two feet in
diameter. The top is flat, showing complete impressions of the sharp
edge of the axe with which it was cut.

Unbaked clay pellets, or so-called sling-stones, have been found in
hundreds, and among the other things dug out of the peat are spindle
whorls, quern stones, wattle, and crevice-marked clay, and portions of
loom weights. The bones of animals have been met with in such quantities
in some places that a wheel-barrow full has been obtained from a square
yard of peat.

The botanical specimens have been submitted to Mr. J. G. Baker,
F.R.S., of Kew, who has kindly given the following report, and further
specimens are to be forwarded to him.

‘Report on the peat from the British village at Glastonbury :—

‘ Leaves.—It contained abundant leaves of Salix cinerea, a species
everywhere abundant in Britain at the present time, not restricted to
damp places. On some of the leaves were found Rhytisma Salicinum, a
minute fungus. There were a few leaves of Myrica Gale.

‘ Twigs.—Probably these belong to Salia cinerea.

‘ Seeds.—The abundantseeds represent three genera—Ranunculus, Pota-
mogeton, and Carex. All these are large genera, and it is impossible to
say which species they represent. Potamogeton indicates a lake or pool.

‘ Altogether the peat contains nothing whatever that might not be
found living in the surrounding district at the present time.’

Very careful and accurate notes are taken of everything that is found,
and all piles, posts, large pieces of timber, and stone are marked on the
plans ; the depth at which important objects are found is also noted, and
photographs are taken and drawings made.

There still remain two-thirds of the village border to be traced, and
nearly fifty dwelling mounds and about five-sixths of the entire village
area to be examined,

1894. FF

434 REPORT—1894.

All the objects that it has been possible to move to the Glastonbury
Museum have already been placed and arranged there in the cases’; but
the finest specimens of cut woodwork are of too perishable a nature to be
kept in the museum, and are at present kept in zinc troughs at Mr.
Bulleid’s house.

Physical and Mental Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Public Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir DouGcLas Garon (Chairman), Dr. FRancis
Warner (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Dr. Garson, Mr.
G. W. Bioxam, and Dr. WILBERFORCE SMITH. (Report drawn up
by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX PAGH
I. Certificate as to a Child requiring Special Educational Training . . 437

II. Statistical Report concerning 50,000 Children z ; : : . 437
Ill. Distribution of the Cases seen as to Standards ; 5 5 : . 438

THE Committee, acting in conjunction with a Committee appointed for
the same purpose by the International Congress of Hygiene and Demo-
graphy, are now able to report on 50,000 children seen individually in
sixty-three schools by Dr. Francis Warner, 1892-94.

The methods of examination employed, and the points observed, were
described fully in our last report. A complete actuarial investigation of
the 8,941 children deviating from the normal in some respect, of whom
notes were taken, isin hand. Some portions of the statistical results are
appended. The general conclusions arrived at, and recommendations
founded on the observations, are now given.

It is quite possible to report on any group of children, or group of
schools, as to the physical and mental conditions most prevalent among
them, and to compare these with an established average.

Groups of children, arranged according to their physical condition,
may be traced through the educational standards of the school, thus
showing that unconsciously those of defective body and brain condition
remain mostly in the lower standards, and are frequently over age for the
standard in which they are found.

The ages at which the children present certain physical and nerve-
irregularities can be traced, thus affording a basis for the determination
of the age-prevalence of defective conditions, and the most frequent ages
at which they appear and disappear.

The general results of detailed study of the conditions of school
children show that—

There is a large group of children who appear to need special care and
training, including the crippled, maimed, deformed, and paralysed ; children
mentally deficient or presenting some deficiency ; and epileptics:—Boys,
157; Girls, 147.

To these may be added children constitutionally weak and dull, making
altogether about sixteen per 1,000 of the child population. As to methods
of reporting and certifying these cases, see last paragraph of this report.

Defects in development indicate inherited and congenital tendency to
delicacy, both of body and in brain action ; they are extremely frequent
in all classes of society, not least so among the upper social grades. It

PHYSICAL DEVIATIONS AMONG CHILDREN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 435

appears probable that, to a great extent, such defects may be rendered less
numerous among the population by hygienic care with regard to buildings,
light and air, &e.

As to children presenting irregularities of the nerve-system, their
careful training may do much to prevent them from growing up perma-
nently nervous or mentally dull. Many children unconsciously imitate
habits of listlessness, inattention, carelessness, and even the appearances
of fatigue and hysteria from one another, or from their teachers.

The knowledge gained renders it possible to indicate the kind of
training adapted to any case described. This particularly applies to the
nerve-signs, or irregularities in nerve-action recorded. After pointing out
to the teacher the irregularities present in the child, so that their increase
or decrease can be watched during class work, indications may be given as
to the best modes of removing these special nervous and mental defects.
That such explanations may be understood by the teachers it is very
desirable that they should receive some special instruction. Economy in
the labour of teachers might thus be effected, and better educational
results obtained.

School organisation by the teachers is mainly founded upon their
experience of the child’s mental ability and work in school. This takes
time, and frequently a new pupil is not placed in a suitable standard till
some weeks of experience show the child’s mental capacity. A knowledge
of the points observed in this inquiry might facilitate the responsible work
of classification for educational purposes.

Two standards frequently, though not always, met with in a school
call for special remark. In Standard 0, or Primers, the children are col-
lected who, being over age for the infant school, are still too backward
for Standard I. In Standard Ex. VII. we find the children who have
passed through the ordinary classes of the school. The experience of
hospital physicians and many philanthropic societies shows that neglect of
feeble-minded children of all grades leads to much social evil. The blind
and the deaf are happily now cared for under the provisions of the Ele-
mentary Education Act, 1893, and teachers are specially trained for this
work ; but the children of the various grades of feebleness short of imbecility,
children who present a deficiency, are in many schools unwelcome, and no
encouragement is given to school authorities to collect and care for them ;
they are an incumbrance if not properly provided for, and untrained they
tend to social failure, pauperism, and criminality. Mere accumulations of
dull children in a certain class, whether a class of Primers, or in a lower
section of Standard III. for older children, may make the other class-
rooms brighter, but, when children below average power are accumulated,
there arises a greater responsibility for their individual care, which must
be met by the provision of a sufficient staff of specially trained teachers.
Scientific advice as to the management of deficient children is useful, but
teachers must carry out the details of special training. Nurses for the
sick are now highly trained and well paid ; they take an intelligent in-
terest in the patients ; the more difficult the case, and the more attention
it requires, the greater are their interest and desire for success. Training
of teachers for the care of the more difficult children, and honour for the
hard work of improving feeble children, may cultivate a higher professional
interest among a body of skilled teachers trained to the charge of feeble
children. Considerable success has been achieved in training the blind
and the deaf, and a large proportion of the feeble children are improvable.

FF 2

436 REPORT—1894.

Secondary education tends to accentuate the difficulties arising from
the classification of children solely according to mental status. In
elementary schools of higher grade, a boy entering Standard I. in the
upper school is unacceptable unless he can work well ; after a certain age,
the dull boy cannot conveniently be kept in the infant school; he is too
big. He must then either be kept among the infants, for whom he is not
good company, or go among classmates with whom he cannot profitably
work. To meet such cases it often happens that there is a class of
Primers, but without any special arrangements for individual culture.
In such schools the brighter children are well educated; at fourteen they
get the prizes of the school and enter social life at an advantage; the dull
children have not only been left comparatively uncultured, but by raising
a class distinctly superior to themselves, they find the struggle for existence
becoming intensified.

In all public expenditure, sums of money spent in secondary education
should be accompanied by a proportional expenditure for the benefit of
the dull and weak children. This is equivalent to the enactment which
requires that schemes for the sanitary improvement of a neighbourhood,
while providing good new dwellings, should also make provision for the
poorer population displaced thereby. The child of good inheritance in
brain power receives free education, and in consequence makes the dull
child’s life more difficult. The public interest requires that each child
shall be trained to get a living.

Recommendations :—

That a scientific statement of all observable conditions of child-life—
including elementary anthropometric examination—should be prepared by
observation of at least 100,000 children.

That School Boards, in taking their triennial census of children in
their district, should register any mentally defective children, or children
otherwise afflicted.

That teachers should be specially trained to undertake the educational
care of weak and mentally feeble children.

That lectures should be provided on the observation, study, and
classification of children as to conditions bearing on mental life and
education. This might consist of an elementary course and of University
teaching.

That the Act to make better Provision for the Elementary Education
of Blind and Deaf Children in England and Wales [56 and 57 Vict.],
chap. 42, should be extended to include children with mental and bodily
defects incapacitating them from ordinary school instruction.

That in the appropriation of funds for secondary education a propor-
tional sum should be devoted to the special training of the dull and feeble.

That the Government be recommended to consult a scientific expert
to assist the Education Department, the Local Government Board, and
the Home Office in carrying out the above recommendations, and to report
upon the whole subject generally as to the care of children whose education
is supervised by the Government.

A form suggested for certification of a feeble-brained or defective
child as requiring exceptional training is appended. Another certificate
by a school teacher might be required if the child is attending school.

The Committee desire to be reappointed as before, and ask a further
grant in aid of the work.

PHYSICAL DEVIATIONS AMONG CHILDREN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 437

APPENDIX I.

Certificate as to a Child requiring Special Educational Training.
To be filled in by a Medical Officer.

Name of child_
Age
Address E
Physical health and eondition AA _____
Developmental defects
Nervous defects
Defects in mental power
Facts communicated by others
(stating from whom)
Opinion and recommendation as to the case
Date (Signed) Medical Officer

APPENDIX II.
Statistical Report concerning 50,000 Children examined 1892-94.

(Boys 26,287. Girls 23,713.)
Boys Girls

Total number of children a by teachers as dull at

lessons 5 . 2,074 1,634
Total number of children. reported as pale, thin, or delicate . 749 770
‘Total number of children with nerve-signs . 2,853 2.015
Tota! number of children Ree a defect in development

of body . 2,308 1,618
Children with low constitutional power, delicate, and dull : 80 79
Children crippled, maimed, paralysed; those of defective

mental development, and yuet with history of fits

during school life 5 : 6 5 alay( 147
‘Children using glasses and with eye defects . : - a 114 715
Children with defects of cranium . : : : : 5 FANE 622
Children with defects of palate : : ; ; : eG 324
‘Children with defects of external ears. 5 : > . 664 110
Children with defect in development of body only . : 802 445
Children with defect in development of body and nerve-

signs only . 415 207
Children with defect i in development of pody and low nutri-

134 162

tiononly . :
Children with defect i in development of body and dull only . _ 394 314
Children with defect in development of body with nerve-

signs and low nutrition only. 3 69 T7
With defect in development, nerve-signs, and dull only . . 3823 224
With defect in development, low nutrition, anddull only. 91 110
With defect in development, low nutrition, nerve-signs, and

dul. - : ” . : ; 3 - - : 80 79
Total number of children with some defect in development

inbody . F : = : : : - : . 2,308 1,618
Children with abnormal nerve-signs only : . 1,059 762
Children with abnormal nerve-sigus and low nutrition only ome 6 109
‘Children with abnormal nerve-signs and dull only . 703 487
Children with abnormal nerve-signs, low nutrition, and dull

only . ‘ 3 89 70
Children pale, thin, or delicate (low nutrition) only : om 208 110
Children on low nutrition and dull only . 5 ; > 53

Children reported as dull only without other defect . » dol 297
Total number of cases reported in this inquiry with a defect 5,112 3,829

1894,

REPORT

438

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ON ANTHROPOMETRIC WORK IN SCHOOLS. 439

Anthropometric Work in Schools.—Report of a Committee, con-
sisting of Professor JoHN CLELAND (Chairman), Mr. G. W.
Buioxam, Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A.
MAcaLisTER, and Professor B. WINDLE (Secretary). (Drawn wp
by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX I.— Circular sent to Schools * - 440

APPENDIX II.— Suggestions for Anthropometric Observations in Schools . 441
In order to ascertain in what schools anthropometric work was being
carried on, and in what manner, also what prospect there was of further
development in this direction, a circular was prepared, a copy of which is
subjoined to this report (Appendix I.).

This circular, together with a letter asking that it might be filled up
and returned, and a stamped and directed envelope, was sent to 624 schools
—495 for boys and 129 for girls. The former included all those given in
‘Whitaier’s Almanack.’ The latter were the schools whose mistresses
belong to the Association of Head Mistresses of Endowed and Pro-
prietary Schools. A large number of these institutions did not reply, but
398 returns were obtained—viz. 309 boys’ and 89 girls’ schools.

The results obtained from these returns are as follows :—

1, Measurements are taken in 58 schools, of which 11 are for girls
and 47 for boys.

2. By whom taken :—

a. Master or mistress . ° 20
6. Medical attendant . ‘ ‘ Aaa #3)
e. Drill or gymnastic instructor . , by | gee
d. Other official . : : 3 k JE 3:

e. Not stated : : : . : «ati
3. How often taken :—

At entrance . . ‘ : . 2 cases
Annually. s : . ; De,
Twice a year , ; 3 ; a Oa
Three times a year ; ; : Pai
Four times a year ; ‘ : . 1 case
Six times a year . , : ; . 11 cases
Not stated . : : : F eee,
4, Observations taken :—
Girls’ Boys’
Schools. Schools.

Height . . . 9 42,
Weight . A : 7 33
Chest-girth , ‘ 5 36
Length of arm . 1 4
Girth of arm 1 14
Length of forearm 1 3
Girth of forearm 1 19
Size of head 3 4
Eyesight 6 8
Hearing 3 yi

440 REPORT—1894.

Girls’ Boys’
Schools. Schools.
Colour-blindness ‘ ; : wee 1

Strength of grasp 2 1
Lifting power 1 2
5. How taken :—

Height in boots. : 4
is gymnastic shoes 9
ss socks ; ; ; aie
ss bare feet ; : : : 5 fea

Weight in ordinary clothes Le
» gymnastic clothes . 21
5, naked . : ; 2

Chest-girth in ordinary clothes : - Pu

as gymnastic clothes . : Sey

Ct Aetetcerien Oe TT aES Seep ate aE

6. Reports are sent to parents either regularly, occasionally, or at
leaving from 15 schools.

7. Calculations are published in two instances.

Eighty-six schools responded in the affirmative to the eighth question,
and a few others provisionally upon the expense not being too heavy.

In response to the requests made by the masters and mistresses of
these schools, and by others who did not express any intention of carrying
out the work, but were desirous of ascertaining what might be done in this
direction, a circular of suggestions for carrying out anthropometric obser-
vations was prepared, and has been sent to 162 schoo!s (this circular forms
Appendix IT.). In preparing this circular the Committee had the valu-
able assistance of Mr. Priestley Smith in the portion relating to vision,
and Mr. Frank Marsh in that respecting hearing ; and they desire to record
their indebtedness to these gentlemen.

APPENDIX I.
CIRCULAR SENT TO SCHOOLS.

A.—Are systematic measurements carried out upon the
in School ?
If so—
1. By whom ?
2. How often ?
3. What are they ?

Height Size of head
Weight Eyesight
Chest-girth Hearing

Length of arm Colour-blindness
Girth of arm Strength of grasp
Length of forearm Lifting power

Girth of forearm
(Please erase those not in use.)

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC WORK IN SCHOOLS. 441

4. How are they taken ?

(a) Height in boots
gymnastic shoes
socks
bare feet

”

(>) Weight in ordinary clothes
a gymnastic clothes
» naked

(c) Chest-girth in ordinary clothes
” gymnastic clothes
+ naked

(In each case, please erase the methods not adopted.)

5. Are reports sent to parents ?
6. Are any calculations published ?
7. If so, can you favour me with a recent copy ?

8. In the event of other schools consenting to do so, would you be
prepared to give your adhesion to a scheme by which the same measure-
ments should be carried out in an identical manner throughout the
country, seeing that such a course would greatly add to the value of the
results obtained ?

B.—In the event of no measurements being now carried out, will you
be good enough to inform me whether there is any prospect of your
undertaking such work, and, if so, whether I can be of any assistance to
you in indicating the best methods and appliances ?

APPENDIX II.
SUGGESTIONS FOR ANTHROPOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS IN SCHOOLS.

Group A.—Essential Observations.

I. Heicutr.—To be taken in socks or stockings. The subject should
stand perfectly upright, the head held so that the line of vision is
horizontal—that is, the eyes directed horizontally forwards to a point on
the same level as their pupils. Any good sliding rod may be used, such
as the Laboratory Stadiometer, supplied by Messrs. Aston & Mander,
25 Old Compton Street, Soho, London. (Price 2/. 2s.)

II. Weieur.—To be taken in gymnastic clothes where possible ; a
spring balance should not be used. A good machine is supplied by
Messrs. W. & T. Avery, of Birmingham (No. 139, special cash price,
without chair or rod, 3/. 15s.). The measuring-rod attached to it should
not be purchased.

III. Cuest-cirta (for boys only).—To be taken over the naked
chest with a Chesterman’s steel tape (price 5s. 6d., Bailey & Co.,
Bennett’s Hill, Birmingham) in the following manner:—(1) The boy
stands upright, with the arms stretched from the sides, the measurer
standing behind him. (2) The tape is placed over the chest immediately

442 REPORT—1894..

above the nipples, and with the lower edge touching them; it is then
brought horizontally round the chest walls, over the blade-bones to the
back. The zero of the tape should rest on the spine. (3) The boy drops
his arms. (4) Takes a deep breath. (5) Counts slowly from one to ten.
(6) At the word ‘ten’ the measurer draws the tape tight and records the
measurement. When this is done, care should be taken to see that the
tape is exactly horizontal both in front and behind.

The above measurements should be taken twice (or, if desired, thrice)
annually.

IV. Tests or Viston.—These tests will serve to detect the presence
of certain common defects of vision. Such defects are often overlooked
or disregarded, to the permanent detriment of the pupil. The tests will
not reveal the nature or cause of a defect. This can only be determined
by an expert.

(a) AcuTENESS oF Vision.—(1) Hang on the wall, in a good light, a
set of Snellen’s Test Letters ; these are in general use, and afford records
which can be universally compared. Vo others should be substituted for
them. (2) Draw a line on the floor at a distance of exactly six metres
from the letters, and let each pupil in turn toe this line and try to read
the letters, line after line, beginning at the top; in all cases without
spectacles or eye-glasses. Each eye is to be tested separately, the other
eye being covered, but not pressed upon, by a large card held in the pupil’s
hand. (3) Record the vision of each eye separately in the form of a
fraction ; for instance, thus :—

Ln Vie =85

The numerator is in all cases 6—i.e. the distance of the letters in metres ;
the denominator is the number which stands over the lowest line of letters
which can be read. When the vision is less than ;%, it should be recorded
by the appropriate sign—viz. V < 8. (4) Take care that the pupils
have no opportunity of learning the letters by rote.

Norr.—When the vision of either eye is found to be represented by a
fraction having a denominator of more than 18, it will generally be
desirable to report the fact to the parent or guardian, in order that proper
advice may be obtained, such report being omitted if this has already
been done.

(6) Cotour Viston.—(1) Use Holmgren’s Series of Coloured Wools.
(2) Place them in a heap on a white cloth, in a good light. (3) Lay,
apart from the heap, the test skein—a pale, pure green. (4) Explain to
the pupil that he is to select from the heap and place beside the test
skein all those which appear to him to be of the same kind of colour.
Do not require him to name them or match them exactly, but to select
those which are most nearly like the test-skein in colour. (5) Mix the
wools again for each pupil, but always use the pale pure green as the test.

A certain number of the pupils—boys, very rarely girls—will match
the test-skein falsely with buffs, pinks, and other colours which have no
green tint, or will hesitate much before rejecting such. These pupils are
more or less colour-blind, and are thereby permanently unfitted for
vocations on land or sea which require good colour vision. Record
the defect.

Norr.—<Ascertain by this same test that the person who conducts the
colour-testing is not himself colour-blind. Such cases have been known.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC WORK IN SCHOOLS. 443

The Acuteness of Vision of each pupil should be tested once a year,
since certain defects of eye-sight commonly begin during school life.

The test for Colour Vision need not be repeated, since colour-blindness,
except that which occurs with disease of the eye, is congenital, not
acquired.

The test-letters (price 4s. 6d. framed) and coloured wools (price
4s. 6d.) may be obtained from Messrs. Bailey & Co., Bennett’s Hill,
Birmingham, or other makers of optical instruments.

V. Hearine (Voice Zest).—(1) Instruct the pupil to close the eyes
and to repeat any words spoken by the observer. (2) The observer
should stand at the opposite side of the room and say words for the pupil
to repeat, pitching his voice in an ordinary conversational tone. (3) The
observer should gradually approach the pupil until he is distinctly heard.
(4) The distance should be compared with that at which words, uttered
in the same tone, are heard by a person of known good hearing. (5) In
order to test the hearing power of each ear separately, the pupil should
stop one with his finger whilst the other is being examined.

(Watch Test)—(1) The greatest distance at which the tick of the
watch to be used can be heard must be ascertained by testing with it a
person of known good hearing. (The hearing distance of an English
lever watch is about 60 inches.) (2) Let the pupil close his eyes, stop
the left ear with his finger. (3) Instruct him to say when he first hears
the tick. (4) The observer stands at the pupil’s right side, holding the
watch owtside the range of hearing and on a level with the pupil’s ear.
(5) He gradually brings the watch nearer to the pupil until the tick is
distinctly heard. (6) The left ear should then be tested in the same
manner. (7) The two distances and the hearing distance of the watch
should be recorded in inches. Thus, if the hearing distance of the watch
be 60 inches, and the pupil hears it with the right ear at 40 inches, and
with the left at 25, the result should be recorded as

R. 48
L. &3

These fractions must noé be reduced to their lowest term. The watch
method is the better, but more troublesome. If used for children, it
must be repeated two or three times at the same examination, as the
statements are often unreliable. The same watch must always be used.

Norr.—Inattention in children is often due to deafness. In all cases
of deafness, the attention of the parent should be called to the necessity
for treatment, especially if (a) there is a discharge of matter from the
ears, or (b) the pupil seems always to have a cold, or (c) constantly
breathes through the mouth instead of the nose. Observations as to
hearing should be made twice annually.

ho >|
Sik

Group B.—WNon-essential Observations.

Other valuable observations are—(1) size of head ; (2) span of arms ;
(3) length of trunk. These observations can be rapidly and easily
taken ; but in order to avoid over-burdening this circular, no instructions
respecting them are here given. Any person desirous of carrying them
out will receive full instructions by applying to the Secretary of the
Committee,

Proressor WINDLE, D.Sc., M.D.,
MAson COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM.

4.4.4, REPORT—1894.

Anthropometric Laboratory.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir W. H. Flower (Chairman), Dr. J. G. Garson (Secretary),
Mr. G. W. Bioxam, Dr. WILBERFORCE SMITH, Professor A. C.
Happon, and Professor WINDLE.

THE Committee have to report that at the Nottingham meeting of the
Association an excellent laboratory was provided for them in the Univer-
sity College buildings, where many of the Sections met. The services of
a clerk were as usual placed at the disposal of the Committee, and by the
kind permission of Mr. Francis Galton those of the superintendent of his
laboratory at South Kensington were again available for measuring the
members of the Association who visited the laboratory.

The schedule of observations and measurements made on each person
examined included the sex, age, birthplace, residence, occupation, colour
of eyes and of hair, profile of nose ; height when sitting, kneeling, and
standing ; vertical projection from the vertex of the head to tragus, mouth,
and chin; maximum antero-posterior length and transverse breadth of
head, from which the cephalic index is obtained ; the length and breadth
of the nose, which gives the data for the nasal index ; the nasio-mental
length of face and the bizygomatic or maximum face breadth, from which
the facial index has been calculated; length of upper limb from the
acromion to the tip of middle finger; length of cubit and of hand (right);
breadth of shoulders (bihumeral) and of hips (bitrochanteric); span of
arms ; weight in ordinary clothing ; strength of grasp ; vital capacity of
the chest, strength of vision, sense of colour. This last was tested, in
conformity with the recommendations of the Committee of the Royal Society
on the subject, with coloured wools. The colour of eyes and hair was
noted in accordance with Dr. Beddoe’s method, which has been adopted
for the Ethnographical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland.

The attention of the Committee has been called by Professor Edge-
worth to the fact that the ‘corrected mean’ of each measurement as given
in the reports of former years is not satisfactory, in that it assumes the
dimension at the 25th and 75th grades—i.e. at the first and third quartile—
{Q, and Q;), to be more accurate than that at the 50th grade (ie. Q,).
He has supplied them with a simple formula wherein the probable error
at all three grades is taken into account. After several tests the superior
accuracy of Professor Edgeworth’s formula has been proved, and has been
adopted in this report. His formula may be stated as follows :—

Corrected pee ee If the sum of Q,+Q, is greater
than 2Q,, the difference is divided by 3-2, and the result is added to Q, ;
but if the sum of 2Q, is greater than Q, + Q,, the latter is deducted from
the former, the difference divided by 3°2, and the product subtracted
from Q,.

Since the close of the meeting the observations recorded during it have
been carefully worked up, under the direction of the Secretary, after the
plan which has been adopted in former years. Progress has also been made
in amalgamating the results of all the Association laboratory statistics,
which now amount to about 1,000. ;

The Committee are glad to be able to report that the measurements
made in the laboratory of the Association for the last seven years have
been of material service to Her Majesty’s Government in connection with

ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 445

the anthropometric system of identification of criminals, which is about to
be established in England. They have also been of use in comparing
observations made on native races of different countries, and determining
their deviation from or agreement with British people. The Committee
seek to be reappointed, and to have the grant usually made to them
continued.

The following are the results of the observations made on members of
the Association who presented themselves at the laboratory during the
course of the Nottingham meeting—

Number.—100 males and 55 females were measured, making a total
of 155.

Age.—The age of the males whose measurements are included in this
report varied from 17 to 75 years. Of these five were under 20 years ;
Jifteen were 20 and under 30 years ; twenty-one were 30 and under 40
years ; twenty-two were 40 and under 50 years; fowrteen were 50 and.
under 60 ; thirteen were 60 and under 70; six were between 70 and 75
years of age.

The ages of the females varied from 18 to 69 years. One was under
20 years (18); twenty-one were 20 and under 30 ; twenty-three were 30
and under 40 ; four were 40 and under 50 ; three were 50 and under 60 ;
three were 60 and under 70 years of age.

DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS.

1. Colour of Eyes.—Dividing the colour of the eyes into the three
divisions of dark, medium or neutral, and light, the observations were as.
follows :—

Light Medium Dark

No. of Cases} Per cent. |No. of Cases} Per cent. |No. of Case:| Per cent.

Males rs 64 64 16 16:0 20 20:0
Females . 22 40 24 33°6 9 164 |

2. Colour of Hair.—Dividing the colour of the hair into similar
classes, the following are the results :—

ie Light Medium Dark
= No. of Cases} Per cent. |No. of Cases} Per cent. |No. of Cases! Per cent.
Males 2 31 36:5 32 37°6 22 259
Females . 11 21°6 23 45:1 iy 33°3 |

3. Colour of Eyes and Hair combined.—The following is the colour of
hair found in connection with the three shades into which the colour of
eyes is divided :—

Eyes Light Medium Dark

Hair E, wherhe! | Dee el De Se MS |).
Males. . .|i26 | 25 | 4 4 5 5 1 p pee |
Females 6 | oa 5 9 7 0 5 3 |
| h

446 REPORT—1894.
4, Outline Form of Nose.

— | Straight Aquiline Concave |High-bridged | Sinuous | Total
Males 65 2 4 4 25 100
Females. 43 2 1 1 8 55

MEASUREMENTS.

1. Statwre.—As in former years the stature was measured as the
person stood in his boots, but the thickness of the heel has in each case
been deducted so as to get as nearly as possible the true height. The
stature of the males and females at the different quartiles, according to
Mr. Galton’s method, and the probable deviation (indicated by the
letter Q), which is half the difference between the first and third quartile,
are as follows :—

Males.

Females Uae) 1612:5

= | 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75th Grade | Q | Corrected Mean |
—— | — | —
|
- | 1656°8

l
| |
| | |

1675-0 17190 | 1759-0 42-0 | 17177 |
| | 41-6 | 1614/1 |

2. Height when Sitting.—This gives the length of the trunk of the
body including the head and neck, and is as follows :-——

= 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Males. : 2 8759 897°7 924:0 25°
Females. y 835°6 850:0 879°3 2

3. Height when Kneeling.—This measurement, along with the two
previous ones, enables us to calculate the amount contributed to the
height by the thigh, and by the leg from the knee downwards.

= 25th Grade 50th Grade | 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean |

Males: bee) TBO Gre) A orE7 | 1813-0 31:2 1279°8
Memielesitas ist tess | 12168 | 12459 28-8 1217-0

4. Length of Lower Limbs.—This is obtained by subtracting the sitting
height from the stature ; the difference between these two measurements
gives the amount contributed to the total height of the lower limbs.

25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade | Q Corrected Mean

Le = | (som
Males. F : 7830 | 813°4 8 27-0 8
Females . tf tf

5, Length of Thigh Portion of the Lower Limb.—This is obtained by
subtracting the length of leg and height of foot from the length of the
lower limbs :—

= 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75th Grade | Q | Corrected Mean |

Males care 358-0 372-2 | 391°3
Females . 342-4 358°5 |

16°6 373°7
361°8

ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 447

6. Length of Leg, including Height of Foot.—This is obtained by sub-
tracting the height when kneeling from the total stature :—

— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Miles. 417° 432°8 453-0 | 176 434-4
fotales 374-4 3963 | 4113 | 18-4 394-2

7. Proportion which the Limbs bear to the Trunk.—This is obtained by
reducing the length of the trunk of the body (including the head and neck)
and the length of the limbs to percentage terms, the former being taken as
100. Each body and limb length is worked out by the following formula :

Limb length x 100
Body length

which gives the Limb to Trunk Index. The several indices are then treated
in the same manner as other measurements and indices, so as to show the
index at the different grades :—

— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Males : : 86°6 89°5 92°9 3°1
Females. : 84:3 88°6 91°8 37 88°3

The proportion which the limbs bear to the trunk in males of 1,828 mm.
(6 feet) and upwards, of whom there are seven, at the 50th grade of this
small series is 89-5, or exactly the same as at the 50th grade of the whole
series of males. This series may be termed the tall class. In a series of
six males whose stature is 1,613 mm. and under (5 feet 35 inches), it is
at the 50th grade 86-5, which is practically the same as at the 25th grade
of the whole series. Hence the lower limbs in the series of short men are
proportionately somewhat shorter to the body length than in the tall
series ; but it cannot be said that in the latter series it is on account of the
lower limbs being longer proportionately to the trunk length that the tall
persons of the group owe their extra stature to. Both series are too small,
however, to base any reliable conclusions upon.

8. Proportions which the Trunk and Lower Limbs bear to the Statwre.—
The proportions contributed by the different parts of the body which go
to make up its total stature are as follows :—

Males. Females.

(a) Trunk with the head and neck A . 523 percent. 53:0 per cent.

(6) Lower limbs from the level of

the tuber ischia downwards ‘ ee EE ‘ 47:0 as

Petals tease. saxtie. Teton 100°0

The lower limb length, representing 47-7 per cent. of the stature in the
males and 47 per cent. in the females, is made up as follows :—

Ma’es. Females.
Thigh portion . ° ° » 22;°2 percent. 22:4 por cent,

Ae
Leg and height of foot . . 25:5 “a 24°6

Ee ee ee nee bc 47-0

448 REPORT—1894.

9. Vertical Projection or Height of the Head.—The vertical distance
from the vertex of the head to the under-surface of the chin is as
follows :—

— 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Males z F 205°3 212:5 221:8 8
Females . : 2021 2102 217°5 T

10. Vertical Length from Vertex to Mouth.—This is measured to the
line of junction of the upper and lower lips, and corresponds to the junc-
tion of the upper and lower incisor teeth :—

= 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Males : “ 161:0 170°0 178-0 85 169°7
Females. a 160°7 169-4 1776 8-4 169°3

By subtracting this measurement from the former the vertical depth
of the chin is obtained. Using the corrected means of the two measure-
ments for this purpose, the depth of chin in the males is 43-4 mm., and in
the females it is 40°8 mm., or 2°1 and 2°5 per cent. of their statures.

11. Cranial Height.—This is represented by the vertical length from
the vertex to a point opposite the middle of the tragus, which corresponds
very closely to the upper border of the external auditory meatus. It is
as follows :—

= 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

129°5

Males : : 124-6 129-6 1343 48
43 127-4

Females . : 122°9 127°8 1315

12. Maximum Antero-posterior Length of the Cranium.

— | 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
. ip a8 _| hee a
Males > See ee 196°8 2006 38 | 196°8
Females 180°7 183°7 188-2 37 184-1

13. Maximum Breadth of Cranium.

.4

= 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Males 5 : 151:0 1548 1576 3:3 | 154°5
Females. ; 1446 147-7 149-4 24 | 147°'3

14. Proportions of the Head.
(a) Cephalic Index.—The proportion of the breadth of the cranium to

its length varies in the males from 69°6 to 87, and in the females from
72°6 to 86°6.

— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade | Q Corrected Mean

Males .. 76-0 179 79°8
Females .. 71 78:9 81:6

ON ‘tHE WORK OF THE AN'THROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 449

According to the International Division of the Cephalic Index the
classification is as follows :—-

Males Fema'es

Divisions Limits
Number | Per cent. || Number | Per ceut.

Hyper-brachycephalic . . | 85-899 2 271 2 37
Brachycephalic. - - . | 80-84:9 26 27°1 22 407
Mesaticephalic . : 0 - | T5-79°9 61 63°5 28 51:9
Dolichocephalic . - . | 70-74:9 6 63 2 37
Hyper-dolichocephalic . . | 65-69°9 1 10 0 —

: Total ; 5 — 96 100:0 54 100°0

(6) Module of the Cranium.—This is obtained by adding its length,
breadth, and height together, adding to the product 15 mm. in the case of
males and 13 mm. in the case of females, to represent the projection of the
cranium from the meatus auditorius to the basion, and dividing the sum
by 3. It is as follows :—

— 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean |

| Males F F 162:0 164-9 1681 2°7
Females . - 153°8 1571 159°5 2°8 1569

(c) Head Breadth-height Index.—This indicates the relation which the
maximum breadth of the cranium bears to the vertical projection of the
head, the latter being taken as 100. Estimated from the corrected means.
of these measurements it is 72°5 in the males and 70:1 in the females.

(d) Maximum Cranial Length to Vertical Height of Head Index.—The
vertical height of the head (vertex to chin) being taken as 100, the index
is in the males 90-9 and in females 87°6.

(e) Vertical Cranial Height to Vertical Head Height Index.—The latter
being taken as 100, the height of the cranium in relation to it is 60°8 in
the males and 60:1 in the females.

(f) Vertical Height of Head to Statwre.—The canon of proportion of
the vertical height of the head to the total stature of the body (the latter
being taken as 100) is 12-4 in the males, 13-0 in the females.

(9) Vertical Height of Cranium to Stature.—In the males it is 7:5, andi
in the females 7:9.

(h) Vertex to Mouth Length as compared with Statwre.—In the males.
this is 9-9 and in the females 10°5.

15. Nose Length.—The length of the nose from the root to the lower
angle varies from 44 mm. to 66 mm. in the males, and in the females.
from 41 mm. to 55 mm.

-— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Males j P 49-4 52°2 54:0 23 52°5
| Females . : 45-4 478 50°9 2:7 48:0

U
16. Nose Breadth.
_— | 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q_ | Corrected Mean

Males - c ! 29°1 31-7 53-7 2:3 31:5
Females. 5 | 26-1 278 29°8 1:8 27:7

1894, GG

450 ' REPORT—1894..

17. Nasal Index.

— 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade | Q | Corrected Mean

Males x : 51:2 566 61:4 | 5:2 56:4
Females. “ 49°1 53°9 59-9 4 64:3

18. Face Length.—This is measured from the root of the nose at the
same point as that from which the length of the nose starts to the under-
surface of the chin.

| — | 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean .

Males 2 : 108°8 113°6 | 1199 55 1140
Females 105°3 110°8 | 115-4 | 51 110°6

19. Face Breadth.—Measured between the external surfaces of the
zygomatic arches at the vertex of each arch. It is therefore the maximum
breadth of face.

| — | 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean |

| Males : . 120°8 126-2 133°4 64 126°5
| Females 118°2 123°8 129-0 54 123°7

20. Face Index, or the relation which the face breadth bears to the
face length, the latter (nasio-mental length) being taken as 100.

| — 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75th Grade Q Correeted Mean |
Ja um

Males ; : 105 109°3 1140 4:5 109°4
Females . P 106 110°5 118°5 6:2 111°0

21. Length of Upper Limb.—Measured from under the acromion process
to the tip of the middle finger in a straight line parallel with the long axis
of the arm.

Q_ | Corrected Mean

|
7399 767

——
= 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75th Grade

Males : ; 7178

24:6 741-6

{

Owing to difficulties connected with dress this measurement was not
taken in females.
22. Length of Cubit.

— | 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade | Q Corrected Mean |

Males - . 443-4 4582 475°0
Females. ° 402-7 417-0 435°5

458'5
4183

23. Length of Hand.—This is ascertained by placing a steel measuring
tape round the wrist so that the upper border of the tape crosses immedi-
ately below the tips of the styloid processes of the radius and ulna, and
measuring from the upper border of the tape, midway between each side of
the wrist, to the extremity of the middle finger.

ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 451

wet | 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75th Grade Q | Corrected Mean |

Males é F 187°3 192°9 198°6 5°6 192°9
Females 165°9 1743 181:2 76 173°9

24. Proportions which the Upper Limb bears to the Stature and to its
different Segments, and the mean lengths of the latter.

(a) The proportion which the whole upper limb bears to the stature
in the males is 43-2 per cent.

(>) The proportion which the length of the cubit bears to the stature
is 2677 per cent. in the males and 25:9 per cent. in the
females.

(c) The lengths of the three segments of the upper limb as obtained
by subtraction from the corrected means of the last three
measurements (21, 22, and 23) are as follows :—

; Males Females
Upperarm . S : < . . 283°1 —
Forearm . e c . a - e 265°6 244-4
Hand : Fi F 5 a ; * 192:9 173°9

(d) The proportion which the length of the upper arm bears to the
stature is 16-5 per cent. in the males.

(e) The proportion which the length of the forearm bears to the
stature is 15-4 in the males and 15:1 in the females.

(f) The proportion which the length of the hand bears to the
stature is 11:2 in the males and 10°8 per cent. in the females.

(g) The proportion which the length of the forearm bears to that
of the upper arm (the latter being taken as 100) is 94:5 per
cent. in the males.

(h) The proportion which the length of the hand bears to that of
the forearm (the latter being taken as 100) is 72°6 per cent. in
the males and 71-1 in the females.

25. Span of Arms.—This is measured across the back, while the arms
are extended at right angles to the long axis of the bedy.

— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean |

Mees. | 1700'1 1757-5 1815-6 57-7 1757-7
| Females Be, 1546-7 1593-2 1648-0 50°6 1595:7

26. Maximum Bihumeral or Shoulder Breadth.—This gives the greatest
breadth of the shoulders, and is measured between the most prominent
external surfaces of the deltoid muscles.

25th Grade

50th Grade 75th Grade | Q Corrected Mean |

Males. . - | 395°6 | 408°5 422-2 | 13°3 408°6 |

27. Maximum Bitrochanteric or Hip Breadth.—This is the greatest
width from the external surface of the trochanter of the one femur to that
of the other measured while the subject stands erect with the fee close
together and parallel.

ede

452 REPORT—1894.

aan 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75th Grade | Q_ | Corrected Mean |

Males. . . 284 297°5 312 44 29783 ~~ |

28. Proportions of Shoulder and Trochanteric Breadths to the Statwre
and to one another.—(a) The proportion which the maximum breadth of
shoulder bears to the stature calculated from the corrected means of these
measurements is 23°8 per cent., while that of the trochanteric breadth to
the stature is 17-3 in the males. Topinard gives these indices in Parisians
as 22-9 and 18:5 respectively. (b) The proportion which the trochanteric
or maximum hip breadth bears to the maximum shoulder breadth (the latter
being taken as 100) is 72°9 per cent. Topinard gives this index in one
series of 100 Parisians, measured by A. Bertillon, as 83, and in a second
series of 40 individuals as 80°8 per cent.

29. Weight.—The figures of weight are given in English pounds and
tenths of a pound.

— 25th Grade } 50th Grade | 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Males. : : 133°8 1475 163°6 149 148-2
Females . : 106°8 119-0 129°3 11:2 118:4

30. Strength of Grasp.—The results here given are the mean of the
right and left hands, and mot the strongest grasp with either hand as
frequently recorded, and is expressed in pounds and decimals thereof.

— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q | Corrected Mean

| Males. : 50:0 71:3 79°8 8-4 71:3
| Females. 38:7 46°2 87 95 47:2

In the males the right hand is the stronger in 64 cases; that is, in
67°4 per cent. The left hand is the stronger in 22 cases ; that is, in
231 per cent. Both hands are of equal strength in 9 cases ; that is, in
9°5 per cent.

In the females the right hand is the stronger in 37 cases (67°3 per
cent.) ; the left hand is the stronger in 14 cases (25:4 per cent.) ; the
strength of both hands is equal in 4 cases (7°3 per cent.).

31. Vital Capacity of the Lungs.—This was ascertained by means of
Stanley’s spirometer, and is given in cubic inches, to which the instrument
is graduated.

— | 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean

Malesis. (#2 “168-4 201°6 233 32:2 201-0
Females 120°6 150 150 136°1

32. Vision.—The strength of vision was tested by means of Snellen’s
test-types at a distance of six metres from the eye, each eye being tested
separately. While one eye was being tested the other was kept open and
a black card was held over it, so that the type could only be seen by the
eye being tested.

Of the 96 males tested only 32, or 33:3 per cent, had normal vision;

ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 453

that is to say, were able to read with both eyes No. 6 type. Of the 96
males, 39 were 46 years of age and upwards. The vision ot the females was
better, as 30 out of 55 tested, or 52°7 per cent., had normal vision; but, on
the other hand, only 8 of the number tested were 46 years of age and up-
wards. In a large number of cases in both sexes, the vision in one eye was
more defective than in the other.

33. No cases of colour blindness were discovered in either males or
females.

The following table gives the canon of proportion of the several parts
of the body in relation to the stature, the latter being taken as 100. In
this collected form it will be found more convenient for comparison with
those of artists.

Canon of Proportion of the Body.

Males Females
Trunk, including head and neck, to the level of the Zuber

Ischia ‘ A ; ; : 5 : ; nou 53
Lower limbs from the level of the Tuber Ischia ; TACT 47
Total . . 100 100
Upper limbs (acromion to end of medius finger) . . 43:2 —
Head vertex to chin . ; 4 ; : ‘ : . 12:4 13
is if tragus : : : 3 ° neon 5) v9
FA = mouth 5 : ; ; : eo 10°5
Trunk and neck 3 : : : 3 A ; =~ BERN) 40
Thigh \ Males Females . 29:9 22-4
Leg and height of foot f 47-7 47 25°5 24°6
Upper arm } 16°5 —
Fore arm \ 43°2 — 15:4 1571
Hand 11:2 10:8
Cubit. 5 ; 267 25°9
Shoulder breadth 23°8 —
Hip breadth 17:3 pl

On the North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Ninth Report of the
Committee, consisting vf Dr. E. B. TyLor, Mr. G. H. BLoxam,
Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. Hatisurton, and Mr. H. HAue.

Tue Committee were appointed, as in former years, to investigate the
physical characters, languages, and industrial and social condition of
the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.

In consideration of the difficulties and delays in completing their
work of Canadian exploration and editing its results the Committee have
been reappointed for this year, without a grant of money. They are
thus enabled to send in the following report, by Dr. Franz Boas, on the
‘Tribes of the Lower Fraser River,’ in continuation of his previous com-
munications. This, however, does not exhaust the anthropological infor-
mation in course of being obtained and put in order by the Committee,
who hope to bring their investigations to a close during the present year,
and to report finally to the Meeting of the Association in 1895.

AS A REPORT—1894.,

The Indian Tribes of the Lower Fraser River. By Dr. Franz Boas.

In the sixth report of the Committee I described the customs of the
Lku'figen, the most southern group of the Coast Salish living on British
territory. The northern neighbours of the Lku/igen, who will be de-
scribed in the following pages, speak the K-auétcin (Cowichan) language.
This dialect of the Coast Salish is spoken on Vancouver Island from Saa-
nitch Inlet to Nonoos, on the islands north of Saanitch Peninsula and on
the Lower Fraser River as far as Yale. The language as spoken on Van-
couver Island and on the mainland shows slight dialectic differences, the
most striking ones being the general substitution of J for n, and of & for @,
on Fraser River. I have given elsewhere some notes on the tribes of
Cowichan River and of Nanaimo which belong to this group.!_ Therefore
I confine myself in the following pages to remarks on the tribes of the
mainland, whom I studied in the summer of 1890.

The Cowichan of the mainland are divided into fourteen tribes, each
forming a village community. The inhabitants of each village are believed
to be the descendants of one mythical personage. I give here a list of
tribes, their villages, and the names of the mythical ancestors :—

Tribe. Villages. Ancestor.
1. QmE’¢ckoyim. Ma‘lé, on North Arm of Fraser River. Pi’ pk-EltEl (flag).
2. K-oa’antel. Stcuwa’ckEl, near South Arm of Fraser River. K:aln’tsemEs
Tcé’tstles, at New Westminster. (badger).
3. Ké’étsé, SeElts’a’s, at head of Pitt Lake, summer Tsata’sEltEn.
village.

Cuwa'lEcEt, at lower end of Pitt Lake, win-
ter village.

4. Ma’cqui. Ma’'mak-ume, above Langley, on left bank. Sk-nlé’yitl (beaver).
Kokoaé’uk:, on Sumass Lake.
5. Lek’é/meEl. La’qaui, summer village. Talepk’é’lem
(NEk’a’mEn). Skuya’m, winter village. (sturgeon).
6. Tcilnqué’uk, Ts’uwii'le, Qé’les (on upper part of Chillu- T’é’quliitca,
wak River).

7. StsHé’lis. StsHé’lis. Ts’a'tsEmiltaq.

8. Skau/élitsk. Sk-au’élitsk, Skua’tats. K'ulté’mzita.

9. PEla’tlq. Tca'tcoHil, Tcé’iam. Qii'latca.
10. Pa’pk’um. Pa’pk’um. Aiuwii'luQ (mountain

goat).

11. Siyi’ta. Squhé’mEn (Agassiz). Autlté’n.

12, Ewa'wus. Sqz’ItEN (two miles above Hope).

13. Ts’akuii’m. Cilek’ua'tl (Yale), Cuwulsé’lem. Suwila’sia.

14, Qela’tl. Asila'o. Qé’lqElemas.

The tribes above Skuyi’'m are collectively called Té/it = those up river.
The tribal traditions tell that Qiils, the deity (see p. 463), met the ances-
tors of all these tribes and transformed them into certain plants or
animals which generally abound near the site of the winter village. For
instance, Ma'lé is well known for the great number of flags growing in
the slough near the village, mountain-goats are found not far from
Pa’pk’um, and so forth. In many cases the ancestor is said to have been
transformed into a rock of remarkable shape or size, which is found not
far from the village. Thus T’é’qulitca, Qa’/latea, and Autlté’n are still
shown. I do not understand that the tribe itself claims any relationship
with these animals or plants, but nevertheless these ideas must be con-

' American Anthropologist, 1889, p. 321; ‘Zur Ethnologie von Britisch-Columbien,”

Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 1887, No. 5; Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1841, p. 628.

.

é SHa’léya
- StsHé’]

3 Ts’a'tsE
2 Ts’a’tsHl
Stsné/]

ssue doub
.

' os - Gialssue doubt

a
ssue unkn

*
Yssue unkni

,

Sis'multant mar
Hes To'd'kuwot\
of Kamila.

2 Talequwi/lug marries Qui-
qnilnk of Lka'igun ond
Sekin/tulst of Cowitchan

& Sis'meltant marries Cale’
qhya, No'k"oya of Krod/an-
tel,

@ Qvs'touwot married to AlA!-
mij! of Biyits, Has threo
sons nnd one daughter,

¥ Mriqo'melewot marricaBqtlo'~
Jim of Kokub'uk, Has
ten children,

2 married a Makab.
7 married at Lalitt on
Paget Sound,

Sin'meltset marries
8a'mulat daughter
of Qa'lata’é of Pe-
U'tlq, where they
lived

| ¢ Sin'melt

Re mar:

ries! Twigd'mule
wot of Stsx0'lis
and. took ber to
Palattly

@Kols/niwot married
to Twemi'lem of
Kof‘antel

Talequwitlug mar-
rics Sqoaya'lem
of Staxé!lis and
Sk oalf'niluwot of
nallagt

9 Kuyipa't married to
Sirili'wus of Asi-
In’o, whose mother
was a Ntlakyn'pa-
mG

Sin'meltsxt

Tssuo unknown.

=

Taste I.

2 Calequwa'lug, Ts
miltg marries Cu
of Table TL

(To face p, 454.

3 Qi'walets, Twa'tan- ( $f
milla; Cpt. George &
aboat'sd year, [3 f
4 Wek, no issue,
2 Kuilllaya, no isssue
no issue
§ Tuhé'méya married | 9 no iesue
toa qmin’skoyim, ] 9 no issue
9 no issue
ea suena married fo Micholof Yalo .¢ f
5 Qilwwalets marries E’yistulat o! t
Skeau'lits , 9 Thigt'melewot mar-| © Catherine married at Langley. ¢
ried ton amm'g-) @ Mary @ 8 years old.
koyim $
§ Marianne married at Langloy. {3
3
4 no issue.
q Sts'tvelawot_mar-| 3 no issue
ried nt Lnk'' mn) s
9 married at Sumas {3
7 Mkoalat married nt
Stuslis, no iasno,
3 Skov/own married ,
atSkau'eli. 1
§ married to 6 Kanaka.
} Koayi'ket'ya_mar-( 9 married to a white man.
4 Sua'loyn marries Tsska'ltyo of) ried! toa white)?
Stspa'lie man é
$
% Sis'mint marriod
at Yale, no jasuo

2 Sii’meltset marries SH0-
Tetweyn. of Stxec'lis,
with whom he had
three children, Then
he married Palek-oi!tsa
of Staeélis, with whom
he had one daughter. |

$ Sita'léya marr. Cit6'itla

Tssue doubtful

Sui'léya, no issue.

é tq marries Cilekai/tl. no issue.
@ Twialtsnlavvit warried to Qoit of | g no issue,
wilis ¢ no issue.

of Asili’o
Qo!lqnlumas
} Qea!tquwot

Tssuc doubtful

Issue unknown

| Issue doubtfal.

Issue unknown,
Tssue unknown

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 455

sidered as an interesting phase in the development of totemism. Some
of the more complicated institutions of this class may have originated from
similar concepts.

A few of the tribes have certain privileges not shared by the others.
This is particularly the case of the Sqoa’eqoé, the curious feathered head
with prominent eyes which I have described on a former occasion (‘ Proc.
- U.S. National Museum,’ 1888, p. 212), and which is the crest of certain
families among the (atloltq (Comox) and Nanaimo. This crest belongs
originally to several tribes of the mainland. The Sqoa/éqoé are believed
to be a supernatural people living in lakes. When a person succeeds in
bringing one of them to the surface of the water he and his descendants
acquire their protection and assume their figure as the crest of their
family. It belongs to the Sk‘au’élitsk, Ewi/wus, and Ts’akuii’m. The
Sk-an’élitsk tell that their ancestor, K-ulté’mrlta, had two sons and two
daughters. The latter went fishing every morning. One day they caught
first each a trout. Later on they felt that they had caught something
heavy, and on hauling in the line saw the prominent eyes and the long
feathers of the Sqoa/éqoé. They called their father, who carried him
home, but soon the being disappeared and only his dress remained.
K-ulté’meltq’s descendants married in the Stseé’lis, gmE/¢koyim, Snanai’-
muQ, Sk'oa/nic, K‘auétcin, and Catléltq tribes, and thus the use of the
Sqoa/éqoé was disseminated. The Hwa/wns tell that an orphan boy went
swimming and diving every day in order to get strong. One day he
made a fire near a lake and accidentally spat into the water. When he
dived he was almost drowned. At the bottom of the lake he found the
Sqoa’éqoé trying to heal a sick girl of their people whom the saliva had
hit and made sick. The boy washed her and she recovered at once.
Then they gave him the Sqoa/éqoé. The T's’akui’m say that their
ancestor found the Sqoa’éqoé.

In the above list of tribes the Kui/kotlem of Tcané/tcrn have been
omitted. They are descendants of slaves of Tlprlk’é’lmn, chief of the
K-oa/antzl, who established a fishing station at the site of the Kui/kotlum
village, and ordered part of his slaves to live at this place. Five gene-
rations ago, when wars were raging on this part of the coast, they became
free, and continue to occupy their old village. They are, however, not
considered as equals of the other tribes, and never owned any land. They
do not claim to be the descendants of a mythical ancestor. Their present
chief is named T’n’'lk-zs.

The tribal traditions of these people are evidently founded on his-
torical events. This becomes particularly clear in the cases of the
Stseé'lis and of the Tc’ilnqué’uk:. The tradition of the former says that
Ts’a’tsemiltg, the ancestor of the tribe, was sent down to Stsné/lis from
heaven. One of his descendants built a fish weir on one of the tributaries
of Harrison River, and thus deprived another tribe on the upper reaches
of the river of its food supply. K-ulk‘z/mnnil, chief of this tribe (who
were descendants of the marten and of the mountain-goat), sent his sons
down the river to see why the salmon did not come asusual. They found
the weir and tried to destroy it, but were captured by T's’a’tsEmiltq’s sons,
who invited the tribe to descend from the hills and to live in Stsné'lis.
They followed the invitation, and ever since have lived with the Stsué’lis.

According to tradition the Tc’ilnqué’uk: spoke, until the beginning of
this century, the Nooksak language, which prevails farther to the south.
The tribal myth states expressly that the tribe was originally a mountain

456 REPORT—1894.

tribe living on the upper reaches of Chilluwak River, and that they
migrated down the river.

Evidently historical traditions are preserved relatively faithfully by
these tribes. This is shown particularly clearly in the care which is taken
in preserving the pedigrees of chiefs. I obtained one of these embracing
eight generations. I reproduce here that part of the same which I have
been able to corroborate by repeated inquiries among different branches of
the family. The chief of a tribe always takes the name of the preceding
chiefs, sometimes that of the mythical ancestor, which accounts for the
recurrence of the same names. When a person has relatives in two
villages, be is known by two names. In each village he is called by a
name belonging to the village. Thus ‘Captain George’ is known as
Ts’a'tsEmiltg in Stské’lis, as Qa/wulets in Sk‘tsa’s, north cf Harrison Lake.

Taste II.
6 K'ela’wulgts marries Qrl-
tsa’mat, SEla’sauwot of
LEk’é’mEl, daughter of
¢ Qa’wulets marries Ckitlta’t QeEltsa’m.
of Asila’o. 2 CHé’itla (see Table L.).

2 Skutsa’stElat married to
LEmlzE'matsEs,aQmez’¢kuy-

in.
o K-a’'uwa married at Port
Douglas.
=" . ay 6 Ts’é’k'taqEl marries Ts’a’itl
S$ Qi’wulzts mar- d Sua‘leya marries Tcrla’qu- of Asila’o.

ries Qué’tsu-/
wot of Lku’i-
gEn.

2 Suala'p’éya married to K:sta’-
lagEn of Lillooet.

? S'éyi’tla married toTsE'IpEltQ
of Cowichan.

wot of Sk‘tsa’s, daughter of
K‘ii/uwa. |

6 Gyi’EmEt marries Ts’Ela/qu-
wot, daughter of K-é/uwa of
Sk‘tsa’s, sister of the above.

6 Qé’lqHlEmas marries Suala’-
péya of Sk‘tsa’s.

é Ts’Etsai’/mEt marries Ts’a’mE-
k-oat of Sk‘tsa’s.

These pedigrees are also of some interest, as they show the mode of
intermarriage among the tribes of these regions, and as they bring out
the extermination of whole families very clearly. It appears that the
mortality of children is the principal cause of diminution, much more so
than decrease in the number of children to each family.

It appears that the tribes of Harrison River intermarry with the
Lillooet tribes north of Harrison Lake. These tribes are organised essen-
tially in the same way as those of Fraser River, each village community
claiming a common ancestor. Thus the ancestor Qa’wulnts of the Sk‘tsa’s
is said to have been a bear, who assumed the human form and built a
town; the Pdtn’/mtrEn claim to be the descendants of a stone hammer
and of chips which married two women.

I do not need to describe the houses of these tribes, as they are the
same as those of the Lku’figrn. Above Harrison River subterraneous
lodges like those of the Shushwap were sometimes used, although the
large wooden houses were more common. I was told that the chief of
Sk‘tsa’s, north of the upper end of Harriscn Lake, owned a house with
painted front. A carved pole with the figure of a raven on top stood in
front of the house.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 457

The mode of life, fishing, use of canoe and implements do not differ
materially from those of the Lku/igeEn.

CUSTOMS REFERRING TO MARRIAGE AND DEaTH.

The marriage customs are almost the same as those of the Lku'igeEn.
When a young man desires to marry a certain girl he informs his parents.
After having gained their consent he goes to the house of the girl’s father
and sits down outside close to the door. At night he returns home. For
three days he continues to sit there silently. Then the girl’s father,
knowing his intentions, invites many people and has mats and blankets
spread near the fire. He sends two old men to invite the young man,
who enters the house following this invitation. He is seated ona mat
and a pile of blankets is placed near him. His father, who kept a watch-
man near the house, is informed at once, when the young man is invited
to enter the house. He sends four blankets to the two old men who
invited his son. The girl’s mother meanwhile prepares a large dish
filled with choice food, which her husband presents to the young man.
The latter eats a little and returns home. Then his father sends presents
of blankets and other valuables to the girl’s father. This is continued
for three or four days, when the girl’s father is asked if he is willing to
give the girlin marriage to the youth. The consent being given, the
groom’s father asks all his relatives and followers to assemble on the
following morning in order to fetch the bride. They load their canoes
with food and blankets and start for the bride’s house. Meanwhile her
house is cleaned, and after some time the canoes land, the blankets are
carried up to the house, and after the purchase of the girl has been
settled, the dishes filled with food are carried to the house. The fathers
exchange promises of kindly treatment of the couple, in the course of which
the groom’s father states that he paid a high price for the girl, because
he wants to prevent a separation of the couple. Then the visitors return
to their canoes. After some time four old men lead the bride to the canoe,
holding her by her blanket. Among the tribes entitled to the privilege of
using the Sqoa’éqoé, one of these men wears the Sqoa’éqoé mask. He
follows the girl. Another one carries a rattle. They walk over mats or
blankets spread from the door to the landing-place. After they have
delivered the bride to the groom, they are paid two blankets each by the
groom’s father. The latter distributes blankets repeatedly among the
bride’s relatives, first in her house, later on before leaving, from the
_ canoe, an old man of his family delivering an oration meanwhile, Then
blankets are given to the chief of the bride’s family, who distributes them.
Before the visitors leave, the bride’s father presents blankets to the groom’s
father, who distributes them among his people. When the party arrive
at the groom’s house, his parents, uncles, and aunts receive the young
wife with presents. After the marriage the two families feast each other
frequently.

Sometimes chiefs betroth their children in early youth. They bind
themselves by exchanging presents. In this case the ceremonies are
somewhat simpler. The parents guard their children with particular
care. When they are old enough to be married the youth assembles
many of his friends and sends word to his bride’s parents, stating when
he intends to come. At the appointed time he lands and brings many
presents, food and blankets, to his bride’s father, which the latter distri-

458 REPORT—1894..

butes among his family. The bride’s father presents one blanket and
some food to each of his visitors, who depart, taking the bride along. As
arule, the latter follows her husband. When she gets old and sickly she
often returns to her own village, in order to be buried with her relatives.
Only when some of her children preceded her in death she is buried with
them. Although chiefs were in the habit of taking wives in other
villages, marriages among families of the same village were not forbidden.

The eustoms of the Lillooet tribes above Fort Douglas were different.
Girls when of age slept with their mothers. When a man intended to
marry a girl he crept stealthily up to her bed and tried to take hold of
her heel. The meaning of this action is said to be founded on the fact,
that the heel of the woman is near her private parts when she squats, as
Indian women are in the habit of doing. She informs her father at once
that a certain man has taken hold of her heel, and he must marry her.
She follows the young man to his parents. As soon as they arrive, the
groom’s mother fills many baskets with boiled food and sends them to
the bride’s mother, while the male relatives of the youth carry blankets
and other presents to the girl’s father. They are invited to sit down and
given a feast. The bride’s father sends the groom bows and arrows and
shoes that he may be able to hunt for his wife. The groom’s mother
gives her dentalia for her hair, earrings, and bracelets. After the young
man has killed a number of deer he carries them, helped by his friends,
to his wife, and asks her to take them to his father-in-law. She asks
several women to help her, and they take the meat to her father’s house.
The young couple and the parents continue to exchange presents for
several years.

I have not learned anything of importance regarding customs refer-
ring to birth. The names are given by paternal and maternal relatives,
and each family and tribe has its own names. For this reason each person
has several names, and is called in each village differently : in his mother’s
village by the name of the maternal relative after whom he is called; in
his father’s village by the name of the paternal relative whose name he
has received.

The ancient burial customs were described to me as follows :—KHach
family had its own burial-place, which consisted of a large box or a small
house built on piles. This building was erected by members of the
family only, and all those who helped to make it received ten blankets in
payment from the chief. All the members of a family were placed in
this box or house. The first one to die was placed in the north-east
(or north-west) corner, the face turned eastward, the body lying on its
left side. The next one was placed south of the first, and so on until
one row was filled. Then a new row was begun, and the dead ones were
all deposited in the same box until it was full. Persons who were very
fond of each other were often placed side by side. When the building
was full, the bones were taken out, put on new blankets, cleaned, and
placed in a new box. Evidently they were piled up in one corner, as
there was room for additional burials in the new box. After the bones
had been replaced three or four times, they were not taken out again, but
a new house was erected. Chiefs and common people were buried in
separate houses or boxes.

The burial ceremonies were as follows :—Immediately after a death
had occurred, the corpse was prepared for burial by an old man, who had
first to chew cedar leaves as a protection against the dangerous influences

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 459

of contact with a corpse. He washed the body, painted it red, put on
the bracelets and other ornaments of the deceased, doubled it up, so that
the knees touched the chin, and wrapped it in blankets or mats. A
young mau must not do this work, as he would die soon. When the
deceased had been a chief or a personage of importance, all the neigh-
bouring tribes were invited to take part in the following ceremonies.
After they had assembled, the wife of the chief mourner gave each water
to wash his face. Then the guests were given a feast, and on the follow-
ing day the corpse was placed in a canoe and removed to the burial-ground,
where it was deposited not far from the scaffold which served for the final
burial. The guests returned to the house, and were given again water to
wash their faces. For four days the body was left standing, that the
dead might be able to return in case he should resuscitate. Then, on
the fifth day, before sunrise, and before partaking of any food, the
mourners and guests returned to the burial-ground. If the deceased
owned the Sqoa’éqoé, the latter was carried there by an old man, who
received payment for this service. Slaves, blankets, and other property of
the deceased were taken along. Four old men put the body into the
house. They must fast until late in the evening, when the chief mourner
gave a feast. The slaves were killed and placed on top of the burial-
house, where the blankets were also deposited. Other objects were tied
to branches of trees near the burial-ground. Only those objects which the
deceased valued most highly were placed in the house. It is stated that
the people were allowed to take away all those objects which were
deposited near the box. In the evening of the same day the chief
mourner gave a feast, during which everything was burned that belonged
to the deceased. An old man threw the objects into the fire. ‘he
guests were presented with blankets, and returned home. If the
deceased was a chief, his son fasted and bathed in ponds on the mountains,
until he believed that he had seen a spirit which gave him supernatural
powers. Then he began to collect property. When he had gathered a
large amount, he invited all the neighbouring tribes, and gave a feast
which lasted for four days. Then he selected two old men, who had to
tell the people that he was going to assume his father’s name. The
young man, with his wife and children, stood on the scaffold in front of
their house, and while the woman and children were dancing there, the
old men delivered orations, and the young chief distributed blankets
among his guests, throwing the blankets down from the scaffold.

It does not appear that it is forbidden to mention the names of
deceased persons.

The burial customs of the Lillooet are somewhat different. I was
told that the dead are placed ‘so that their backs never turn toward the
sun.’ They are laid on their left sides, the head westward, the face
southward. Old men are hired to paint the face of the deceased, and
they deposit the body in a cave as described before. The weapons and
implements used by the deceased are buried near the grave, but his
friends are said to be permitted to keep some of his implements, provided
the son consents.

Hunting AND FISHING.

Man and all animals which are hunted are considered one great
family. The porcupine is called the eldest brother, and is considered the
strongest. Next in rank is the beaver, third the ts’etspek (?), fourth

460 REPORT— 1894.

the buffalo, fifth the mountain-goat, sixth the black bear, seventh the elk,
eighth the marten, ninth the eagle. The mink is one of the very last
among the brothers. Accordingly there are a number of restrictions and
regulations referring to hunting.

When a porcupine is killed, the hunter asks his elder brother’s
pardon, and does not eat of the flesh until the ensuing day.

The mountain-goat hunter fasts and bathes for several nights. Then
early in the morning he paints his chin with red paint, and draws a red
line over his forehead down to the point of his nose. Two tail feathers
of the eagle are fastened to his hair. These ornaments are believed to
enable him to climb well.

The elk hunter adorns his hair with coal, red paint, and eagle-down.
His chin is painted red, and two red lines are drawn horizontally across
his face, one passing between nose and mouth, the other over his eyes.

Those who go to catch sturgeon bathe in a pond early in the morning.
They rub themselves with bundles of a plant called tsk’uélptie until they
bleed. Then they smear their bodies and faces with red paint, and strew
white eagie-down on their heads. Hach winds a thread made of mountain-
goat wool around his head, and another one around his waist. A woven
blanket of mountain-goat wool is painted red, and put on. The fish is
caught in the following manner :—T'wo canoes are allowed to drift down
river, anet being stretched between them. The oarsmen are seated on
the outer sides of the canoes only, The net is stretched between two
poles. As soon as a sturgeon is canght, the two canoes approach each
other, and the net is wound up by means of the poles. While this is
being done the ‘sturgeon hunter’ sings, and by means of his song pacifies
the struggling sturgeon, who allows himself to be killed. The fisherman
must distribute the sturgeon among the whole tribe, each person receiving
a portion according to his rank. I was told that the Tc’ilequé’uk: do not
catch sturgeon. This is probably due to their recent immigration to the
Fraser River Delta.

The origin of the various designs of ornamentation used by hunters
is made clear by the following story, which was told to me by George
Stsré’lis, chief of that tribe. His grandfather, who was chief at Sk‘tsa’s,
accompanied another man on a bear hunt. After two days’ search they
found the tracks of a black bear, and soon their dog scented the cave in
which the bear was asleep. They tried to stir him up by means of long
sticks. When he did not come they made a large fire at the entrance of
the cave in order to smoke him out. Still he did not come. Then the
hunters thought he was dead, and the companion of George’s grandfather
crawled into the cave. At once the bear took hold of his head and
dragged him into the cave. The grandfather, on seeing this, fainted,
and remained in a swoon for three days. When he awoke, he saw his
companion coming out of the cave. He told him: ‘ When I was hauled
into the cave, the bear took off his bearskin blanket, and I saw that he
was aman. He bade me sit down, and told me: Henceforth, when you
go to hunt bears, paint the point of your arrow red, and draw a red line
along its shaft. Draw a line of mica across your face from one temple to
the other across your eyes, and one line of mica over each cheek vertically
downward from the eyes.’ When the hunters reached home they told
their experiences. Henceforth the people followed the instructions of the
bear-man, and were successful when hunting bears.

The panther is not hunted by the Stszé’lis, because he is supposed to

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 461

help the people when hunting deer. In reference to this belief, George
Stsré’lis told me that his grandfather and a man named A’m’amaltsen
went hunting in their canoes on Harrison Lake. Soon they saw a number
of deer crossing the lake. A’m’amaltsen went in pursuit, but George’s
grandfather stopped on hearing a panther call him. He went ashore,
and immediately a panther jumped aboard and asked to be carried across
the lake. The man obeyed, and when he had almost reached the other
side, the panther jumped ashore, crying Hum! hum! He jumped up the
mountain, and soon a great number of deer came down the hills, which
the panther had sent. Ever since that time he has helped the Stszé’lis
in hunting deer.

These tales are interesting, particularly on account of their close
similarity to the traditions of the animal totems of America.

A great number of restrictions and regulations refer to the salmon.
These rules are similar to those observed among the other coast tribes.
When the fishing season begins, and one of the fishermen catches the
first sockeye-salmon of the season, he carries it to the chief of his tribe,
who delivers it to his wife. She prays, saying to the salmon: ‘ Who has
sent you here to make us happy? We are thankful to your chief for
sending you.’ Then she begins to cut it. She commences at the tail,
od the latter with her foot, and cutting along the belly towards the

ead. After having reached the middle of the fish she must rise, go to
the head, hold the latter with her foot, and make another cut from the
head along the belly towards the middle of the fish, thus completing the
whole cut. She is forbidden to turn the salmon. Then the fish is roasted
on a frame placed over the fire. After one side is done, it is turned over.
The skin and the bones must not be removed. Then the whole tribe is
invited. The plant pé’pek'oi and pewter grass are placed in a basket,
rubbed, and a decoction is made of these plants, which is nsed as a
medicine ‘for cleansing the people.’ The guests drink this decoction,
and then every member of the tribe receives and eats part of tke fish.
Widows, widowers, women during their menses, and youths must not eat
of the salmon. Even later on, when the fish are numerous, and these
ceremonies are dispensed with, they are not allowed to partake of fresh
salmon, but eat dried salmon only. The sockeye-salmon must always be
looked after carefully. The bones must be thrown into the river. It
is believed that then they will revive, and return to their chief in the west.
If not treated carefully, they will take revenge, and the careless fisherman
will be unlucky.

RELIGION.

Man is believed to have four souls. The main soul is said to have
the shape of a mannikin, the others are the shadows of the first. In
disease either the lesser souls, or the main one, leave the body. Shamans
can easily return the shadows, but not the main soul. If the latter leaves
the body the sick one must die. After death the main soul goes to the sun-
set, where it remains. The shadows become ghosts (pdlek‘oi' tsa). They
revisit the places which the deceased frequented during lifetime, and
continue to do the same actions which he did when alive. Souls are
believed to be taken away by the rising sun, which thus produces disease.
They may be recovered by shamans. The belief of the identity of the
shadow and the lesser soul accounts also for the custom that nobody

4.62 REPORT—1894.

must let his shadow fall on a sick shaman, as the latter might take it,
and thus replace his own lost soul.

There are two classes of shamans: the witches (Si/dwa, called S¢d/wa
by the Lillooet) and the Squla’/m. The difference between the two has
been described in the sixth report of the Committee in the account of
the beliefs of the Lku’igmn. The witch can see the wandering soul, but
she cannot return it. The Squli’m acquires his art by fasting and cere-
monial cleansing, which consists principally in bathing and vomiting.
This is continued until he has a revelation. In his incantations he uses
rattling anklets and bracelets around wrists and above elbows, which are
made of deer hoofs and bird claws. When it is the object of his incanta-
tion to recover a lost soul, he covers himself with a large mat, and begins
to dance, stamping energetically, until he is believed to sink into the
ground as far as his belly. While the incantation continues, which may
be for one or even two days, the sick one must fast. Then the shaman
lies motionless while his soul goes in pursuit of that of the patient.
When it returns with the lost soul, the shaman begins to move again, and
shouts. His cries refer to imaginary incidents of his journey and to
dangers of the road. As soon as he begins to move, his wife places a
cup of water near him, which she heats by means of hot stones. Then
he rises, holding the soul in his clasped hands. He blows on it four
times and sprinkles it four times with the warm water. After having
warmed it by these means, he puts it on the sick person’s head. Then it
enters the body through the frontal fontanelle. He presses on it four
times and rubs it down the body, which the soul fills entirely. The
shaman blows some water on the chest and back of the sick person, who
is then allowed to drink, and after some time to eat. The soul may
escape while the shaman is trying to put it into the body of the patient.
Then he must go once more in pursuit. Sometimes the shaman sees the
main soul breaking into several parts. The owner of the broken soul
must die.

The sun plays an important part in the beliefs of these tribes. It
has been stated that he carries away souls. He is also believed to send
dreams and to give the fasting youth revelations. After continued fast-
ing in the solitude of the mountains, the sun revealed to him the super-
natural power which was to be his helper. George Stszé’lis told me that
his grandfather was instructed by the sun to take a large piece of bone
and to carve the design of a mouth on it; this was to protect him in war.
When he was wounded the bone sucked the blood from his wounds and
vomited it, thus curing him. Once in a battle fought with the Lillooet
he was wounded in the abdomen. He escaped on the ice of the lake,
dragging his entrails. He replaced them and bandaged himself with
cedar-bark. By the help of his bone implement he recovered.

The sun told warriors before the battle if they would be wounded.
After having received sucha warning they demanded to be buried, with their
legs stretched out, as it was believed that the sun might restore them to
life. By continued fasting warriors acquired the faculty of jumping
high and far, which enabled them to escape the missiles of their enemies.
This was considered essentially a supernatural power, and one warrior
was said to have jumped as far as eighteen fathoms. Warriors went
naked and were forbidden to eat before or during an attack. Their
bodies and faces were painted red, and black spots or stripes of various
designs were put on their faces. They wore head ornaments of feathers.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 4.63:

On the upper reaches of Fraser River the custom of cutting off the heads
of the slain did not prevail, but the victor took the head ornament of
his killed enemy. The mode of warfare was the same as everywhere on
the coast : unexpected attacks on the villages of the enemies just before
the dawn of the day.

Among other mythical personages I mention Qals, the great trans-
former, who is often described as the principal deity. I have treated this
subject in another place.! The country of the sockeye-salmon is in the
sunset. Their chief is a powerful being, and takes care that the rules
referring to the treatment of salmon are observed. The souls of the
killed salmon return to him and are revived.

The East Wind, Ca’'trts, lives in the sunrise; his brother, the West
Wind, in the sunset. The east wind and the west wind are their shadows
(or souls ?). When the east wind is blowing a long time, the Indians try
to appease it. Early in the morning they take sockeye fat and throw
it into the fire. Two pairs of heads of sockeye-salmon are painted red :
one pair is thrown into the fire, the other into the water.

Trluwa’mrt, the Milky Way, is the place where the two parts of the
sky meet. It is the road of the dead. Most of the constellations were
made by Qiils, who transformed men and transferred them to the sky.
The Pleiades, for instance, were children whom Qals met when they were
crying for their absent parents.

I heard only a few remarks referring to the dances of these tribes,
which appear to have been similar to those of the Lkw’igrn, The dancing
season was called by the Kwakiuil word Mé’itla. It is a very curious
fact that the raven was believed to give the dancers or the members
of the secret societies their songs, as the raven, who plays an important
part in the mythologies of the northern tribes, does not seem to be con-
sidered a powerful being by the tribes of Fraser River, excepting in
this one connection. One group used to tear dogs. Another one
called the Sk’é’yip inflicted wounds upon themselves, drank the blood
streaming from these wounds, and after a short time reappeared sound
and well. When they were frightened by other dancers they vomited
blood. Another group was called the Trmeqi/n. Evidently these
dances were quite analogous to the festivals of the secret societies of this
region.

ny add a few current beliefs: The grass over which a widow or a
widower steps fades and withers. Before marrying again, the widow or
widower must undergo a ceremonial cleansing, as else the second husband
or wife would be subject to attacks of the ghost of the deceased.

If one takes a particle of decayed tissue from a corpse and puts it
into the mouth of a sleeping person, the latter will ‘ dry up and die.’

Chiefs’ children were carefully brought up. They were instructed in
all arts. They were enjoined not to steal, and always to speak the truth.
They were not allowed to eat until late in the evening, in order to make
them industrious. Young men who returned from a successful hunting
expedition were required to distribute their game among the whole tribe.
Poor people did not train their children as carefully as chiefs and rich
people.

’ See the sixth report of the Committee; also Verh, der Ges. fiir Anthropclogic
zw Berlin, 1891, p. 550.

AGA REPORT—1894.

The Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart.—Report of
the Commuttee, consisting of Professor EK. A. SCHAFER (Chairman),
Mr. A. I. STantey Kent (Secretary), and Professor C. S. SHEr-
RINGTON. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

The research may be divided into three parts :—

1. Observations on the Structure of the Heart.
2. Experiments on the Relation between Structure and Function.
3. Experiments with Anesthetics.

1. Observations on the Structure of the Heart.—These observations
have been made principally on human hearts, and tend to show that the
condition which I have described! in the hearts of animals lower in the scale
persists even in man. That is to say, the auricles and ventricles are
connected by strands of muscular tissue passing across the groove, though,
as might be expected from my former observations, these strands are less
marked in man than in the lower animals.

In man, as in all other animals examined, the muscular connection is
more perfect in the young condition, and the younger the subject the more
perfect the connection.

To go more into detail, the ring at the base of the auriculo-ventricular
valves is composed of a dense mass of white fibrous tissue in which are
scattered many connective-tissue corpuscles, and this mass becomes continu-
ous with the connective tissue running between the muscular fibres of
auricle and ventricle respectively.

The greatest development of connective tissue takes place at the bases
of the valves, which are supported on specially thickened portions of the
ring, and are largely composed of bundles of fibres running out from it.

Bundles of muscular tissue also occur in the valves, and these bundles
are usually connected directly with the muscle forming the walls of the
auricle. In actual shape and arrangement the fibrous tissue forming the
ring differs in different situations,

At the posterior aspect of the left ventricle the auricular muscle is
completely separated from that of the ventricle by a more or less pyramidal
mass of connective tissue, the base of the pyramid being directed outwards
and forming part of the external surface of the heart, the apex being
directed inwards and becoming continuous with the base of the mitral
valve, The auricular muscle runs downwards on the inner aspect of this
mass of fibrous tissue, and ends as a thin sheet just above the base of the
valve. The ventricular muscle ends as a much thicker mass just beneath
the base of the valve.

An exhaustive examination has been made of the relations of muscle
and connective tissue in this situation, but a description without figures
would be tedious, and followed only with difficulty. Suffice it to say that
in the human heart, as in the hearts of other animals, the auricles and
ventricles are connected by muscular tissue, and their connection is the
more perfect the younger the heart.

2 and 3. Experiments on the Relation of Structure to Function and

1 Journal of Physiology, XIV., 4 and 5.

ON THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 465

Baperiments with Anesthetics. —It will, perhaps, be best to take these two
sets of experiments together. Shortly summarised, they have been
made with the object of determining how the above-described points of
structure affect the working of the heart, and more especially what
practical use can be made of the knowledge gained in these observations.

It is well known that in young animals it is exceedingly difficult to
produce any effect by means of chloroform—in fact, in my experiments I
have often found it almost impossible to anesthetise animals only a few
days old. Gradually, as age increases, they become less refractory, and
at a few weeks old (in the case of kittens) chloroform produces the same
effects as in the adult.

More than this, however, in the newly-born animal it is almost im-
possible, push the anesthetic as you will, to produce stoppage of the heart,
though this is one of the accidents most to be feared in administering
chloroform to an adult animal. But even in the adult, if the thorax be
opened and the heart examined immediately after death by chloroform
poisoning, it will be found that, though the heart as a whole is quiescent, a
portion of it, the right auricle, is still beating. In other words, it is not
the initial stage of the beat which is absent ; the quiescence of the heart
is rather due to a failure in the transference of the beat already initiated
from auricle to ventricle. This failure occurs only in the adult or nearly
adult heart, and it has been shown that it is precisely in these adult or
nearly adult hearts in which the connecting link between auricle and
ventricle is reduced to a minimum. The failure of the heart’s action, then,
may be supposed to be due to the failure of a strand muscle of compara-
tively small sectional area to convey to the ventricle a wave of contraction
started in the auricle.

It occurred to me, then, that it might be possible in cases of chloroform
poisoning to so improve the conducting power of this strand of muscle as
to enable the waves of contraction to once again pass over the junction
and cause contractions of the ventricle.

My experiments upon this point are at present incomplete, but I have
obtained results which lead me to hope that the research will not be
entirely without practical results.

On recent Researches in the Infra-red Spectrum.
By 8S. P. Laneuey, D.C.L., LL.D.

[PLATES II.-IV.]
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

I PRESENTED to the Association in 1882 at Southampton an account of
some researches made by means of the bolometer in the infra-red spectrum
formed by a glass prism ; but though these labours have continued with
occasional intermission during the past twelve years, it is, for reasons
which will be explained later, only within the past three years that any
notable advance has been made, and only within the past twelvemonth
that such a measure of success has been attained as justifies the present
communication.

This is not the time to give any historical account of discovery in the
infra-red spectrum, but all those interested in the subject know that the

1894. H H

4.66 REPORT—1894..

first investigator here was Sir William Herschel, whose observations con-
sisted essentially in finding that there was something which the eye could
not see in a region which he proposed to call the ‘ thermometric spectrum.’
His distinguished son, Sir John, made a curious anticipation of later
discovery, by indicating, though crudely, that this invisible heat was
not uniformly distributed, and a similar conclusion was reached in an
entirely different manner, through the thermopile, by the too-early-lost
Melloni. So ignorant, in spite of these investigations, of those of the
elder Draper, and of the elder Becquerel, were we till lately, that when,
quite within my own recollection and that of most of you, Lamansky in
1871 published from his observations with the thermopile a crude little
illustration showing three inequalities in the energy curve, universal
attention was excited by it among those interested in the subject.

Among other minds, my own then received a stimulus which turned
in this direction, and having, as it seemed to me, exhausted the capacities
of the thermopile, I invented an instrument for continuing the research,
which was afterwards called the bolometer, and with which in 1881, at an
altitude of 13,000 feet upon Mount Whitney, I found spectra! regions
hitherto unreached, and whose existence had not been suspected.

I returned with a strong impression of the prospective importance of
this discovery, and laboured at the Alleghany Observatory in improving
all portions of the new method of research, especially of the bolometer and
its adjuncts, with the twofold object of obtaining greater sensitiveness
to heat, and greater precision in fixing the exact point in the spectrum
where the change of heat originated. With the former object such a
degree of sensitiveness was at that time reached, that the bolometer
indicated a change of temperature of ,j5 5 of a degree Centigrade, and
with the latter, such precision, that it was possible to fix the relative
position of a line not merely with a possible error of a considerable
fraction of a degree, such as Lamansky’s determination is evidently subject
to, but with a certainty that the error would be within a minute of arc.
The range of the apparatus in wave-lengths was almost unlimited as com-
pared with any other process, and both its sensitiveness and its possible pre-
cision seemed to be at that time notable as compared with previous methods,
for a great advance was made on anything done before with the thermo-
pile, when the presence of the well-known ‘D’ line of sodium was rendered
sensible (though barely sensible) even as a single line by the change of tem-
perature. This sensitiveness was also, as has been said, accompanied with
the possibility of unusual precision. The results of this labour were laid
before the British Association in the communication already alluded to,
and which exhibited ten or twelve inflections of the curve in the portion till
then almost unknown, which extends from a wave-length of 1* to a
wave-length of nearly 3%, at which point the glass prism then used became
wholly opaque to radiation. The positions of these inflections were fixed
with a precision quite impossible to the thermopile, but this exactness was
only obtained in practice by a process so slow as to be almost prohibitory ;
and with this apparatus I made in those earlier years such a number
of observations as I hardly like to recall, so disproportionate did the
labour inherent in this method seem to the final result.

The justification of this labour seemed to lie in the fact that it does not
appear that photography has ever rendered anything much below a wave-
length of 1*—anything at least which has been reproduced for publica-
tion in a way which gives confidence that we are in touch with the original.

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN THE INFRA-RED SPECTRUM. 467

The processes which involve the use of phosphorescent substances have
given some indications of lines considerably below 1“, but it is safe to
state that the work which has just been referred to as communicated to
this Association in 1882 presents almost the only indications which we
have possessed, even up to the present time, about the lower infra-red
solar spectrum.

Now the curve which was given, even in the later Alleghany observa-
tions, made with the rock-salt prism, contained but a dozen inflections
below the wave-length of 1*:5, and these inflections, with their correct
prismatic and wave-length positions, represent, I think, most of our present
knowledge in these regions, even to-day.

To understand the method by which there were attained, but only at
this great cost of labour, results till then unreached, it may be repeated
that the bolometer had been rendered more sensitive than the thermopile,
but that it was capable of being pointed, and its position in the spectrum
being measured only by a tedious process, which has been exclusively used
till lately (but which that presently to be described advantageously replaces).
Whichever process is used, when the bolometer thread touches a cold line
in the spectrum (since what is black to the eye is cold to it), a larger
current flows through the galvanometer, and the spot of light marking the
needle’s motion is deflected through a certain number of degrees.

From this point forward, the new process, whose results I am about to
have the pleasure of bringing before you, differs widely from the old. In
the old, two observers at least are engaged : one, who notes that reading
of the micrometer or of the vernier, which fixes in angular measure the
exact part of the spectral region whence (though nothing is visible) a
thermo-electric disturbance has proceeded ; and another, who simul-
taneously notes through how many divisions of the scale the spot of light
from the galvanometer mirror is deflected by the same electric disturbance.
The process may be compared to a groping in the dark, and it was only by
these means that the considerable inflections of the energy curve much
below the region about 1* were then fixed by the bolometer, by being gone
over again and again with what seemed almost interminable repetition,
and which did in fact call for over a thousand galvanometer readings to
obtain the position and amount of each single inflection of the energy
curve, with the degree of accuracy which was then obtained, and which
was shown in the former memoir.

If it took two years to fix the position of twenty lines by this process,
it would take two hundred years to fix two thousand, supposing they
existed, and it became evident that if the bolometer continued to be the
only means available, new and more effective methods of using it must be
found.

New Methods.

About ten years ago a plan was first studied, which has ever since been
maturing, by means of which this work could be carried on, not only with
far greater rapidity, but with greater certainty, and by an automatic
process. The idea in its original simplicity is very easily understood.

In the old process, just described, the deflection of a spot of light upon
a scale was read by one observer, while another read simultaneously the
position in the spectrum of the cold band, or line, which caused the thermo-
electric disturbance.

Now, in imagination, let us take away both the observer at the circle

HH2

468 REPORT—1894.

and the one at the galvanometer, and in the latter case remove the scale
also, and put in its stead a photographically sensitive plate. As the
needle swings to the right or left the spot of light will trace upon the
plate a black horizontal line whose length will show how far the needle
moves and how great the heat is which originated the impulse. If this
be all, when under an impulse originated by the movement of the spectrum
over the bolometer thread the needle swings a second time, it will go over
the same place ; but if the plate have a uniform vertical movement, pro-
portional to the horizontal movement of the spectrum, the combination of
the two motions of the needle and the plate will write upon the latter a
sinuous curve which will be, in theory at least, the same as the curve
formerly deducible, only with such pains, from thousands of such galvano-
meter readings.

If we suppose that the movements of the invisible spectrum are con-
trolled by clockwork, so that this spectrum is caused to move uniformly
over the bolometer thread, and that these movements are, by accurate
mechanism, rendered absolutely synchronous with those of the moving
plate, it is clear that we shall be able to readily deduce from the photo-
graphic curve traced on the latter not merely the amount of the heat, but
each particular position in the spectrum of the thread of the bolometer,
which alone can correspond with any given inflection of the curve.

Thus simple is the theory, but no one had better occasion to know how
difficult the practice would be than myself.

The researches by the old method and the early attempts to improve
them were interrupted by my acceptance, in 1887, of a position which
implies the administrative charge of different branches of the public
scientific service, and of duties largely incompatible with original re-
search. What time could be spared from these was, however, partly
employed in elaborating the plan of investigation just referred to. An
appropriation had been asked of Government for the establishment, on a
modest scale, of an Astro-physical Observatory in Washington, whose first
work should be the investigation of the whole infra-red solar spectrum, by
some means which would open that great region to knowledge. It had
- been asked of Government, because it seemed that such knowledge, if
attained, might teach us facts about the sun and the absorption of its rays
by the terrestrial atmosphere, which, there was ground to hope, would
ultimately lead to results of such importance as to justify this national aid.

These observations were resumed in 1890, on the new system, with the
aid of the Smithsonian Institution. which provided larger and more
efficient apparatus, whose design embodied the results of nearly fifteen
years’ study of these subjects.

Pending the provision of a suitable observatory building, an inadequate
and temporary one was erected in the Smithsonian Park in Washington,
to shelter the apparatus presently to be mentioned, with which it was
designed to commence work, while making provision for more permanent
scientific quarters—which, I may add, are still lacking.

Apparatus.

The Foucault Siderostat—perhaps the most powerful instrument of the
kind existing—was originally made by Sir Howard Grubb of Dublin, from
my indications ; but its dispositions have since been considerably modified.
A beam from its twenty-inch mirror is conveyed through the slit of a
horizontal collimating telescope having a rock-salt objective of nearly seven-

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN THE INFRA-RED SPECTRUM. 469

teen centimetres aperture, and of ten metres focal length, to the prism or
grating. The prism is of rock salt, of corresponding dimensions, worked
(by Brashear) with the precision of, and presenting all the external appear-
ance of, one of flint glass. It is mounted on a massive spectro-bolometer
(as the instrument which supports the prism or grating used in producing
the spectrum is called), This instrument includes a large azimuth circle,
over the centre of which the prism is placed ; and it also carries the bolo-
meter, which registers the spectral heat. The focal length of the image-
forming lens, or mirror, is in this instrument much greater than in the
first one used, and all parts of the apparatus are correspondingly increased
in size and stability. The most important and novel feature is, however,
the mechanical connection of the large azimuthal circle carrying the prism,
with a distant photographic plate, susceptible of vertical motion, and which
latter takes the place of the scale formerly in front of the remote galvano-
meter, both circle and plate being moved by the same clockwork, which is
of such steadiness and precision as to make the two movements, as far as
possible, perfectly synchronous.

To fix our ideas, let us suppose that the slow-moving azimuthal circle
carrying the prism revolves through one minute of are in one minute of
time, in which case the spectrum will move horizontally across the vertical
bolometer thread at a proportional rate. Now, if the same mechanism,
which causes this circular motion of the prism and of the spectrum of one
minute of arc in one minute of time, causes the photographic plate to move
vertically before the galvanometer mirror at the rate of one centimetre of
space in one minute of time —if there be no allowance to make for changes
of temperature in the prism or for like corrections ; if the mechanician
has done his part in such perfection that everything works as it should—
it obviously follows that, under such conditions, during every second of
this minute a portion of the spectrum represented by the small quantity
of one second of are will have glided before the bolometer thread, and that
during this same second the plate will have been lifted automatically
through one-sixtieth of a centimetre of space.

This is one relationship of time and space in actual use here, though
others may be established by the use of the change-wheels with which the
apparatus is provided. The essential thing is that the plate shall show
with great precision, and even on simple inspection, not only the inflections
of the energy curve there written down, but the exact relative position in
the distant spectrum which the bolometer thread occupied at the moment
it caused the disturbance. In the case assumed, for instance, if we
suppose that the record on the plate commences with the part of the
spectrum whose angular value is 40°, then, since 1 millimetre corresponds
to 6 seconds of are, and so on, the existence of an inflection on the plate at
30 em. 344 mm. would show that the disturbances originated at the point
in the spectrum corresponding to an angular measure of 40° 30! 22/2.

If the arm which carries the bolometer is m metres long, and if the

thread of the bolometer is } metres in diameter, the angular value of the
m

bolometer thread is i. At present the linear width of the bolometer
ner

thread is not very materially less than formerly, but it is used with a
longer arm, and its virtual width is accordingly less. In present actual
practice (to use round figures) the optical arm carrying the spectrum

470 - REPORT—1894.

across the bolometer is 5 metres in length ; and if the bolometer thread
be «5 of a millimetre in width, its angular value is evidently +p ¢\555 of the
radius of the circle in which it moves, or a little over two seconds of arc.
When the heat is distributed over so large an area, that part of it which
falls on a thread of given diameter is of course proportionately less, so
that the greater precision of measurement demands a more sensitive con-
struction of the bolometer, as well as a more accurate mechanism for
pointing it. Improvements have accordingly been introduced in the con-
struction of the bolometer, and a need for greater sensitiveness in the
galvanometer has necessarily gone with them. This increased sensitive-
ness has caused increased liability in the latter to both systematic and
accidental perturbations, and the elimination of these has been found the
most formidable difficulty of the whole process. It has been effected largely
by placing the whole apparatus under constant temperature conditions.

I take pleasure in acknowledging the advantage I have found in
using both Mr. Boys’s quartz threads, and the extremely small mirrors
which he, I think, first advocated in connection with the well-known form
of galvanometer due to Lord Kelvin. These and other collective improve-
ments made in the bolometer and in the galvanometer have now made the
former sensitive to pastas of temperature in its strip which are demon-
strably less than yopd505 Of a degree Centigrade.

These are the principal pieces of apparatus, though I should mention
that a method has been found by which the very large salt prisms used
can be preserved in perfect polish while exposed to all “the usual casualties
of observation. The actual prism in most frequent use was made from a
block of salt exhibited at the World’s Fair by the Russian Government,
and presented to the Smithsonian Institution by its Commissioners. It
is about 18 em., or over 7 English inches, in height.

Before entering upon a description of the results obtained I desire
permission to speak of the aid I have received from the gentlemen whose
assistance I have been fortunate in securing. First to Dr. Hallock, then
to Professor Hutchins, Mr. Hubbard, and Mr. C. T. Child, and lately to
Mr. F. Li. O. Wadsworth and Mr. R. C. Child, the imprint of the labours
of the two latter gentlemen being upon almost all the details of the more
recent work.

Results.

Let us recall that the infra-red spectrum from a rock-salt prism such
as that used is extremely contracted as compared with one from flint glass,
and still more contracted as compared with the wave-length scale. The
portion of the spectrum presented by photography reaches a little below
the band whose wave-length is about 1“, and this was asserted by one of
the most eminent living authorities on the subject (Dr. John W. Draper)
when the writer commenced this work, fifteen years ago, to be the absolute
end of the heat spectrum. The writer has, however, since carried his
investigations by direct measurement to five or six times this wave-length,
and by indirect measurement much farther still, though what is now
exhibited does not go beyond a wave-length of about 4%. The invisible
heat spectrum of a 60° rock-salt prism through this great wave-length
includes only somewhat less than 2° of arc, and the first of these degrees
contains the greater proportion of the energy.

On referring to the illustrations exhibited to the Association in 1882,
or even to later publications of results obtained by rock-salt prisms, though

Illustrating Dr, 8. P. Langley'a Paper on Recent Researches in the Infra-red Spectrum.

ON EC

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ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN THE INFRA-RED SPECTRUM. 471

with the old method, it will be seen that there are shown in the latter
publications about a dozen measured inflections of the energy curve below
15, and it may be remembered that this curve was obtained only by two
years’ assiduous labour.

We have now before us (fig. 1, Plate IT.) three energy curves, obtained
by the new method, each exhibiting the whole infra-red spectrum under
examination, with about a hundred inflections. These curves are nearly,
but not exactly, similar.

The three were obtained on the same day, each from an entirely inde-
pendent observation, so that each has given in a fraction of a day many
times the results previously obtained by two years of labour, and, as it will
be later shown, has given these results with a notable gain of accuracy.

But this is not all. These three curves have been taken with a rapid
movement of the clockwork and a brief swing of the galvanometer, so as
intentionally to suppress all minor inflections and to introduce only the
leading features of the spectrum, as shown in eighty or a hundred of the
leading inflections (lines) or groups.

This new bolometric method has, however, as will be shown later, a
capacity of resolving these into nearly twenty times that number, the
minor inflections having been thus designedly suppressed here, to better
show the character and position of the principal ones. All these energy
spectra, by the new as by the old method, are, of course, subject to the
slight changes due to invisible clouds constantly passing before the sun,
which, with the change of the sun’s altitude, and of the consequent
lengthening path of its rays, prevent any one of them from being exactly
like the other ; while, at the same time, everyone here may satisfy him-
self, by direct inspection of the results before him, that there is scarcely
any single one of their inflections which is not reproduced in the other
two, in exactly the same place, though probably not exactly in the same
degree ; and when we take different spectral traces, made at different
hours of the day, and even on different days of the month—traces which
are absolutely independent of each other—-and superpose them, experi-
ence shows that we may expect to see such an agreement as that in the
three here chosen at random for illustration, or in the more detailed one,
where the relative probable error is less than one second of arc. Three such
traces only are here given (to prevent confusion), but if we follow these
coincidences through not three, but ten or more plates, we may well judge
{since there seems no possibility here of systematic error) that a result
which all confirm is reliable, and that, on the other hand, a single inflec-
tion on one plate, which the other nine unite in repudiating, is due to
some fortuitous cause. .

But there is still a higher certainty to be obtained, by a method
independent even of comparison or the exercise of judgment. It is
founded on the well-known process of composite-photography, where,
in photographing the successive members of an assemblage of persons,
having similar general characteristics—as of race, character, or educa-
tion, the individual disappears and the normal type alone remains. In
order to apply this method to such results as ours, however, another
step in the process must be introduced, and this is an interesting one, for
the energy curve itself, however valuable, is a comparatively unfamiliar
method of showing variations in the energy, which we are all alike used
to seeing in the visible spectrum, given by linear representations, and not
by a system of inflections.

AT2 | REPORT—1894.

In describing this new step which is to give us a linear spectrum, in
addition to the original curve, it will be desirable to also give evidence of
the statement now made, that the present method is capable of recording
far minuter inflections than those shown in the curves exhibited (Plate I1),
which, as has just been stated, have been taken only for the purpose of
illustrating such more important features as can be seen and verified by
the audience, and especially for showing the agreement of indeperdent
observations. The evidence of the capacity of the apparatus to show this
detail will best be illustrated by applying our purely thermometric method

Fig. 2.

to some well-known lines in the visible spectrum, such as the familiar
‘D’ lines of sodium. I have already stated that ten years ago the bolo-
meter was barely able to distinguish this as a single line. At the present
time our little thermometer, as you see (fig. 2), now shows not only the two
‘D’s’ as separate lines, but the nickel line between them. First we have
the complex energy curve, where we see successively the inflections due
to the motions of the galvanometer caused by the cold in D,, then to the
smaller chill from the nickel line (aided, perhaps, by that from some of
the close atmospheric lines), then the chill from D,.

ON RECEN’

Plate IIL (Fig. 3)

Tmmediately be
F

Tlustrating Dr. 8. P. Langley's Paper on Recent Researches in the Infra-red Spectrum,

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN THE INFRA-RED SPECTRUM. 473

Immediately below this curve is the more familiar linear representa-
tion of the same subject. Now this linear representation, it is most
important to observe, has been obtained, not by drawing, but by the
subsequent application to the curve of an automatic process, by means of
which its indications are reproduced by photogravure, as separate lines ;
while, by the same automatic process, the most complex spectral curves
can be rendered into their linear equivalents.

I have no space to enter here on a description of this process, further
than to say it is effected by means of a systematically distorted image of
the curve, obtained by a special combination of spherical and cylindric
lenses. You will see, on minute inspection, that the inflections of the
galvanometer curve have been slightly ‘loaded,’ to produce a more effec-
tive contrast of light and dark. Except for this, which can in no way
affect the position of a line, but only its intensity, the whole process is as
absolutely automatic as any photograph of the visible spectrum.

This thermograph of the ‘D’ lines has been chosen to indicate the
grasp of this new thermometric method, by applying it to the test of an
object in the visible spectrum with which every physicist is doubtless
familiar. He may then be invited to recall that the distance between the
‘ D’s’ in a rock-salt sixty-degree prism is about eleven seconds of arc, and
to observe that two lines, about half this distance apart, are here shown.
as sharply divided by this thermal method as, for instance, are the com-
ponents of the double star a Geminorum by a 3-inch achromatic.
Obviously, then, our method could indicate the existence of two lines,
little, if any, more than one-quarter the distance between the ‘ D’s.’
Lines 3” or less apart can, then, evidently, be indicated by this method,
even in its present state of development.

And now, returning to what has been said about the evidence obtain-
able as to the perfect coincidence of these inflections in different energy
curves obtained at different times, and to the consequent evidence that
each inflection so given is real, and not the product of an accidental
variation in the curve, we may conceive that from any number of such
independent curves any number of such linear representations of the
spectra have been obtained ; for example, that ten such linear representa-
tions of the whole spectrum as are here given of the ‘ D’ lines only, have
been so found from ten complete energy curves taken on as many different
days. From these ten linear representations, by the well-known pro-
cesses of composite photography, one final photograph of the spectrum is
formed, and on this it is evident we may expect to find only what is
permanent and not what is accidental, granting that a rare accident may
have introduced an occasional abnormal deflection.

Now considering that the part of the infra-red solar spectrum of rock-
salt under review extends through nearly two degrees, or 7,200 seconds,
and that we have just seen by the illustration of the ‘D’ lines (fig. 2)
that lines 3” apart can be thus indicated, we may see for ourselves that at
any rate over 2,000 lines, if they exist, can be mapped. But these lines
do exist, the whole of this new region being apparently as intimately
filled by them as the visible spectrum by the Fraunhofer lines. In further
evidence of this I now show a portion of the lower spectrum (fig. 3,
Plate ITT.) ! in the comparatively unknown part extending from \=1*4 to
A=2*"2, including the great band © shown as a single inflection in my first

' This figure, exhibited here only in illustration, is not to be treated as a criterion
of the final results to be attained by the composite process.

ATA REPORT—1894.

communication to this Association, but here resolved into thirty or more
subordinate lines. This illustration includes a part of the new region
discovered on Mount Whitney in 1881, and in the small portion here
exhibited it may be seen that about 200 lines are discriminated.

I am now trying to bring what may be called the first stage of the
long labour, a portion of which is here described, to a close, this first
stage consisting chiefly in the discovery of and mapping’ the relative posi-
tions of new spectral lines.

I will only refer to what it seems to me the second part of this work
is likely to be, and to the different kind of interest which may not
improbably belong to it, from that which belongs to this the first.

We are thus far in the position of early students of the visible
spectrum, who simply drew the lines they saw without inquiring into
their meaning. Nevertheless, to have discovered and mapped a great
number of these lines is only a beginning, for their real value lies in their
interpretation, and this is still chiefly to come. As to the possible
importance of this interpretation, it is not enough to remind ourselves
that three-quarters of the whole energy of the sun exists here and not in
the upper spectrum, We must remember also that while, as a rule, in the
upper and visible spectrum a great proportion of the lines are caused by
absorption in the solar atmosphere, and a perhaps smaller portion by
telluric absorption ; here, on the contrary, we are led by everything we
already know to expect that the great telluric absorptions on which
meteorological predictions and other immediately practical interests
depend may be expected to be found, and it is on the comparison of
these energy curves taken at different periods of the year and at different
altitudes of the sun, that those who are engaged in the work see good
cause to hope for important results in the future.

Before I conclude let me present a collective view of (fig. 4, Plate IV.)
the field in which work has been going on in these later years at the
Smithsonian Observatory on the same scale with the visible spectrum ;
I say ‘on the same scale,’ meaning not on a wave-length scale which
expands the invisible at the expense of the visible, and not on a prismatic
scale alone which expands the visible at the expense of the invisible, nor
even on such a logarithmic one as that proposed by Lord Rayleigh, but on
a conventional scale, which I will ask you to tolerate, as. it is simply
meant to show the actual extent and importance of the region covered
here, as compared with that known to Newton. In this illustration, with
which I close my remarks, the mean dispersion throughout the invisible
rock-salt spectrum, as far as 4“ is taken as the standard, and both spectra
are laid out on that common scale. On the left is the visible spectrum
known to Newton: next this is the region known through photography,
now extending a little beyond the band per which marks what, at the time
these researches were commenced, was considered by the then most
distinguished investigator in the infra-red, the end of the heat spectrum.
Beyond, and on the right, is a part of the new regions of the spectrum
developed by the bolometer, and of which charts may be shortly expected
on the scale of which a specimen in detail has just been shown.

I cannot close this statement without expressing the gratification with
which I have laid it before the same body that listened to that made on
the same subject twelve years ago, or my sense of my good fortune in
doing so before an audience in which I recognise many of the same
eminent men who so kindly received that first presentation of these
researches.

parche

peor cmerataier crc ae TAR

Tnvistece

Tilustrating Dr. S. P. Langley's Paper on Recent Reacarches in the Infra-red Spectrum.

ON THE FORMATION OF SOAP-BUBBLES. 475

On the Formation of Soap-bubbles by the Contact of Alkaline Oleates
with Water. By Professor G. QuINCKE, I.B.S.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Some years ago I showed that soap-solution could be spread out on
the common surface of oil and water or of oleic acid and water. The
surface tension is diminished by this spreading more than 80 per cent.
The spreading forms vortices in both liquids, and attracts all matter to the
centre of spreading. If the soap-solution is formed by the oleic acid in
contact with water containing potassium, sodium, or ammonia on the sur-
face of a drop of oil, suspended in water of the same density, near the
wall of the glass vessel or near viscous substances, the drop of oil is
attracted by the wall or the viscous matter. The formation and the spread-
ing out of soap-solution may be periodical and the movement periodical. If
the period is very short the movement is apparently continuous. Oil-
bubbles filled with water or small bodies covered with very thin films of
oil are displaced in the same manner as oil spheres by the spreading of
soap-solution.

I think that this new principle of movement will also explain a great
many phenomena in organic nature, and I have tried also to explain by
this new principle the spontaneous formation of emulsion or foam by the
contact of oil (with oleic acid) and alkaline water, the foam-structure and
the motion of the protoplasm in the cells of the plants.

Very thin films of oil are sufficient to show this motion by periodical
spreading of the solution of very small quantities of soap, so thin and so
small that they cannot be seen with the microscope or recognised in any
other way.

Recently I have studied the phenomena by the contact of the oleates
of potassium, sodium, and ammonia with water. The neutral oleates are
dissolved by water, and form a viscous liquid. With more water an acid
salt is formed and the alkali is dissolved in the water. These acid salts or
acid soaps are not soluble in water, or only slightly soluble in water. By
longer contact with water they are dissociated, and form again liquid
oleic acid and neutral oleates or soap-solutions.

When small quantities of neutral oleates are placed in contact with
water between the cover-glass and the slide, and are examined by a micro-
scope with polarised light, they are found to be covered with thin films
of oleic acid. This film dissolves oleate and water, and the diffusion of
both substances will bring water to the soap inside the oil-film of oleic
acid, and oleate to the water outside the oil-film. The volume of the soap
inside the oil-film is increased, the soap-solution formed on the common
surface of oil and water is spread out, and now the vortices, excited by the
spreading, attract the matter, the soap, and the liquid. In this way are
produced very curious forms called myeline by Virchow, who first observed
them in putrefied brain. These myeline forms—crystals of soap (with
water of crystallisation, covered with the thin oil-films and showing a
smooth surface)—are doubly refractive.

The ‘liquid crystals’ observed by Professor Lehmann, of Karlsruhe, in
fused benzoylcholesterine and fused azoxyanisol are also doubly refracting
crystals, covered with a thin film of oily matter formed in the liquid by
the fusion.

476 REPORT—1 894.

When more water diffuses through the oil-film to the soap inside there
is formed a viscous liquid, a solution of the oleate in a jacket of oleic acid.
The movement of the water and the periodical spreading of soap-solution
will form long filaments or cylinders of viscous matter covered with an
oil-film. The oil-film contracts and forms bubbles in the middle and the
ends of the oil-filament. By the spreading of soap solution the bubbles
wander along the oil cylinders with different velocities and in different
directions. After some time the oil cylinders are deformed and become
strings of beads of oleic acid and thin oil-films. The thin oil-films form
foam or bubbles filled with water or weak solution of soap.

In the oil-film are distributed lenses or spheres of oil filled with strong
or weak soap-solution. Some methylene-blue dissolved in the water is
collected or stored up in the oleic acid, so that the coloured oil and the
water may be very easily distinguished.

The spheres of oleic acid coloured with methylene-blue are arranged on
the edges of the films of the bubbles or spherical films of the foam, and the
appearance is similar to the appearance presented by the stars of the
Milky Way. The formation of chains of stars, as observed by Professor
Max Wolf, and the spiral nebula in Perseus in the excellent photographs
of Dr. Roberts, are similar in appearance to the phenomena observed by
me in these microscopical oil-films and bubbles.

Fifty years ago Plateau pointed to the analogy of the rotation of the
sun and the planets with the rotation of oil-spheres suspended in a mixture
of alcohol and water of the same density. Now we have a new analogy
between the arrangement of matter of the universe by forces acting at
very great or very small distances. From the standpoint of our modern
physics, with the Newtonian law of gravitation and the law of action of
molecular forces, these analogies may appear to be somewhat arbitrary. But
we must be able to pass from definite distances to infinitely great or to infi-
nitely small distances of the acting masses, and we can conceive that it
may be possible that the difference between the law of gravitation and the
law of the molecular forces may disappear, and that we may have the
same law for small and great distances ; so that the distribution of matter
may be accounted for by the same forces, when the masses and the
distances of the masses are increased in the same proportion, a million or
a billion times.

The work of future generations will decide whether researches on the
microscopical oil-foam or on the sters of the universe will give the solution
of this problem.

On the Displacements of the Rotational Avis of the Harth. By Professor
W. Forster, Director of the Royal Observatory of Berlin.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

DisPLACEMENTS of the rotational axis of the earth with reference to fixed
directions in space have been observed since the earliest ages of astro-
nomical measurement ; for such displacements, visible in wanderings of
the pole of the apparent diurnal rotation of the celestial sphere among the
constellations of fixed stars, exist in such enormous amplitudes, that in
their main features they could be detected by the aid of very simple
apparatus and observations.

ON DISPLACEMENTS OF THE ROTATIONAL AXIS OF THE EARTH. A77

The true law and explanation of these wanderings of the pole remained,
nevertheless, a deep mystery till Copernicus lifted the veil by showing
that they were only the celestial image of real displacements of the
rotational axis of the earth in space, and until Newton came and, com-
bining his discovery of universal gravitation with his deduction of the
ellipsoidal figure of the earth, proved that these displacements are due to
the actions of the moon and the sun on the earth.

The mathematicians of the eighteenth century completed this explana-
tion by profound researches embracing the full theory of free rotation of a
solid system of masses, under the action of various disturbing influences,
not only those acting from outwards on the rotating body (as in the case
of the sun’s and the moon’s attractions on the earth), but also those
depending upon the condition or changes within the rotating system
itself.

Among several] interesting results, these investigations pointed out an
essential difference between the development of the disturbed rotation in
the first and in the second case.

Upon the supposition, corresponding to the real terrestrial conditions
of the problem, namely, that all the disturbing influences are relatively
small in comparison with the amount of energy represented by the primary
rotation of the earth itself, the following distinctions were demonstrated.

Exterior disturbing influences will mainly produce displacements of
the axis in space, and corresponding wanderings of the pole among the
stars ; whilst the simultaneous displacements of the axis in the earth itself,
in consequence of the particular conditions of their evolution, remain
insensible.

On the contrary, interior conditions and disturbing influences, as those
contained in the configurations of the masses, or in changes of the dis-
tribution of the masses composing the rotating system, will mainly produce
displacements of the rotational axis in the rotating body itself, whilst in
this case the simultaneous displacements of this axis in space and the
corresponding variations of the position of the pole among the stars remain
insensible.

Very soon after these deductions had been made from theory, astro-
nomers began to inquire if also effects of the latter type—that is to say,
displacements of the rotational axis in the earth—really existed.

According to theory, such displacements ought even to exist when the
distribution of the masses composing the earth is not in the slightest
degree variable.

It is sufficient for producing such displacements that the position of
the rotational axis of the earth is actually not in perfect voincidence with
one of its principal axes of inertia, known as the principal axis.

The slightest deviation of the rotational axis from the principal axis
has the consequence that the pole of the rotational axis begins and con-
tinues to describe a small circle around the pole of the principal axis.

The velocity of this movement depends upon the law of the figure and
of the distribution of the masses composing the earth, and the best
numerical data for this dependence had given the result that the dis-
placement in question would probably have a period of nearly ten months.

Now all such displacements, possibly measurable with reference to
fixed directions in the earth, and insensible with reference to fixed direc-
tions in space, could be found in the most favourable way by measuring
as exactly and continuously as possible the distance of the pole from the

478 : REPORT—1894.

zenith of the observer’s station ; in other words, by repeated determinations
of geographical latitudes. But, notwithstanding very long and refined
determinations of the geographical latitudes at some of the principal
observatories, beginning shortly before the middle of the present century,
only very uncertain and discordant traces of the phenomena in question
were found.

The reason for this want of success is now very clear. Astronomers
had limited their researches too narrowly to the last-mentioned type—
namely, to the supposed regular ten-monthly periodical movement of the
pole of the rotational axis around the pole of the principal axis. Too
easily it had been admitted that all the existing variations of the distri-
bution of terrestrial masses were far too small for altering sensibly the
position of this principal axis itself.

It was Lord Kelvin, at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association
(1876), who first drew the attention of the scientific world to the con-
sideration of the great natural transports of masses of air and water, and
of various masses by the water, going on continuously and periodically in
the form of currents and circulations of different kinds, as well in the
atmosphere as in oceans and rivers, and the effects of the enormous
periodical deposits of snow and ice. He showed that these very consider-
able variations of the distribution of masses on the earth could not only
produce sensible displacements of the principal axis of inertia, but that
such displacements of this axis could have an amplifying effect on the
total amount of displacements of the rotational axis.

For if the principal axis were itself not in a constant position, the
theoretically required movement of the rotational axis around the principal
axis would become a very complicated movement, differing entirely from
the simple form which to that time had appeared in the researches of
astronomers.

This epicyclic character of the movement of the pole of the rotational
axis could considerably modify not only the length of the period, but also
the whole geometrical character and amplitude of the curve, in such a way
that in longer periods epochs of very small variations of latitude could
alternate with epochs of considerably increased variations of latitude.
Possibly, as a further consequence of this complication of the displacements
of the two axes, and as a consequence of the still existing plastic state of
certain parts of the earth, as well as by the damping effects of the fluid
parts, even progressive—though very slow and unsteady progressive—
displacements of the rotational axis in the earth could still result.

The field of this research was thus decisively cleared by Lord Kelvin ;
and finally, about four years ago, by the co-operation of some Observatories
with the International Geodetic Union, clear evidence was obtained, and
in the last three years, with the aid of an expedition sent by the Inter-
national Union to Honolulu, decisive proofs of such displacements have
been found. I consider it a special honour and pleasure to be enabled to
submit some of the newest results of this international co-operation to a
meeting of the same Association which, twenty years ago, had been witness
of the almost prophetic assertions of one of its most illustrious members
regarding the real conditions of this important phenomenon.

I have prepared a diagram showing these newest results. In this
diagram is given a representation of the wanderings of the pole of the
rotational axis of the earth on its surface during the last twenty months,
from October 20, 1892, to May 1, 1894.

ON DISPLACEMENTS OF THE ROTATIONAL AXIS OF THE EARTH. 479

This sketch is founded on nearly 6,000 single determinations of latitude
made in the Observatory of Kasan (Eastern Russia), Strassburg, Elsass
(41° 21’ west of Kasan), and Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (124° 30’ west of
Kasan). The observations are condensed in twenty monthly mean results,
numbered from zero to 19. Every one of these resulting monthly positions
of the pole indicated by the centres of the small circles is thus the
mean result of about 300 single determinations.

o6

12

Merldian of Kasan

Oo

fe)

13

Figure showing movement of the North Pole of the rotational axis of the earth.
Derived from observations made at Bethlehem, Strassburg, and Kasan :—

0=1892 Oct. 20. 13=1893 Noy. 1.
Ty NOV. Ls TA gece ls
2-354, Dec. I. 15=1894 Jan. 1.

3=1893 Jan. 1.

¢ Sfislerreas

a We Ge) eile 19=1894 May 1,
The figure is drawn on the scale of two millimetres to one-hundredth
of a second of arc, and the maximum amplitude of the curve is nearly
fifty-hundredths, or half a second. The amplitude of these movements of
the pole on the surface of the earth is between 40 and 50 feet,
The general character of the movement is quite in accordance with
what has been mentioned concerning its complicated and somewhat spiral

4.80 REPORT—1894.

character. The sense of the motion is from west to east. The velocity is
apparently very variable, and it seems as if we are now approaching an
epoch in which the amplitude is considerably diminishing. It is also
evident that such a character of movement can very easily produce slow
progressive motions, and for this reason the whole phenomenon wants to
be watched incessantly and very carefully.

The astronomers and geodetists who are now associated in the Inter-
national Geodetic Union have invited geologists to associate with them
in this common research. Such an international organisation will be also
useful and almost indispensable for a great part of the work of astronomical
observatories.

It is to be hoped that Great Britain will now participate in this
Ynternational Union, embracing all other civilised nations. Such organisa-
tions, with their clear and reasonably limited aims, involve not only real
economies and refinements of mental work, combined with diminutions of
material expenses, but it is hoped that they will also have great importance
as slowly growing foundations of human and terrestrial solidarity.

A Lecture-room Experiment to illustrate Fresnel’s Diffraction Theory
and Babinet’s Principle. By Professor A. Cornu, F.R.S.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso. |

Tue diffraction fringes bordering the shadow of an object illumined by a
point of light present us with one of the most striking phenomena in
optics.

Dr. Thomas Young was the first to connect these fringes with the
wave theory. According to him they were due to the interference of
the direct wave with the wave tangentially reflected at the surface of the
body screening the light.

Fresnel, following the way opened by Young, proved, however, by a
very simple experiment, namely, by the identity of the fringes produced
by the edge and by the back of a razor, that the reflected light has no
appreciable influence on the production of these fringes. He proved that
the phenomenon is exclusively due to the mutual interference of all the
vibrations proceeding from the whole of the wave not intercepted by
the object.

A mathematical investigation, and even a superficial analysis, shows
that the resulting vibratory motion producing the fringes is equivalent to
the vibration which would be caused by a permanent wave fixed at the
edge of the body screening the light, provided that the acting part of this
wave is reduced to a small breadth variable according to the obliquity of
the rays. Consequently, everything happens as if the source of light
were taken away, and the body were surrounded by a true luminous
source forming a sort of border round its apparent contour. This result,
proved for a single luminous point, is immediately extended to a circular
source of light of any diameter considered as composed of points acting
independently.

This optical equivalence is not only a symbolic or geometrical result,
but a real physical fact, and the experiment, which I propose to show,
gives the most striking evidence of the reality of this source of light.

ON FRESNEL’S DIFFRACTION THEORY AND BABINET’S PRINCIPLE. 481

To show the acting part of the wave surrounding the screening body
three conditions are required :—

1. The plane of distinct vision must be made to coincide with the
edge of the diffracting body.

2. The greatest portion of the diffracted rays must be preserved for
producing the phenomenon.

3. The rays not employed in producing the phenomenon must be
cut off.

It is not difficult to realise experimentally these three conditions, and
the result obtained is extremely brilliant with sunlight. Though much
less intense with the electric arc, it is nevertheless sufliciently distinct to
be projected. With a feeble source of light, such as an oil-lamp, the
phenomenon is still quite visible, but only by direct vision.

Let us take a luminous source of circular form (the disc of the sun or
a circular hole in a diaphragm conveniently illuminated). Let the rays
diverging from this source fall upon an achromatic Jens (0-5 to 1 metre
focal length) and produce at the conjugate focus a bright circular image
of the source. Exactly at this focus let us place a black circular disc
having precisely the same diameter as this image.

The eye placed behind this opaque disc will not see any point of the
luminous source, because all the rays are cut off by the disc ; it will
perceive, however, a luminous line round the edge of the lens. This is
in itself an illustration of the acting part of the Fresnel’s wave, for the
edge of the lens is really a screen which intercepts the incident wave.
But the experiment becomes extremely striking if any object is put on
the surface of the leus: this object appears on a dark field as if surrounded
by a luminous line following even the smallest details of its edge. [In the
experiment projected before the Section the object shown was a branch
of fern. |

Moreover, each particle of the unavoidable dust lying on the lens pre-
duces a luminous point, and for this reason the field is never quite dark.
Lycopodium thrown in front of the lens exaggerates this effect and
produces a sort of luminous nebula.

The intensity of the bright bordering line depends upon the accuracy
with which the circular screen masks the focal image of the source ; if
the diameter of the screen is too small the field becomes luminous, if it is
too large the brilliancy of the line diminishes. If another shape he given
to the screen the luminous line is interrupted normally to the directions
in which the screen extends much outside the image of the source.

With the circular screen it is easy to observe the important particular
ease to which Babinet called attention, viz., that a very thin opaque line
diffracts light exactly in the same manner as a transparent slit of the
same form and size.

It suffices for this purpose to observe the shadows of successive wires,
straight or curved, of decreasing diameters. The dark space lying between
the two luminous edges in the case of a thick wire diminishes as the wire
becomes finer, and vanishes when its apparent angle becomes sufficiently
small; then the wire appears on the dark field like the incandescent
filament of a glow-lamp.

The slits corresponding to the wires are made with lines of decreasing
breadths traced on smoked glass. The appearances are exactly the same
as before, a double bright line heing produced by a broad slit, a single
bright line by a narrow slit, so that a fine transparent slit and a fine

1894. II

4.82 REPORT—15894:.

opaque wire give exactly the same phenomenon. This is the simple and
useful result called sometimes Babinet’s Principle, and, in any case, the
experiment just described gives immediately the means of verifying
whether the conditions required for the correct application of this principle
are sufficiently fulfilled.

All these results can be collected under a pretty form which illustrates
one of the finest natural phenomena. It is well known that when the
sun is hidden behind the top of a mountain, but near the crest, all objects
in its neighbourhood are surrounded by luminous borders, and minute
objects, branches, leaves of trees, flying birds, &c., appear on the sky as
if incandescent.

To imitate this appearance it suffices to cut out in cardboard an
irregular edge representing the crest of the mountain, and to border it
with some blades of grass or moss representing trees. This object placed
on the lens reproduces an image of this beautiful phenomenon, which
seems to have been observed many centuries ago in deep valleys when the
sun rises ; for Shakespeare says (Richard IJ, act ii. scene 2): ‘ He fires
the proud tops of the eastern pines.’

The Connection between Chemical Combination anid the Discharge of
Electricity through Gases. By J. JTHomson, Professor of Experi-
mental Physics, Cambridge.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

THE intimate connection between chemical change and the passage of
electricity through liquids has been universally recognised ever since
Faraday discovered the laws of electrolysis which bear his name. These
laws state that, whenever electricity passes through an electrolyte, che-
mical changes take place in the electrolyte, and that the quantity of electri-
city which passes through the electrolyte is connected in the most intimate
and simple manner with the amount of chemical change which has taken
place during its passage. For each unit of electricity which passes through
the electrolyte a definite amount of chemical change takes place, and the
chemical changes which take place when equal quantities of electricity
pass through different electrolytes are chemically equivalent. But although
chemists have largely availed themselves of the light thrown by electrolysis
on chemical phenomena, the subject of the passage of electricity through
gases does not seem to have attracted their attention. We have strong.
evidence, however, that the connection between the discharge of electricity
through gases and chemical change is not less intimate than that between
electrolysis and chemical change. Thus, for example, when the electric dis-
charge passes through steam, the steam is decomposed, an excess of hydro-
gen appearing at one electrode and an excess of oxygen at the other ; these
excesses of hydrogen and oxygen are proportional to the quantity of elec-
tricity which has passed through the steam, and are equal to the amounts
of hydrogen and oxygen which would be liberated if the same quantity of
electricity passed through a water voltameter. We have here evidence
for connecting chemical action with the discharge of electricity through
gases of precisely the same kind as that which has connected it with
electrolysis. Again, as I hope to show later in this paper, the passage of

ON CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND ELECTRIC DISCHARGE. 483

electricity through gases is influenced by various circumstances, such as
the presence of very small quantities of water vapour, which exert so
strange an effect upon chemical combination.

As for the opportunities for the study of chemical problems given by
the phenomena of gaseous discharge, they seem to excel even those
afforded by electrolysis, for the substances are in the gaseous state, the
state in which the properties are the simplest and have been the most
closely studied, while the visibility of the discharge facilitates the study
of the electric phenomena, as it allows us to see, to some extent at least,
what is going on.

The first point by which I shall illustrate the connection between
chemical action and the discharge through gases is the influence exerted
by water vapour on the potential difference required to initiate a spark
through gas. The researches of Dixon, of Pringsheim, and of Baker, have
established that water vapour exerts a remarkable influence on chemical
combination. In several typical cases the presence of water seems indis-
pensable for chemical action ; two perfectly dry gases, even when they
have as strong an affinity for each other as hydrogen and chlorine, seem
utterly unable to combine with each other. The addition of a little water,
however, is all that is necessary to cause combination to take place. As
an analogue to this I shall now show some experiments which prove that
it is extremely difficult to start a spark through a perfectly dried gas.
When all traces of moisture are abstracted from the gas, the gas is able
to withstand without sparking a potential difference many times more
than that which would be sufficient to spark through it if it were slightly
moist. The experiments suggest that, if it were possible to get a perfectly
dry gas, then to spark through it would require so large a potential dif-
ference as to be far beyond any means of production at present at our
command.

The experiments are of the following kind. The ends of a coil of wire
are attached to a and B (fig. 1), the outside coatings of two Leyden jars,
the insides of which are connected to the terminals of a Wimshurst elec-
trical machine, or of an induction coil. When sparks pass between the
terminals of the machine electric oscillations are started, and we have
electric currents of very high frequency passing to and fro through the
wires connecting the coatings of the jars. By using jars of suitable size
it is easy to send through the coil electrical currents which reverse their
direction several million times per second. This coil, with the alternating
currents passing through it, may be compared to the primary of an induc-
tion coil, and it will induce currents in any neighbouring conductor. If
we place inside the coil a bulb containing some gas at a very low pressure,
the gas will be subject to electro-motive forces due to the electro-magnetic
induction of the alternating currents in the coil ; if these forces are very
intense, they may be suftcient to cause a luminous discharge to pass through
the gas. This discharge will take a ring shape, since the electro-motive
force due to the alternating currents in the coil will act round rings pa-
rallel to the plane of the turns of the coil. I now place in the coil this bulb,
which contains gas which has not been specially dried, and you see that
the ring discharge flashes through the bulb whenever sparks pass between
the terminals of the Wimshurst machine. I will now use this arrangement
to show the effect of drying the gas, remarking in passing that the effect
of moisture is not confined to any particular method of producing the elec-
tro-motive force, and is just as marked when the E.M.F. is steady as when

112

484. REPORT—189 4.

it is alternating ; in fact, I first noticed the effect when using a battery
made up of a very large number of storage cells.

The apparatus consists of two equal bulbs, connected by a glass tube,
which is open originally but afterwards fused up: one of the bulbs
contains carefully prepared phosphorus pentoxide, the other is empty of
all but gas. The two bulbs were exhausted by an air-pump until the
pressure of the gas in them was very low. They were then sealed off from
the pump, and the passage between the bulbs was fused up. In this way
the two bulbs are filled with the same kind of gas at the same pressure ;
the gas in one bulb will, however, gradually become dry, while that in the
other will remain in its original damp condition. Just after the opening
between the bulbs was fused up, the discharge passed freely through either
bulb when placed inside the coil. After the apparatus had stood for some

Fig. 1.

days, long enough for the gas in the bulb containing the phosphorus pent-
oxide to become dry, the two bulbs showed a marked difference in their
behaviour when placed inside the coil. The discharge, as you see, still
passes freely in the damp bulb ; but not the faintest trace of discharge can
be detected inside the dry one, and even when the distance between the
terminals of the Wimshurst machine is increased far beyond that neces-
sary to produce a discharge in the damp bulb, the dry bulb still remains
free from discharge. It is thus evident that, to start a discharge in the
dry gas, a much larger electro-motive force is required than is necessary to
produce the same effect in the damp gas ; in other words, the presence of
aqueous vapour facilitates to a great extent the passage of the discharge.
If, however, I produce a brush discharge in the dry bulb by bringing
to the outside of the bulb a wire connected with the high potential pole
of the Wimshurst machine, the ring discharge will start at once in the
dry bulb, and after it has once been started an electro-motive force, very

ON CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND ELECTRIC DISCHARGE. 485

much smaller than that which it withstood previously without giving way,
is sufficient to send the discharge through it. In fact, when once the
discharge has been started through the dry gas it is almost as easy to send
the consecutive discharges through the dry gas as through the damp. If
the dry bulb is put away and left alone, it will, after some time, recover
its original strength. It takes, however, a considerable time to do this,
and it is very often several hours before the bulb is restored to its original
condition. The effect of depriving the gas of aqueous vapour is thus to
increase the difficulty of getting the first spark to pass through the gas.
After once the spark has passed, there is very much less difference between
the dry and the wet gas. If, instead of these alternating currents, we use
the direct current from a large battery of cells, we can easily measure the
change in the potential difference required for the first and consecutive
sparks ; all we have to do is to connect the electrodes of a discharge tube
with an electrostatic-voltmeter. For damp gases the change in the poten-
tial difference between the first and following sparks is not very great. For
very dry gases, however, the potential difference required to start the
first spark may be quite indefinitely large ; but for the second and follow-
ing sparks it will be almost identical with that for the damp gas.

Another striking effect produced by aqueous vapour is the change it
produces in a phosphorescent glow which some gases emit after an electric
discharge has passed through them. When the discharge passes through
oxygen it is followed by a greenish yellow glow diffused through the bulb.
This glow is very bright and lasts for a considerable time. It gives a con-
tinuous spectrum crossed by a few bright lines. When the discharge
passes through cyanogen it is succeeded by a white glow which is very
persistent, lasting in some cases for fifteen or twenty minutes. All thc
gases in which I have observed this glow have the power of forming poly-
meric modifications. Aqueous vapour produces a very marked effect on
this glow. If an oxygen bulb is sealed up with some phosphorus pent-
oxide, then for a short time after sealing off the gas will glow brightly
after a discharge has passed, but as the gas gets drier the glow gets fainter,
and after a few days is hardly visible. On the other hand, air, which only
shows a very faint glow when moist, gives quite a bright glow when care-
fully dried. This glow is of the same character as that in damp oxygen.

The way in which the presence of water vapour facilitates the discharge
and affects its appearance may be compared with its effect on chemical
combination. Dixon, Pringsheim, and Baker have shown that certain
typical combinations do not take place at all unless water vapour is pre-
sent. If we take the view—which is, I think, proved by the phenomena
accompanying electric discharges through gases—that the first discharge
through a gas in its normal state is accompanied by the splitting up of
some of the molecules of the gas, we can see why a cause which increases
the facility with which the first discharge passes through the gas should also
increase the tendency of the gas to enter into chemical combination. The
forces holding together the atoms in a molecule are so great that if we
were to take a single molecule of a gas by itself the electric field required
to pull the atoms in the molecule asunder would far exceed in intensity any
hitherto applied to a gas. For consider two atoms in a molecule each
charged with the quantity of electricity which the electrolysis of liquids
shows is carried by each atom of an electrolyte, and which from the results
of experiments of the electrolysis of steam we may infer is carried by an
atom of a gas. This charge, which we shall call e, is of the order 10-!! in

486 REPORT—1894.,

electrostatic units. If 7 is the distance between the atoms in the molecule,
the force on unit charge at one of the atoms due to the other ise/r*, If
we take r equal to 1075, this force is equal to 10°. To pull the atoms
apart would require a force comparable with this. As a force of 10° in
C.G.S. units corresponds to thirty million volts per centimetre, we see that
to separate the atoms in a molecule would require the application of an
electric force far transcending in intensity any hitherto applied to a gas.
A single molecule or a system of molecules free from each other's action
would, therefore, not be split up by the fields which are found to produce
discharge through gases. Such fields, however, might produce discharge
if there existed in the gas complex molecules from which the charged
atoms could be more easily detached than from isolated molecules. The
formation of these aggregates or large molecules with but loose connec-
tion between the atoms would on this view be an essential preliminary to
the passage of the discharge. The presence of a third substance, such as
water, may facilitate the formation of these aggregates by supplying nuclei
round which they may condense. Indeed, a direct proof of the electrical
effect exerted by water on the surrounding gas is indicated by the electri-
fication produced when drops of water fall on a plate.'| The most direct
explanation of this phenomenon is that when a drop of water is surrounded
by gas there is a finite difference between the potential of the gas and that
of the water ; in other words, there is electrical separation at the surface
of the drop resulting in the formation of a coating formed of two layers of
electricity close together, one of these layers being positive, the other
negative. If the gas surrounding the drop is oxygen, the inner layer is
positive, the outer negative ; while if the drop is surrounded by hydrogen,
the inner layer is negative, the outer one positive. Thus in a system con-
sisting of water and gas effects take place which result in an electrical
separation which becomes apparent when the drop receives such a com-
paratively trifling disturbance as that produced by falling on a plate.
Water is, with the single exception of mercury, the liquid where the
electrification by drops attains the greatest dimensions. It is also the
substance that, as far as our present knowledge extends, produces the
greatest effect both on the electric discharge and on chemical combination.
As the electrification is carried by atoms, and as these can be separated
by the splashing of the drops on the plate, the electrification of drops
furnishes independent evidence of the ability of water to put the surround-
ing gas into a condition in which some of the atoms are but loosely attached
together. Although in this case the phenomenon is observed with liquid
drops of a finite size which we cannot suppose to have any permanent
existence in those cases where a trace of aqueous vapour produces such
an effect on the passage of electricity and on chemical combination, yet,
if we realise this action of drops, we shall, I think, get a clue to the ex-
planation of the action of small quantities of aqueous vapour. For let us
suppose that we have a drop of water in air with its double layer of elec-
trification, and that this drop for some reason or another evaporates.
Blake’s experiments show that the steam from this drop is not electrified,
so that if we proceed to the limit and suppose all the water to evaporate,
the charged atoms constituting the double layer will still be left, and we
shall have a number of oppositely charged atoms held together by very
loose ties. These would easily be split up themselves by the electric field,

} Lenard, Wied. Ann., 46, 584; J. J. Thomson, Phil. Magq., 37, 341.

ON CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND ELECTRIC DISCHARGE. 4.87

or would form excellent nuclei for the formation of loosely attached systems
of molecules suitable for conveying the electric discharge. A quantity of
water vapour alternately condensing and eyaporating would throw the
surrounding gas into a state in which it could transmit the electric dis-
charge. This would be the case even though the existence of the drops
was so transitory that the water was to all appearance continually in the
form of vapour. That some drops should be formed, having a very brief
existence it is true, even when the pressure of the water vapour is far
below that of saturation, is what we should expect on almost any dynamical
theory of evaporation. The effect of the drops in promoting the existence
of free atoms would of itself tend to increase the likelihood of their
formation, as we know from the experiments of R. v. Helmholtz and
Richarz that condensation is much facilitated by the presence of free ions.

Thus, a small quantity of aqueous vapour, portions of which, occasionally
condensed for an instant into drops, might put some of the gas into a con-
dition approaching dissociation, inasmuch as in this condition the atoms
could easily be detached from each other. We might expect that when in
this state the gas might enter into chemical combinations much more freely
than before this dissociation took place. The effect of a drop of water on
a molecule consisting of a positively electrified atom combined with a nega-
tively electrified one near the surface of the drop is worthy of considera-
tion. Pure water, though not a conductor, has yet such a high specific
inductive capacity that its electrostatic effect is much the same as if it
were a conductor. Now if we have a molecule consisting of a positively
electrified atom, A, with a charge +e and a negatively electrified atom, B,
with a charge —e, on or near the surface of a conducting sphere, the effect
of the electrification induced on the sphere is the same as if we had at
A’ a point on the same radius as A inside the sphere, and close to the sur-
face a negative charge equal to —e, and at B’ a point inside the sphere
close to the surface and on the same radius as B a positive charge equal
to +e. Now, the negative charge at A’ will almost neutralise at B the
force arising from the positive charge at A, while the effect of the charge
at B’ on B is along the radius at B, and thus has no effect parallel to the
surface of the sphere ; there would thus be nothing to oppose the motion
of B away from A, and similarly of A away from B, as long as this motion
took place parallel to the surface of the sphere. Thus, for movements of
this kind the molecule would be dissociated by the presence of the sphere ;
this dissociation of the gas would facilitate the production of the elec-
trification over its surface, also its tendency to enter into chemical com-
bination.

We have hitherto been considering the passage of electricity through
the gas. If we proceed to study the passage of electricity from a gas to a
metal, we shall find that it is also facilitated by the presence of a third
substance. This effect was very well shown in an experiment which I had
occasion to make on the discharge of electricity through mercury vapour.
A bulb for the discharge was prepared by taking a large closed vessel filled
with freshly distilled mercury ; this was connected by a glass tube to the
discharge bulb ; one end of a capillary tube was fused to this buv, the other
end dipped under mercury. When the mercury in the large vessel was
heated, the arrangement acted like a mercury distiller and pumped itself :
to hasten matters, however, as much air as possible was taken out of the
arrangement by an air-pump before beginning the distillation. The ap-
paratus was kept distilling for a whole day, the discharge tube being sur-

488 REPORT— 1894.

rounded by a furnace and kept so hot that the glass was just on the point
of softening ; at the end of the day the discharge tube was sealed off,
enough mercury having been run into a reservoir connected with it to
cover up the two electrodes by means of which the discharge enters and
leaves the tube, and also to form a large pool at the bottom, under which
was an electrode connected with the earth. The bulb was allowed to cool
to the temperature of the room, and then a discharge was sent through it
from a high-tension transformer. The discharge presented a peculiar ap-
pearance, passing as a narrow well-defined band of light between the two
electrodes : it was started only after great difficulty. After the discharge
stopped, the mercury vapour in the bulb was found to be positively electri-
fied, and this electrification had great difficulty in getting out of the gas ; for
although the two mercury electrodes which had been used as terminals and
the large pool of mercury at the bottom of the bulb were connected with the
earth, there was such electrification left in the bulb fifteen minutes after
the discharge had ceased, that when the bulb was disconnected from the
earth and connected with a quadrant electrometer, the spot of light re-
flected from the mirror was driven right off the scale. When the discharge
passed through mercury vapour from which other gases had not been
driven with so much care, there was a residual positive electrification, but
this disappeared so quickly after the discharge stopped, that after a
minute it was too slight to affect appreciably the electrometer. This ex-
periment shows that the communication of electricity from a gas to a
metal, in this case from mercury vapour to liquid mercury, is very much
facilitated by the presence of a third substance.

The well-known chemical phenomenon that many chemical reactions
do not take place unless the temperature exceeds a certain value, is also
paralleled by one in the discharge of electricity through gases. Certain
gases, such as iodine, when strongly heated, allow electricity to pass through
them with considerable facility ; this, however, is only possible when the
electrodes which carry the current into the gas are also at a high tempera-
ture. If we dip a piece of cold platinum foil between the electrodes when
the current is passing through the hot gas, the current is immediately
stopped apparently to as great an extent as if a piece of mica or other
non-conducting substance had been inserted between the electrodes ; as
soon, however, as the piece of platinum foil gets toa dull red heat the cur-
rent between the electrodes recommences, and the platinum now offers but
little obstacle to the passage of the current.

The electro-motive force required to liberate the ions from an electrolyte
is connected in a very intimate way with the amount of work required to
effect the chemical change which occurs when one unit of electricity passes
through the electrolyte. Similarly, we may expect from the study of the
potential difference required to send an electric discharge through a gas,
to derive information about the work required to effect the chemical
changes which go on when the discharge passes through the gas ; as these
changes seem often to consist in the splitting up of molecules into atoms,
the study of the potential difference might be expected to throw light on
the amount of work required to split the molecules of a gas up into atoms.
Systematic measurements of the potential difference required to produce
discharge have been made by several observers ; they all, however, show
one feature, which, until it is investigated, makes the deduction of conclu-
sions as to the work required to effect the changes in the gas impossible.
This feature is well illustrated in an experiment described by Hittorf, its

ON CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND ELECTRIC DISCHARGE. 489

discoverer. Hittorf measured the fall of potential in a vacuum tube, not
merely between the electrodes but also along the whole length of tube, and
found the very remarkable and interesting result that by far the greater
part of the total fall in potential occurred close to the cathode. Thus in
one of his experiments on hydrogen at a pressure of about ,1,th of a
millimetre of mercury he found that, of the total fall in potential, about
* occurred close to the cathode, the potential gradient in the rest of the
tube only amounting to two or three volts per centimetre. The question
immediately suggests itself whether, if we got rid of the electrodes alto-
gether, we should reduce the potential difference to one-sixth or so of the
value required when electrodes are used. I have here an experiment which
is intended to settle this point ; the apparatus consists of two bulbs con-
nected together by an open tube, so that the bulbs are always filled with
the same kind of gas at the same pressure. One bulb is without electrodes ;
the other, whose diameter is approximately equal to the circumference of
the first, is provided with electrodes which are placed at the opposite ends
of a diameter ; these electrodes are connected with a wire which makes one
turn round the coil which connects the outsides of the two Leyden jars
(fig. 1) ; the bulb without electrodes is placed inside this coil ; the total
electro-motive force acting round the bulb without electrodes is thus ap-
proximately the same as that acting between the electrodes of the other
bulb. Setting the Wimshurst machine in action, and gradually increasing
the length of the spark until a spark passes, it is found that the discharge
begins to appear at about the same time in each of the bulbs, showing that
the total electro-motive force required to produce discharge is not very dif-
ferent in the two cases, and that the potential difference required to start
a discharge through a given length of gas is not very greatly increased by
the presence of electrodes. We may, therefore, conclude that the potential
differences measured in the tube with electrodes are primarily connected
with work required to split up the gas through which the discharge passes.

RESISTANCE OF RAREFIED GASES.

Rarefied gases are exceedingly good conductors of electricity when
they are acted upon by electro-motive forces sufficiently intense to produce
discharges. This is clearly shown by the following experiment. A and B
(fig. 2) are two coils in series placed in circuit with the outer coatings of
two Leyden jars. In coil A an exhausted bulb is placed ; this bulb serves as
a kind of galvanometer, the brightness of the ring in it giving an indica-
tion of the current passing through the coil A. The substance whose re-
sistance is to be tested is placed in a bulb inside the other coil ; the cur-
rents induced in this bulb will, by their inductive action, exert on the
primary coil an electro-motive force in the opposite direction to the current
in the coil ; this will tend to stop the current, and we shall detect its effect
by the diminution in brightness of the discharge in the bulb inside A.
The extent of this diminution will give us a clue to the magnitude of the
currents induced in the bulb B (fig. 2). I place inside the coil B a
bulb containing gas at alow pressure. You notice that the discharge in
A is quite extinguished. I now replace this bulb by one of the same size
filled with sulphuric acid and water in the proportions for which they con-
duct electricity best. You observe that the sulphuric acid in B does not
diminish the brilliancy of the discharge in A to anything like the extent
the exhausted gas did; thus the currents passing through the gas are

4.90 REPORT—1894.

larger than those through the acid. If we compare the number of mole-
cules of the gas with the number of molecules of sulphuric acid in the same
volume, we find that the ‘ molecular conductivity’ of the gas must be many
million times that of the sulphuric acid (see J. J. Thomson, ‘ Recent
Researches on Electricity and Magnetism,’ p. 101). A calculation of the
intensity of the current through the gas shows that some hundreds of
amperes must be passing through a square centimetre of the gas, a greater
current than is allowed by the Board of Trade rules to pass through the
best conducting electric light leads.

The presence of a very small number of charged ions ina gas will impart
toita conductivity large enough to bedetected by the method just described.
As this method of detecting the existence of free ions may perhaps be of
some service to Chemistry, it may be worth while to calculate from the
principles of the Kinetic Theory of Gases the conductivity of a mixture of
free ions and undissociated gas. For the sake of simplicity I will take
the case when the ions form but a small fraction of the undissociated gas.
Let e be the charge of electricity on the positive atom, m, the mass of
this ion, —e the charge on a negative ion, m, its mass, N the number of
positive or of negative ions per unit volume, X the electric intensity
parallel to the axis of «, w,, vw. the mean translatory velocity parallel to

Fig. 2.

the axis of x of the positive and negative ions respectively. We shall
suppose that the undissociated gas has no mean movement. Thus (Art.
Diffusion, ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ or Maxwell’s ‘Collected Papers,’
vol. ii. p. 629) we have, if p is the density of the undissociated gas,

du 1 dp,_Xe

= =“

FE + S20 + GaNama(er, ah yey a ie

where G,, G, are constants depending on the size of the molecules and
the temperature, 7, is the pressure due to the positive ions.

ON CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND ELECTRIC DISCHARGE. 491

If p is large compared with Nin,, and if the state of the gas keeps
uniform as we move parallel to the axis of », this equation reduces to

We shall first investigate the case when the electric intensity is con-
stant ; then when things are in a steady state du,/dt vanishes, and we
have

Xe 1

mm Gop

Now, if D,, is the coefficient of interdiffusion between the positive ions
and the undissociated gas, then (Maxwell, /.c., p. 631)

kk
D = ah
1" Gop

When »p is the total pressure due to the ions and undissociated gas, &
and , are respectively the quotients of the pressure by the density for
the undissociated gas and the positive ions, Now, since the ions form but a
small part of the gas, the total pressure is practically equal to the pressure
of the undissociated gas ; hence we may put p=hp, so that

and therefore

Let us take the case of hydrogen ions, for which e/mk,=10~ ap-
proximately. We do not know the coefficient of interdiffusion between
hydrogen atoms and molecules ; it will, however, be greater than that
between oxygen and hydrogen, which was found by Loschmidt to be equal
at atmospheric pressure to ‘72. Hence, if in the equation for w we put
D,,='7, we shall get a value of w less than the true one. Substituting
this value for D>, we find

w=7x107X

Tf the electric intensity is a volt per centimetre, X=10*. In this case
u,=70 ; hence for each volt per centimetre we get a velocity of hydrogen
ions equal to 70 cm/sec. With the same electrical intensity the velocity
will be inversely proportional to the pressure of the undissociated gas, so
that when the pressure of this is ;,'5, of the atmospheric pressure the
velocity of hydrogen ions moving through it will be 70,000 cm/sec.

The current carried by the positive ions is

New,
or at atmospheric pressure
7x10“NeX

Since e/m,=10' for hydrogen, we may put for the positive current
7x107°Nm,X

To get an idea of the magnitude of the resistance, let us assume that the

492 REPORT—189-4.

current carried by the negative ions is equal to that carried by the positive.
Thus, if g be the current, we have

g=14x10°Nm,X
Thus the specific resistance of the gas is

LOM
14xNm,

Suppose that the hydrogen ions gave rise to a pressure of « atmo-
spheres, then
Nm,=« x 10 approximately,

so that the specific resistance is
109/14 xa

Now, from experiments with electrolytes we find that we can easily
detect by this method the conductivity of substances whose specific
resistance is 10” ; hence we could detect the conductivity of the gas even
though « were as small as 1/7000; that is, we could easily detect the
presence of free ions though they only amount to one part in 7000 of the
total gas. It is important to notice that, inasmuch as the conductivity
varies inversely as the pressure of the undissociated gas, we should be able
to detect the existence of the same percentage of free ions at all pressures.

Let us now consider the case when the electric intensity is variable.
Suppose that it is proportional to cos pt, say X=X, cos pt ; then we have

aes +Gypu,;=X, cos pt
dt
or
X, cos (pt—e)
Jp ae G,°p
when
tane=22
2p

When the alterations in the electric intensity are so slow that p is small
compared with Gp, the solution is practically of the same form as when
the electric intensity is steady. But when the oscillations are so rapid
that p is large compared with G.p, then approximately

Uw, =e sin pt
p

and the maximum velocity is independent of the pressure. In this case
the direction of the electric intensity gets reversed many times in the
interval between two collisions of the ion ; thus the ions, when they have
acquired a high velocity under the electric intensity, do not, as in the case
when the electric intensity is steady, lose their energy by impact against
other molecules, and so raise the temperature of the surrounding gas ; when
p is very large, the force is reversed before the ions collide, and the velocity
of the ion gets reduced by the action of the electric force. There is in
this case very little heat-production ; the effect of the free ions is rather to
alter the self-induction of the circuit than its resistance. Thus, if a light

ON CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND ELECTRIC DISCHARGE. 493

wave were passing through a medium with a small number of free ions, the
effect of these ions would be rather to affect the velocity of propagation than
to produce any great absorption. In the case of hydrogen at atmospheric
pressures we have seen that G,» is of the order 10"; in this case p would
have to be larger than 10" to make the effects depending on du, /dt large
compared with those depending on G,pw,. We could not by discharging
Leyden jars get electrical vibrations of this rapidity, but at the pressure of
yoo Of an atmosphere G,o would only be of the order 10°, and we could
easily get electrical vibrations sufficiently rapid to make p large compared
with this quantity, and thus to make the effects depend chietly upon the
term du, /dt, that is, upon the inertia of the ions.

The preceding experiments are, I think, sufficient to show the close
analogies existing between the phenomena of chemical combination and
of the electric discharge, and give hopes that the study of the passage of
electricity through gases may be the means of throwing light on the
mechanism of chemical combination. The work of chemists and physicists
may be compared to that of two sets of engineers boring a tunnel from
opposite ends—they have not met yet, but they have got so near together
that they can hear the sounds of each other’s works and appreciate the
importance of each other’s advances.

On the Mlectrification of Molecules and Chemical Change.
By H, BRERETON BAKER.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

More than twenty years ago a striking fact was discovered by Dr.
Wanklyn, that dried sodium could be melted in dried chlorine without the
production of the bright flame usual under the circumstances. The action of
chlorine on other metals in absence of moisture was investigated by Dr.
Cowper in 1876. He showed that in many cases the same result was
obtained as that of Dr. Wanklyn in the case of sodium. About this time
Professor Dixon, who was working on the rate of chemical change in a
mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and oxygen, was led to suspect the
great influence of the presence of moisture on the combustion of the
former gas, and he succeeded, by drying a mixture of carbon monoxide and
oxygen as completely as possible, in passing a stream of electric sparks in
the mixture without any explosion taking place. It was this experiment
which first led to the great interest taken by chemists in the influence of
moisture on chemical action. Many chemists have investigated different
chemical actions, and a large number of changes have been shown to be
dependent on the presence of moisture. A list of them will be found in a
paper on this subject in the ‘Chemical Society’s Journal’ of July last. It
seemed at one time to a chemist who was studying these actions, that no
chemical action could take place without the presence of moisture. As
action after action was investigated, and as new methods of purification
were introduced, further additions could be made to the list. I have
recently been engaged in studying several decompositions, however, and I
believe that although, in some cases, no breaking up of the molecules takes
place, as in the very interesting case of the action of heat on dried
ammonium chloride, in which no dissociation occurs, yet in some cases
action does take place. Potassium chlorate and silver oxide do decom-
pose, and give not atomic but molecular oxygen. Carbon bisulphide burns

A9 4 REPORT—1894.

in dried oxygen, although the elements of which it is composed do not.
Oxygen forms ozone under the influence of the electric discharge as rapidly
when dry as when moisture is present. It may be that the substances
have not been sufficiently purified, but I believe it may be due to another
cause. In many of these cases in which water-vapour appears to play no
part, we are dealing not with molecules but with atoms. If an atom of
oxygen will not unite with another atom of oxygen, then by the decompo-
sition of dried potassium chlorate we should perhaps get a gas composed
partly of atoms and partly of molecules, and by the decomposition of
silver oxide, if its molecular formula is Ag.O, the gas evolved might be
composed only of atoms. In these cases, however, molecules of oxygen
only are obtained. It may be, therefore, that, whatever be the state of
dryness of the substance, atoms will always combine. Similarly with re-
gard to the combustion of carbon bisulphide, though I used all possible care
in its purification, yet it always burnt in dried oxygen. It was noticed,
however, that the decomposition point of carbon bisulphide, when heated
in a neutral gas like nitrogen, was a little below the point of ignition
when heated in oxygen. Therefore, in the latter case, I was dealing not
with carbon bisulphide and oxygen but with carbon bisulphide in a decom-
posing state, carbon and sulphur being set free not in their ordinary state
but in a condition in which they would combine with dried oxygen. This
fact is most easily explained by supposing that when carbon bisulphide is
heated it splits up into atoms of carbon and sulphur, and that these then
combine with oxygen in absence of moisture.

With regard to the explanation of the effect of moisture on chemical
actions in general, several hypotheses have been suggested. The first, that
of Professor Dixon, is that the water molecules present undergo an actual
decomposition. In the combustion of carbon monoxide, for instance, the
gas takes up oxygen from the water, liberating hydrogen, which then
combines with the free oxygen, re-forming water. I venture to think that
this hypothesis, although I believe it explains ail the known facts, is open
to one or two objections. For instance, if we accept Berthelot’s law of
maximum work, there seems to be no reason why water should be decom-
posed by red-hot carbon rather than oxygen molecules, since the direct
action on the oxygen liberates a far greater amount of energy. Dr.
Traube has suggested that the explanation is dependent on the oxidation
of water rather than on its reduction ; that hydrogen peroxide is first
formed by direct union of water-vapour with oxygen, the peroxide again
being reduced to water, giving up its extra atom of oxygen to the combus-
tible. This hypothesis seems to be inadequate in many respects, since
many actions in which water plays an important part, e.g., the action of
sodium on chlorine, or the combination of ammonia and hydrogen chloride,
free oxygen is not present, and, therefore, hydrogen peroxide could not be
formed.

Mr. Harcourt first suggested, in 1886, that the explanation of the action
was to be sought from a physical, rather than from a chemical, point of
view. Dr. Armstrong proposed in the same year a hypothesis, which he
calls that of ‘ reversed electrolysis,’ which supposes that no chemical action
can take place without the presence of a third body, which must be an
electrolyte. With regard to this theory I hope to be able to say more
later. I am engaged upon an investigation whose object is to find out
what substances can replace water in chemical action, and it may be found
to be the case that all such substances are electrolytes.

J have been engaged during the last two years in an effort to investi-

ON ELECTRIFICATION OF MOLECULES AND CHEMICAL CHANGE. 495

gate the question whether the union of elements and compounds was in
any way connected with electrical discharge. The facts of electrolysis
point strongly in this direction. I gave up at once the idea of directly
investigating the question whether molecules of gases in contact were elec-
trically charged, but in an indirect way I have obtained some evidence on
the question. Taking a tube divided in the middle by a tap, and filling it
with a mixture of dried ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases in equal
proportions, I introduced at the two ends platinum plates which were
oppositely charged from the terminal of a Wimshurst machine. After
half an hour the tap was closed, and the gases in the two parts of the tube
were drawn through a solution of litmus. On admitting moisture white
fumes of ammonium chloride were produced, but there was found to be
residual gas in both halves of the tube. The gas from the part which had
contained the negatively charged plate turned litmus blue, and the gas from
the other part reddened the litmus. The experiment was often repeated,
and the result was the same. Theseparation was never very great, but the
evidence of some separation seemed conclusive. With other gases there was
also evidence of separation. With air dried by sulphuric acid there was
found to be 1°8 per cent. more oxygen in the part containing the positive
plate than there was in that containing the negative plate. Using a mixture
of hydrogen and oxygen dried by phosphorus pentoxide, analysis showed an
excess of 2°3 per cent. of oxygen in the part of the tube containing the
positively charged plate.

It is possible, therefore, that the molecules of gases which may under
certain circumstances combine together, may have an electrical charge. I
hope to extend these observations to the case of other gases, and to find
out, if possible, whether the charge on the molecules, if it exists, is theirs in-
trinsically, or if it only exists when molecules of a different nature are
in contact with each other.

With the object of finding out if electric discharge bears any analogy
to the process of chemical combination, I undertook some experiments a
year ago to see if electric discharge in air was affected by drying the air
as completely as possible. It was found that sparks from a Ruhmkorff’s
coil, when the discharge was very feeble, would leap across a space of
moist air, but that none would pass in the dried air though the sparking
distance was very much less. If, however, a strong discharge was used,
sparks were obtained in the dried air, and, more than this, the feeble
discharge would then easily pass in the dried air. These results entirely
agree with those published by Professor J. J. Thomson.!

I am inclined to think, however, that there may be another interpreta-
tion of the latter part of the phenomenon besides that offered by Professor
Thomson. It may be that the strong discharge splits the molecules into
atoms, and that these can then carry on the feeble discharge. If this is
proved to be true, it will serve as yet another point of analogy between
chemical combination and electric discharge, for, as I have tried to show
above, chemical combination does take place between atoms, whatever the
state of dryness of their environment.

With regard to this analogy there may be found some evidence in the
study of the action of actinic light on chemical combination and electric
discharge. We find that when a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen gases
is exposed to light, combination takes place only after a certain interval,
and that the interval is not shortened by exposing the gases separately to
the action of light. If the interval is spent in breaking up molecules into

1 Phil. Mag., October 1893.

496 REPORT—1894.

atoms we should expect that there would be an increase in volume. This
increase in volume has been observed by Pringsheim with the mixed gases,
though he ascribes it to another cause. I have undertaken some experi-
ments with unmixed chlorine, and I found that in this case there is
absolutely no increase in volume.

Now with regard to the analogy of chemical action and electric
discharge we find that light, and light of the same kind as that which
brings about chemical action, has a remarkable influence on the passage
of the electric discharge. This phenomenon was first noticed by the late
Dr. Hertz, who found that when the negative pole of a spark gap was
illuminated by an actinic light a discharge would pass which would not
pass if the spark gap were unilluminated. It may be that the action of
light is to split up molecules into atoms, and that the ready passage of the
discharge is thus explainable. However this may be, I think that the
analogy of the phenomena of electric discharge and chemical combination
may be of importance. I have attempted to point out the analogy which
exists when we work with substances which are in an exceptional state of
dryness. Whether the analogy holds for other influences which affect
chemical combination, and whether the analogies which I have indicated
are only superficial and not real, can only be decided by a long series of
experiments to which I hope to devote myself.

Report on Planimeters. By Professor O. HEnrici, F.R.S.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

SEVERAL classifications of planimeters have been used by different writers,
and different names have been used to distinguish them.

Mr. Boys distinguishes three types, which he calls Radius Machines,
Sine or Cosine Machines, and Tangent Machines.

Professor Hele-Shaw has two classes only, according as the recording
apparatus does or does not show slipping.

A more fundamental classification seems to be got on considering first
of all the geometrical generation of the area by the motion of a line. This
gives us three types : the first follows the generation of an area, as in the
Integral Calculus, by rectangular co-ordinates ; the second by polar co-
ordinates ; whilst the third is based on purely geometrical considera-
tions due to Amsler.

In the following Report the classification adopted is :—

Type I. Orthogonal planimeters.

», “LL. Polar co-ordinate planimeters.
», LII. Planimeters of the Amsler type.

Instruments of either type may have a recording or integrating appa-
ratus with or without slipping, and this would give rise to subdivisions,
which, however, it is not necessary to elaborate here.

This Report covers only a comparatively small part of the subject of
integrators ; it deals only with planimeters proper. Integrators for such
purposes as the continuous registration of work done, integraphs and
instruments for the integration of differential equations, harmonic ana-
lysers, &c., will not be considered. As it is in these more complicated
instruments that the injurious effect of slipping is chiefly noticeable, a
description of the various integrating apparatus will not be given. For

ON PLANIMETERS. 497

the same reason the work of Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, Boys, Abdank-Aba-
kanowicz, and Hele-Shaw will remain practically unnoticed.

With regard to the integrating apparatus in particular, there is the well-
known paper on ‘ Mechanical Integrators,’ by Professor Hele-Shaw, in the
‘Proceedings’ of the Institute of Civil Engineers for 1885, in which, besides,
many descriptions with figures are given of instruments here treated of.

In this Report there is first given the geometrical theory of generating
areas, together with simple descriptions of planimeters based on it. Then
follows a historical sketch up to the invention of Amsler’s planimeter.
Next, this instrument is considered, its errors are discussed, together
with those more modern planimeters which have been constructed with a
view to avoid these errors. Lastly, some planimeters are described which
have recently been introduced.

The object of a planimeter is to measure an area ; it has, therefore, to
solve a geometrical problem by mechanical means.

To give at once an idea how this is possible, consider a very simple case.

If a line AB (fig. 1) of finite length 7 moves parallel to itself to CD,
where AB is perpendicular to AC, then it will sweep over the area of a
rectangle which will have the value /w if
w=AC. Let the line be replaced by a Fia. 1.
material rod QT, and let a wheel W be
mounted on it. On placing this apparatus
on the paper above the line AB, the wheel
resting on the paper, and moving this rod
along to CD, it will describe the same
area. At the same time the wheel will
turn and the arc of its circumference, which
comes in contact with the paper, will have A c
the length w. If the circumference is
graduated and a fixed index is provided, say, at the highest point, the
length of this arc can at once be read off.

This arc, as read off at the index, may be called conveniently the ‘roll ’
of the wheel (Macfarlane Gray).

This instrument may be considered as a simple planimeter, which, how-
ever, measures only the areas of rectangles with fixed altitude, and is, there-
fore, practically of no use. Nevertheless it will serve to elucidate a great
many properties common to nearly all planimeters.

First we have a geometrical generation of an area by aid of a moving
line, and secondly the ‘ recording apparatus’ represented by the wheel, with
its graduation and index. It is advisable always to keep these two ideas
quite separate. The one is geometrical, the other kinematic. The former
of these will first of all engage our attention.

GEOMETRICAL GENERATION OF AREAS,

Our instrument teaches us, if the ‘rod’ QT is moved one way, the
‘roll’ of the wheei will increase, whilst it will decrease when moved in the
opposite sense. Hence we must consider the ‘sense’ in which the motion
takes place ; we shall call the one motion positive, the other negative. At
the same time we shall call the area generated positive or negative. It
will be seen that in this case alone will the area always be measured by the
‘roll.’

If the rod QT is turned round so that Q is above B, and T above A,

1894, K K

498 REPORT—1894.

then on moving the rod from A to C the roll will be negative. We there-
fore say that the area generated is likewise negative.

This shows that we must also give the rod QT a definite sense, and we
shall take this as positive from Q to T, so that Q is the beginning, T the
end of the rod. A reversion of this sense is equivalent to a reversion of
the graduation of the wheel. To fix the idea, I shall suppose that on looking
along the rod in its positive sense—i.e., from Q to T—the numbers on the
graduation of the wheel increase in the clockwise sense.

Under this supposition the line QT, when placed anyhow on the paper,
will generate a positive or negative area according as it is moved to the
left or to the right respectively. This can be put differently.

Rue FoR SIGN oF AREA.

Let the rod, or generating line, QT pass over a point Pe then the area

near P will be positive of to a person standing at P and looking along the

positive sense of the rod the latter moves

{ Fic. 2. from his right hand to his left. The

T! area will be negative if this motion is

Strom left to right. This rule holds quite

independently of the length of the gene-

rating line. In fact, as it is stated, a

small piece of the line in the neighbour-

hood of the point which crosses P has

j alone to be considered. The rule will

Q | therefore also hold if the line should
Ge Ww T vary its length.

More than this. Let the line turn
about Q as a fixed point from QT to QT’ (fig. 2). It will now sweep over
the sector of a circle whose area is } QT?) if @ denotes the angle of turn-
ing. A wheel W at the distance c from Q will record a roll w=c. If
QT=1, we get, therefore,

Area generated=4 /?0=4 7? m
Cc
The roll of the wheel will thus again record the area. This will be
positive for counter-clockwise turning, negative if the turning is clockwise.
If the wheel should be mounted on the continuation of QT beyond Q,
then c will be negative ; so will be the ‘roll,’ and the result will be posi-
tive again. It will thus be seen that our rule holds also for this case.

First Mopet or GENERATING AN AREA.

Consider now fig. 3. Let the line QT start at AA’ and move to BB’,
the point Q remaining always on OX and QT perpendicular to the latter,
whilst T moves along the curve A’B’. The line QT will now generate
the area ABB’A’, but in doing so it will continuously change its length.

With regard to the sense of the area the rule of sign holds. Hence
if, in fig. 4, QT moves from AA’ to BB’, whilst T remains on the lower
branch of the curve, it will sweep over the area AA’C’B’B, and this will
be negative. But if now the point T moves back to A’ on the upper
branch, then the area BB’TA’A will be swept over in the positive sense.
The whole area generated will be the difference of these two areas—i.e., it
will be the area of the given closed curve.

ON PLANIMETERS. 499

The point T describes during this process the whole boundary of the
area, going always in the same sense along it. If this sense be changed,
the motion of QT will also be reversed, and consequently the area will
become negative.

This shows that the sense of an area is determined by the sense given to
ats boundary ; and, further, that the area is positive if it lies to the left of a
person who goes round the boundary in its positive sense. If it lies to the
right it will be negative.

In the application of the Integral Calculus to the evaluation of areas

Fia. 3.

a Q B x

the rule of sign generally adopted is in case of rectangular co-ordinates
the reverse to the one here adopted; in using polar co-ordinates, however,
it agrees with it. As it would be very inconvenient to use here two rules,
a choice had to be made ; and I consider on the whole the rule adopted as
the one most generally useful.

If the closed curve cuts itself, as in fig. 5, take anywhere in the

Fia4. 4.
T

Go A Q € B *

plane a line OX, not shown in the figure, then a point T on the curve,
and draw the perpendicular TQ toOX. On moving T along the whole
curve till it returns to its starting-point the line QT will sweep over a
perfectly definite area, and this is taken as the area enclosed by the given
curve. To see what it means we may apply again the rule of sign and
see how often and in what sense the line QT passes over any given point.
It will be found that every point without the curve is passed over either
KK2

500 REPORT—1894.

not at all, or else as often in one as in the opposite sense. Each separate
part in which the plane is divided by the curve will be swept over a
certain number of times, which is easily determined by applying the rule.

In the figure these numbers are inserted.
Fig. 5.

for

This generalisation of the meaning of an area has long been adopted
in geometry, principally through the writings of Mébius. According to
Cremona, it was first given by De Morgan.!

Fia. 6.

To build a planimeter on these geometrical lines we have to add a
suitable recording apparatus. The simple wheel rolling on the paper is not
any longer sufficient, as the length of the generating line or ‘ rod’ QT varies.

1 Cambr. and Dublin Math. Journ., vol. v. 1850.

ON PLANIMETERS, 501

But if the wheel is made to turn faster in proportion to the length QT, we
should have what is wanted. This was obtained in the first planimeter by
making the wheel run on a cone.

The diagrammatic drawing (fig. 6) will simplify the description.

A frame FF is made movable in the direction of the line OX, either
by letting it run on rails or by giving the wheels milled rims. On it
rests a rod T’T perpendicular to OX, which can slide to and fro in its
own direction. It ends at T in a tracer which can be made to follow
any curve. The frame also carries a cone VCC’, whose axis is inclined to
the paper, so that the upper edge is horizontal. Its rim CC’ rests on the
paper, so thatit turns when the frame moves, and this turning will be pro-
portional to the forward motion. Mounted on the rod, or, as in the figure,
on an axis parallel to the rod, is a wheel W resting on the upper edge of
the cone.

If the rod is pushed back till the wheel W comes to V, the vertex of
the cone, then T will come to Q on the line OX. On moving T along this
line the wheel will not turn. But if T is pulled out a distance QT=y,
then the wheel will assume a position W in the figure such that VW
=QT=y. On moving the frame forward the roll of the wheel will be
proportional to y and to the forward motion. Hence if the tracer T is
guided along a curve from A to B, then the roll will be proportional to the
area between the curve and the axis OX.

Taking rectangular co-ordinates OQ=x and QT=y, we have in the

B
symbols of the Integral Calculus the above area=| ydx, and the roll of
A

the wheel will be proportional to this.

This planimeter follows in its construction the determination of an
area in the Integral Calculus using rectangular co-ordinates. Planimeters
of this type have therefore been called orthogonal planimeters (Dr. A.
Amsler).

If the tracer is moved round a closed curve the instrument gives the
enclosed area, but it is worthy of notice that the reading has also a mean-
ing if the curve is not closed.

Sreconp MopE or GENERATING AN AREA.

If a line QT of constant length turns in the plane of the paper about
its fixed point Q, it will sweep over a sector of a circle. If this generating
line has, as before, a positive sense from Q
to T, it will be seen at once that the area
swept over will be positive or negative ac-
cording as it turns in one or in the opposite
sense. It will also be seen that our rule of
sign will again serve to determine the sense,
and that this will still hold if the length of
QT is variable. T

From this it follows :

If a line QT of variable length turns
about its fixed end Q, then the area generated
by wt whilst T describes a closed curve will

be equal to the area bounded by this curve.

For our rule shows at once that every
point within the curve, if this does not cut itself, will be passed over once
(fig. 7), every point without the curve either not at all or as often in one

FIG. 7.

502 . REPORT—1894.

sense as in the other. The point Q may be either within or without the
area.

If the curve cuts itself, the area swept over will be the same as in the
former case (fig. 5), and all the remarks made there will be applicable.

This is the mode in which areas are generated when using polar co-
ordinates. Planimeters based on this principle might therefore be called
polar planimeters. But as this name has been appropriated for an
altogether different. type, I call these simply planimeters of Type II., or
Polar-co-ordinate Planimeters.

Tuirp Mops or GENERATING AN AREA.

Whilst in the last two cases an area was generated by a line of
variable length which had either a motion of translation or a motion of

Fig. 8.

turning alone, we shall now suppose that a line has both motions but a
constant length.

Let QT again denote the generating line now of constant length JZ.
Let it be moved from the position QT) (fig. 8) to a near position, QT.
This motion can be decomposed into a small translation to QT, and a
turning about Q which brings it to its final position, QT. For both these
motions our rule of sign holds; it will therefore also hold for the
actual motion of the line where both motions go on simultaneously. On
applying the rule the following theorem will be seen to be true in which a
motion of a line is called cyclical if it ultimately returns to its initial
position (compare fig. 9).

Theorem 1.—If a line QT of constant length performs in aw plane a
cyclical motion, then the area generated is equal to the area enclosed by the
path of the end point T diminished by that enclosed by the path of Q, both
areas being taken in their proper sense as determined by the sense in which
each boundary is described.

Corollary.—If the point Q is moved to and fro along a curve so that its
path does not enclose an area, then the area generated will be equal to the
area enclosed in the path of T.

The measurement of this area is much facilitated by the following
considerations. Let p denote the perpendicular distance between the

ON PLANIMETERS. 503

position Q,T, and QT,, and @ be the angle through which the rod is turned.
The area generated by the first step, the translation, is then = Jp, the area
of the sector is 724. The whole area swept over by the rod is the sum of
the areas due to the successive elementary
steps. It consists, therefore, also of two Fig. 9.
parts, the first being due to the elementary T
translations and equals /3p, where Sp is the

sum of all the lateral displacements of the

rod. The second part consists of the sum of

imp oe
all the sectors of circles described by the
turning of the rod, and equals 4 /?2, where
=¢ denotes the sum of all the elementary
turnings, and this is the same as the total
turning of the rod. But the rod returns
to its original position. The angle 30 is
@

therefore either = 0 or it is a multiple of
27, which will happen if the rod has turned
round once or several times. This gives—
Theorem 2.—If a rod of finite length per-
forms a cyclical motion without itself making
a complete rotation, then the area swept over
equals that generated by the successive mo-
tions of translation only ; but if it completes
n rotations, then to this quantity has to be
added nrl?, i.e., n times the area of a circle of radius |.
To construct a planimeter on these principles, let the rod QT be con-
nected by an articulated joint at Q to another rod OQ, which shall m
future be called the ‘arm’ (fig. 10). Let this arm have at O a needle

Fig.10.

point which can be pressed into the drawing-board. This being done, the
point Q will be restrained to move on a circle, whilst T can be guided by
hand along any curve. The point 0 is called the pole of the instrument
and the latter is therefore generally called a Polar Planimeter.

504 REPORT—189-+L..

Let, now, T be moved round a closed curve whilst the pole is outside
its area (fig. 10). The point Q moves to and fro along the circle and
returns to its original position when T does so. The motion of the rod
will therefore be cyclical. An exception can only occur if during the
motion rod and arm should become stretched out to their fullest extent,
and on moving on, Q should be allowed to move the wrong way. This
can always be easily avoided.

The corollary to Theorem 1 is therefore applicable. It says that
the area is equal to the area generated by the rod QT. But this area,
according to Theorem 2, equals the area generated by the motions of
translation alone, and this can be recorded by a simple wheel. Let there
be mounted anywhere on the rod a wheel W, at a distance c from Q.

If a small motion of the rod be decomposed as before (fig. 8), the
wheel will move along the line W,W’ during the translation and along the
arc W’W during the turning. The first may again be decomposed in the
motion from W,)W’’, whereby the rod describes the area pl whilst the
wheel rolls, the amount of its ‘roll’ measuring p, and the motion W” W’,

Fic. 11. Hire. 12.

fo)

oe ee es

fe
CS

D

(a)
=

+

during which the rod slides along itself and the wheel slips along the
paper without rolling.

During the turning the wheel will roll along the are W'W=c9. The
whole roll during an elementary step, which will be denoted by 2, is

therefore
w=pt+c), ..p=w—cb

We found the area swept over
=Ip+} 76
=lw+(4 ?—cl)9
For the whole area A we have, therefore,
A=lXw+(}l?—cl)3)

In the case under consideration S#=0. At the same time Xw is the
whole roll of the wheel. If we denote this simply by w, we get

A=lw
In the case where the pole lies within the area, as in fig. 11, we have

ON PLANIMETERS. 505

0=27r, and consequently the area generated by the rod is the area A
enclosed by the curve less the area of the circle with radius OQ=a. The
former is Jw+(4/?—cl) 27. In order to get A, the area a*x of the circle
has to be added. This gives

A=lw+ (a+? —2cl)x
or writing
a+ /?—Qel=r?
we have
A=lw+rr
Here r?x is dependent on the dimensions of the instrument only, and is,
therefore, for each instrument a constant C, so that

A=lw+C

The geometrical meaning of this constant is easily found.
If the instrument is placed in such a position that the plane of the
wheel passes through the pole O, we get, as in fig. 12,

=a +l? —2ac

C=r?r is therefore the area of a circle with the radius 7 thus fixed.
In fact, if T is moved round the circumference of this circle the wheel will
slip over the paper without rolling. Therefore, w=0 and A=C, as it
ought to be. This circle is sometimes called the Base-circle.

It may be noticed also that for any other path of T the wheel will
always turn and slip. The amount of this slipping during the small
motion considered before (fig. 8) is equal to W’’W’, or if s denotes the
length Q,Q, and « the angle which the axis of the wheel makes with the
direction W,W’ of its motions, then

the roll is p=s sin ¢,
the slipping S=s cos e.

History oF PLANIMETERS up TO 1856.

From an article published by Bauernfeind, of Munich, in Dingler’s
‘Polytechnisches Journal,’ vol. 137, p. 82, it appears that the Bavarian
engineer J. M. Hermann invented a planimeter in 1814. This was im-
proved by Lammle in 1816, and carried out in the following year. No-
thing, however, was published about it, and the instrument was forgotten,
without having any influence on the further history of the planimeter and
its development.

In 1824, the Italian Tito Gonnella, professor at Florence, invented a
planimeter very much on the same lines as Hermann—viz., an instrument of
Type I.

aa the following year he published ‘ Teoria e descrizione d’ una macchina
colla quale si quadrano le superficie piane. Dall’ Antologia . . . dell’ anno
1825. Tomo 18. Al gabinetto scientifico e letterario di G. P. Vieusseaux,
Firenze, direttore ed editore. Tipografia di Luigi Peggati, 1825, Firenze.’

This paper is short and without figures. Later on he gave a fuller
description in his ‘Opuscoli Matematici’ (Firenze. 1841). Both pub-
lications appear to have remained practically unknown till Professor

506 REPORT—1894:'

Anton Favaro, of Padua, called attention to them in his ‘ Beitrage zur
Geschichte der Planimeter’ (‘ Allgemeine Bauzeitung,’ Wien, 1873). In
this paper it is pointed out that Gonnella, even though anticipated in the
invention by Hermann, was the first to publish anything about a Plani-
meter.

His first instrument was of Type I., with the recording wheel rolling
on a cone as described. Soon after he replaced the cone by a disc.

Gonnella had one instrument made, but it seems he was unable from the ~
want of skilled labour in Florence to obtain a well-executed piece of me-
chanism. When the Archduke of Tuscany wished to add a well-made plani-
meter to his collection, Gonnella looked for its execution to Switzerland,
where the flourishing watch industry had developed accurate workmanship.
He accordingly sent, in 1825 and 1826, through a Florence merchant,
numbers of drawings to different firms in Switzerland, without, however,
succeeding in getting what he wanted.

In 1826 the Swiss engineer Oppikofer invented a planimeter, and this
was made in the following year. How much he had heard of Gonnella’s
invention or of Hermann’s cannot now be decided. It is, of course, quite
possible that he should have made an independent discovery. Bauern-
feind estimates that at that time about a billion areas had annually
to be evaluated in Europe. He also gives in the paper quoted a pretty
long list of various contrivances for facilitating this work, and which,
by the way, were called planimeters (they were not integrators). The
problem was, therefore, one that pressed for a solution, and it would be
quite in conformity with other instances in the history of science that
several men should perfectly independently make the same invention.
Nevertheless, there is a possibility if not probability that Oppikofer should
have heard of Gonnella’s invention. Anyhow, it is his instrument which
became the starting-point of the further development of planimeters.

Oppikofer, it seems, put himself in communication with the mechani-
cian Ernst in Paris (before 1836) to introduce the instrument in France.
Thus it comes that planimeters of Type I. are known in France by the
name of Ernst, who improved them and made them practical instru-
ments. He retained the wheel rolling on a cone, although Gonnella had
already in 1825 replaced the cone by a horizontal disc. Ernst received,
in 1837, a portion of the Montyon Prize as a reward.

It will be remembered that the cone allows only of positive ordinates
of the curve. The engineer Wetli, of Ziirich, tried (1849) to remedy this by
using two cones with their vertices opposite, so that the upper edges of
both formed one straight line. In order to make the path for the wheel
continuous he meant to cover both with one disc to be turned by the cones.
But then he found, of course, that he could do without the cones if only he
drove the disc so that its rotation was proportional to the side motion of
the line QT. Having the idea of the disc given, we see at once that
this disc is only a special case of a cone which has degenerated into a
plane, but it is always of interest to learn the roundabout way in which
improvements are made.!

This improvement was, as has already been mentioned, anticipated by
Gonnella, but was now introduced practically. Disc-planimeters were
made by Starke in Vienna under the name of Wetli-Starke Planimeters.
They were improved by the astronomer Hansen, of Seeberg, near Gotha,

} These data concerning Wetli’s invention of the disc I owe to Coradi, to whom
the late Professor Harlacher in Prag had communicated them.

ON PLANIMETERS. 507

and became, as executed by Ausfeld in that town, instruments of very
great accuracy, known as the Wetli-Hansen Planimeters. A description
with figure is given by Bauernfeind in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the ‘Poly-
technischer Verein fiir das Kénigreich Bayern,’ 1853, pp. 130-147, and
213-244. The figure is copied in Prof. Dyck’s ‘Catalogue of the Mathe-
matical Exhibition,’ Nachtrag, p. 32, Munich, 1893.

The disc is turned by aid of a silver wire which is attached to the rod
QT and slung round a pulley on the axis of the disc, so that here rod and
carriage have interchanged their réle.

Among Hansen’s improvements one may be mentioned, as I have
recently heard of it as a new American improvement. The tracer T is
replaced by a piece of glass with a small circular mark on it which is
guided along the curve. A lens above the glass serves to make the guiding
more accurate. This form of a tracer is, however, straining to the eye, and
seems only of use where areas have to be determined with great accuracy.

In England, John Sang made a planimeter which is described in the
‘Civil Engineer and Architect’s Journal,’ 1851, p. 505, and also in the
‘ Transactions’ of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, vol. iv. Bauernfeind
says that it differs from that by Ernst ‘fast gar nicht.’

Tt was exhibited at the Great Exhibition in 1851, and obtained
honourable mention, whilst Gonnella received a Council medal and Wetli
a prize medal. Ausfeld also exhibited a planimeter, which is described
as invented by Dr. Flaussen (probably an error for Hansen), of the
Observatory of Seeberg. Of this instrument, which received honourable
mention, I have not found any further description than that it had a
wheel rolling on a disc. It was most likely the modification of Wetli’s,
referred to above.

These exhibits are of importance in the history of planimeters, because
they drew Maxwell’s attention to the subject, on which he communicated
early in 1855 a paper to the Royal Scottish Society of Arts (‘ Trans-
actions,’ vol. iv., and ‘Collected Papers,’ vol. i. p. 230). In this he
points out the deleterious effect of the slipping of the recording wheel
on the cone or disc, and then proceeds to the description of a new recording
apparatus, in which the wheel rolling on a cone or disc is replaced by a
sphere, which rolls without slipping on anequalsphere. It isa most beautiful
contrivance, but it has never been carried out. It may, however, be con-
sidered as the starting-point of all integrators which work without slipping.

Maxwell describes two planimeters having this new contrivance, the
one belonging to Type I., the other to Type II.

About this time Josef Stadler, of Eisenerz, in Styria, constructed a
planimeter of peculiar character. It works without slipping, and is in many
respects of interest on account of the peculiar integrating apparatus used.

The tracer T is fastened to a bar whose motion is constrained to remain
parallel to the axis of z. Rigidly connected with this is a thin cylinder,
which can turn about an axis parallel to the bar, hence to the axis of 2.
This cylinder rests on a surface of revolution movable about its axis a,
which is parallel to the axis of y. If the tracer be moved in the direction
of the y, the cylinder will roll along a meridian curve of the surface of
revolution, but the latter will remain at rest. A motion of the tracer in
the direction of the x will pull the cylinder across the surface of revolution,
and therefore make it revolve to an extent which is proportional to the
distance of the point of contact from itsaxis a. If x denotes this distance,
and y the distance of the tracer from the axis of , i.c., the generating line

508 REPORT—1 894.

QT, then the turning of the surface of revolution will measure the area,
provided that zy remains constant. In order that this condition may be
satisfied, the meridian curve of the surface of revolution must bea solution
of a differential equation of the first order and the second degree. An
integral of this equation cannot be found in a finite form, but an equi-
lateral hyperbola revolving about an asymptote satisfies the condition very
nearly. In the instrument made this hyperbola was corrected by actual
trial. It will be seen that there is no slipping. The difficult construction
of the surface of revolution makes it doubtful whether a very great accu-
racy is obtainable. But as Dr. A. Amsler, who called my attention at the
Munich Exhibition to this model, pointed out to me, the principle might be
useful in the construction of integrators designed for special purposes.

Stadler had a first, and as it seems an only instrument made in 1855,
which is now in the possession of the Technische Hochschule inGratz. It
was exhibited in Munich. Stadler published an account of it in the journal
‘Erfahrungen im berg- und hiittenmannischen Bau- und Aufbereitungs-
wesen,’ edited by Rittinger, 1857. It seems to have remained practicaily
unknown till the Munich Exhibition. In Dyck’s ‘ Catalogue’ is a full
account of it by Professor Lichtenfels, of Gratz.

It appears that Stadler, in the out-of-the-way place where he lived, had
heard of planimeters, but was not acquainted with their construction.

PLANIMETERS OF Type II.

Of Polar-co-ordinate planimeters Amsler mentions three (Appendix to
his paper of 1856) proposed by Gierer, of Furth,! by Bouniakovsky, of
St. Petersburg, and by Decker, of Augsburg (the last two described in
Dingler’s ‘ Po]. Journ.,’ vol. exl.). Each has a recording wheel rolling on
the paper whose axis passes through a fixed point Q, whilst its distance
from Q is always proportional to the square of the distance of the tracer
T from Q. In Gierer’s instrument the wheel is kept in the required
position by aid of a guiding curve, in the other two by aid of link-work.

One of Maxwell’s planimeters belongs to this type, and so does one by
C. V. Boys.? Both were invented with the object of avoiding all slipping
in the recording apparatus, which is too complicated for an instrument
designed simply for the determination of areas.

Lastly, there is an instrument described by W. R. Bousfield in the
discussion of Hele-Shaw’s paper ‘On Mechanical Integrators.’3 In it
guide curves are used.

None of these planimeters has, so far as I know, ever been made.
Of Boys’ a model is to be found in the Science collection at South Ken-
sington.

AMSLER’S PLANIMETER AND ITS DEVELOPMENT.

Whilst planimeters of Type I. were gradually reaching a state of
great perfection, Amsler invented his polar planimeter, which, in conse-
quence of its simplicity, handiness in use, and low price, soon drove all the

! Programm der Generbs- und Handelsschule zu Fiirth, 182%.
2 Phil. Mag., 1882, p. 83.
8 Proc. Inst. Civ. £ng., vol. 1xxxii. part iv.

ON PLANIMETERS. 509

older forms, which, when well made, were necessarily expensive, out of the
field.

Jacob Amsler, as I have been told by the late Prof. Hesse, was at the
time a student at Kénigsberg, where Prof. Franz Neumann encouraged
his students to work at the lathe and otherwise use their hands. He thus
was enabled to make his first instrument with his own hands in about 1854.
His first publication about it is ‘ Ueber die mechanische Bestimmung des
Flacheninhalts, der statischen Momente und der Tragheitsmomente ebener
Figuren, insbesondere iiber einen neuen Planimeter,’ ‘ Vierteljahrsschrift
der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Ziirich,’ 1856; also in Moigno’s
journal, ‘Cosmos,’ February 29, 1856. This planimeter is so well known
that no description is necessary beyond what has been said already about
planimeters of Type III. Many thousands of them have been manufactured
by Amsler at his works in Schaffhausen, and though in England many
are sold with the name of an English firm engraved on them, practically all
have come from Schaffhausen.

The instrument has practically remained unaltered since its invention.

It is made either with a rod QT of invariable length, giving the area,
say, in square inches, or with a rod of which the length may be changed so
that the same instrument can be set to give the area in different units.

‘V'o the latter Amsler has added on the top of the rod a pointer, and
another on the ‘sleeve’ in which the rod slides. These are at a distance
equal to that between the tracer T and the joint at Q. It is thus possible
to set the instrument so that the length 7 of the rod equals the greatest
extension, parallel to a given line, of the area. The reading of the instru-
ment is then proportional to the mean height of the area perpendicular
to that line. This is especially useful for finding the mean pressure directly
from an indicator diagram.

Mr. Druitt Halpin has added a simple locking gear to the recording
wheel, so that the instrument can be taken up without moving the wheel.
This has the advantage that the instrument can be placed in a good light
for reading, but it is also particularly useful in cases where the mean
pressure, as determined from a great number of indicator diagrams, is
required. The instrument may be set to zero, then locked, placed on the
paper, and one diagram after the other run over, the wheel being always
locked whilst the diagrams are being changed. The final reading divided
by the number of diagrams used gives the mean at once.

For the mere facility of reading another recent improvement is of far
greater importance. It consists in replacing the reflecting surface of white
metal on which the graduation used to be engraved by the matt white of
celluloid with black lines on it.

Of the many theories of Amsler’s planimeter which have been given—
and their name is legion—most make use of the Integral Calculus.

J. Amsler starts with geometrical considerations similar to those whick
I have given at the beginning. With these I became originally acquainted
through Culmann’s ‘Graphische Statik.’ They give, in my opinion, the
quickest access to the real nature of all planimeters.

The other theories serve as examples, and some as very good illustra-
tions, of the use of curvilinear co-ordinates.

Here it may be remarked that the integration as performed by the
planimeter gives really a line-integral, and many of the proofs which start
with the evaluation of an element of the area are examples of transforming
an integral over an area into a line-integral over the boundary ; hence they
are simple examples of Stokes’ Theorem.

510 REPORT——1894.

Dr. A. Amsler in his valuable paper, ‘ Ueber den Flicheninhalt und
das Volumen durch Bewegung erzeugten Curven und Flachen, und iiber
mechanische Integrationen’ (Inaugural Dissertation, Schaffhausen, 1880),
starts with proving that the area passed round by the tracer equals

i|sin a.ds

where ds is an element of the boundary and a the angle it makes with the
rod, the integration being taken over the whole boundary. It is therefore
a true line-integral.

Where the only object is to explain Amsler’s planimeter, Macfarlane
Gray’s theory is perhaps the simplest. It is given in Carr’s ‘Synopsis of
Mathematics.’

In 1855, hence at very nearly the same time as Amsler, Prof. Miller
Ritter von Hauenfels invented a planimeter based on the same principles
as Amsler’s. It is described in the ‘ Handbuch der niederen Geodasie’
(2nd to 7th ed.), by Prof. Fr. Hartner, and also in Dyck’s ‘Catalogue,’
p. 190. Gustav Starke, of Vienna, simplified the arrangement of the
recording wheel, and manufactured ‘in the course of years hundreds of
them.’ It is known as the Miller-Starke Planimeter.

As Amsler’s polar planimeter is universally used, the following discus-
sion of its errors may be of interest.

First error: The diameter of the wheel and the length of the ‘rod’
are not in the proper relation—z.e., if wis the unit division of the recording
wheel, / the length of the rod, the product lw does not give the accurate
unit of area intended. This error is generally very small. Otherwise all
readings have to be multiplied by a factor of reduction.

Second error: The axis of the wheel is not parallel to the rod, but
makes an angle « with it.

If W is the ‘roll’ of the wheel and 8 the slipping (due to translation
of the rod only), the area then is

A=lcos¢e.W+/ sin e.S+nz/?

Or, as « is practically very small,
A=IW 4+ [Se + 27/2

This introduces an error, /S<, which may be appreciable.

If a rod QT’ be fixed to the rod QT, making an angle « with the normal
to the latter and ofequal length to it, then, whilst T describes the boundary
of the area A, the point T’ will describe another closed curve. The area
bounded by this curve is S/. This area will often be small, but it is easy
to draw curves for which it is considerable, by guiding T’ round an area
of considerable size. If T circumscribes an area A, and T’ an area A’,
then the error 8 in A will be A’ sin «, and that in A’ will be A sin e.

This error has been investigated by Herr Wilski in ‘ Zeitschrift fiir
Vermessungswesen, 1892, p. 610.

In the same journal for 1894, Herr Lang has shown how to eliminate
it. About this more will be said presently in connection with the Lang-
Coradi Planimeter.

Third error : The axis of the joint at Q between the arm OQ and the
rod QT is not perpendicular to the paper—.e., not parallel to the axis about
which the instrument turns at O. See Wilski’s paper.

ON PLANIMETERS. tal

Fourth error : Due to slipping of the wheel. This is the error on which
Maxwell dwelt strongly.

This error increases with the amount of slipping, with the friction
resisting the slipping, and lastly with the resistance to the turning of the
wheel.

In order to reduce this error, the above three causes have to be dimin-
ished. This has led to a number of new constructions, which have to be
discussed presently. It may here be stated that the third has led to the
introduction of a ‘disc,’ as used in the planimeters of Type I., on which
the wheel rolls. The rough paper is, therefore, replaced by a smooth pre-
pared surface.

To reduce the resistance to the turning of the wheel, mechanical skill
alone can help.

But to reduce the first cause we have to investigate the amount of slip-
ping at different positions of the rod of the instrument relative to the arm.
If it be placed in such a position that the plane of the wheel passes through
the pole O, and if now the instrument be moved as a rigid body, then the
tracer will describe a circle. At the same time, the wheel will not roll, but
only slip. This circle, formerly referred to as the base-circle, will be the
locus of greatest slipping.

If the tracer be moved along this circle there should be no turning, and
there will be none. Hence, on this circle itself, the error due to slipping
will be zero. If, however, the tracer be moved on a concentric circle a
little inside the base-circle, then rolling will take place in one sense, but
on a circle a little outside in the opposite sense. In either case there will
be much slipping, causing an error. This error will be proportional to
the length of the path of the wheel, z.e., to the roll ; hence, on moving
the tracer parallel to the basec-ircle, but at an increased distance from it,
the error will increase on account of the increased roll, and decrease on
account of the decreased slipping. It will soon reach a maximum, and
then diminish. The same is true outside the base-circle, only the error
will be of the opposite sense.!

It becomes thus apparent that the error due to slipping is dependent
on the position of the pole relative to the area, and also that with changing
the position of the pole the errors change in an apparently haphazard
manner. :

It is of interest to compare these results with practical tests.
Wilski points out that there are certain positions of the pole for which
the record of the wheel becomes a maximum, others for which it is a
minimum. This is explained by supposing that in these cases a part of
the boundary of the area is parallel and near the base-circle either on the

1 Thave just (October 30) received from Coradi a paper by Lang (reprint from
the Allgemeine Vermessungs-Nachrichten, 1894) in which he discusses the errors
of an Amsler Planimeter, and remarks that the tracer T can be moved from any
position so that the wheel will only slip without rolling. This is obvious when
pointed out. These paths are spirals, one through every point, which approach the
base circle asymptotically either from within or from without, so that there are
two sets of these curves, all of one set being congruent. My reasoning in the text
must therefore be extended to these spirals also.

To reduce the error due to slipping no part of the boundary of the area to be
measured should therefore be parallel to one of these curves or to the base-circle.
Lang recommends to draw one of each of these spirals by trial and to cut it out
in stiff paper. By aid of these templets it is then easy to place the planimeter
so on the paper that the boundary cuts the base circle and these spirals nearly at
tight angles.

512 REPORT—1894.

one or the other side of it. Wilski seems to attribute it to an obliquity
in the joint at Q. Coradi’s experiences during more than ten years also
reveal these maxima and minima. But he finds them equally in all plani-
meters where a wheel is used, and draws the conclusion that the error
causing them must lie in the wheel and in the resistance to its turning.
The slipping he does not mention, but there seems no doubt that in it lies
the true dynamical cause.

Fifth error : The axis of the wheel does not lie in the rod QT, but at
a small distance sideways from it. This introduces a small amount of
extra slipping.

The errors discussed so far depend on the construction, the next on the
skill of the manipulator.

Sixth error: Due to wrong guiding of the tracer.

As the tracer has to be guided by hand round the curve, there will
always be slight deviations. Of the error hereby introduced not much can
be said in general. It depends on the skill and care of the manipulator.
The latter should always look as much as possible in the direction in
which the tracer moves along its path, so that any deviation may at once
be detected. These deviations will, in general, be partly positive, partly
negative, so that the errors introduced will greatly cancel each other.

To separate these errors from those due to the instrument it is neces-
sary to guide the tracer mechanically round a known area. For this pur-
pose Coradi uses, and sells with his planimeters, a ‘Control-lineal,’ con-
sisting of a strip of metal with a line marked along the middle of its
length. On this line a series of little conical holes are made to receive
the tracer. It can turn round a needle-point at one end, which is pressed
into the drawing-board. But to make good tests with it requires some
skill.

Elaborate tests of various planimeters have been made in this manner
by Prof. Lorber, of Leoben (‘ Zeitschrift fiir Vermessungswesen,’ 1883 and
1888).

Rules for the accurate use of planimeters and for testing them are
also given by Coradi in a pamphlet ‘ Praktische Anleitung zum Gebrauch,
etc., des einfachen Polar-Planimeters,’ 2te Aufl., Ziirich, 1888.

HouMANN-CoRADI AND LANG-CoRADI.

Amsler’s polar planimeter remained practically unaltered till the
Bavarian engineer F. Hohmann constructed his ‘ precision planimeter ’ in
1876. In 1880 he communicated his ideas to Coradi in Zurich, who has
since constructed it in a variety of different forms.

The Hohmann-Coradi precision planimeter is of Type III. But the
recording wheel rolls on a disc with finely prepared surface. This disc
itself is turned by the motion of the point Q of the generating line or ‘ rod”
QT. The wheel rests with light pressure on the disc. The friction to be
overcome by the slipping of the wheel is thus greatly diminished.

Of the different forms used by Coradi, I mention only the ‘rolling
planimeter.’ The point Q is guided along a straight line by the aid of a
carriage which rests on two wheels with milled edges. The motion of the
instrument in this direction is thus unlimited. Such wheels without rails
had been used already by Sang and by J. Stadler (Dyck’s ‘ Catalogue’) for
a planimeter of Type ITI.

ON PLANIMETERS. 515

Amsler, too, has since 1882 made planimeters with the wheel rolling
on a disc.

Soon after the construction of these instruments, Amsler published his
paper ‘ Neuere Planimeter-Constructionen’ (‘ Zeitschrift fiir Instrumenten-
kunde,’ 1884), which is full of interest. He describes a planimeter in which
a wheel rolls on a sphere, and which is designed to measure areas on a
sphere or globe instead of a plane. He shows that all known planimeters
in which a recording wheel is employed may be considered as special cases
of his new instrument. Of course, if the radius of the globe is taken in-
finitely large, we get a plane.

By introducing a cylinder instead of the wheel he gets an instrument
where there is no slipping, and he says that this planimeter is the only
one which deserves the name of ‘precision planimeter.’ This instrument
has never been made. In fact, Amsler considers it too complicated, and

Fig. 13.

-_——
———

bad

= 32 - = - - --
'

states that, although he had sold (up to 1884) over 12,000 polar planimeters,
only a few hundred of his more complicated Moment-planimeter had
been made.

Influenced, no doubt, by this paper and the criticism it contained,
Coradi made soon after what he calls a ‘ Precisions-Kugel-Planimeter.’ At
the cost of retaining a very slight amount of slipping he simplifies Amsler’s
mechanism considerably, and produces a simple and handy instrument,
of which in four years, up to 1892, over 450 have been sold. It is made
in two forms. In the one, the point Q of the ‘rod’ QT moves in a circle .
in the other, along a straight line, it being mounted on a carriage with two
wheels.

I shall describe the former. A heavy disc with centre O, fig. 13, has
a raised circular rim B’BB” with small teeth. Round O the ‘arm’ OQis
movable, and at Q the ‘rod’ QT is jointed to it. This gives an ordinary

1894. LL

514 REPORT—1894,

polar planimeter ; if T is moved round the boundary of an area which
may be denoted by (T), then the rod QT will sweep over an area equal to
(T) which has to be registered. This is done by the ‘roll’ of a cylinder
EF, whose axis is parallel to the ‘rod.’ This cylinder does not roll on the
paper, but on a spherical surface 8S. The latter can revolve about a hori-
zontal diameter AD which is parallel to the arm OQ, and which has at B
a small toothed wheel gearing in the rim B’/BB” of the fixed disc. Let
the cylinder EF touch this sphere at C in the horizontal great circle,
and let A be the centre of the sphere. If now the rod and with it the
axis of the cylinder make an angle a with the tangent QX to the circular
path of Q, then the distance of the point C from the axis of the sphere
will be CD=,r sin a, where 7 is the radius of the surface 8. Let now
the rod QT get a small translation to Q’T’, sweeping over a small area
QTT’Q’=lp. Of course, QQ’ must be so small that it may be con-
sidered an arc of the circle in which Q moves. If QQ’=za, then is p
=zsina, the areaQTT’Q'=/z sin a. At the same time OQ will turn about O
through an angle proportional to x, and this will produce a rotation of the
sphere and a motion of C proportional to CDz, 7.e., proportional to « sin «
or top. This will be communicated tothe cylinder. Hence the roll of the
cylinder during a small motion of T will be proportional to the area swept
over by the rod during the translation of the rod. According to the
general theory of planimeters of Type ITI., the ‘roll’ of the cylinder measures
the area enclosed by the path of T, provided that the rod does not com-
plete a whole rotation. If the point O should lie within the area, a certain
constant has to be added to the ‘ roll’ of the cylinder, as in Amsler’s simple
planimeter.

This very simple theory is, however, not quite correct. For if QT
turns about Q the cylinder will not always touch the sphere. To insure a
continuous contact the cylinder is mounted in a small rectangular frame,
which itself can rock to and fro about an axis parallel to that of the rod.

Amsler, in the planimeter mentioned, places Q at the centre A of the
sphere and suspends the frame with the cylinder from above the sphere.
In this case a turning of the arm will make the cylinder slip along the
horizontal great circle. To avoid this slipping he makes the cylinder
movable along its axis, and gets thus an instrument without slipping.
Coradi places the point Q so that when the rod is in the direction of QX
the cylinder touches the sphere when its axis is vertically above Q. If now
the rod be turned about Q, the cylinder with its frame will be pushed side-
ways, whilst the point C will move below the horizontal great circle. This
up-and-down motion of C will produce a roll of the cylinder, the total
amount of which, however, will reduce to zero when the point C comes
back to its original position, and this it will do when the tracer has de-
scribed a closed curve.

But this lowering of C also increases the radius CD. At the same
time the cylinder will not receive the full motion of the point C. In
fact, this motion will be decomposed into rolling and slipping. The
rolling will be just the same as if C was still on the horizontal great circle,
and will therefore give the area correctly. The slipping will always be
very small. There will also be slipping when the rod turns about Q, but
this again will be very small. Although the exact determination of these
quantities is not difficult, I prefer to refer the reader to A. Amsler’s essay,
‘Ueber mechanische Integrationen,’ in Dyck’s ‘Catalogue,’ p. 107, where
a very elementary theory of this part of Coradi’s planimeter is given, and
also (p. 105) a description of his father’s planimeter-without-slipping.

or

ON PLANIMETERS, ol

Tue LanG-Corapi PLANIMETER.

Coradi has quite recently constructed a new modification of Amsler’s
Polar-planimeter which he calls ‘Compensations-Polar-planimeter.’ Its
object is to eliminate the error due to a non-parallelism between the axis of
the wheel and the rod QT according to a method due to Herr Lang, a
surveyor of Neuwied. The Swiss patent is dated from October 3, 1893.
A description of it is published by Lang in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir Ver-
messungswesen,’ 1894, Heft 12.

Lang points out that the error mentioned can be eliminated by going
twice round the boundary of the area in the following manner. To fix
the idea let the pole O of an ordinary Amsler planimeter be below the
curve, the tracer T on it ; then the point Q will be to the right. In this
position the tracer is moved round the curve. Then, with the same
position of the pole, the planimeter is set so that the point Q comes to the
left and the tracer is guided again along the curve. The error in question
will be equal but opposite in sign for the two operations, and is therefore
eliminated on taking the mean.

In Amsler’s planimeter this second position is not possible. To make
it possible Coradi does not connect the rod QT by a hinged joint to the
arm OQ, but by a spherical joint. One wheel is placed slightly on one
side of the rod near Q, and another supporting wheel is placed on the
other side of the rod with its axis perpendicular to the rod. The rod
therefore rests with these two wheels at the one end and the tracer at the
other end firmiy on the paper. At Q the rod has a hole, with a spherical
bottom, open at the top. The arm OQ has at Q a tooth projecting down-
wards whose spherical end is placed in the hole of the rod. The arm is
therefore above the rod, and this requires a new construction of the needle
point at O. It consists of a heavy foot having its lower surface in the
form of a cylinder whose horizontal edge is perpendicular to OQ. In the
middle of this edge is the needle. This arrangement avoids at the same time
any obliquity in the axis of the joint at Q. Besides, it is easier handled in
taking it in or out of its box, as it consists of two quite separate parts,
and thus there is less likelihood of damaging the instrument.

It seems to be an instrument as carefully thought out as it is
executed, and will, most likely, replace the more expensive precision-
planimeters.

Tue Hine-Ropertson PLANIMETER.

Within the last few years a new little planimeter has been made by
Messrs. Hine & Robertson, of New York, stated to be ‘on an entirely new
principle.’ The principle is however already given by Amsler in his paper
of 1856.

Suppose in an ordinary Amsler planimeter a bar CD fixed rigidly at C
to the rod QT and at right angles to it. On this bar let a wheel be
mounted so that it can turn about it and also slide along it. Let the
rim of this wheel be made with a knife edge; then the wheel can only roll
on the paper, but instead of slipping on the paper it will slide along the
bar. If the wheel had a smooth rim and could not move along its axis we
should have the arrangement mentioned before (p. 510), when it was pointed
out that its slipping would equal the ‘roll’ of the ordinary recording wheel.

Jt follows that the displacement of the wheel along the bar equals the
LL2

516 REPORT—1894..

‘roll’ of the ordinary wheel, and can therefore be used in its place to
measure an area.

Amsler describes, in the paper quoted, a planimeter of this kind ; but
instead of making the knife-edge wheel slide along the bar CD, he makes
the bar slide across the rod QT, fixing at each end a knife-edge wheel.

Just as in Amsler’s Polar-planimeter the axis of the recording wheel
must be parallel to the rod, so the axis of the knife edge wheel must be
perpendicular to it. If it deviates from it by an angle «, and if S
denotes the sliding, W the rolling of the wheel, then the area will be

SZ sin «+ WI cos «

In the Hine-Robertson planimeter the point Q is not guided in a circle
but along a straight line. The whole instrument is small, and is contained
in a box seven by eleven inches. At the bottom of the box, along one
edge, a strip of metal is fastened with a y-groove in it. In this the one
end Q of the rod slides. The paper with the indicator-diagram, for which
the instrument is meant to be used, is clamped to the bottom and every-
thing ready. The wheel slides, as described, along the bar, which is so
graduated that the wheel is set to zero when pushed towards the rod as far
as it will go. The instrument is therefore very handy ; but it has one
fault—the axis of the wheel is not perpendicular to QT.

The rod is at the end towards Q bent to a curve, and only the piece in
CT, where C is the point of junction with the bar carrying the wheel, is
straight. This bar, which should be perpendicular to QT, is so to CT, and
makes with QT an angle «-=10° nearly. If it gives, nevertheless, good
results this must be due to the fact that the errors nearly cancel each other.

If the instrument be so placed that CT is parallel to the y-groove,
and the line over which CT lies be marked on the paper, then the error
will be positive when the tracer is on the one side of this line, negative
when on the other. As from the very dimensions of the instrument this line
will almost always cross the indicator-diagram, such cancelling of the
errors will be explained. But there seems to be no reason why the axis
of the wheel should not have its proper position.

Tue Prytz or HarcHer PLANIMETER.

This planimeter belongs geometrically to Type III., but the recording
apparatus is altogether different from Amsler’s. It is curious in its sim-

Fig. 14.

plicity, consisting simply of a single rod of metal, without any wheel or
other movable part. For the ultimate reading an ordinary scale is used.
A metal rod is bent as in fig. 14. At T it ends ina point which
serves as tracer. At Q it is flattened to a knife-edge, whose plane passes
through T. This is placed in a vertical plane with T and Q resting on the

paper.

ON PLANIMETERS. * 517

The knife-edge prevents Q from moving sideways. The only motions
possible are therefore a sliding in the direction of QT together with a
turning about Q. Hence, if T is moved along any curve, Q will follow,
always moving towards T. The Q-curve, as the path of Q may be called,
is therefore a curve of pursuit. The line QT is always tangential to it.
Its length will be denoted by /.

To use this instrument as a planimeter the inventor gives the following
rules :—

If the greatest extension of the area exceeds }/ the area has to be
divided and the parts measured separately.

Take a point Ras near as you can guess to the centre of gravity of the
area, and join it toa point A on the boundary ; put the tracer T on R, and
make with the knife-edge a mark on the paper. Next guide T from R to
A, round the boundary and back to R ; make again a mark with Q, and
measure the distance c, between these marks. Next turn the instrument
through 180° about R and guide T as before, but in the opposite sense,
round the boundary. Let the distance between the marks in this case be
c). Then is the area given by

C) +c, N\?
3 i(1-(3) )

where N? denotes the mean value of the squares of the distances of R
from the boundary. He then adds a table giving (N/2/)? for different
values of N/7. They vary from ‘002 to :016, and are therefore small.

Fig. 15.

He afterwards gives his theory. This leads him to an integral for the
area swept over by QT, which cannot be worked out in a finite form, and
has to be expanded in an infinite series of which the first terms lead him
to the result stated.

The same problem has also been treated analytically by Mr. F. W. Hill
in a more elegant manner, the result being given in a slightly different
form.

These investigations are, however, somewhat unsatisfactory. It seems
to me that the following geometrical reasoning affords us a deeper insight
into the real nature of the theory of this instrument.

If T describes a straight line AX (fig. 15) whilst Q starts from O,
where AO is perpendicular to OX, then Q will describe a curve known as
the tractrix, which will extend to an infinite distance to the right, having
AX as asymptote. If T is moved to the left, Q describes the other half of
tractrix, which has a cusp at O. Similarly, if T describes any curve, Q
will describe a curve which will have a cusp whenever QT becomes normal
to the T-curve.

518 REPORT—1894..

If we decompose a very small displacement of QT during this motion
into a sliding along QT and a turning about Q, then the latter alone will
generate an area, and if the rod turns through a small angle 6 the area
generated equals 4/?0=3 la where a=/0 is the small are described by T
during this turning.

Hence, if a line OP=QT be drawn from any fixed point O and kept
always parallel to QT it will generate an area equal to that generated by
QT itself. Thus in fig. 15 the area OATQO equals the area of the circular
sector OAPO if OP is parallel to QT.

In particular, if T is moved to an infinite distance, QT will fall into
AX, and willbe parallel to OB ; from which follows at once the well-known
result, that the area between the tractrix and its asymptote from the cusp
to infinity equals that of a quadrant of a circle with radius 1.

Let now a closed curve be given, A a point on it, and let the planimeter
QT be placed in the position OA. Next let T be moved from A round the

Fig. 16.

Xx

curve in the sense of the arrow ; then Q will describe a curve somewhat
like OSB with a cusp at 8 (fig. 16).

If the given curve is less simple this Q-curve may be more complicated,
but the following reasoning will always hold.

The area described by QT is found to be equal to that of the section
OAC, where OC is parallel to BA. In order to make the Q-curve closed,
suppose the line QT turned about A from AB back to AO. Hereby the
sector BAO is described, which equals OAC both in magnitude and sense,
for the sense of QT is from Q to T ; hence from B to A.

We have now a cyclical motion for QT. According to Theorem 1

ON PLANIMETERS. 519

(p. 502) the area generated equals (T)—(Q), where (T) is the area of the
given curve and (Q) the area of the closed Q-curve, or equal to twice the
sector AOB, z.¢., equal to /.a, where a denotes the arc OB. If we now
could vary the proceeding so that (Q)=0 we should have (T)=/a, and
need only measure the arc a to get the area of the given curve.

To do this draw from A any straight line AX, place the planimeter in
its original position OA, and move T from A along AX. The point Q now
describes a tractrix OF with AX as asymptote. On doing the same from
the end-position BA we get a second tractrix, BH, also with AX as
asymptote.

If we now take on AX a suitable point R and draw with this point as
centre and TQ as radius an are ED between these two tractrices, we can
consider the curve DOSBED as the Q-curve. We need only start at the
position DR for QT, move T to A, then round the curve and back to R,
turning QT at last about R till Q comes back to D.

If R has been well selected the are ED will cut the curve OSB, and
therefore the area of the Q-curve will be partly positive, partly negative.
If, in fig. 16, the point R is moved higher up, the positive part will increase ;
on moving it lower down, the negative. Hence there must exist a definite
position for R, such that the area (Q) vanishes.

This shows the possibility of using the simple ‘ Hatchet’ as a plani-
meter ; but it is not yet a practical instrument. The above shows only :—

If a point A, a line AX, and an initial position OA are taken
arbitrarily, then a point R exists on AX such that on starting with T at
R and Q at D we get the area reduced to twice the area of a sector with
radius QT.

We have here at our disposal first the point A on the curve ; secondly,
the direction of the line AX ; thirdly, the initial direction of QT, for it
comes to the same whether we take OA or DR as given. These three
being fixed, the above proves the existence of a point R. The change of
one of these three quantities alters the position of R.

We must, in order to get a practically useful rule for determining
R, restrict the superabundance of choice which the above theory leaves
us. A perfectly satisfactory rule has not yet been found. The only
generally usable one is that given by the inventor.

As the Hatchet Planimeter has during the last few years excited
some interest both in England and abroad, and as I have heard its
invention attributed to various men, the following historical facts may be
mentioned.

I became acquainted with it early in 1893 through Professor Green-
hill, and ordered one from the maker, Herr Cornelius Knudsen, in Copen-
hagen. With it I received a pamphlet in French dated 1887. It contains
an analytical theory without mentioning Captain Prytz. After my showing
the instrument at the Physical Society and mentioning that a complete
theory did not yet exist, there appeared in ‘ Engineering’ a paper by
Macfarlane Gray. In consequence of this Captain Prytz contributed his
investigations to the same journal (where his name is changed to Pryty).
Tt is practically an English translation of the pamphlet mentioned. I
have since seen a new pamphlet with the name of Captain Prytz on it.
In England the instrument seems, however, to have first become known
through Mr. Druitt Halpin, who mentioned it to Professor Unwin,
Professor Goodman, and other engineers about 1889. Professor Goodman

520 REPORT—1894.

exhibited a somewhat improved form early this year at the Institution of
Civil Engineers.

He has given the rod between the knife-edge and the tracer the
shape of a circular arc, radius /, and engraved a scale on it, so that it is
possible to measure the are between the two marks made on the paper
instead of the chord.

Quite recently (October) I have learnt from Coradi that in December
1893 F. Hohmann communicated the idea of such a planimeter to him,
and also that Professor Ljubomir Kleritj, of Belgrad, had invented a
new planimeter. This is only a modification of Prytz’s. In it the
knife-edge is replaced by a knife-edge wheel, whilst the other end rests
on two feet between which the tracer is so placed that its point is just
off the paper. These feet are fastened to a cross-bar which is movable
about a point above the tracer. The instrument thus rests firmly on
three points. Both Professor Unwin and Coradi have pointed out to
me that it would be an improvement if to Prytz’s form a disc be added
as a handle which can turn freely about the tracer. Kleritj’s form
supplies this.

Just now I have received a reprint from a Servian journal in which
Professor Szily, of Budapest, has, at the request of Kleritj, developed the
equation to the path of the knife-edge when the tracer moves along the
circumference of a circle. It is dated December 1893. But it does not
seem to advance the curiously interesting theory of the instrument.

The geometrical considerations given above were started by me and
more fully worked out by Mr. A. Sharp, who has obtained several other
results, which, however, do not yet yield any better practical rules than
those given by Prytz.

LiInKAGE INTEGRATORS,

J. Amsler (‘ Vierteljahrsschrift,’ 1856, p. 29) describes what he calls a
‘ Flachenreductor’ (area-reducer), and in connection with this he gives a
theorem about pantographs which deserves notice.

Starting with the fundamental theorem about the generation of an
area by a line of finite length, these theorems are easily obtained.

If we denote by (A B) the area swept over by the line AB during a
cyclical motion, by (P) the areas enclosed by the close path of a point P,
then we have

(AB)=(B)—(A)+n7AB?
If n=0, and this case alone we shall follow up, we have
(AB)=(B) —(A)
If we take a third point C on, or off, the line AB, we always have
(AB)=(B)-(A), (BC)=(C)—(B), (CA)=(A)—(C)
These give at once
(AB)+(BC) +(CA)=0 and (AB)=(AC) +(CB)

where account always must be taken of the sense, viz., it is

AB=—BA and (AB)= —(BA)

ON PLANIMETERS. Be |

We also have, if a recording wheel be fixed on the line AB whose roll
for a complete circuit is w,

(AB)=AB.w, (BC)=BC. w, ke.

Hence, if a line performs a cyclical motion without turning completely
round, then the area swept over by any segment on the line is propor-
tional to the length of the segment.

Let now A, B, P be points in a straight line and AB=a, AP
=p, ..PB=a—p; then is

(AB)=aw=(B)—(A), (AP)=pw=(P)—(A)
On eliminating w we get
p (B)—a (P)=(p—a) (A), or (w—p) (A)=a (P)—p (B)

This is Holditch’s Theorem.
From this it follows that we can always find one point P in the line
AB which describes a curve of zero-area. For it

(p—a) (A)=p (B)

pees
(A)—(B)

This point shall be called the zero-point in the line.
If (A)=(B), then is p=, and the zero-point is at infinity.
For any other point P (not at infinity) we have now

a (P)=a (A), ae (P)=(A)

If two points in a line describe closed curves of equal area, all points in
the line do the same.

The area enclosed by any point in the line encloses always an area
which is proportional to its distance from the zero-point.

In Amsler’s planimeter, or any planimeter of Type I., the point Q is
the zero-point of the ‘rod’ QT.

Let on this rod a point T’ be taken so that QT=AQT’ ; then, whilst T’
is guided along the boundary of an area (T’), the point T will describe a
closed curve of / times the area (T’).

J. Amsler proposed (/.c., p. 29, 1856) to have a tube inserted at T’ per-
pendicular to the paper. At the bottom this carries near the paper a
glass plate with a small circular mark, and at the top a lens. The point
T is now moved so that the mark at T’ follows the small curve. The
point T describes a closed curve whose area is registered by the wheel in
square inches, say. The area (T’) is therefore registered & times to the same
scale. We have thus a planimeter which registers a magnified area, and
is suitable to measure small areas. The advantage is this. In guiding a
tracer round a curve the motion of the tracer will be more or less jerky.
These jerks at T will be reduced at T’.

This arrangement, however, has one drawback. The figures described
by T and T’ are not similar, and this makes it difficult to guide T so that
T’ follows a givencurve. But this can be overcome as follows: Let us

consider a linkage as in fig. 17. OQT is an ordinary planimeter with

622 REPORT—1894.

the poleat O. TQ is produced to D, and the extra bars OC, CD are added,
with hinged joints. If T describes a closed curve, D will do the same,
whilst Q and C are zero-points, provided that QT does not complete a

Fig. 17.
T”
10]
Cc
WwW
D
Q
Ww

T
revolution. Let there be registering wheels on TQ and CD, and let their
‘rolls’ during a circuit described by T be w and w’ ; then is

(T)=QT . w, (D)=QD.w=CD.w’

From which, on eliminating w, we get
M=35 CD. w’

Hence the area (T) can also be measured by the roll of W’.

Similarly, if DC be produced to T’, the area of T’ will be measured either
by W’ or by W.

If OQDC be made a parallelogram and T, O, T’ are taken in a line, then
T and T’ will describe similar figures.

On this principle the firm Amsler-Laffon has recently constructed a

Fig. 18.
Q

Q

planimeter for measuring small areas. For convenience of construction
the points T and T’ are made to describe figures which are only approxi-
mately similar, but sufficiently to make it easy to guide the tracer T so
that I’ describes a given small curve.

ON PLANIMETERS. 523

It seems to me that we have here a new principle for making inte-
grators which might be called linkage integrators; viz., if we take a linkage
and move one point T along a given curve, then any other point T’ will
describe another closed curve whose area is dependent on that of the given
curve.

As a simple example, take a Peaucillier cell with fixed pole O (fig. 18).
Give QT a wheel W and QT’ a wheel W’. We have now two planimeters,
OQT and OQT’. If OT=r, OT’ = 7’, then we have always r7’=k?, where
k?=0Q?—QT?.

Tf T describes a closed curve, T’ describes another, and

(T)=aw, (T’)=aw', where QT=a
Also ()=3)r"a0 if @ is the angle which OT makes with a fixed line, and
(P)}=3|r dp ala
2)r?

Hence, as T describes a closed curve, T’ describes another whose area is

proportional to

Tf dS denotes an element of the area (T), the last integral becomes by
Stokes’ Theorem about the conversion of a line- into a surface-integral

kde a ds
2\r2 ra

(Uo aml (%, which is measured by w’

Hence

The origin must be outside the area (T) to avoid r=0.

On Methods that have been adopted for Measuring Pressures in the
Bores of Guns. By Captain Sir A. Nosue, K.C.B., F.B.S.,
MiLnst.C.L.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Tue importance of ascertaining, with some approach to accuracy, the
pressures which are developed at various points along the bores of guns
by gunpowder or other propelling agent is so great that a variety of
means have been proposed for their determination, and I purpose, in this
paper, to give a very brief account of some of these means, pointing out
at the same time certain difficulties which have been experienced in their
employment, and the errors to which these methods have been in many
cases subject.

The earliest attempt, by direct experiment, to ascertain pressures deve-~
loped by fired gunpowder was that made by Count Rumford in his
endeavour to determine the pressures due to different densities of charge.
He assumed, the principles of thermodynamics being then unknown, that
charges fired in a small closed gun-barrel would give pressures identical
with those given by charges doing work both on the projectile and on the

524 REPORT—1894.

products of combustion themselves ; but even this error was a small one
compared with that which led him to adopt, as correct, his extravagant
estimate of the pressures developed.

For a density of unity—or, in other words, for a charge approximately
filling a chamber in which it was fired—he estimated the pressure at over
101,000 atmospheres, or at 662 tons per square inch.

He adopted this pressure notwithstanding the great discrepancy which
he found to exist between the two series of experiments which he made,
and he meets the objection that, were the pressure anything approaching
that which he gives, no gun that ever was made would have a chance of
standing by assuming that the combustion of powder is exceedingly slow,
and lasts the whole time occupied by the projectile in passing through
the bore.

It is sufficiently curious that a man so eminent for his scientific attain-
ments as was Rumford should have fallen into so great an error, both
because any attempt at calculation would have shown him his mistake,
and because Robins, sixty years earlier, had conclusively proved that with
the small grain powders then used—and it must be remembered that
Rumford’s powder was sporting of very fine grain—the whole of the
powder was fired before the bullet was very greatly removed from its seat.
Robins’s argument—and it is incontrovertible—was, that were it otherwise
a much greater energy would be realised from the powder when the
weight of the projectile was doubled, trebled, quadrupled, &c. ; but his
experiments showed that under these circumstances the work done by the
powder was nearly the same.

For other objects, on a much larger scale, and with appliances far
superior to those which the great man I have named had at his disposal,
I have had occasion to repeat Robins’s experiment, and the results are
interesting. With a charge of 10 1b. of the powder known as R.L.G2
and a shot weighing 30 lb. a velocity of 2,126 f.s., representing an energy
of 971°6 foot-tons, was attained. The same charge being used, but the
weight of the projectile being doubled, the velocity was reduced to
1,641 f.s., while the energy was increased to 1,125 foot-tons. With a shot
weighing 120 lb. the velocity was 1,209 f.s. and the energy 1,196 foot-tons.
With a shot of 150 lb. the velocity was 1,080 f.s. and the energy 1191-5
foot-tons ; while with a shot of 360 lb. the velocity was reduced to 691 f.s.,
representing a muzzle energy of 1,191°9 foot-tons. These energies were
obtained with maximum chamber pressures respectively of 13:5 tons, of
17°25 tons, of 19 tons, of 20 tons, and of 22 tons per square inch. It will
be noted that the maximum energy obtained was realised with the shot of
120 lb. weight, the energy given by a shot of 360 1b.—z.ec. three times
that weight, or twelve times the weight of the original shot—being nearly
exactly the same.

Very different, however, were the results when one of the modern
powders, introduced with the special object of insuring slow combustion,
was compared with the R.L.G2 experiments which I have just quoted.

With brown prismatic or cocoa powder an exactly similar series was
fired. The 30-lb. shot gave a velocity of 1,515 f.s. and an energy of 493-4
foot-tons ; the 60-lb. shot gave 1,291 f.s., and an energy of 693-4 foot-tons ;
the 120-lb. shot, 1,040 f£.s., and 877°5 foot-tons ; the 150-lb. shot, 948 fis.
and 920:7 foot-tons ; while with the heaviest shot, the 360 lb., the velocity
attained was 654f.s., equivalent to an energy of 1,064-7 foot-tons. The
maximum chamber pressures in this series varied from 4°8 tons per square

ON METHODS FOR MEASURING PRESSURES IN THE BORES OF GUNS. 525

inch, with the lightest projectile, to 9°6 with the heaviest ; and with
this powder it will be observed that the energy developed increased
steadily and considerably with each increment in the weight of the shot,
while the low chamber pressure shows that, even with the heaviest shot,
the projectile must have moved a considerable distance from its seat
before the charge can be considered to have been entirely consumed.

I have mentioned the discrepancy between Rumford’s two series of
experiments. This discrepancy was very great, the one series giving, for
a density of unity, a tension of about 190 tons per square inch, or 29,000
atmospheres, the other series giving a tension of over 101,000 atmospheres.
It is remarkable that Rumford makes no attempt to explain this discre-
pancy, but, as he deliberately adopts the higher tension, it is not impro-
bable that he was led to this conclusion by an erroneous estimate of the
elastic force of the aqueous vapour contained in the powder or formed by
its explosion. He considered, relying on M. de Betancourt’s experiments,
that the elasticity of steam is doubled by every addition of temperature
equal to 30° F., and his only difficulty appears to have been—he expressly
leaves to posterity the solution of the problem—why the tension of fired
gunpowder is not much higher than even the enormous pressure which
his experiments appeared to indicate.

Tt will be remembered that Rumford’s apparatus consisted of a small
but strong wrought-iron barrel, terminated at one end by a small closed
vent, so arranged that the charge could be tired by the application of a
red-hot ball. At the other end it was closed by a hemisphere upon which
any required weight could be placed. His method was as follows :—A
given charge being placed in the bore, a weight judged to be equivalent
to the expected gaseous pressure was applied. If the weight were lifted,
it was increased until it was just sufficient to confine the gases, and the
pressure was then assumed to be that represented by the weight.

It seems probable that Rumford’s erroneous determinations were
mainly due to two causes :—

Ist. To the weight closing the barrel being lifted, not by the mere
gaseous pressure, but by the products of explosion (produced, it will be
remembered, from a very ‘brisante’ powder and considerably heated by the
red-hot ball) being projected at a high velocity against it. In such a
case the energy acquired in traversing the barrel would add notably to
the pressure due to the density of the charge ; and it is again remarkable
that the augmentation of pressure, due to this cause, was clearly indicated
by an experiment designed for the purpose by Robins.

2nd. To the gases acting on a much larger area than was allowed for
in his calculations ; and this view appears to be confirmed by the résumé
he gives of his experiments.

No attempt was made for very many years either to corroborate or
amend Count Rumford’s determinations ; but, in 1845, General Cavalli
endeavoured indirectly to arrive at the pressure developed by different
kinds of powder in a gun of 16 em. calibre. His method consisted in
drilling holes in the gun at right angles to the axis, at different distances
from the base of the bore, in which holes were screwed small barrels of |
wrought iron, so arranged as to throw a bullet which would be acted on
by the charge of the gun while giving motion to the projectile. By ascer-
taining the velocities of these bullets he considered that the theoretical
thickness of the metal at various points along the bore could be deduced.
His experiments led him to some singular results.

526 REPORT—1894.

He believed that with some very brisante Belgian powder with which
he experimented a chamber pressure of 24,022 atmospheres (157-6 tons
per square inch) had actually been reached, while with an ordinary powder
and a realised energy of nearly the same amount the maximum chamber
pressure was only 3,734 atmospheres (24°5 tons per square inch), With
the brisante powder this erroneous conclusion was doubtless due to two
principal causes, viz.—

lst. To the seat of the small bullet being at a considerable distance
from the charge. Under these circumstances, as later on I shall have
occasion to describe experiments to prove, a far higher pressure induces
motion in the bullet than is due to the tension of the gases in a state of
rest.

2nd. To the brisante nature of the powder. With such powders,
especially in large charges, it has been proved that great variations of
pressure exist in the powder chamber itself, in some cases the pressure in-
dicated at one point of the chamber being more than double that at others.

It has further been proved that with brisante powders waves of
pressure of great violence sweep from one end of the chamber to the other,
and if Cavalli’s small bullet were acted on by one of these waves an ex-
ceedingly high pressure would, without doubt, be indicated.

3rd. A third cause of error, but much slighter, is due to the muzzle
pressure, when the small bullet quits its barrel, being both abnormally high
and also abnormally sustained ; hence there will be a considerable incre-
ment of velocity after the buiiet quits the gun.

It is but fair to add that the results obtained by Cavalli with the
powders which he terms ‘inoffensive’ are, if some correction be made for
the third cause of error alluded to above, not far removed from the truth.

A. Prussian Artillery Committee, under the presidency of General
Neumann, made, in 1854, a great improvement on the plan proposed and
employed by Cavalli.

Their mode of procedure consisted in drilling a hole in the powder
chamber of the gun to be experimented with, in which hole was placed a
small barrel of about six inches in length. Now, when the gun was
loaded, if in the small barrel were placed a cylinder of a length equal to
that of the projectile, it is clear that, on the assumption that the pressure
in the powder chamber is uniform, the cylinder and the projectile will
describe equal spaces in equal times ; hence, if we determine the velocity
of the cylinder when it quits the small barrel, we know the velocity of the
projectile when it -has moved six inches from its seat. By altering the
length of the column of the cylinder placed in the small barrel, and ascer-
taining the resultant velocity, the velocity of the projectile at any desired
point of the bore can be determined.

General Neumann’s Committee carried out their experiments only in
very small guns and with the grained powder used in those days. Their
results were probably not far from the truth, although subject to one of
the defects to which I alluded in reviewing General Cavalli's experiments.
Indeed, these results were examined and entirely confirmed by the dis-
tinguished Russian artillerist General Mayevski, in a very elaborate
memoir ; but the experiments of the Prussian Committee were chiefly
remarkable for being, so far as I know, the first to recognise the variations
of pressure which may exist in the powder chamber itself, variations which
may, under certain circumstances, attain great magnitude, and to which
I have already drawn attention.

ON METHODS FOR MEASURING PRESSURES IN THE BORES OF GUNS. 527

The results of the Prussian experiments showed, with every charge
fired, two distinct maxima of tension. Other relative maxima no doubt
existed, but the mode of experimenting was not sufficiently delicate to
render them perceptible.

Before passing to the more modern methods adopted for determining
the tensions in guns, I must advert to one which has been repeatedly
resorted to during the last 150 years. I mean the method of firing the
same weight of charge and projectile from guns of the same calibre but of
different lengths, or, as has sometimes been done, by successively reducing
the length of the same gun by cutting off a determinate number of
calibres from the muzzle.

It is obvious that if, under the circumstances supposed, we know the
muzzle velocities of a projectile from a gun of, say, twenty-five calibres in
length and from a gun of thirty calibres in length, we are able from the
increased energy obtained to deduce the mean pressure acting upon the
projectile over the additional five calibres.

The earliest experiments with different lengths of guns appear to have
been made in England as far back as 1736. These experiments, however,
have but little value, as the velocities were not directly determined, and
could only be deduced from the observed ranges. The same objection applies
to the long series of experiments carried on in Hanover in 1785, and those
cited by Piobert in 1801 ; but the interesting observation that the ranges
obtained from guns of twelve, fifteen, nineteen, and twenty-three calibres in
length were relative maxima cannot be relied on in any way as showing
abnormal variations in the muzzle pressure accompanying variations in
length.

In Hutton’s experiments, made with guns varying in length from
fifteen to forty calibres, the muzzle velocities were obtained by means of
the ballistic pendulum ; and, between these limits of length, the mean
powder pressure he realised can with sufficient certainty be deduced.

This remark applies also to the numerous similar experiments where
the muzzle velocities have been obtained by the more accurate chrono-
scopes that have been for many years in common use ; but this mode of
determining the pressure has many inconveniences, and ceases to be reliable
when the bore is of a very reduced length and the pressures approach
their maximum value.

To the important and extensive series of experiments carried on by
Major Rodman for the United States Government in 1857 to 1859, the
main object of the experiments being to ascertain the effect which the
size of grain of the powder used has upon the pressure, we are indebted
for that officer’s most ingenious pressure gauge ; and the crusher gauge,
which is now so extensively used, can only be considered a modification of
Major Rodman’s instrument designed to remove certain difficulties at-
tending the use of the original instrument.

Major Rodman’s gauge is well known, but its construction is shown in
the accompanying drawing (fig. 1). Major Rodman applied his gauge
in the following manner :—

Desiring to ascertain the pressure at various points along the bore of a
gun, he bored at these points channels to the interior surface of the bore,
and in these channels cylinders with small holes drilled down the centre were
inserted ; to this cylinder is fitted the indicating apparatus, carried by
Major Rodman on the outside of the gun, and consisting of an indenting
tool ¢ with its knife (shown in elevation and section). Against the knife

528 REPORT—1894.

is screwed a piece of copper, H. The pressure of the gas acting on the
piston 1 forces the knife into the copper ; by mechanical means a similar
cut can be produced, and hence the magnitude of the cut gives the measure
of the pressure which has produced it. A small cup at c prevents any
gas passing the indenting tool.

The great improvements that Major Rodman made in gunpowder are
well known. To him we are indebted both for the earliest experiments
on the effect of the size of grain on the maximum pressure and for the
powder adopted by all nations for large guns, I mean prismatic powder ;
but it is a question whether he was not in some degree led to these great
improvements by an erroneous estimate of the pressures produced, this
erroneous estimate being mainly due to the necessity of placing the
Rodman gauge at the exterior of the gun; and the effect of this objec-
tionable position would be greatly exaggerated if the powder experimented
' with were of a brisante nature.

It is curious that so distinguished an artillerist as Major Rodman

Fig. 1.—Rodman’s Pressure Apparatus.

should never have taken the trouble to calculate what energies the
pressures which his instrument gave would have generated in a pro-
jectile ; had he done so he would have found that many of the results
indicated by his instrument were not only improbable but were absolutely
impossible. é ;

As an illustration of Major Rodman’s method I take an interesting .
series of experiments made in smooth-bored guns of 7-inch, 9-inch, and
{1-inch calibres, and so arranged that in each gun an equal column or
weight per square inch of powder was behind an equal column or weight
per square inch of projectile. Under these conditions, in each gun, during
the passage of the shot along the bore, the gases would be equally ex-
panded, and the energy per unit of column developed at every point in
the three guns should be the same, except for slight differences on account
of increased temperature and pressure in the larger guns, due to the
smaller cooling surface in proportion to the weight of charge.

Major Rodman measured his pressures at the base of the bore and at

ON METHODS FOR MEASURING PRESSURES IN THE BORES OF GUNS. 529

every 14 inches along it, and his results are given in the annexed table,
which is a most instructive one :—

Di pvelght Weight Pressure at different Distances from Bottom of Bore
es a of Shot | Velo- in Tons per sq. in.
meter Charge in lb. city
ot Bore in oz, per fis z
in in. er . "oe
dine te sq. in, Baca At 14” 28" 42"" 56” 70” 84’
7 2°13 1-973 904 16°26 7-08 3°74 3:01 3°06 3°59 3-00
9 2°13 1/995 888 29°96 9°42 7-92 6°65 13°16 9°36 10°19
ll 2°13 1:997 927 38 73 13°04 12°41 10-01 12°68 1511 1118

Examining this table, it will be observed, in the first place, that the
muzzle velocities of the equal column projectiles are nearly the same ;
that of the 11-inch gun being, as it should be, somewhat the higher ;
hence the energies per square inch must be nearly the same, and the
mean pressures per square inch, inducing these energies, must likewise be
the same.

’ But, for example, comparing the 7-inch and the 11-inch guns, it will
be noted that in the latter gun the pressures are always twice and some-
times more than four times as great as in the 7-inch gun, the mean pressure
being nearly three times as great.

The energy should be in the same proportion ; hence, if the pressure
observations had been correct, the observed velocity should have been
1,570 f.s., instead of 927 fis.

Tt will be noted also that the forward pressures not only differ greatly
in the several calibres, but, for instance, in the 9-inch gun the pressure
at 56 inches from the bottom of the bore is double the indicated pressure
measured at 42 inches. Rodman accepts the pressures up to and including
42 inches as correct, but ascribes the irregular pressures in the chase to
the vibrations of the metal due to the discharge.

Some experiments made by the earlier Explosive Committee fully
explain the cause of the differences between the pressures exhibited by
the 7-inch and 11-inch guns.

In the first of the experiments of this Committee, they used simul-
taneously Rodman’s gauge and the chronoscope to which I shall presently
advert. In the former case of course the pressure was determined
directly. In the latter it was deduced from the motion communicated
to the projectile. The results were quite irreconcilable, as a few examples
will show.

In an 8-inch gun, with a charge of 32 lb. of Russian prismatic
powder and a projectile of 180 lb. weight, fired from a vent a little in
advance of the centre of the charge, and called the forward vent, the
chronoscope gave a maximum pressure of 20-4 tons, while the Rodman gauge
gave maximum pressures in the powder chamber varying from 26-7 to
33°7 tons per square inch. In the same gun, under similar conditions, a
similar charge of pellet powder gave, with the chronoscope, a maximum
pressure of 19-2 tons per square inch, while the chamber pressures given
by the Rodman gauge varied from 41-6 tons to 49-2 tons per square inch.

But perhaps more striking discrepancies were exhibited by two series
of experiments with R.L.G. of Waltham Abbey make, fired from the
same gun, and developing in the projectile approximately the same
energies. In the first of these series, with a charge of 20 lb. fired from a
forward vent, the maximum chronoscope pressure was 13°3 tons, while

1894. MM

530 REPORT—1894.
the Rodman gauge gave pressures varying from 24:6 to 38-9 tons per
square inch.

In the second series, all conditions being the same, except that the
charge was fired from the extreme rear, the maximum chronoscope
pressure was 14°3 tons, while the Rodman pressure varied from 31-6
tons per square inch to over 50 tons per square inch, that pressure being
the highest which the instrument was capable of registering, every obser-
vation in this series with the gauge placed at the seat of the shot being
over fifty tons.

Shortly afterwards the Rodman gauges were destroyed, two of them
being blown from the gun.

These discrepancies led the Committee to investigate with certain
powders the variation in pressure indicated when a gauge was placed at
the surface of the bore and at the exterior of the gun as with the Rodman
gauge.

For this purpose they used the crusher gauge, which admits of being
placed in both positions.

With pebble powder the gauge placed at the interior of the bore gave
14:5 tons; placed under precisely the same conditions at the exterior
it gave 27 tons per square inch. With R.L.G. the similar figures were
respectively 20 and 57 tons, and with L.G. respectively 19°5 and 45-5 tons
per square inch.

The error I have just discussed was due to the position of the gauge ;
but Rodman’s pressures and the pressures of the Explosive Committee
were exaggerated from another cause. It will be readily understood that
if a pressure of, say, 20 tons per square inch be suddenly applied to a
gauge, and if the resistance to the motion of the knife be initially trifling,
a certain amount of energy will be communicated to the piston and knife ;
and the copper when measured will indicate not only the gaseous pressure,
but in addition a pressure corresponding to the energy impressed upon
the piston during its motion.

This cause of error can, however, be eliminated by producing beforehand
by mechanical means a cut indicating a pressure a little less than that to
be expected.

Rodman admits that his chase pressures are erroneous ; their ex-
aggeration is no doubt greatly due to the causes I have just pointed
out ; but in my opinion, based upon long experience, no gauge of this
description placed in the chase, where the products of explosion are
moving with a very high velocity, can be depended upon to give reliable
results.

If we disregard the energy of the moving products and suppose the
gauge to be acted on by pure gaseous pressure, with a projectile moving
at the rate of 2,500 f.s. (and such velocities are now quite within the
range of practical ballistics), the projectile would pass the entrance to the
Rodman gauge in something like the ;,,),;,th part of a second. It is
difficult to imagine that the full indentation could be given to the copper
in this small fraction of time, and, if it were not so given, the gauge
would indicate the pressure at a point considerably in advance of the
gauge.

On the other nana, if, as would generally be the case, the products of
explosion moving at a high velocity acted on the piston, the energy of
these products would be reconverted into pressure, and the gauge would
in this case give too high a result.

) ile eae

ON METHODS FOR MEASURING PRESSURES IN THE BORES OF GUNS. 531

Major Rodman appears to have considered it impossible that any
gauge could rightly indicate a pressure higher than that indicated by
another nearer to the seat of the shot. This, however, is not so ; nothing
is more certain than that, with the powders known as ‘ Poudres brutales,’
and, possibly, in a less degree with all explosives, motion is communicated
to the shot by a series of waves or impulses ; and it is easy to see that, if
the position of a gauge coincided with the ‘ hollow’ of a wave, while that of
a more forward gauge coincided with the ‘crest,’ the latter might easily
show the higher pressure. Later on I shall revert to this point.

The crusher gauge is a modification of the Rodman gauge, designed
to overcome some of the defects of that instrument, and it is now almost
universally used for the direct measurement of pressure : it is shown in
the diagram exhibited (fig. 2), and its action is easily understood. The powder
gases act upon the base of the piston, compressing the copper cylinder ;
the amount of crush on the cylinder serves as an index to the maximum
tension acting on the piston. It is usual, where possible, to employ in
each experiment two or three gauges so as to check the accuracy of the
determination. Properly used, very great confidence may be placed in
their results ; but, as may be gathered from my remarks on the Rodman

Fic. 2.—Crusher Gauge.

gauge, this and all similar gauges will cease to give reliable information
as to the energy that can be impressed on a projectile, or as to the mean
pressure on the surface of the bore, if there be any probability of the
products of explosion being projected into them ata high velocity. In
such a case the pressure indicated would not be the true gaseous pressure,
such as, for instance, would exist were the products of ignition retained
in a vessel impervious to heat until the waves of pressure generated by
the explosion had subsided. But I defer an examination of the results
given by the crusher gauge until I compare these results with those given
by the indirect method of deducing the pressure from the motion of the
projectile within the bore.

The method I have adopted for this purpose consists in registering the
times at which a projectile passes certain fixed points in the bore of a gun.
The chronoscope (figs. 3 and 4), which I have designed for this purpose has
been so often described that I shall only here briefly allude to it. It consists
of a series of thin discs made to rotate at a very high and uniform velocity
through a train of geared wheels. The speed with which the circum-
ference of the discs travels is between 1,200 and 1,300 inches per second,
and, since by means of a vernier we are able to divide the inch into

MM 2

1894.

REPORT

532

2s \2

Wd tile IZA MMM MLL MMMM MMMM / VAL MMM, Ys Wd, G i AZZ has
Wa 2 a a ee ZILLI Willlih Vdd LON WWW Jw’ YY YY) YWU)' YWUMG W) ; G AI | YU),

n=. = 0) Ene

{

‘ue[g edoosouo1yg—'g “OIL

ON METHODS FOR MEASURING PRESSURES IN THE BORES OF GUNS, 533

ELEVATION

Fig. 4.—Chronoscope Elevation.

5384 - REPORT—1894..

thousandths, the instrument is capable of recording the millionth part of
a second,

The precise rate of the discs’ rotation is ascertained from one of the
intermediate shafts, which, by means of a relay, registers the revolution
on a subsidiary chronoscope, on which, also by a relay, a chronometer
registers seconds. The subsidiary chronoscope can be read to about the
scouth part of a second.

The registration of the passage of the shot across any of the fixed
points in the bore is effected by the severance of the primary of an in-
duction coil causing a spark from the secondary, which writes its record
on prepared paper gummed to the periphery of the disc. The time is thus
registered every round at sixteen points of the bore.

In the earlier experiments with this instrument the primary was cut
by means of the arrangement shown in fig. 5, and this was entirely
satisfactory when velocities of from 1,400 to 1,600 fs. were in ques-
tion. But with the very high velocities now employed, with velocities,
for example, between 2,500 and 3,500 f.s., the knife, instead of being
knocked down, frequently cuts a long groove in the cast-iron projectile,

Fie@. 5.—Original Apparatus for Cutting Wire by Moving Shot.

KK KER
AQAA

WN

LLL
SS

WY
S

on some occasions reaching the driving band of the shot before being
forced into its place.

On account of this defect I have in all recent experiments adopted
the arrangement shown in fig. 6, which gives extremely satisfactory results,
if care be taken that the plug is sufficiently secured to prevent its being
forced out of its place by the rush of compressed air displaced by the
passage of a projectile.

I have ascertained by experiments which I need not here describe that
the mean instrumental error of this chronoscope, due chiefly to the
deflection of the spark, amounts only to about three one-millionths of a
second,

I must not conceal the fact that the determination of the pressure by
this method is attended with very great Jabour. As an illustration I
have prepared a diagram (fig. 7) of a recent set of experiments. Usually the
pressures are deduced from the mean of three consecutive rounds fired
under the same circumstances.

In this case, owing to the bore being clean, a much higher velocity
was obtained from the first round, and the velocities and pressures were

therefore calculated both for the mean and independently for each of the
three rounds.

S OF GUNS. 535

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536 REPORT—1894.

The first curves represented in the diagram are the time curves. So
far as the eye can see, the time curves in all cases pass through the
observed points. From the time curves the velocity curves are deduced,
and I have given for each velocity curve the observed velocities, so that
the accordance of the computed curve with the observed velocities will be
seen. The velocity curve being fixed, the pressure curve of necessity
follows, and the diagram shows both the accordance of the two rounds
fired under the same circumstances, and the slight discordance in the
forward part of the curve of the round with the bore clean is very dis-
tinctly shown.

Comparing now the methods of determining the pressures which have
been chiefly used in this country—I mean the chronoscope and the crusher
gauge—if the object sought be merely to determine the maximum pressure
developed with the powders now generally in use, no instrument can be
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comparing the pressures shown on the diagram giving the results as to
pressure obtained with certain new explosives, to which I shall presently
advert. Asa general rule it may be said that, where the powders are
slow in lighting and no wave action exists, the chronoscope pressures are
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burning description. With such powders not only are the crusher-gauge
pressures greatly above those of the chronoscope, but the widest difference
frequently exists between the pressures indicated in different parts of the

ON METHODS FOR MEASURING PRESSURES IN THE BORES OF GUNS. 537

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ON METHODS FOR MEASURING PRESSURES IN THE BORES OF GUNS. 539

chamber in the same experiment. The pressures, moreover, are often
greatly above those which would exist were the charge absolutely confined
in a close vessel.

A very striking instance may be cited from the early experiments of
the Explosive Committee with a M.L. 10-inch gun (fig. 8). The first round
was fired with a charge of 87} lb. Belgian Pebble, the charge being lighted
in two places. The maximum pressure with the chronoscope was 25:2
tons. With the crusher gauge the pressure in the chamber varied from
22:2 to 24:8 tons per square inch, while the energy developed by the
powder on the shot was 6,240 foot-tons. With the second round, all con-
ditions being the same except that the charge was fired at a single point,
the chronoscope pressure was as nearly as possible the same ; but the
chamber pressure was, at the rear, 79:1 tons ; in the middle 52-0 tons ; at
the seat of the shot 39-5 and 48-0 tons per square inch. A similar large
excess of pressure was shown at points 1 foot and 2 feet in advance of the
seat of the shot, and the crusher gauges did not show their normal pres-
sures until points 5 or 6 feet from the seat of the shot had been reached.

Yet with the violent difference in pressure shown between the crusher
gauges in this round and in the previous round (which I have just cited),

Fig. §8.—Position of Pressure Plugs in 10-inch Gun.

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the difference of energy developed in the shot was exceedingly trifling,
being only 6,249 foot-tons, as against 6,240.

I believe I have expressed pretty clearly my views that crusher
gauges placed in the chase are for absolute determination not of much
value, and their main use, if used at all, is to give comparative results.
But the same remark does not apply to crusher gauges placed in the
chamber,

Gases moving at a high velocity in the chase are, so to speak, perform-
ing their proper function ; but the same is not true of those violent waves
of pressure in the chamber which appear to accompany the explosion of
all brisante powders, and which occur either when the projectile has hardly
moved at all or when it is moving with a comparatively slow velocity.

It is our object, and in this we have had great success, to avoid these
waves as much as possible ; and in attaining this end our indebtedness to
the crusher gauge is very great, as this instrument has made plain to us
not only the extreme violence but the variability of these oscillations.

I have heard it urged that these waves of pressure are, after all, not of
high importance, because their maxima act at the same time only upon a
very small section of the bore, and the continuity of the metal is amply
sufficient to resist the stress.

540 REPORT—1894.

This is no doubt true, but it is not true of the base of the bore, which
in modern guns is almost invariably a movable piece, and which under
certain circumstances might have to sustain the full force of the violent
pressures, a sample of which I have cited.

To ascertain the mean pressure throughout the bore it seems to me
that there is no method so satisfactory, despite its attendant labour, as
that of making the projectile write its own story. In that case we cannot
fall into the error of making the pressures three or four times as great as
are necessary to generate the energy the projectile has actually acquired,
while occasional errors, due to causes I have not time to explain, are
easily detected and eliminated.

To give an idea of how great is the range of velocity over which these
experiments have been carried, I exhibit here diagrams (figs. 9 and 10) show-
ing the velocities and pressures obtained with several of the new explosives
which in recent years have attracted somuch attention. Observe also how
closely, with the exception of the one somewhat brisante powder, the
results given by the chronoscope accord with those given by the crusher
gauge. Where these differ, as I have elsewhere pointed out, the two modes
of research so widely different are complementary to each other.

The chronoscope takes little or no note of the violent oscillations of
pressure acting during exceedingly minute intervals of time. On the
other hand, if with the explosives I allude to we trusted to the indications
of the crusher gauge, we should arrive at a most erroneous idea of the
energy communicated to the projectile.

In concluding, if I may venture to quote the excuse of a much more
eminent man than myself, I have only to express my regret that I have not
had time to condense the remarks with which I fear I have fatigued you,
while at the same time I am aware that there are many important points
in connection with my subject which I have left altogether untouched,
and others upon which I have touched that require further elucidation.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

Sectioy A.A-—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor A. W. Rucker, M.A., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Ir is impossible for a body of English scientific men to meet in one of our
ancient university towns without contrasting the old ideal of the pursuit of
learning for its own sake with the modern conception of the organisation of
science as part of a pushing business concern.

We are, as a nation, convinced that education is essential to national success.
Our modern universities are within earshot of the whirr of the cotton-mill or the
roar of Piccadilly. Oxford and Cambridge themselves are not content to be
centres of attraction to which scholars gravitate. They have devised schemes
by which their influence is directly exerted on every market town and almost on
every village in the country. University extension is but a part of the extra-
ordinary multiplication of the machinery of education which is going on all around
us. The British Association, which was once regarded as bringing light into dark
places, is now welcomed in every large provincial town by a group of well-known
men of science; and we find ready for the meetings of our Sections, not only the
chapels and concert-rooms which have so often and so kindly been placed at our
disposal, but all the appliances of well-designed lecture-rooms and laboratories.

I do not propose, however, to detain you this morning with a discourse on the
spread of scientific education, but you will forgive me if I illustrate its progress
by two facts, not perhaps the most striking which could be selected, but especially
appropriate to our place of meeting. It is little more than thirty years since the
two branches of science with which our Section deals, Mathematics and Physics,
have been generally recognised as wide enough to require more than one teacher
to cope with them in an educational institution of high pretensions and achieve-
ment. In 1860 the authorities of the Owens College, Manchester, debated whether
it was desirable to create a Professorship of Natural Philosophy in addition to, and
independent of, the Chair of Mathematics. It was thought necessary to obtain
external support for the opinions of those who advocated this step. An appeal
was made to Professors De Morgan and Stokes. The former reported that a
‘course of experimental physics is in itself desirable;’ the latter, that ‘there
would be work enough in a large institution for a mathematician and a physicist.’

Jn the end the Chair of Natural Philosophy was established, and the fact that
our host of to-day, Professor Clifton, was its first occupant reminds us how little
we have advanced in time and how far in educational development from the days

AA REPORT—1894.

when propositions such as those I have cited were only accepted on the authority
of the names of Stokes and De Morgan.

The other fact to which I would refer is that the Clarendon Laboratory, in
which the meetings of Section A are to be held, though erected barely a quarter of
a century ago, was the first laboratory in this country which was specially built
and designed for the study of experimental physics. It has served as a type.
Clerk Maxwell visited it while planning the Cavendish Laboratory, and traces of
Professor Clifton’s designs can be detected in several of our university colleges,

But though our surroundings remind us of the improvement which has been
effected in the equipment of our science, it would not be difficult to indicate weak
points which should forthwith be strengthened. On these, in so far as they affect
education, I will not dwell—and that for two reasons. In the first place, we meet
to-day not as teachers, but as students; and, secondly, I think that whereas we
have as a nation awoke—though late in the day—to the importance of education,
we are not yet fully awake to the importance of learning. Our attitude in such
matters was exactly expressed by one of the most eminent of the witnesses who
gave evidence before the ‘Gresham Commission.’ In his opinion the advancement
of knowledge must in a university in London be secondary to the higher instruc-
tion of the youth of London. If this be so—and I will not now dispute it—we
shall surely all agree that somewhere or other, in London or out of it, included in
our universities or separate from them, there ought to be institutions in which the
advancement of knowledge is regarded as of primary and fundamental interest, and
not as a mere secondary by-product thrown off in the course of more important
operations.

It is not essential that in such an institution research should be the only task.
Investigation may be combined with the routine work of an observatory, with
teaching, with the care of standards, or with other similar duties. It is, however,
essential that, if the advancement of knowledge is seriously regarded as an end
worth attaining, it should not be relegated to a secondary place.

Time and opportunity must be found for investigation, as time and opportunity
are found for other tasks. It is not enough to refer to research in a prospectus and
then to leave it to be accomplished at odd times and in spare moments not claimed
by more urgent demands. Those to whom the future of the higher learning in
England is dear must plan and scheme to promote the life-long studies of men, as
in the last quarter of a century they have struggled, with marked success, to
promote the preparatory studies of boys and girls. That the assignment of a
secondary position to research is the more popular view, and that the necessity for
encouraging it has as yet hardly been grasped by many of those who control our
modern educational movements is, I fear, too true. It is therefore a matter for
congratulation that within the last year Oxford has established a research degree,
and has thus taken an important step towards gathering within her fold workers
of mature years who are able and willing, not merely to gain knowledge, but to
add to it.

We may also note, with pleasure and gratitude, that the stream of private
munificence has recently been in part directed to the advancement of learning.
Sir Henry Thompson has generously offered a sum of 5,000J. to provide a
large photographic telescope for the National Observatory at Greenwich. The
new instrument is to be of 26 inches aperture and 22 feet 6 inches focal length, or
exacily double the linear dimensions of that which has been previously employed.
Mr. Ludwig Mond, too, has added to his noble gifts to science by the new
yesearch laboratories which he is about to establish in connection with the Royal
Institution. Albemarle Street is thronged with memories of great discoveries.
The researches of Lord Rayleigh and the remarkable results of Professor Dewar’s
studies of matter at low temperatures are maintaining the great reputation which
the Royal Institution has gained in the past, and all English physicists will rejoice
that prospects of new and extended usefulness are opening before it.

Another hopeful, though very embarrassing, fact is that the growth in the
number of scientific workers makes it increasingly difficult to find the funds
which are necessary for the publication of their work. Up to the present the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 545

author of a paper has had to submit it to criticism, but, when it has been ap-
proved by competent judges, it has been published without ado and without
expense to himself. This is as it should be. It is right that due care should be
exercised to prune away all unnecessary matter, to reduce as far as may be the
necessary cost. It will, however, be a great misfortune if judgment as to what
curtailment is necessary is in future passed, not with the object of removing what
is really superfluous, but in obedience to the iron rule of poverty. Apart from
all other disadvantages, such a course would add to the barriers which are
dividing the students of different sciences, A few lines and a rough diagram may
suffice to show to experts what has been attempted and what achieved, but
there is no paper so difficult to’master as that which assumes that the reader
starts from the point of vantage which months‘or years of study have enabled
the author to attain. Undue pruning will not make the tree of knowledge more
fruitful, and will certainly make it harder to climb. |

Connected also with the vast increase of scientific literature is a growing
necessity for the publication of volumes of abstracts, in which the main results of
recent investigations are presented in a concentrated form. English chemists have
long been supplied with these by the Chemical Society. The Physical Society,
though far less wealthy than its elder sister, has determined to undertake a
similar task. We are compelled to begin cautiously, but in January next the first
number of a monthly pamphlet will be issued containing abstracts of all the papers
which appear in the principal foreign journals of Physics, In this venture the
Society will incur grave responsibilities, and I avail myself of this opportunity to
appel to all British physicists to support us in a work, the scope of which will
be rapidly extended if our first efforts succeed.

From this brief glance at what has been or is about to be done to promote
the study of Physics, I must now turn to the discussion of narrower but more
definite problems, and I presume that I shall be most likely to deserve your
attention if I select a subject in which I am myself especially interested.

During the last ten years my friend Dr. Thorpe and I have been engaged
upon a minute magnetic survey of the United Kingdom. The main conclusions
at which we have arrived are about to be published, and I do not propose to
recount them now. It is, however, impossible to give so long a time to a single
research without having one’s attention drawn to a number of points which
require further investigation, and I shall perhaps be making the best use of this
opportunity if I bring to your notice some matters in the practical and theoretical
study of terrestrial magnetism which deserve a fuller consideration than has yet
been given to them.

In the first place, then, there is little doubt that the instruments at present
used for measuring Declination and Horizontal Force are affected with errors far
greater than the error of observation.

We employed four magnetometers by Elliott Brothers, which were frequently
compared with the standard instrument at Kew. These measurements proved that
the instrumental differences which affect the accuracy of the declination and
horizontal force measurements are from five to ten times as great as the error of
a single field observation. The dip circle which two generations ago Was so
untrustworthy is, in our experience, the most satisfactory of the absolute instru-
ments.

Tn most cases these comparisons extended over several days, but the
Astronomer Royal has described in his recent report observations made at Green-
wich for two years and a half with two horizontal force instruments. These
differ between themselves, and the discrepancy is of the same order of magnitude
as those we have detected.

If such differences exist between instruments of the Kew pattern, it is
probable that they will be still greater when the magnetometers under investiga-
tion are of different types.

This point has been investigated by Dr. Van Rijckevorsel, who five years ago
visited Kew, Parc St. Maur, Wilhelmshaven, and Utrecht, and, using his own
instruments at each place, compared the values of the magnetic elements deter-

1894, NN

546 REPORT—1894.

mined by himself with those deduced from the self-registering apparatus of the
observatory.

The discrepancies between the so-called standards, which were thus brought
to light, were quite startling, and prove the necessity for an investigation as to
their causes.

Magneticians had long been aware that the instruments used by travellers
should be compared at the beginning and end of a journey with those at some
fixed observatory, to make sure that the comparatively rough usage to which they
are subjected has not affected their indications. But Dr. Van. Rijckevorsel’s
expedition first drew general attention to the fact that there are serious differences
between the standard observatory instruments themselves.

The importance of a careful comparison between them was at once recognised.
The Magnetic Sub-Committee of the International Meteorological Conference, held
at Munich in the autumn of 1891, resolved that it is ‘necessary that the instru-
ments employed for absolute measurements at the different observatories should
be compared with each other and the results published,’ As far as I am aware,
nothing has been done to give effect to this resolution, but the necessity for such
an international comparison is urgent. The last few years have been a period of
unexampled activity in the conduct of local magnetic surveys. To cite instances
from the north-west of Europe only, observations have recently been made on a
more or less extended scale in the United Kingdom, France, Holland, North
Germany, and Denmark.

It will be absurd if these surveys cannot be collated and welded into a homo-
geneous whole, because we are in doubt whether the indications of our standard
instruments for the measurement of declination and dip differ by five or six
minutes of arc.

If, however, an official international comparison of the magnetic standards in
use in different countries is instituted, it is probable that only one observatory in
each country will take part in it.

It may fairly be left to each nation to determine for itself the relations between
the results of measurements made in its own institutions. Apart, therefore, from
all other reasons, we in England would only be able to make the best use of an
international comparison if we had beforehand set our own house in order, and
were able at once to extend the results of experiments made at Kew or Greenwich
to Stonyhurst, Valentia, and Falmouth.

This we are not at the present moment in a position to do, As far as I know,
nobody has ever carried a magnetometer backwards and forwards between Kew
and Greenwich to test the concordance of the published results. During the
recent survey single or double sets of observations have been made at Stonyhurst,
Falmouth, and Valentia, with instruments which have been compared with Kew ;
but these measurements, though amply sufficient for the purposes of our research,
were not numerous enough to serve as a firm basis for determining the discrepancies
between the various standards, so that the exact relations between these important
sets of apparatus are still unknown.

The first point, therefore, to which I wish to draw the attention of the Section
is the necessity for a full primary comparison between the standard magnetic
instruments in use at our different observatories.

But, if this were satisfactorily accomplished, the question would arise as to
whether it should be repeated at regular intervals. We have at present only
a presumption in favour of the view that the standards which we know are
discordant are nevertheless constant. A single instance may suflice to show how
necessary it may be—at all events in the case of outlying and isolated observatories
—to put this belief to the test.

In the most recent account of the work of the observatory of the Bombay
Government at Colaba, the dips are discussed for the period of twenty years
between 1872 and 1892. During this interval the adjustment of the agate plates
upon which the dip needle rolls has thrice been modified. In 1877 the plates
were renewed, In 1881 and 1887 the dip circle was taken to pieces and rebuilt.
In the intervals the dip as determined by several needles, but always with this

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 547

circle, remained approximately constant, but after each overhauling it suddenly
altered, increasing by 12’ on the first occasion, by 23’ on the second, and by 20/
on the third. Mr. Chambers states that he ‘can give no satisfactory account of
this behaviour of the instrument,’ but suggests that ‘the needle gradually hollows
out a depression in the agate plates on which it rolls, and that this characteristic
of the dip circle’ has not before been discovered owing to the reluctance of
magnetic observers to interfere with the adjustments of instruments which are
apparently working well.

I do not think that this explanation will suffice. Dr. Thorpe and I employed a
new dip circle in the earliest part of our survey work, which has remained in accord
with Kew for ten years. During that time the dip has been measured some 700 times
with it. This corresponds, I believe, to more than the amount of work done with the
circle at Colaba in six years, which in turn is longer than some of the intervals in
which the Colaba instruments gave results erroneous to the extent of 20’. J feel,
therefore, quite sure that the difficulties which have been experienced at Bombay
are not due to any ‘characteristic [defect] of the dip circle.’ But, whatever the
cause may have been, surely the lesson is that, if such things can happen in so well-
known an institution, it is desirable that we should take the moderate pains
required to assure ourselves whether smaller—but, possibly, not unimportant—
errors are gradually affecting the results at any of our observatories.

This brings me to my next point, namely, that if we are to draw conclusions
from the minor differences between measurements of secular or diurnal change made
in the observatories, it is not only necessary that we should know whether the
instruments are strictly comparable and constant, but the observations must be
reduced by precisely the same methods.

In 1886 the late Mr. Whipple drew the attention of the British Association to
the fact that there was a systematic difference between the diurnal ranges of
declination at Greenwich and Kew. His results were based on the three years
1870-72. In 1890 two of my students, Messrs. Robson and 8. W. J. Smith, ex-
tended the comparison to three more recent years (1883-6-7), and obtained results
in complete accord with those of Mr. Whipple.

It is well known that the average daily oscillation of the magnet is affected by
the magnetic weather. Sabine showed that magnetic storms do not merely buffet
the needle now in this direction and now in that—they affect its average behaviour,
so that the mean swing east and west is different according as we deduce it only
from days of magnetic calm or include those of storm.

Mr. Whipple reduced the Kew observations by two methods,! one of which
depended on the calmest days only, while the other included those which were
moderately disturbed. Neither agreed exactly with the method in use at Green-
wich, but the difference between the results deduced from them was so small when
compared with the difference between either and that obtained at Greenwich, that
it seemed possible that the diurnal variations, even at these closely neighbouring
places, might differ appreciably. The question whether this is so has now been
answered. In 1890, at the request of the Kew Committee, the Astronomer Royal
undertook to select early in each year five quiet days in each of the preceding
twelve months. It was also agreed that, whether they adopted other methods or
not, the chief English magnetic observatories should determine the diurnal varia-
tions from these days alone. The Greenwich? and Kew observations for 1890 have
therefore been worked up in exactly the same way, with the result that the dis-
crepancy, which had persisted for twenty years, has entirely disappeared, and
that the two diurnal ranges at the two observatories are in as close accord as
could be expected.

If, therefore, we may judge from a single year, the cause of the difference lay in
the choice of days. Greenwich will in future give us two diurnal variations—one
obtained from the most quiet days only, the other from all days except those
of violent storm, and in these we shall have most valuable data for studying the
mean effect of disturbances on the diurnal variation.

' Sabine’s and Wild’s.
? The Greenwich observations for subsequent years have not yet been published.
NN2

548 REPORT—1894.,

To this satisfactory conclusion I have only one suggestion to add. The
Astronomer Royal and M. Mascart now pubiisn for the same stormy days the
photographic traces by which the history of a magnetic storm is mapped. Is it
possible for Greenwich and Paris also to agree in their choice of calm days for
the calculation of the diurnal variation, so that a precise similarity of method
may obtain not only between the English observatories, but between England and
France ?

The importance of co-operation between institutions engaged on the same tasks
having been illustrated, I am glad to be able to announce that another step is
about to be taken in the same direction. For some years, in spite, I believe, of
great financial difficulties, the Cornwall Royal Polytechnic Society has maintained
a magnetic observatory at Falmouth. The results of the observations have hitherto
been printed in the Journal of the Society only, but the Royal Society has now
consented to publish them in the ‘ Proceedings.’ Before long, therefore, the Kew
and Falmouth records, which are already worked up in the same way, will be given
to the world side by side. Is it too much to hope that this may be the first step
towards the production of a British Magnetic Year Book, in which observations
whose chief interest lies in their comparison may be so published as to be easily
compared ?

We owe to private enterprise another advance of the same kind. The
managers of the new journal ‘Science Progress’ have made arrangements with
the Kew Committee for the yearly publication of a table showing the mean annual
values of the magnetic elements as determined at the various magnetic observa-
tories of the world. It will therefore in future be possible to get a general idea of
the rate of secular change in different localities without searching through a
number of reports in different languages, which can only be consulted in the rooms
of the few societies or institutions to which they are annually sent. The present
state of our knowledge of the secular change in the magnetic elements affords
indeed very strong support to the arguments I have already adduced in favour of
a comparison between the instruments of our magnetic observatories.

The whole question of the cause of this phenomenon has entered on a new
stage. It has long been recognised that the earth is not a simple magnet, but that
there are in each hemisphere one pole or point at which the dip needle is vertical,
and two foci of maximum intensity. A comparison of earlier with later magnetic
observations led to the conclusion that one or both of the foci in each hemisphere
is in motion, and that to this motion—however caused—the secular change in the
values of the magnetic elements is due. Thus the late Professor Balfour Stewart,
writing in 1883, says: ‘While there is no well-established evidence to show that
either the pole of verticity or the centre of force to the North of America has
perceptibly changed its place, there is on the other hand very strong evidence to
show that we have a change of place on the part of the Siberian focus.’' The facts
in favour of this conclusion are there discussed. The arguments are based, not on
the results of any actual observations near to the focus in question, but on the
behaviour of the magnet at points far distant from it in Europe and Asia. The
westerly march of the declination needle, which lasted in England up to 1818,
and the easterly movement which has since replaced it, are connected with a
supposed easterly motion of the Siberian focus, which, it is added, ‘there is some
reason to believe . . . . has recently been reversed.’ In opposition, therefore, to
the idea of the rotation of a magnetic focus round the geographical poles which the
earlier magneticians adopted, Stewart seems to have regarded the motion of the
Siberian focus as oscillatory.

A very different aspect is put upon the matter by a comparison of the magnetic
maps of the world prepared by Sabine and Creak for the epochs 1840 and 1850
respectively. Captain Oreak, having undertaken to report on the magnetic
observations made during the voyage of the ‘Challenger,’ supplemented them with
the unrivalled wealth of recorded facts at the disposalof the Hydrographic Depart-
ment of the Admiralty. He was thus able, by a comparison with Sabine’s map, to

1 Encyclopedia Brit., 9th edition. Art. ‘ Meteorology—Terrestrial Magnetism.’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 549

trace the general course of the secular changes all over the world for forty years.
The negative results may be shortly stated. There is no evidence of any motion
either of magnetic pole or focus. The positive conclusions are still more curious,
There are certain lines on the surface uf the earth towards which in the interval
under consideration the north pole of the needle was attracted. From each side
the compass veered or backed towards them. Above them the north pole of dip
needle moved steadily down.

There are other lines from which, as tested by compass and dip circle, a north
pole was in like manner repelled. ‘The two principal points of increasing attrac-
tion are in China and near Cape Horn; the chief points of growing repulsion are
in the North of Canada and the Gulf of Guinea.

Iam sure that my friend Captain Creak would be the first to urge that we
should not generalise too hastily trom this mode of presenting the facts, but there
can be no doubt that they cannot be explained by any simple theory of a rotating or
oscillating pair of poles. Primd facie they suggest that the secular change is due
not so much to changes at the principal magnetic points, as to the waxing and
waning of the forces apparently exerted by secondary lines or points of attraction
or repulsion.

All down the west coast of America, close—be it nuted—to one of the great
lines of volcanic activity, north hemisphere magnetism has since 1840 been grow-
ing in relative importance. Near Cape Horn a weak embryonic pole is developing
of the same kind as the well-known pole at the other end of the continent near
Hudson’s Bay. Along a line which joins Newfoundland to the Cape of Good
Hope, precisely the reverse effects have been experienced ; while in the Gulf of
Guinea a south hemisphere pole is growing within the tropics. Of course I do not
suggest that these secondary systems can ever determine the principal phenomena
of terrestrial magnetism, or reverse the magnetic states of the hemispheres in
which they occur. These are no doubt fixed by the rotation of the earth. I do,
however, wish to emphasise the fact that they show that either secular change
is due to the conjoint action of local causes, or that if some single agent such as
a current system within the earth, or a change of magnetic conditions outside it,
be the primary cause, the effects of this cause are modified and complicated by
local peculiarities.

Mr. Henry Wilde has succeeded in representing with approximate accuracy
the secular change at many points on the surface of the earth by placing two
systems of currents within a globe, and imparting to the axis of one of them a
motion of rotation about the polar axis of the earth. But he has had to supplement
this comparatively simple arrangement by local features. He has coated the seas
with thin sheet iron. The ratio between the two currents which serves to depict
the secular change near the meridian of Greenwich fails in the West Indies. Thus
this ingenious attempt to imitate the secular change by a simple rotation of the
magnetic pole supports the view that local peculiarities play a powerful part in
modifying the action of a siwple first cause, if such exist. I need hardly say that
I think the proper attitude of mind on this difficult subject is that of suspended
judgment ; but there is no doubt that recent investigation has, at all events, definitely
raised the question how far secular change is either due to or modified by special
magnetic features of different parts of the earth,

It is possible that light may be thrown upon this point by observations on a
smaller scale. Assuming for the moment that the difference in the secular changes
on opposite sides of the Atlantic is due to a difference of local causes, it is conceiv-
able that similar causes, though less powerful and acting through smaller ranges,
might produce similar though less obvious differences between places only a few
miles apart. For testing this Greenwich and Kew are in many respects most
favourably situated. Nowhere else are two first-class observatories so near to-
gether. Differences in the methods of publishing the results have made it somewhat
difficult to compare them, but the late Mr. Whipple furnished me with figures for
several years which made comparison easy. Without entering into details it may
be sufficient to say that the declination needles at the two places do not from year
to year run parallel courses. Between 1880-82 Kew outstripped its rival, between

550 REPORT—1894.

1885 and 1889 it lost, so that the gain was rather more than compensated. The
difference of the declination of the two places appears to increase and diminish
through a range of five minutes of arc.

This evidence can be supplemented by other equally significant examples. No
fact connected with terrestrial magnetism is more certaia than that at present
the rate of secular change of declination in this part of Europe increases as
we go north. This isshown by a comparison of our survey with those of ovr pre-
decessors fifty and thirty years ago, by M. Moureaux’s results in France, and by
Captain Creak’s collation of previous observations. Yet, in spite of this, Stonyhurst,
which is some 200 miles north of Greenwich and Kew, and should therefore outrun
them, sometimes lags behind and then makes up for lost time by prodigious bounds.
Between 1882 and 1886 the total secular change of declination at Stonyhurst was
about 35 less than that at Greenwich and Kew, whereas in the two years 1890-92
it reached at Stonyhurst the enormous amount of 28’, just doubling the correspond-
ing alteration registered in the same time at Kew. If these fluctuations are caused
by the instruments or methods of reduction, my argument in favour of frequent
comparisons and uniform treatment would be much strengthened ; but, apart from
the inherent improbability of such large differences being due to the methods of ob-
servation, the probability of their physical reality is increased by the work of the
magnetic survey.

The large number of observations at our disposal has enabled us to calculate the
secular change in a new way, by taking the means of observations made about five
years apart at numerous though not identical stations scattered over districts about
150 miles square. The result thus obtained should be free from mere local varia-
tions, but as calculated for the south-east of England for the five years 1886-91 it
differs by nearly 5’ from the change actually observed at Kew.

We have also determined the secular change at twenty-five stations by double
sets of observations made as nearly as possible on the same spot at intervals of
several years. The results must be interpreted with caution. In districts such as
Scotland, where strong local disturbances are frequent, a change of a few yards in
the position of the observer might introduce errors far larger than the fluctuations
of secular change. But when all such cases are eliminated, when all allowance is
made for the possible inaccuracy of field observations, there are outstanding varia-
tions which can hardly be due to anything but a real difference in the rate of
change of the magnetic elements.

A single example will suffice. St. Leonards and Tunbridge Wells are about
thirty miles apart. Both are situated on the Hastings Sand formation, and on good
non-magnetic observing ground. At them, as at the stations immediately around
them—Lewes, Eastbourne, Appledore, Etchingham, Heathfield, and Maidstone—
the local disturbing forces are very small. All these places lie within a district
about forty miles square, at no point of which has the magnet been found to deviate
by 5’ from the true magnetic meridian. No region could be more favourably
situated for the determination of the secular change, yet according to our observa-
tions the alteration in the declination at St. Leonards in six years was practi-
cally equal to that at Tunbridge Wells in five. It is difficult to assign so great a
variation to an accumulation of errors, and this is only one amongst several
instances of the same kind which might be quoted.

We find, then, when we consider the earth as a whole, grave reason to question
the old idea of a secular change caused by a magnetic pole or focus pursuing an
orderly orbit around the geographical axis of the earth, or oscillating in some
regular period in its neighbourhood. It would, of course, be absurd to admit the
possibility of change in the tropics and to deny that possibility in the arctic
circle, but the new facts lead us to look upon the earth not as magnetically inert,
but as itself—at the equator as well as at the pole—producing or profoundly modify-
ing the influences which give rise to secular change. And then, when we push our
inquiry further, accumulating experience tells the same tale. The earth seems as it
were alive with magnetic forces, be they due to electric currents or to variations in
the state of magnetised matter. We need not now consider the sudden jerks which
disturb the diurnal sweep of the magnet, which are simultaneous at places far apart,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. ool

and probably originate in causes outside our globe. But the slower secular change,
of which the small part that has been observed has taken centuries to accomplish,
is apparently also interfered with by some slower agency the action of which is
contined within narrow limits of space. Between Kew, Greenwich, and Stonyhurst,
between St. Leonards and Tunbridge Wells, and I may add between Mablethorpe and
Lincoln, Enniskillen and Sligo, Charleville and Bantry, the measured differences
of secular variation are so large as to suggest that we are dealing not with an
unruffled tide of change, which, unaltered by its passage over continent or ocean,
sweeps slowly round the earth, but with a current fed by local springs or impeded
by local obstacles, furrowed on the surface by billows and eddies, from which the
magnetician, if he will but study them, may learn much as to the position and
meaning of the deeps and the shallows below. But if this is the view which the
facts I have quoted suggest, much remains to be done before it can be finall
accepted ; and in the first place—to come back to the point from which I started—
we want, for some years at all events, a systematic and repeated comparison of
the standard instruments in use at the different observatories. That they are not
in accord is certain; whether the relations between them are constant or variable
is doubtful. If constant, the suggestions I have outlined are probably correct ; if
variable, then the whole or part of the apparent fluctuations of secular change may
be nothing more than the irregular shiftings of inconstant standards,

I cannot myself believe that this is the true explanation ; but in any case it is
important that the doubt should be set at rest, and that if the apparent fluctua-
tions of secular change are not merely instrumental, the inquiry as to their cause
should be undertaken in good earnest.

The question is interesting from another point of view. It is now fully estah-
lished that even where the surface soil is non-magnetic, and even where geologists
have every reason to believe that it lies upon non-magnetic strata of great thick-
ness, there are clearly-defined lines and centres towards which the north-seeking
pole of a magnet is attracted, or from which it is repelled. To the magnetic
surveyor fluctuations in secular change would appear as variations in the positions
of these lines, or as changes in the forces in play in their neighbourhood.

Greenwich and Kew are both under the influence of a widespread local disturb-
ance which culminates near Reading. At both places the needle is deviated to the
west of the normal magnetic meridian, and if the westerly declination diminishes
sometimes faster and sometimes more slowly at one observatory than at the other,
this must be, or, at all events, would in the first instance appear to be, due to
local changes in the regional disturbing forces. The questions of the nature of the
irregularities of secular change and of the causes of local disturbances are therefore
intermingled ; and information gained on these points may in turn be useful in
solving the more difficult problem of world-wide secular variations.

Two causes of regional and local disturbances have been suggested—viz., earth
currents, and the presence of visible or concealed magnetic rocks. The two
theories are not mutually exclusive. Both causes of the observed effects may, and

robably do, coexist. I have, however, elsewhere explained my reasons for believ-
ing that the presence of magnetic matter, magnetised by induction in the earth’s
field, is the principal cause of the existence of the magnetic ridge-lines and foci of
attraction which for so many years we have been carefully tracing. I will only
now mention what appears to me to be the final and conclusive argument, which,
since it was first enunciated, has been strengthened by the results of our more
recent work. We find that every great mass of basic rock, by which the needle
is affected at considerable distances, attracts the north-seeking pole. Captain
Creak some years ago showed that the same statement is true of those islands in
the northern hemisphere which disturb the lines of equal declination, while islands
in the southern hemisphere repel the north pole and attract the south. In other
words, these disturbances are immediately explained if we suppose that they are
due to magnetic matter magnetised by induction. The theory of earth currents
would, on the other hand, require that round the masses of visible basalt, and
round the island investigated by Captain Creak, currents, or eddies in currents,
should circulate in directions which are always the same in the same hemisphere,

552 REPORT—1894.

and always opposed on opposite sides of the equator. For this supposition no
satisfuctory explanation is forthcoming, and therefore, with all reserves and a full
consciousness that in such matters hypothesis ditfers but little from speculation, it
appears to me that the theory that induced magnetism is the main cause of the
disturbance has the greater weight of evidence in its favour.

_ If this be granted, it is evident that the positions of the main lines and centres
of attraction would be approximately constant, and, so far as it is possibie to form
an opinion, these conditions seem to be satistied. There has certainly been no
noticeable change in the chief loci of attraction in the five years which have
elapsed between the epochs of our two surveys. Mr. Welsh’s observations made in
Scotland in 1857-8 fit in well with our own. Such evidence is not, however, in-
consistent with minor changes, and it is certain that, as the directions and magnitude
of the inducing forces alter, the disturbing induced forces must alter also. But
this change would be slow, and as the horizontal force is in these latitudes com-
paratively weak, the change in the disturbing forces would also be small, unless
the vertical force altered greatly. It is, at all events, impossible to attribute to
this cause oscillations which occupy at wost eight or ten years. It is possible to
suggest other changes in the state of the concealed magnetic matter—alterations
of pressure, temperature, and the like—to which the oscillations of secular change
might be due, but probably there will be a general consensus of opinion that if the
slowly changing terms in the disturbance function are due to magnetic matter,
the more rapid fluctuations of a few years’ period are more likely to he connected
with earth currents. It becomes, therefore, a matter of interest to disentangle
the two constituents of local disturbances; and there is one question to which I
think an answer might be obtained without a greater expenditure than the impor-
tance of the investigation warrants. Are the local variations in secular change
waves which move from place to place, or are they stationary fluctuations, each
of which is confined to a limited area beyond which it never travels? Thus, if
the annual decrease in the declination is at one time more rapid at Greenwich than
at Kew, and five years afterwards more rapid at Kew than at Greenwich, has the
maximum of rapidity passed in the interval through all intervening places, or has
there been a dividing line of no change which has separated two districts which
have perhaps been the scenes of independent variations? ‘The answer to this
question is, I take it, outside the range of our knowledge now; but if the declina-
tion could be determined several times annually at each of a limited number of
stations in the neighbourhood of London, to this inquiry, at all events, a definite
unswer would soon be furnished.

There are two other lines of investigation which, I hope, will be taken up sooner
or later, for one of which it is doubtful whether the United Kingdom is the best
site, while the other is of uncertain issue.

If, however, it be granted that the principal cause of local and regional magnetic
disturbances is the magnetisation by the earth's field of magnetic matter concealed
below its surface, the question as to the nature of this material still remains to be
solved. Is it virgin iron or pure magnetite, or is it merely a magnetic rock of
the same nature and properties as the basalts which are found in Skye and Mull ?
There is, of course, no @ prior? reason why all these different materials should not
be active, some in one place and some in another.

As regards the United Kingdom, I have, both in a paper on the Permeability
of Magnetic Rocks and in the description of the recent survey, made calculations
which tend to prove that, if we suppose that the temperature of the interior of the
earth is, at adepth of twelve miles, such us to deprive matter of its magnetic proper-
ties, and if we further make the unfavourable assumption that down to that limit
the susceptibility is constant, the forces which are observed on the surface are of
the same order of magnitude as those which could be produced by large masses
of ordinary basalt or gabbro. It would not, however, be wise to generalise this.
result, and to assume that in all places regional disturbances are due to basic rocks
alone.

We know that local effects are produced by iron ore, for the Swedish miners
seek for iron with the aid of the magnet, and in some other cases magnetic disturb-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 503

ances of considerable range are so intense as to suggest that material of very high
magnetic permeability must be present.

If the concealed magnetic matter were iron, and if it were present in large
quantity, it is evident that the results of experiments with the magnetometer and
dip circle might be supplemented by observations made with the plumb-line or
pendulum. In such a case the region of magnetic disturbance would also be a
region of abnormal gravitational attraction. An account of a suggested connection
between anomalies of these two kinds occurring in the same district has lately been
published by Dr. Fritsche.’

Observations made about thirty years ago by a former director of the Astro-
nomical Observatory in Moscow led to the conclusion that throughout two large
districts to the north and south of that city the plumb-line is deviated in opposite
directions. The deflections from the vertical are very considerable, and indicate
a relative defect in the attraction exerted by the rocks in the neighbourhood of
Moscow itself, and the suggestion has been made that there is either a huge cavity
—a bubble in the earth-crust—a little to the south of the town, or that the matter
at that point is less dense than that which underlies the surface strata on either
side at a distance of ten or twelve miles.

As long ago as 1853, Captain Meyen made magnetic obeervations in order to
determine whether the same district is also the seat of any magnetic irregularity.
His stations were hardly sufficiently numerous to lead to decisive results, but the
magnetic elements have recently been measured by Dr. Fritsche at thirty-one places
within fifty miles of Moscow. The experiments were all made within eleven
days, so that no correction for secular change is required. They indicate a locus
of magnetic attraction running through Moscow itself. South of the town the
disturbance again changes in direction so as to show either that repulsive forces
are in play, or that there is another magnetic ridge line still further to the south.
Dr. Fritsche thinks that these observations explain the gravitational anomalies
without recourse to the somewhat forced hypothesis of a vast subterranean cave.
Ile assumes that there is a concealed mass of iron, which approaches near to the
surface at Moscow, and also along two loci to the south and north of the city. He
attributes the magnetic irregularities to the attraction of the central iron hill, the
deflections of the plumb-line to the flanking masses. It is perhaps not inconceiv-
able that such results might follow in a special case, but without the support of
calculation it certainly appears that the magnetic experiments point to the
existence of the principal attracting mass under the town. This is in fact the
arrangement shown in the figure with which Dr. Fritsche illustrates his hypothesis.
If this is so, the theory would primd facie seem to require that the bob of a plumb-
line should be attracted towards and not—as is in some places actually the case---
away from the centre of the magnetic disturbance. On the whole, then, though
the coexistence of large magnetic and gravitational disturbances in the same place
is sugyestive, I do not think that they have as yet been proved to be different
effects of the seme hidden mass of magnetic matter.

In a few weeks an International Geodetic Conference will meet at Innsbruck,
at which the Royal Society will be represented. It is, I believe, intended to
extend the detailed investigation of the relations between the nature of the earth’s
crust and the gravitational and magnetic forces to which it gives rise. We may
therefore hope that special attention will before long be given to localities where
both may combine to give information as to facts outside the range of the ordinary
methods of geology.

The second phenomenon on which more light is desirable, is the permanent
magnetisation of magnetic rocks. It is known that fragments of these are
strongly but irregularly magnetised, but that the effect of very large masses at a
distance appears to be due to induced rather than to permanent magnetism.
There are three questions to which I should like an answer. Are underground

! «Die magnetischen Localabweichungen bei Moskau und ihre Beziehungen zur
dortigen Local-Attraction,’ Bulletin de la Société Impér. des Naturalistes de Moscow,
1894, No. IV.

554 REPORT—1894.

masses of magnetite ever permanently magnetised? Are large areas of surface
masses, say a few hundred square yards in extent, ever permanently and approxi-
mately uniformly magnetised in the same sense? Is there any relation between
the geological age and the direction of the permanent magnetism of magnetic
rocks ?

Inquiries such as these can only be taken up by individual workers, but I ven-
ture to think that the comparison of the observatory instruments and the fluctua-
tions of secular change outside the observatories could best be investigated under
the auspices of a great scientific society. The co-operation of the authorities of
the observatories will no doubt be secured, but it is most important that the
comparisons should in all cases be made with one set of instruments, and by the
same methods. Whether the British Association, which for so long managed a
magnetic observatory, may think that it could usefully inaugurate the work, it
would be improper for me in a presidential address to forecast. Who does it is
of less importance than that it should be done, and I cannot but hope that the
arguments and instances which I have to-day adduced may help to bring about
not only the doing of the work, but the doing of it quickly.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Preliminary Experiments to find if Subtraction of Water from Air
Electrifies it. By Lord Ketvin, P.R.S., Magnus Macuiean, J.A.,
F.RS.E., and ALEXANDER GAtt, B.Sc., F.R.S.E.

Experiments with this object were commenced by one of us in December 1868,
but before any decisive result had been obtained, circumstances rendered a post-
ponement of the investigation necessary.

A glass y-tube with vertical branches, each 18 in. long and about 1 in. bore,
with the upper eight inches of one of the branches carefully coated outside and
inside with clean shellac varnish, was held fixed by an uninsulated support at-
tached to the upper end of this branch. The other branch was filled with little
fragments of pumice soaked in strong pure sulphuric acid or in pure water; and a
fine platinum wire, with one end touching the pumice, connected it to the insu-
lated electrode of a quadrant electrometer. A metal cylinder, large enough to
surround both branches of the y-tube without touching either, was placed so as
to guard the tube from electric influences of surrounding bodies (of which the
most disturbing is liable to be the woollen cloth sleeves of the experimenters or
observers moving in the neighbourhcod). This metal tube was kept in metallic
connection with the outside metal case of the quadrant electrometer. The length
of the exposed platinum wire between the y-tube and the electrometer was so
short that it did not need a metal screen to guard it against irregular influences.
An india-rubber tube (metal, metallically connected with the guard cylinder,
would have been better) from an ordinary blowpipe bellows was connected to
the uninsulated end of the y-tube. Air was blown through it steadily for nearly
an hour. With the sulphuric pumice in the other branch the electrometer rose in
the course of three-quarters of an hour to about nine volts positive. When the
pumice was moistened with water, instead of sulphuric acid, no such effect was
observed. The result of the first experiment proves decisively that the passage of
the air through the y-tube gave positive electricity to the sulphuric acid, and there-
fore sent away the dried air with negative electricity. A corresponding experiment
with fragments of chloride of calcium instead of sulphuric pumice gave a similar
result. In repetition of the experiments, however, it has been noticed that the
strong positive electrification of the y-tube seemed to commence somewhat sud-
denly when a gurgling sound, due to the bubbling of air through free liquid,
whether sulphuric acid or chloride of calcium solution, in the bend of the y-tube,
began to be heard. We intend to repeat the experiments with arrangements to
prevent any bubbling of the air through liquid.

We have repeated our original experiment with pumice moistened with water

K

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 555

in the insulated y-tube, and with an uninsulated y-tube filled with sulphuric
pumice between the bellows and the insulated tube, so that the air entering it is
artificially dried. With this arrangement the insulated y-tube was negatively
electrified by the blowing of the air through it; but this electrification may have
been due to the negative electrification of the dry entering air to be expected from
the result of our first experiment. We intend to repeat the experiment with
artificially dried and dis-electrified air blown through the y-tube containing
pumice moistened with water.

2. Preliminary Experiments for comparing the Discharge of a Leyden Jar
through different Branches of a Divided Channel. By Lord Ketvin,
P.RS., and AuEx. Gatt, B.Sc., FRSE.

In these experiments the metallic part of the discharge channel was divided
between two lines of conducting metal, each consisting in part of a test-wire, the
other parts of the two lines being wires of different shape, material, and neighbour-
hood, of which the qualities in respect to facility of discharge through them are to
be compared.

The two test-wires were, as nearly as we have been hitherto able to get them,
equal and similar, and similarly mounted. Each test-wire was 51 cm. of platinum
wire of ‘006 cm. diameter and 12 ohms resistance, stretched straight between two metal
terminals at the ends of a glass tube. One end of the platinum wire was soldered
to a stiff solid brass mounting; the other was fixed to a fine spring carrying a light

-arm for multiplying the motion. The testing effect was the heat developed in the

test-wire by the discharge, as shown by its elongation, the amount of which was
judged from a curve traced, by the end of the multiplying arm, on sooted paper
carried by a moving cylinder. Two of Lord Kelvin’s vertical electrostatic volt-
meters, suitable respectively for voltages of about 10,000 and 1,500, were kept
constantly with their cases connected with the outer coatings of the leyden, and
their insulated plates with the inside coatings of the leyden.

I. In the experiments hitherto made the two wires to be tested have generally
been of the same length. When they were of the same material, but of different
diameters, the testing elongation showed, as was to be expected, that the test-wire
in the branch containing the thicker wire was more heated than the test-wire in
the other branch. In a continuation of the experiments we hope to compare
hollow and tubular wires of the same external diameter, and same length and same
material.

II. With wires of different non-magnetic material—for example, copper and
platinoid—of the same length, but of very different diameters, so as to have the
same resistances, the testing elongations were very nearly equal.

III. In one series of experiments the tested conductors were two bare copper
wires, each -16 cm, diameter, 9 metres long, and resistance ‘085 ohm, which, it will
be observed, is very small in comparison with the 12 ohms in each of the platinum
test-wires. One of the copper wires was coiled in a uniform helix of forty turns on
a glass tube of 7 cm. diameter. The length of the helix was 35 cm., and the distance
from centre to centre of neighbouring turns therefore em. The middle of the
other copper wire was hung by silk thread from the ceiling, and the two halves
passed down through the air to the points of junction in the circuit. The elonga-
tion of the test-wire in this channel was more than twice as much as that of the
test-wire in the channel, of which the helix was part.

IV. One hundred and seventy-one varnished pieces of straight soft iron wire
were placed within the glass tube, which was as many as it could take. This made
the testing elongation ten times as great in the other channel.

V. The last comparison which we have made has been between iron wire and
platinoid wire conductors. The length of each was 5025 cm. The diameter of
the iron wire was ‘034 cm., and its resistance 6°83 ohms. The diameter of the
platinoid wire was ‘058 cm., and its resistance 6°82 ohms. Lach of these wires was
supported by a silk thread from the ceiling, attached to its middle (as in III. and IV.

BBG REPORT—1894.

for one of the tested conductors). Fourteen experiments were made, seven with
the test-wires interchanged relatively to the branches in which they were placed
for the first seven. The following table shows the means of the results thus
obtained, with details regarding the electrostatic capacities of the leyden-jars and
the voltages concerned in the results.

In each case four leyden-jars, connected to make virtually one of capacity ‘02742
microfarad, were charged up to 9,000 volts, and discharged through divided channel.
The energy, therefore, in the leyden before discharge was 11:105 x 10° ergs. In
each of the first three cases 1,450 volts were found remaining in the jars after
discharge ; in each of the last four 1,400.

Elongation of testing wires in cms.

Energy remain- pt ae EE oe Se A oe
ing in leyden Energy used Pai : +s
after discharge In Sen meets car In dene oe
means means
"29 x 10° ergs 10°82 x 10° ergs 01794 | 01226
” ” 01861 } -01829 01247 } 01239
3 01832 | 01244
|27 x 10° ergs 10°84 x 108 ergs 01823 01276
, ” 01828 |. 01280 |,
. -01828 01836 01244 ¢ 01261
is 7 01865 01244

The mode of measuring the elongation of the test-wires was, as may be under-
stood from the preceding description, somewhat crude, but it is reassuring to see
that the mean results in the cases of 10:82 and 10°84 megalergs of energy used are
so nearly equal. The ratios for the two circuits are, in the two cases, respectively
1-48 and 1:46. The conclusion that the heating effect in the test-wire in series with the
platinoid wire is nearly one-and-a-half time as great as that of the test-wire in series
with the iron is certainly interesting, not only in itself, but in relation to Professor
Oliver Lodge’s exceedingly interesting and instructive experiments on alternative
paths for the discharge of leyden-jars, described in his book on ‘ Lightning Con-
ductors and Lightning Guards,’ which were not decisive in showing any general
superiority of copper over iron of the same steady ohmic resistance, but even
showed in some cases a seeming superiority of the iron for efficiency in the dis-
charge of a leyden-jar. Our result is quite such as might have been expected from
experiments made eight years ago by Lord Rayleigh and described in his paper
‘On the Self-induction and Resistance of Compound Conductors.’ !

3. On Photo-electric Leakage. By Professor Otiver J. Lopes, /.R.S.

4. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics,
Part II., ‘On the Laws of Distribution of Energy and their Limita-
tions. By G. H. Bryan, M.A.—See Reports, p. 64.

5. On the Possible Laws of Partition of Rotatory Energy in Non-colliding
Rigid Bodies. By G. H. Bryan, M.A.—See Reports, p. 98

6. On the Law of Molecular Distribution in the Atmosphere of a Rotating
Planet. By G. H. Bryan, W.A.—See Reports, p. 100.

} Phil. Mag., vol. xxii. 1886, p. 469.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 557

7. On the Application of the Determinantal Relation to the Kinetic Theory
of Polyatomic Gases. By Professor Lupwia Bottzmany.—See Reports,
p. 102.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
(Joint Meeting with Section G.)

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Planimeters. By Professor O. Henrict, F.R.S.

This Paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.
See Reports, p. 496.

2. Note on the Behaviour of a Rotating Cylinder in a Steady Current.
By ARNULPH MALLock.

3. On the Resistance experienced by Solids moving through Fluids.
By Lord Ketvin, P.R.S.

4. A Discussion on Flight was opened by Mr. Hiram S. Maxim.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.
The Section was divided into three Departments.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

DEPARTMENT I,

A Method of Determining all the Rational and Integral Algebraic Integrals
of the Abelian System of Differential Equations. By W. R. Westropp
Roserts, JA.

The method of treatment adopted in this paper, though pregnant with facts
ealeulated to throw light on the general theory of Abelian functions and integrals,
has been strictly confined to the determination of the forms of the algebraic
integrals which are rational] and integral functions of the variables and arbitrary
constants which enter into them. Jacobi’s method of treatment enables us to
determine many of the algebraic forms of the integrals of the differential system,
but none of them are rational or integral, and even in the case of elliptic integrals
the one rational algebraic integral which the differential equation possesses,
mvolving an arbitrary constant, is arrived at with some difficulty from the known
forms of the integral which are not integral functions of the variables. In the
case of hyper-elliptic integrals I am not aware that rational and integral forms
have yet been given. The result of the present paper enables us to write down for
any case the forms of the algebraic integrals which are all rational and integral.

Again, being given one of these forms, a// the remaining ones can be determined
by the application of an operator 8.

With regard to the method adopted in the paper, I first show how to find all

558 REPORT—1894.

the conditions which must be satisfied in order that a binary quantic of this
degree 2n may be a perfect square, and show that they may be all found from a
matrix which I call the square matrix for the functions of the degree 2n. I have
not entered on any discussion of these curious conditions and their intimate
relationship, which are well worthy of examination, insomuch as their number is
the number of ways in which 4n—3 quantities may be taken 2n—2 together,
and are still equivalent to but n conditions.
The Abelian system of differential equations may be written

gidz
=Tive is

where there are m quantities z,, 2, 2m, and m—1 equations, as is clear from the
above method of writing them if we suppose that 7 can have any integer value
from 1=0 to ¢=m—2; also f(z) = 2°" + Pz?™—" 4+ Piztm 3+ |. Pom

T now form a function which I call F (<), and which is of the degree 2m—2
in the following manner,

Let
(2) =(2—2%,) (2—%) . « » (22m)
=o + eg we Dm
G (z)=s™ n Jem gma eas gto. + KN To Fs AN An’
L (z) introducing m—1 quantities A,, As. - - Am;

then I write
F@=A,{f@+ {6 @}?-26 @L@},
which is easily seen to be of the degree 2m—2 in z; also its source is
Ad et pe Poa

Now I say this function F (z) must be a perfect square. Forming, then, the various
conditions from the square matriv of F (2), we have all the forms of the algebraic
integrals of the Abelian system

sidz

> ees = 0,
VAF®
which are rational and integral, involving m—1 arbitrary constants A,, A, . . « Am

2. On a Graphical Transformer.| By A. P. TRorrer.

This instrument is intended for the expeditious replotting of a curve with
transformed ordinates without calculation or scaling. It consists of a rectangular
frame and a curved template or cam, and is used in conjunction with a straight
ruler.

Let the scale of one system of ordinates be set off upwards along the edge of
one of the perpendiculars, and the scale of the other along the edge of the other
perpendicular, but downwards. Join the corresponding points on the scale by
straight lines. The envelope of this system of lines may be thus drawn, and to this
curve a cam is cut in thin wood or ebonite.

To transform any ordinate, set the frame against a T square, adjusting the edge
to the ordinate, and the zero to the zero of the scale. Set a needle at the extremity
of the ordinate; bring a straight edge to touch the needle and the cam; prick off
a point at the intersection of the straight edge with the other edge of the frame.
This point determines the length of the new ordinate.

An instrument provided with a logarithmic cam was exhibited. With this
instrument the product or quotient of two curves can be found by adding or sub-
tracting the logarithms of the ordinates; or the logarithms of a series of observa-
tions can be plotted. Cams for other functions can be easily made; but it must be

1 Printed in extenso in the Electrician, August 17, 1894, vol. xxxiil. p. 465.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 559

remembered that the action of the instrument is, as it were, arithmetical rather
than geometrical, for a cam is useful only with reference to its own scale.

This instrument not only enables transformations of a definite and known
character to be made, but is equally applicable for transforming in an empirical
manner. The curve drawn by a recording voltmeter or ammeter may thus be
replotted for estimation of area, or other graphical analysis, without any knowledge
of the law of the particular instrument, In other words, a correction can be
applied to a curve.

The cams are easy to make, and even if carelessly cut cannot possibly give
rise to cumulative errors. It is convenient to use the upper edge of the ruler
instead of the edge which rolls on the cam. The curve must in this case be set
out with the ruler, and used with the same ruler, or one of the same width. The
rolling of a straight edge on a cam has been used in a photometer, invented by
Mr. W. H. Preece and the author,! for the automatic calculation of the squares of
the displacements of a lamp.

3. On a Linkage for the Automatic Description of Regular Polygons.
By Professor J. D. Evererr, 7.2.8.

Let any number of equal bars be jointed together in the manner of a lazytongs,
so as to lie in two superposed planes, each bar in one plane (except the end bars)
being jointed at both ends, B, D, and at one intermediate point, C, to the correspond-
ing points of three bars in the other plane; but instead of the two distances BC, CD
being equal, as in the ordinary lazytongs, let them be unequal, CD being the greater.
All the bars are to be precisely alike. They will form a frame with one degree of
freedom, resembling in this respect an ordinary lazytongs ; but instead of the three
series of points, B, B, ...,C,C,...,D, D, . . ., being ranged in three parallel
straight lines, they will be ranged in three concentric circular arcs, two of which,
namely, B, B, ...and D, D, . . . , formed by the inner and outer ends respec-
tively, will subtend the same angle at the common centre O. In place of the
rhombuses of the ordinary lazytongs we shall have kites, and the axes of all the
kites will pass through O.

When the frame, supposed to be at first pushed close in, is gradually opened out
so as to increase the widths and diminish the lengths of the kites, the curvatures will
increase in a double sense: the arcs formed by the inner and outer ends will in-
crease in length, and at the same time their radii will diminish. The common
angle which they subtend at the centre will accordingly increase very rapidly, and
may easily amount to 360° or more. When it is exactly 360°, the first and last
points B will coincide, as will also the first and last points D. In this position the
points D will be the corners of one regular polygon, the points C of another, and the
points B of athird. We have thus an automatic arrangement for constructing a
regular polygon with any number of sides. Also, as the axes of successive kites are
equally inclined to one another, we have the means of dividing an arbitrary angle
into any number of equal augles—an end which can also be attained by employing
the principle that equal arcs in a circle subtend equal angles at a point on the cir-
cumference, or, still more conveniently, by making use of the fact that those bars
which correspond to parallel bars in an ordinary lazytongs are equally inclined each
to the next.

Strictly speaking, the figures obtained are not polygons, but stars, which can be
converted into regular polygons by joining the ends of their rays. It frequently
happens that the curvature can be extended far beyond 360°, giving a succession of
regular stars with a continually decreasing number of rays.

Let each of the bars above described be lengthened at its inner end, B, till a
point A is reached, such that the three distances, AB, AC, AD, are in geometrical
progression. Then it can be shown that the radius OA of the circular are formed
by the ends A is constant, and equal to AC. Hence the common centre, O, can be
found automatically by employing two additional bars of length AC, jointed

1 Proc. Inst. C.H., vol. ex. p. 81.

560 : REPORT—1894.

together at one end, O, and jointed at their other ends to two of the points A.
These bars OA may be called radius bars, the other bars, AD, being called dong bars.
The proof is easily gathered from an inspection of the accompanying figure, in which
OA,, OA,, OA,, OA, are radius bars, A,D, A,D long bars, and A,C,, A,C, portions
of two other long bars whose remaining portions are indicated by dotted lines. The
figure contains two equal and similar jointed rhombuses, OC,, OC,, and three
similar kites, OB, DB, DO. Each of the bars A,C,, A,C, is cut in a fixed ratio at
the point of crossing, B, the ratio of the smaller part to the whole being OA, : A,D;
hence we can have joints both at B and D, as well as at O, and the other corners
of the rhombuses, without hampering the motion.

Two radius bars are in general sufficient to give the centre, but we may in
theory attach a radius bar at each point A, and joint their other ends together at
one point, O, which will be the common centre. There are difficulties in the way
of realising this design in practice, except with a very limited range of movement ;
but by carefully selecting the best order of superposition of the bars, and by
thinning off the radius bars towards the end where they are all superposed, it has

D

Oo

been successfully carried out in two of the frames exhibited, each consisting of ten
long bars and ten radius bars. The other frame exhibited illustrates the first
paragraph of this abstract, and consists of ten bars BD. The number of bars
in this frame might be increased indefinitely.

If m denote the ratio of a long bar to a radius bar, or of the longer to the
shorter sides of a kite,2athe angle between the two shorter sides, and 2 the
angle between the two longer sides of a kite, then, by considering one of the two
triangles into which a kite is divided by its axis, we have sin a/sin 8B =m, which
is equivalent to

tan } (a—8) /tan } (a+ 8)=(m—1)/(m+1).

a+is one of the angles of a rhombus, and a—f is the angle between two con-
secutive rays of a star. ;

In the case of the frame first described, consisting of 2 bars BD, when a
regular star of n rays is formed, the central figure in the frame will bea polygon
of 2 sides, whose angles are alternately a+ and 360°—2a.,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 561

For the radii of the circular arcs we have (calling a radius bar unity)
OA=1, OC =2 cos } (a+),

OD= J {m?+142m cos (a+) L
— 1 2 \
oB= v7 { Teas zat © cos (a+) te

OA is a side of a rhombus, and OC one of its diagonals. OD is the length of the
largest kites, and OB the length of the inner kites.

Auy two of these four radii may be equal, except that OD is always greater
than either OC or OB.

When OA=OB we have 2 cos (a+8)=—1/m=-—sin B sin a; whence
2a+B8=180°, cos a=sin } B=1/(2m).

OA =OC gives a+ B=120°.
OA=OD ,, cos (a+8)=—m/2.
OB=OC ,, cos (a+8)=—(m+1)/(2m).

Of the two twenty-bar frames exhibited, one has joints at both B and D, with
m=2; the other has no joints at B, and its ends can be made to overlap so much
as to give a three-rayed star,

4. On the Addition Theorem. By Professor Mirrac-LerFr_er.

Professor Mittag-Leffler called attention to the intimate relation which exists
between the modern theories of ordinary non-linear differential equations and the
addition theorem. He explained how the theories created by Fuchs, Poincaré, and
Picard may be generalised by making use of the considerations introduced by
Weierstrass, and showed the direction which this generalisation must take. He
also pointed out that the addition theorem itself may be generalised to a very con-
siderable extent, and that the resulting theory has important applications to the
theory of differential equations,

5. Note on a General Theorem in Dynamics. By Sir Ropert Batt, F.R.S.

The following general theorem establishes a relation which characterises the
particular type of screw-chain homography which is of importance in dynamics.

Let a, 8, y, &c., be a series of screw-chains about which a mechanical system
of any kind with any degree of freedom can twist.

Let 7 be the impulsive screw-chain which, if the system were at rest, would
make the system commence to move by twisting about a.

Let é be the corresponding screw-chain related to 8, and ¢ to y, &e.

Then the two systems of screw-chains, a, 8, y, &c., and n, &, ¢, &c., are homo-

raphic.
7 But this homography is not of the most general type. It was only lately that
I succeeded in ascertaining the further general condition that the screw-chains
must satisfy.

Let @,,; denote the virtual coefficient of the screw-chains a and & ; #.e., let this.
symbol denote the rate at which work is done by the unit of twist velocity about
a against the unit wrench on &.

Then every three screws a, 8, y in one group are connected with their three
correspondents n, &, ¢ in the other group by the relation

Tae TD ge Ty, — Wat @ @.=0.

1894. 00

562 REPORT—1894.
6. The Asymmetric Probability Curve. By F. Y. Epceworts, J/.A.

The asymmetric probability curve is the general form of the law of error. It
may be obtained by solving a system of partial differential equations, which is the
generalisation of the system given by Mr. Morgan Crofton for the symmetrical
probability curve (‘Encyclopzdia Britannica,’ article on Probabilities, p. 781,
equations 45, 46). The generalised system may be written:

Q) yre em M 43740

dk dj
(2) dy_ ly y
dk Ida?
(3) dy _ _ldgy
dj 6 da?

where y is the frequency with which any error « occurs; 2 is measured from the
centre of gravity of errors; / is the sum of squares of errors measured from that
point; 7 the similarly measured sum of cubes. The solution of the eystem is a
series of ascending powers of 2’, each term of which consists of a series of ascending
powers of j-ki. If7 is put =0, the curve being treated as symmetrical, the series
reduces, as it should, to the ordinary probability curve

If jk? is small, the curve being only slightly asymmetrical, the series reduces to a
curve which is indicated by Todhunter as being related to the ordinary probability
curve as a second is to alirst approximation (Todhunter, ‘History of Probabili-
ties;’ Laplace, art. 1002, p. 563). This slightly asymmetrical probability curve
may be used to correct the theory of correlarion investigated by Messrs. F. Galton
and H. Dickson (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ 1886), and by the present writer (‘ Phil. Mag.,’
November and December 1892). Whereas, according to the first approximation,
the most probable y corresponding (or ‘ relative’) to any assigned (or ‘ subject’)
value of « lies on a right line passing through the origin, according to the second
approximation the locus of correlates is a parabola.

7. On the Order of the Groups related to the Anallagmatic Displacements
of the Regular Bodies in n-Dimensional Space. By Prof. P. H.
SCHOUTE.

1. The groups related to the regular bodies in ordinary space have been amply
studied by F’. Klein in his ‘ Vorlesungen iiber das Ikosaeder’ (Leipzig, Teubner, 1884).
There in every case the order of the group has been found by enumeration of the
possible positions; so the remarkable fact that this order is always twice the
number of edges is not observed. :

I now wish to publish a simple general principle by means of which the order
of the group may be easily determined. This principle will prove to be capable of
immediate extension to 7-dimensional space.

2. General Principle—The manner of coincidence of the regular body ABCD

. with the given position PQRS . . . (say the orientation ofABCD . . . with
respect to PQRS) is determined if the position of the vertex A and that of the
edge AB have been assivned.

Therefore the order of the group is the product of the number of vertices by the
number of edges passing through a given vertex.

This product 1s evidently the twofold of the number of edges.

Four-dimensional Space (S*).

3. General Principle exfended.—The orientation of the cell ABCD... with
reference to the given position PQRS . . . is determined, if the position of the
vertex A, that of the edge AB through A, and that of the face ABC through AB

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 563

have been assigned. So the order of the group is the product of three numbers,
viz., the number of vertices, the number of edges containing a given vertex, and
the number of faces passing through a given edge.

4. For the six regular cells of S* the results are:

Five-cell . : eer). wa.- MeO x 4% 3=5 100
Eight-cell . ‘ pan meen Ox. Ax Si Oo
Sixteen-cell . : ree (rae erie Ox Od | 10D
Twenty-four-cell . Te (Gnewne. tots Oxe= 516

Hundred and twenty-cell (C),,) .. . 600 4x 3=7,200
Six hundred-cell . « (Ogg) - - - 120 x 12 x 5=7,200

5. Remarks.—(a) A deeper study proves the group of the five-cell to be
holohedrically isomorph with that of the icosahedron.

(6) In the pairs of cases (C,, C,,) and (C,.5, C,o,) the results are equal. This
is due to the fact that these pairs of regular cells are reciprocal polars of each

other with respect to a hypersphere.
(ec) The order cf the group is equal to 27 times the number of faces, 7 represent-

ing the number of vertices situated in any face.

Five-dimensional Space (S°).

6. General Principle eatended.—The order of the group is the product of four
numbers, viz., the number of vertices, the number of edges through a given vertex,
the number of faces through a given edge, and the number of limiting bodies
adjacent at a given face.

7. Results:

Six-being . ° » (B,)... Gx5x4x8= 360
Ten-being . : - (B,) ... 32x5x4x3=1,920
Thirty-two-being . - (By)... 10x8x6x4=1,920

8. Remarks.—(a) The cases (B,,) and (B,,) are reciprocal polars of each

other, &e.
(6) The order of the group is equal to Gr times the number of limiting bodies,

+ representing the number of vertices situated in any limiting body.

Space of n-Dimensions (S”).
9, The extension of the principle is evident. The results are:
m+ 1-being (B,y;) .- (+1) n(m—1)... x4x3=3(n4+1)!

2n-being (By)... 2”. n(n—1) » x4x3=9r-1 yn!
2”-being (Byx) ... 2n.2(m—-1) .... x6x4=2n-1, nm!

10. Remarks.—(a) The cases (B,,) and (By) are reciprocal polars of each

other, &e. : :
(0) The order of the group is equal to (2—2)! 7 times the number of limiting
beings of n—2 dimensions,” representing the number of vertices situated in each of

these.

8. On Mersenne’s Numbers. By Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN CunnincHam, RuE.,
Lellow of King’s College, London.

These are numbers of form N=2?—1, where p is prime. Lucas has shown

that N is composite, and contains the factor (2p +1) when p and (2p +1) are both

prime, and p is of form (47+ 38).
Such numbers N may for shortness be called Zucasians. The highest
Lucasians, determinable by the existing tables of primes (extending to 9,000,000),

are given b
4 : p= 4,499,591 and 4,499,783,
002

564 REPORT—1894.

and these are the only values of p yielding Lucasians in the range of 500 numbers
between 4,499,500 and 4,500,000. An interesting group is given by

=2343=11; p=27+3=181; p=2%+3=382,771 ;

and these are the only numbers of form (2*+3) yielding Lucasians when
a not>26. Higher values go beyond the tables of primes.

Complete list of primes p of form (47+3), with (2p+1) also prime, when
p not >2,500; these all give composites for N, and (2p +1) is a factor of N.

p=11, 23, 88, 131, 179, 191, 289, 251, 359, 419, 431, 443, 491, 659, 683, 719, 743,
911, 1,019, 1,031, 1,103, 1,223, 1,439, 1,451, 1,499, 1,511, 1,559, 1,583,
1,811, 1,931, 2,003, 2,039, 2,063, 2,339, 2,351, 2,899, 2,459.

It seems probable that primes of one of forms p=(2*+1), (2743) will, with
exception of those yielding Lucasians, generally yield prime values of N, and thet

no others will; all the known (and conjectured) prime Mersenne’s numbers falk
under this rule.

9. End Games at Chess. By Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN CunnincHaAM, &.£.,
Fellow of King’s College, London.

Investigation of the number of positions in all the ‘end games’ at chess when
there are only two or three pieces on the board. The results are :—

P =Total number of positions

C=Number of checkmate positions | with a given
S= Number of stalemate positions set of pieces.
I=Number of inditferent positions

Names of Pieces Number of Positions
Number ] Ls = ae = ve
DEEACCES Back White C s I P
2 K Kee 4 S . 0 0 3,612 3,612
3 K KandQ. ; : . | 324 144 223,476 223,944
3 K Kandk. 216 68 223,660 223,944
3 K K and Kt A : 0 40 223.904 223,944
3 K K and B (unnamed) 0 136 223,808 223,944
3 K K and WB or BB 0 68 111,904 111,972
3 K K and P (unnamed) 0 18 195,966 195,984
3 K K and QRP or KRP 0 2 24,466 24,468
3 K K and QKtP or KKtP 0 3 24,505 24,508
3 K K and QBP or KBP 0 3 24,505 24,508
3 K K and QP or KP 0 1 24,507 24,508

DEPARTMENT II.

10. EHaperiments showing the Boiling of Water in an open Tube.
By Professor OsBorNE Reyno.tps, 2.2.

11. Report of the Committee on Earth Tremors.—See Reports, p. 145.

12. Report of the Committee on Meteorological Photography.—
See Reports, p. 143.

13. Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation.—See Reports, p. 106.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

or
co
or

14, Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature.
See Reports, p. 107.

15, Report of the Ben Nevis Committee.—See Reports, p. 108.

16. On Recent Researches in the Infra-Red Spectrum.
By Dr. 8. P. Lanetey.

This paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed in
extenso.—See Reports, p. 465.

17. A new Determination of the Ratio of the Specific Heats of certain
Gases. By O. LumMer and EK, Prinesurm.!

When a perfect gas expands adiabatically from the pressure p, to the pressure
Pz, While its absolute temperature decreases from T, to ‘I',, we have

2 ¥

where T means the ratio of the two specific heats. Therefore [can be deter-
mined by four corresponding values of p,,p,,T,, and T,. For this purpose we
experimented in the following way.

A copper balloon, nearly globular, containing about 90 litres was placed in a
bath of water whose temperature was maintained constant within 0°01 C. and
could be measured by a thermometer. Let this temperature be T,. The balloon
was filled with a gas, well dried and pure, which was compressed to the pressure
P,, Measured by a manometer of sulphuric acid communicating with the balloon.
Then the gas was allowed to escape into the atmosphere through an aperture of
the balioon. So it expanded to the atmospheric pressure p, given by the
barometer. In this way the quantities p,,»,, and T, can be found easily. The
only difficulty is to determine the temperature T, of the gas at the moment
when the expansion is finished and the pressure bas attained the value p,. Vor
this purpose we need a thermometer showing the variable temperature of the gas
instantaneously, that is, a thermometer of a negligible small mass.

A thermometer of the required qualities was formed by a strip of platinum of
an extremely small thickness, which is soldered at both ends to two copper wires
insulated from each other and introduced air-tight into the balloon. From these
the strip hangs down freely in the middle of the balloon. The strip of platinum
with its conducting wires formed one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, so that we were
able to measure its electrical resistance, and hence its temperature at every
moment. The strip was prepared by the method first used for wires by Wollaston, and
adopted for strips by Lummer and Kurlbaum. It was cut out of a platinum silver
plate composed of a platinum plate with the thickness 0'6u and a silver plate 6u
thick, The middle part of the strip had a length of 10cm. and a breadth of
‘about 0°2 mm., while the two ends were formed by conductiny laps 1:5 em. long
and about 4 mm. broad. The silver was removed by nitric acid only in the middle
narrow part, so that the resistance of the conducting laps perfectly disappeared in
comparison with that of the middle part. But also these conducting laps are thin
enough to take at a short distance from the ends the temperature of the surround-

' The original source of publication is the Smithsonian Institution in Washington,
which kindly granted liberal assistance from the Hodgkins Fund for carrying on
this investigation.

566 REPORT—1894..

ing gas, as is easily proved by calculation. In this way the fall of temperature at
the ends of the strip is perfectly eliminated. The resistance of the strip amounted
to 87 ohms at the temperature cf 17°C.; the variations measured by us were
between 1 and 4 ohms.

In order to find the lowest temperature T, reached by the gas while expanding
we have only to measure the smallest value which the resistance of the strip takes
during the expansion. We worked in the following way. First, when the
balloon is filled with compressed gas of the temperature ‘I’, the Wheatstone bridge
is equilibrated so that no current is going through the galvanometer. This state
we call the first equilibrium. Then the galvanometer arm is opened and out of the
arm of the bridge opposite to the strip a part of the resistance is taken away, so
that the resistance of this arm now is lower than that of the strip. Now the gas is
allowed to escape out of the balloon, the temperature of the gas is lowered, and the
resistance of the strip decreases and approaches that of the opposite arm. Imme-
diately after the end of the expansion, at the moment when the strip has the
smallest resistance, we close the galvanometer circuit, and now the galvanometer
shows by its deflection if the resistance of the strip at this moment is higher or
lower than the resistance of the other arm. Only in the case when both resistances
are exactly equal does the galvanometer remain at rest. This state we call the
second equilibrium. This second equilibrium is always to be attained by a syste-
matic variation of the initial pressure of the gas, and when it occurs the galvano-
meter remains at rest for some seconds, showing that during this time there is no
appreciable conduction of heat to the gas surrounding the platinum strip.

In this way four corresponding values of p,, p,, ‘I',, and T, are found.

A small error in these experiments is caused by the heat radiating from the
walls of the balloon to the strip cooled by the expanding gas, but it is possible to
determine the amount of this error by experiment. For this purpose we executed
the experiments described above, once with a simple platinum strip, the second
time with the same strip atter having blackened it by platinum black. In the
second case the error due to radiation is increased in the same proportion, as the
absorbing power of blackened platinum is larger than that of the uncovered, and
therefore we found a smaller value of T than before. The relation of the two
absorbing powers was determined by special experiments, and so we found the
correction necessary to remove the error resulting from radiation.

The gases on which we worked were atmospheric air, oxygen, carbonic acid,
and hydrogen.

The results obtained with the naked strip were:

Air a) co, I
“3994 13941 1:2940 14063
The probsble error of the result :
+ 0:00024 + 0:00024 +0°00031 + 0:00020
To these values we must add the correction caused by radiation :
+0°0021
Consequently we get the values of
Ms
Air ) CO, II
14015 13962 12961 14084

That we found a much greater value for hydrogen than all former experimenters
is the best proof of the superiority of our method. All other methods failed with
hydrogen because the heat conduction of this gas is very great, and consequently
the experiments were not adiabatic. Our method gives also for hydrogen the
second equilibrium of the Wheatstone bridge lasting for more than a whole second,
showing that also here the expansion is quite adiabatic.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 567

DEPARTMENT III.

18. A Method for accurately Determining the Freexing-point of Aqueous
Solutions which freeze at Temperatures just below 0° C. By the Late
P. B. Lewis. Communicated by Dr. MusER WILDERMANN.

The thermometers used for measuring minute variations in temperature were
graduated, the one to read to thousandths the other to hundredths of a degree. The
total volume of the solution used in the various determinations was 1,250 c.c. The
beaker containing the liquid for examination was placed on a felt cushion, wrapped
in thin gutta-percha, inside a zinc vessel which acted as an air-chamber. ‘The
cover of this vessel was provided with a circular opening into which fitted a cork,
holding the thermometers. The stirring of the liquid was effected by a porcelain
stirrer which consisted of two parallel porcelain plates, in which there were corre-
sponding holes for the thermometers to pass through, and besides these eight round
holes so arranged that the holes in the upper plate did not correspond with those
in the lower plate. On moving the stirrer up and down currents are sent* in all
directions. ‘The thermometers are kept uniformly at a temperature of 0° C., even
when not in use, by keeping them plunged in a glass beaker, filled with ice and
water at 0°C. This second beaker is contained in a similar zine vessel, which acts
asa cold-air chamber. The two zinc vessels, the one containing the distilled water
and the other the solution to be examined, are placed in a larger zine vessel, which
acts as an ice-bath, and which is encased in a yet larger zinc vessel, so that there
should be a cushion of air of some centimetres’ thickness between the two. The
outermost zinc vessel stands on a thick felt mat, and is wrapped in a thick felt
cover. The ice-bath was covered over as far as possible with pieces of asbestos
cloth. Ly these means a fairly constant temperature is maintained in the bath.
The temperature of the ice-bath should only vary between 1°°8 and —2° when the
temperature of the room is 12° to 18°, and only between —2°1 and 2°-Y at a tem-
perature of 25°. It is necessary for a successful experiment to overcool the solu-
tion by about 0°7 to 1°. Under these conditions the most accurate determination
of the freezing-point can be obtained: the mercury in the large thermometer has
sufficient time to become exactly of the temperature of the solution, the ice is obtained
in the form of thin films, and the freezing-point remains fairly constant for from
ten to fifteen minutes, though slight variations of from 0°0001 to 0°-0002 occur,
and in the more concentrated solutions of 0°-0003. As regards the action of the
thermometers it is important to know how far the capacity of their bulbs is affected
by the pressure caused by a rise, especially a rapid rise, of mercury in the stem, and
how quickly the bulb recovers from the expansion or contraction which variations of
pressure or temperature cause. It can only be here stated that if such variations exist
they lie within the limits of ordinary experimental error, namely, 0°-0001, 0°-0002,
and rarely 0°-0003. On the other hand, it was found that when the more delicate
thermometer had been allowed to remain for several hours at the ordinary tem-
perature, a rise in its indication of the freezing-point could be observed for many
days afterwards, and a long-continued exposure to a rise or fall of atmospheric
pressure causes a variation of about 0°-0003 in the reading of the freezing-point
for 1 mm. rise of the barometer. A similar variation is produced in the reading of
the smaller thermometer. In the case of very dilute solutions only those determi-
nations of the freezing-point which have been made during almost constant condi-
tions of atmospheric pressure are to be depended on. While the column of mercury
is rising the stirring must be maintained together with a light tapping with the
fingers on the cork. The maximum is reached when further tapping causes no
rise of the mercurial column. When this point has been reached readings are made
every minute for from eight to ten minutes. The readings are made with a small
lens. After the constant point has been observed for from eight to ten minutes the
form taken by the ice produced is examined. If the experiment has been success-
ful the ice will have formed in fine films and in considerable quantity throughout
the solution. An account of this investigation will be given in the Journal of the
Chemical Society, and in the ‘Zeitsch. f. physik. Chemie.’

568 REPORT—1894.

19. The Influence of Temperature wpon the Specific Heat of Aniline."
By ¥. H. Grirrirus, J/.A.

The author drew attention to the fact that water is by no means an ideal
liquid for calorimetric purposes, its great capacity for heat rendering it unsuitable
for operations such as that known as ‘the method of mixtures.’ Again, we have
but little knowledge concerning the changes caused in its specific heat by changes
in temperature, and its vapour pressure at low temperatures is sufficient to cause
a constant leakage of heat by the processes of evaporation.

In all these respects aniline appears to be superior.

The method adopted for determining the specific heat of aniline was an electrical
one, and the specific heat was ascertained over a range of from 15° to 42°C. The
heat developed by rapid stirring was balanced by heat lost by convection, conduc-
tion, &c., and the rate of rise at different temperatures, due to the electrical supply
only, was ascertained.

The results are closely represented by the formula

$= 0°5156 + (t—20) x 0004 + (t — 20)? x -000002.

The values obtained by means of this equation do not in any case differ from
the experimental results by more than 1 in 2,000,

20. On some Photometric Measures of the Corona of April 1893.
By Professor H. H. Turner, J/.A.

The present paper is merely a preliminary note on some measures of the photo-
metric intensity of the corona on photographs taken at Fundium by the British
expedition in April 1895.

The measures (of density of deposit at various points on the plates) were
made at South Kensington by the kindness of Captain Abney, who lent me his
apparatus for the purpose. This apparatus has been described by him else-
where in detail; and here it is only necessary to remark that a beam of light is
divided by a plane glass plate, part being transmitted and part reflected. The
photograph is placed in one beam, and a ‘rotating sector’ in the other. The
beams are then caused to illuminate two small screens placed side by side, and
the aperture of the rotating sector is varied until the illuminations are equal.
The aperture of the sector is then read, and the reading is a direct indication of
the density of the photograph at the particular point under examination. In this
note it is desired to call attention to one or two points which the observations,
though as yet incomplete, have suggested.

(1) I cannot help referring to the beauty and simplicity of the rotating sector.
The ease and accuracy of the observations are such as I was quite unprepared for;
and it seems to me that the apparatus is indispensable to the astronomical
photographer. I look forward to making use of it in a large variety of ways.

(2) The points examined up to the present have been distributed along four
radii respectively north, south, east, and west from the moon’s centre. If the
density be tabulated according to distance from the moon’s limb, the resulting
curves are very similar to ‘error’ curves, with the maximum at the moon’s limb,
and deviations from a smooth curve are very small.

(8) The results for the four radii are very similar; and the mean of the east
and west radii gives a curve almost identical with that for the mean of the north
and south radii (the means being taken to eliminate the distance between the
centres of sun and moon). The general form of the corona at ‘maximum’ is in
accordance with this result, but I was not prepared for so close an accordance as
the figures show.

(4) The density of the film has by no means reached uniformity at the edge
of the plate, even in the small scale photographs, which allow of measures up to
70’ or 80’ from the limb. It is possible that the light causing this deposit is not

1 See Phil. Mag., 1894.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 569

true corona, but at the same time it seems probable that there may be a closer
correspondence between photographs, and the eye observations which claim a large
‘extension’ of the corona, than has hitherto been supposed.

21. On Photographs of Spiral and Elliptic Nebule.
By Isaac Roserts, D.Se., FBS.

Seven photographs of spiral nebule and four of elliptic nebulze were exhibited
as lantern slides on a screen, and their forms and structures shown and described.

The photographs were taken with a reflecting telescope of twenty inches
aperture and long exposures of the sensitised plates, and much additional know-
ledge concerning the objects was revealed by the photographs.

The author claimed that the photographs proved the following statements :—

Ist. That the existence of spiral nebule is a physical reality.

2nd. That the convolutions of the spirals proceed from, or else converge to, a
stellar or star-like centre, and are arranged symmetrically with reference to each
other and to the stellar centre.

3rd. That the convolutions, or spirals, are without exception broken up into
stars and star-like condensations, which are involved in nebulous matter, denser in
the lines of the convolutions and fainter between them.

The cause of the vortical motions of the nebulze was suggested to be collisions
hetween bodies in space, or else shrinkage of the diffused mass, producing concen-
trated gravitational effects.

The elliptic nebulz were shown to be constituted with a stellar centre sur-
rounded by dense nebulosity, outside which are alternate rings of nebulosity with
spaces between them having little if any nebulosity in them, each nebula, as a
whole, presenting the appearance of a stellar system now in course of evolution
from a nebula of gigantic dimensions.

By taking periodically a series of photographs and comparing them with each
other the changes that may take place in the nebule will, sooner or later, be made
manifest.

22. On the Formation of Soap Bubbles by the Contact of Alkaline Oleates
with Water. By Professor G. QuincKE, /R.S.

This paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed an
extenso.—See Reports, p. 475.

23. On the Effect of Gases on the Surface Tension and Electrical Condue-
tivity of Soap-films. By H. STANSFIELD.

A preliminary note was read on some experiments undertaken at the request of
Professor Riicker for the purpose of investigating whether the remarkably high
conductivity of thin soap-films found by Professors Reinold and Riicker was pro-
duced by the surrounding gas.

Experiments were also made to test whether the gas in which a film is formed
affected the fall in surface tension which takes place. In both cases it was found
that the gas was not the efficient cause of the phenomenon observed.

24. On the Velocity of the Hydrogen Ion through Solutions of Acetates.
By W. C. Damprer Wuertuam, JA.

_ The velocity of the hydrogen ion in dilute aqueous solutions of ordinary mineral
acids was calculated by Professor F. Kohlrausch from the conductivities, and came
out "0030 centimetre per second when the potential gradient was one volt per
nh Dr. Oliver Lodge measured its velocity through chlorides, and found

1 See B.A. Report, 1886, p. 389.

570 REPORT—1894.

The molecular conductivity of solutions of acetic acid is abnormally low, and
in order to test whether the velocities of the ions were reduced in the same
proportion an experiment was made by a modification of Lodge’s method,
which I had already used for tracing the course of other ions! A solution of
sodium acetate made first alkaline with soda and coloured red with phenol-phthal-

lein was divided into two parts, and one of them decolourised

+ with a little acetic acid. The solutions were then placed in a
kind of U tube with a vertical connecting limb (see figure),
so that the motion of the junction between the coloured and
uncoloured solutions could be easily followed. A current was
passed upwards across the boundary and the hydrogen ion tra-
velled with it, forming acetic acid and decolourising the phenol-
phthallein. It was found better in this case to use agar-jelly
solutions, which had been abandoned for other ions as intro-
ducing unnecessary complications. The velocity of the hydrogen
ion through a jelly solution of sodium acetate of strength 0:07
gramme equivalent per litre, when driven by a potential gradient
of one volt per centimetre, came out ‘000065 cm. per second.
Through a solution of hydrochloric acid of 0-1 gramme equi-
valent strength its velocity is ‘0030. The ratio of these numbers
is 1:46. The specific molecular conductivity of an acetie acid

} solution of strength 0:07 is to that of a solution of hydrochloric
acid of strength 0:1 as 1:59. I have not yet been able to
devise a method for measuring the velocity of the acetic acid
group (C,H,O,) in an acid solution, but the numbers given above

show that at all events the velocity of the hydrogen ion is reduced in about the
same proportion as the conductivity.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Onthe Results of a New Analytical Representation of the Distribution of
Magnetic Force on the Surface of the Earth. By Ap, Scumipt, of
Gotha.

The author has obtained in the first place three series in terms of spherical
harmonics for the three quantities aX sin v, BY sin v, yZ, where X, Y, Z are the
three components of the earth’s magnetic force, v is the colatitude, and a, , y are
three factors, nearly equal to unity, depending on the spheroidal shape of the
earth. By a method which he has previously explained in the ‘Archiv des
deutschen Seewarte,’ 1893, he deduces from these series three others which give
the magnetic potential on the surface of the earth: (1) as far as depends on forces
inside the earth, (2) on forces outside the earth. The third series represents that
part of the magnetic forces which cannot be expressed in terms of a potential, but
must be due to electric currents traversing the earth’s surface. The first series has
been calculated to fifty-two, the second and third to forty-three coefficients. The
result shows an appreciable fraction of the magnetic force to he due to outside effects,
and also gives currents traversing the earth’s surface, amounting on an average to
about 0:1 ampere per square kilometre.

The author points out that thoroughly reliable results can only be obtained
after our knowledge of magnetic forces has been extended to higher latitudes in
the southern hemisphere.

1 Trans. R.S., 1898, A, p. 337.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. OVA

2. A Suggested Explanation of the Secular Variation of Terrestrial
Magnetism. By Artaur Scuuster, 1. 2.S.

Tt is a matter of great importance to ascertain whether we must consider inter-
planetary space to be a conductor of electricity or not. If there is an appreciable
conductivity the magnetic system of the earth will, owing to its rotation, induce
currents which will react on the earth in a twofold manner. There will be, in
the first place, a mechanical effect. tending to increase the length of the day, and,
secondly, a magnetic effect tending to displace the magnetic axis. It is the object
of this communication to give the results of some numerical calculations referring
to the magnitude and nature of these reactions.

The problem is of interest apart from any applications to terrestrial magnetism.
Given a magnetic sphere rotating in a conducting medium, what are the mechani-
cal and magnetic forces acting on the sphere in consequence of electric currents
induced in the medium ?

The mathematical solution is easily obtained from Lamb’s equations for currents
induced in spherical conductors; and, without entering into any details of calcula-
tion, I here state the principal results for the case when the sphere is uniformly
magnetised about an axis not coinciding with the axis of rotation.

If the medium is either perfectly conducting or perfectly non-conducting, there
will be no mechanical effect tending to stop the rotation of the sphere; but for all
finite conductivities there will be a couple opposing the rotation which is a maxi-
mum for a certain specific resistance of the medium.

If the radius of the sphere is R, the angular velocity w, the specific resistance p
producing the maximum retardation is given by the relation

p=14 Re,

where the numerical factor is approximate only.
For the earth: R=6:4 x 10°; #=7:27 x 10-°

p=417 x 10",

The resistance indicated by this number is such that if 4°17 volts were applied to
the two sides of a plate having a thickness of one centimetre there would be a cur-
rent of 10-4 amperes per square centimetre. I do not know of any facts which
would make such a conductivity an impossible one, consistently with the extreme
tenuity of matter which we know must exist in space. The next point to consider
is the actual value of the maximum retarding couple. In C.G.S. units, and for a
sphere having the same size and magnetic moment of the earth, it is 1‘9x 10%. If
this couple was to act continuously it would diminish the earth’s rotational velo-
city to the extent of one second per day in 14,000 years. Early records of solar
eclipses show that the earth as a timekeeper has lost time, but authorities do not
agree as to how much. Two causes tending to alter the length of the day have
hitherto been considered, tidal friction tending to retard it and the contraction of
the earth tending to increase it. To this we must now add a possible retardation
due to the conductivity of the medium,

The maximum magnetic couple calculated above is about six times that given
by George Darwin for the effect of tidal friction, and it would by itself have pro-
duced a very marked effect in historical times, and according to Lord Kelvin
the effects of the earth’s contraction are very small. It is, of course, very impro-
bable that the conductivity of space is just that required for the maximum effect.
If the conductivity is 100 times less, the couple produced would be equal to the
tenth part of the maximum couple, and such a couple would be impossible to
separate at present from the other eflects, tending to alter the length of the day.
There is, therefore, a very large range of electric conductivity, within which that
of space may lie without an appreciable effect on the length of the day being pro-
duced in historical times.

Turning our attention next to the magnetic reactions, we find that these will
displace the magnetic axis towards the geographical pole and round it from east to
west. If the earth behaved like a steel sphere, not subjected to any shocks or

572 ‘ REPORT—1 894.

changes of temperature, a certain displacement would take place once for all, but
no rotation such as is required to produce the secular variation. The constantly
renewed displacement of the magnetic axis, if it is due to the suggested cause,
must be produced by a continuous change inside the earth. A possible explanation
suggests itself in the secular cooling of the earth, owing to which more and more
of its iron becomes susceptible to magnetisation. This virgin iron will be free to
adjust its magnetic axis to the magnetic forces acting on it, and a continuous dis-
placement of the axis must result. It must be acknowledged, however, that, evan
taking account of this possibility, it is difficult to see how a rotation of the axis can
be kept up for several revolutions. Some light might be thrown on the question
by an experimental investigation to discover a possible effect of great pressure on
the temperature at which iron loses its magnetic properties. Whether there are
any appreciable magnetic effects due to electric currents outside the earth may, of
course, be established by an analysis of the magnetic forces on the surface of the
earth. I understand that A. Schmidt and Neumayer have already made much
progress with such an analysis, and I am preparing an independent calculation with
special reference to the outside forces.

The results of this investigation may be stated thus :—

(1) The mechanical reactions on the earth of currents induced in space, assumed
to be a conductor of electricity by the rotation of its magnetic system, are insuf-
‘ficient to produce an appreciable lengthening of the day in historical times, unless
the conductivity lies within certain narrow limits. The absence of any marked
effect cannot therefore be brought forward as an argument against the conduc-
‘tivity of space.

(2) The magnetic reactions of the same current, taken in conjunction with the
secular cooling of masses of iron inside the earth, tend to produce a displacement
which in kind is the same as that actually observed in the secular variation. But
whether quantitatively the variation can be explained in this way is very
doubtful,

3. On the Construction of a Delicate Galvanometer.
Sy Artuur Scuuster, /L.S,

Maxwell has shown how a galvanometer must be wound in order to produce
the maximum magnetic field for a given resistance. The present communication
is intended to show what the advantage gained would be if the winding which is
theoretically best could be adopted. Assuming the cavity in which the magnet is
suspended to be cylindrical, the sensitiveness of the galvanometer will vary with
the square root of the resistance, and inversely as the square root of the radius of
the cavity. The smallest angle which can be read without making the system
astatic will also depend on the diameter of the mirror; a point which has been
neglected in the construction of some recent galvanometers. Taking the resistance
of the galyanometer to be one ohm, the diameter of the cylindrical cavity to be
one centimetre, and the width of the reflecting mirror to be also one centimetre,
the smallest current which a galvanometer will show with a horizontal force of
0°17 is under different conditions as follows :—

Amperes

If wound in the theoretically best possible way : : . 160x 10-8

If wound on a bobbin of rectangular section of the best

dimensions, the wire being uniform in each layer, but

changing from layer to layer so as to give the best results . 2-00 x 10-8
If wound on a bobbin of rectangular section with uniform

wire, the dimensions of the bobbin being the most favourable 2°14 x 10-8

The advantage gained by having the winding in the way which is theoretically
the best is therefore not very marked.

4. On the Minimum Current audible in the Telephone.'
By Lord Rayreiex, Sec. #S.

1 Published in the Phil. Mag , xxxviii. pp. 285-295, September 1894.

EE —E——————EE———

:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 573

5. An Attempt at a Quantitative Theory of the Telephone.'
By Lord Rayxeian, Sec. B.S.

6. On the Amplitude of Sonorous Waves which are but just Audible.”
By Lord Rayueieu, Sec, B.S.

7. On the Production of Beat-tones from Two Vibrating Bodies whose
Frequencies are so High as to be separately Inaudible. By Aurrep M.
MAYER.

In the first attempts to obtain such tones use was made of steel rods of
rectangular section, the lengths of whose sides are to one another as 4:5. These
rods were chamfered on one edge in the length of the rods, so that by striking
a rod on this edge both component tones of the rod were obtained simultaneously
with the resultant tone, the latter being the lower second octave of the graver
tone of the rod. It was impossible to obtain beat-tones by this method by reason
of the short duration of the resultant when the frequencies of the two component
vibrations of the rod surpass the limit of audibility.

Several bird-call whistles were made in order to obtain the proper proportions
to give frequencies surpassing the limit of audibility and yet to give no hissing
sounds.

The most effective whistle has a diameter of air-dise of 5 mm., and the holes
in the opposed plates of the disc are 1-2 mm. in diameter. The distance of the
discs of the whistles is varied and adjusted by a micrometer-screw.

With these whistles beat-tones have been obtained when the vibrations from
either whistle alone were inaudible.

Beat-tones have also keen obtained by Dr. Koenig and myself in Paris with
tuning-forks whose frequencies surpass the limit of audibility.

Dr. Koenig anticipated me in the production of these beat-tones by several
months, and has actually used those beat-tones in tuning-forks whose frequencies
surpass the limit of hearing.

8. On the Variation of the Modulus of Elasticity with Change of Tempera-
ture as determined by the Transverse Vibration of Bars at Various
Temperatures. By ALFRED M. Mayer.

Lord Rayleigh in his ‘Theory of Sound’ discusses the transverse vibration of
a bar free at both ends and supported under its two nodes, showing that we can
compute the frequency of the bar if we know the velocity of sound in the length
of the bar and the dimensions of the bar. The expression of these relations.

reduces to N 1:0279 V » in which ¢ and 7 are the thickness and length of

the bar.

To see how closely the formula gave the transverse frequency of bars, I had
rods of 1:5 m. in length, 2 cm. in width, and 3 cm. in thickness, and of uniform
section, made of cast steel, aluminium, brass, glass, and white pine. These rods.
were vibrated longitudinally at 20° C. and their frequencies determined by
Koenig’s tonometer, whence we obtained V. Out of each rod were cut three bars,
each about 20 cm. long, and these bars, also at 20° C., were vibrated trans-
versely. The mean departure of the computed from the observed numbers of
transverse vibrations was 335, the computed frequency being always in excess of
the observed except in the case of glass, where the computed was below the:
observed frequency.

The close concordance between theory and observation shows that by vibrating

1 Published in the Phil. Mag., xxxviii. pp. 295-301, September 1894.
2 Tbid., xxxviii, pp. 365-370, October 1894,

574: REPORT—1894.

a bar at various temperatures the variation of the modulus of elasticity with
temperature can be obtained. We observe N at various known temperatures of

2
the bar, whence V is computed, and the modulus is M= bial ep l, t, and d have

g
different values at different temperatures, the coefficient of expansion of each
bar experimerted on was determined, also the density of each bar at 40° C., and
the dimensions and density computed for each temperature of the vibrating bar.

Though the moduli thus obtained are not so accurate as those given by other
more precise methods, yet I think that the variation of the modulus with tempera-
ture is thus obtained.

Tables and curves of results of the experiments on bars of glass, cast steel,
Bessemer steel, brass, bell-metal, two specimens of aluminium, silver, and zinc were
exhibited before the Section.

The moduli of these substances are lowered by increase of temperature as
follows, Heating from 0° to 100° lowers the modulus of

Glass . ; F . 113 per cent. of its modulus at 0°
Cast steel . ‘ . 2°21 Hi ” »
Bessemer steel . . 3:08 33 » ”
Brass a . : . 3°67 ” ” ”
Bell-metal ° . - 4:27 ” ” ”
Aluminium (American) 5°37 Ps a es

iy (French) . 5°66 ” ” ”

Silver heated from 0° to 60° has its modulus lowered 2°47 per cent. of its
modulus at 0°. Zine heated from 0° to 62° has its modulus lowered 6°04 per cent.
of its modulus at 0°.

9. On an Apparatus for Measuring small Strains.
By Professor J. A. Ewinc, 1.2.8,

10. On Mirrors of Magnetism.
By Professor S1tvanus P. Tuompson, D.Se., RS.

The author has found by experiment that a sheet of iron, if sufficiently large
and thick, acts magnetically as a mirror, giving virtual images of a magnet pole
placed in front.

The image of a pole placed at any distance in front (provided the mirror is
large as compared with the distance) is situated at an equal distance behind the
mirror, exactly as in optical reflexion by a plane mirror.

The image of a north pole is a south pole, just as the image of a right hand is
a left hand.

If the magnet pole is moved away from the sheet of iron, the image moves
away at an equal speed in the reverse direction.

If the sheet of iron be moved up toward the magnet pole, the image moves up
at double the velocity, as optical images do.

If a magnet pole is placed between two parallel large sheets of iron, the effect
is the same as if there were a double series of images in an indefinitely extended
row, the images being, however, of alternate polarity.

The action of a spherical surface of iron as a spherical mirror presents some
curious points. Only virtual images are produced whether the mirror be convex
or concave. There is no spherical aberration, and the images, though of reversed
polarity and perverted, are not inverted. These last points are deduced from the
experiments, and have not yet been independently verified.

The method of experiment has been to produce magnetic poles or fields by
means of coils supplied with electric currents. These poles or fields wer» investi-
gated by means of an exploring coil or coils connected with a galvai o neter, the
throw of which was observed when the primary current was turned on or off.
The throw obtained when the mirror was absent was compared (c) with that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. Sis,

obtained when the mirror was present, (6) with that obtained when, the mirror
being absent, the geometrical position of the coil was occupied by an actual coil of
the same magnetic moment as the ‘ image.’

Tron in thin sheet as used for tin-plate is not thick enough to form a perfect
mirror. A piece of boiler-plate, 4 inch thick and rather less than 3 feet square,
formed a perfect plane mirror for poles placed not more than 4 or 5 inches away
from its centre. A long solenoid 200 centimetres long, 1'5 centimetre diameter,
uniformly wound with twelve turns per centimetre with a wire capable of carrying
15 amperes without overheating, was used in one series of experiments to produce
a pole.

Me the case of a convex spherical surface of iron of infinite magnetic permea-
bility, and of radius of curvature 7, the object being a pole of strength m situated
at a point at a distance a from the middle of the mirror surface, the image is a

. 32
pole of strength —m ——. Its distance 2 behind the surface is equal to r——” —

a+r
ar
or
arr
If a=0 =)
a=?r v=4tr
@=co t= 7

The image of an infinitely distant pole is at the centre, not as in the case of the
optical image half-way between surface and centre.

The following simple construction gives the position of the image of any point-
pole outside, :

Let P be the position of the point-object, and O the centre of the spherical
surface. Join PO, and with P as centre describe the arc OS. Then with centre
S and OS as radius describe are OQ cutting PO in Q. Q is the image of P.

For a concave mirror the construction is reversed by finding successively the

ry | 4 a a + Y ie ;
centres of the arcs. The image is a pole having strength = —m oat where a is

rv

r=2

the distance of the image from the surface =

Both formule show that as 7 increases to infinity a =x.
The whole of the experimental work has been carried out for me by Mr. Miles
Walker.

576 REPORT—1894.

11. The Volume Changes which accompany Magnetisation in Nickel Tubes.
Sy Professor C. G. Knorr, D.Sc.

The method of experiment was similar to that employed in the determination
of corresponding changes in iron and steel tubes, and already described in a former
ccmmunication.'. Three nickel tubes, cut originally from the same solid bar, were
turned and bored. They were of the same length (47 cm.).and the same external
diameters (4:2 cm.), The internal diameters were as follows:—No. I., 2:548 cm. ;
No. IL., 1586 cm.; and No. III., 0°692 cm.

The decrease of volume in the tube of widest bore (No. I.), when subjected to
a longitudinal field of 600, was so large that it had to be measured with the naked
eye. The liquid meniscus in the capillary tube moved outwards through a distance
of 3 cm., which corresponded to a volume change of 2-4 cubic millimetres. This,
with a total internal volume of 224-47 cubic centimetres, gives a dilatation of
fully —10-°.

In the following table some of the more striking results are indicated. Under
each heading of field is a column containing the corresponding cubical dilatations
for the three tubes.

Cubical Dilatations x 10’.

Field = 10 15 25 35 62 102 200 400 600
Tube I. . | —0°5 0 +0°8 Oo |} -9 —24 | —67} — 98 —110
Tube II. ‘ — |-07 0 +1 tv) —10 | —53} — 79 — 87

Tube III. || — — |+10)+25] +9 0 | —84 | —207 — 236

Thus in lowest fields the cubical dilatation is negative in Tubes I, and II. Very
soon, however, it becomes positive, but changes back to negative in still higher
fields, and so continues to the highest fields used. In Tube III. there is no evidence
of the negative dilatation in low fields, so that with it there is only one change of
sign. The thicker the wall, the higher the field in which the change of sign takes
place. In moderate and high fields the changes of volume are distinctly greater
in uickel than in iron or steel.

12. On Hysteresis in Iron and Steel in a Rotating Magnetic Field.
By Francis G. Batty, IA.

It has long been surmised that the hysteresis in iron may have different values
according to the mode of variation of the direction of magnetisation. As a deduc-
tion from Professor Ewing's molecular theory of magnetism Mr. James Swinburne
pointed out that the value of the hysteresis in an alternating field should be dif-
ferent, and obey a different law, from that of iron in a rotating magnetic field, the
latter probably being the smaller, especially at a high induction, The point
has not, however, received any experimental verification until now.

The experiments here described consisted in causing a powerful electromagnet
to revolve on an axis concentric with the bore of the pole pieces, which formed
parts of a cylinder. The magnetic field between the two pole pieces rotated with
the electromagnet producing it. In the polar cavity was placed a finely laminated
cylindrical armature of iron or steel carried by hollow centres in fixed supports,
and held by a spring attached to the armature spindJe and to the fixed support
respectively. On rotating the field-magnet there is a force due to the hysteresis of
the armature tending to cause it to revolve with the magnet. This is prevented by
the spring, and the deflexion of the spring is a measure of the torque exerted on
the armature, which is proportional to the hysteresis in the armature per reversal,
and is independent of the speed of revolution of the magnet. The deflexion is
olserved by the movement of a beam of light reflected from a small mirror on the

' See B.A. Reports, 1892, p. 659.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 577

armature, and on to a circular scale. Varying currents were sent round the field-
magnet coils, producing different values of induction in the armature.

At a low induction the hysteresis is small and increases but slowly, the range
corresponding with the first part of the B/H curve, and the shape of the curve
being similar to that given by an alternating field. With increasing induction the
value of the hysteresis rises more rapidly, but does not continue to increase at a
aniform rate. When B=12,000 the rate of increase of the hysteresis diminishes,
though the curve still rises rapidly. When B=17,000 the curve begins to bend
over, reaching a maximum at 18,000 or 18,500, and rapidly falls when the induc-
tion is further increased, until when B = 21,000 the hysteresis is about one-third of
its maximum value. Higher inductions could not be satisfactorily reached with
’ the apparatus, but there was no indication of any diminution in the rate of decrease
of the hysteresis.

Both soft charcoal iron and hard high carbon steel were tested, and found to
give the same results, the value in the steel reaching a maximum at an induction
of 16,000.

These experiments show that there is no simple relation between hysteresis and
induction. The three stages of magnetic displacement each have a sharply defined

osition on the hysteresis curve, the critical value occurring just on the knee of the
induction curve. The agreement of the results with the theoretical deduction
constitutes a strong verification of the molecular theory of magnetism.
The above results hold good for all speeds up to seventy revolutions per second,
which was the highest speed obtained.

13. On the Vibrations of a Loaded Spiral Spring.
By L. R. WitBerrorce, J.A.

The author pointed out that by comparing the two periods of vibration of a
body attached to a spiral spring of small angle the ratio of the torsional and
flexural rigidities of the wire or strip forming the spring could be found, and
hence, if the wire were homogeneous, isotropic, and of circular section, Poisson’s
ratio for its material could be determined.

Some experiments were shown illustrating the normal modes of vibration of
such a system, and the transference of energy from up-and-down to twisting vibra-
tions, and back again, which can be effected when the periods are nearly equal.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
The Section was divided into three Departments.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

DEPARTMENT I.

1. On Fuchsian Functions. By Professor Mitrac-LEFFLER.

Professor Mittag-Leffler, after referring to a recent investigation by one of his
‘pupils, M. G. Cassel, spoke of the advantages and inconveniences connected with
the expression of automorphic functions by means of the Fuchsian or Kleinian
6 series. He showed how the theory of the @ functions may be brought into
‘connection with that of the Abelian functions, and that an expression given by
‘M. Schottky for a certain class of automorphic functions is, in fact, applicable to
all these functions. He then referred to his own researches on the invariants of
linear differential equations, and pointed out that Giinther, in his paper in ‘ Crelle’s
Journal,’ has not fully realised the true nature of these researches,

1894. PP

578 REPORT—1894.
2. On Ronayne’s Cubes. By Professor H. Hennessy, IRS.

Some years since a box containing a pair of equal cubes was placed in the
author's hands, and he found that one of these could have its parts displaced so as
to leave a peculiarly shaped shell, through which the second cube passed without
any difficulty. Groups of twin crystals of a cubical form have been long known,
but their grouping could rarely admit of such a structure as the cubes referred to

resent.
i It is manifest that a cube passed through another in the direction of the
diagonal of the square would leave two triangular prisms, but in order to connect
these prisms two flanges with interior sloping faces should be attached. The
thickness of these flanges in two directions, as well as the angle of inclination of
the sloping faces, are all connected by geometrical conditions which permit of the
solution of the problem of the construction of the shell of the first cube. The
author was unable to find the solution of the problem originally published by the
inventor of the cubes, Mr. J. Ronayne, some time about the middle of the last
century. Under these circumstances he completed the inquiry, and on comparing
the results with the measured dimensions of the prisms and flanges which con-
stitute the shell of the first cube he found the perfect concordance between the
calculated and measured dimensions. When 2 represents the distance from a
corner of the cube to the edge of the flange, and a the side of the cube, then 6, the
inclination of the sloping face to the face of the cube, is found to be represented by

2Qa(ar/2—22)
3a? + 407 —dav/2

The edge of each cube is 1-92 inch, and @ is found both by measurement and by
the above formula to be 9° 45’ nearly.

sin @=

3. On a Property of the Catenary. By Professor H. Hennessy, /.2.S.

In the course of inquiry into some hydraulic questions the author found that
the catenary of maximum area under a given perimeter may be inscribed in a
semicircle! Hence, if the radius of the semicircle is one foot, the chain hung
within it when in a vertical plane will be one yard. Thus the two fundamental
standards of English measure are connected with the catenary of maximum area.

4. A Complete Solution of the Problem, ‘To find a Conic with respect to
which two given Conics shall be Reciprocal Polars.’ By J. W. Russe,
MA.

In the author's ‘Elementary Treatise on Pure Geometry,’ p. 147, a construc-
tion is given in the case in which the given conics intersect in distinct points.
This construction was extended to the cases of the conics touching or having three-
point contact. The method in the case of double contact was different. Taking
U to be the common pole and AB the common chord, through U draw any line
meeting the conics in PP’, QQ’ respectively. Let X Y be the double points of
the volution PQ, P’Q’ or of PQ’, P’Q. Then the conic required is the conic
touching UA at A and UB at B, and passing through X or Y. This method holds,
when suitably modified, in the case of four-point contact.

5. The Impossibility of Trigraphic Fields of Spaces.
By J. W. Russert, JA.

The simplest trigraphic form is that generated by three points P, P’, P’” on
three lines AB, A’B’, A”’B”, these points being connected by a relation of the
form

a,k’ k’ k’+a,k’ kk’ + 1... +ak+ «4+ +4,=0

1 Proc. Roy, Soc., vol. xliv. p. 106.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 579

where a,, a, ... are constants, and k= AP/PB, kh’ =A/P’/P’B, k’’ = A”P”/P”B”.
Starting from this form, various trigraphic forms of increasing complexity can be
built up, as in the geometry of homographic figures. But it is impossible to
finally construct trigraphic figures on the analogy of homographic figures. To

rove this, take A BCD, A’ B’C’ D’, A” B” C” D” as corresponding tetra-

edrons in the assumed trigraphic figures, and suppose that the variable points
P,P’, P” of the figures subtend trigraphic pencils at the axes (BC, CA, AB),
(B’C’, C’A’, A’B’), (B’C”, C’A”, A” B”) respectively. Then, if P and P’ move
on straight lines, it is shown that P’” moves on a surface, and not on a straight
line, as it should do.

6. On Maxwell’s Method of deriving the Equations of Hydrodynamics
from the Kinetic Theory of Gases. By Professor Lupwic BottzMann.

It is well known that the equations of hydrodynamics for a viscous fluid, as Max-
well was the first to show, can be derived from the hypothesis of the kinetic theory
of gases, But Maxwell’s method is not quite satisfactory. Many terms of the
equations must be neglected in order to obtain the hydrodynamical equations in
their usual form. Even if this course in most cases is justifiable, it cannot be
rigorously proved that such is the case, and the mathematician is not satisfied.
The following question arises, Is this a defect of the theory of gases, or is it
rather one of hydrodynamics? Are these terms required by the theory of gases
not an essential correction of the equations of hydrodynamics? Will it not be
possible to find cases where these two theories are not in accord, and to decide by
experiments between them? Maxwell himself raised this question, and he found
that the ordinary assumption, that in gases which conduct heat the pressure is
everywhere equal in all directions, is only approximately true. A short time
before his death he published an ingenious method of treating these questions,
viz., the application of spherical harmonics to the theory of gases. Maxwell only
gave in a few words the results of his calculations, in three short notes, which are
included in square brackets in his paper, ‘On Stresses produced by Conduction of
Heat in Rarefied Gases.’ These three notes show evidently that he must have
made a long and elaborate investigation on this subject a short time before his
death, which, however, has not been published. I have treated the same subject
by a different method, and have also found that many corrections of the equations
of hydrodynamics can be derived from the theory of gases. It will be not easy,
but perhaps not impossible, to test some of these differences by experiment. I have
not yet published these results, because they do not agree in all respects with the
results briefly announced by Maxwell, and the danger of falling into errors in this
subject is great.

With regard to this I beg the British Association to make efforts to ascertain
if the manuscript of the investigation made by Maxwell on the application of
spherical harmonics to tke theory of gases is still in existence, and, if this manu-
script should be lost, to encourage physicists to repeat these calculations.

7. On the Invariant Ground-forms of the Binary Quantic of Unlimited
Order. By Major P. A. MacManon, #.4., F.R.S.

8. Principes fondamentaux dz la Géométrie non-euclidienne de Riemann.
Par P. Mansion, professeur a l'Université de Gand.

I. M. Gérard a exposé, sous une forme simple et rigoureuse, les principes
fondamentaux de la géométrie non-euclidienne de Lobatchetsky, dans un article
inséré dans la livraison de février 1893 des ‘Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques ’
(8° série, t. xii, pp. 74-84).

On peut démontrer d’une maniére analogue les principes fondamentaux de la
géométrie non-euclidienne de Riemann, en partant des deux propriétés fondamen-

PP2

580 REPORT—1894.

tales suivantes: 1° Deux droites riemanniennes situées dans un méme plan se
coupent en deux points situés 4 une distance 2A toujours la méme quelles que
soient les deux droites (voir De Tilly, ‘ Essai sur les principes fondamentaux de la
Géométrie et de la Mécanique, dans les ‘Mémoires de la Société des Sciences
Physiques et Naturelles de Bordeaux,’ 2° série, t. iii, 1¢* cahier, ch. i.). 2° La
somme des trois angles d’un triangle est supérieure 4 deux droits (voir ‘ Mathesis,’
aotit 1894, 2° série, t. iv., pp. 181-182).

II. On démontre, comme dans le cas de la géométrie lobatchefskienne, les
théorémes suivants :

1° Dans un triangle rectangle ayant pour hypoténuse 2, pour cotés x, y, si 2
tend vers zéro, l’angle (z,’) restant constant («:s) tend vers une limite fipie en
décroissant ; (y:z) tend aussi vers une limite finie, mais en croissant.

2° Siwet u’, v et v’ sont les cétés opposés d’un quadrilatére, trirectangle en
(u, v), (u, v’) et (v, w’), et si w tend vers 0, (u’:w) tend en décroissant vers une
limite ¢ (v), dépendant de v seulement; on a d’ailleurs (u’:u)< (v’).

III. THHOREME FONDAMENTAL.—On a ¢ (v+y)+ («-y)=2 (x) p(y). 1°
Considérons le triangle OAa birectangle en A et a; posons AB=x-y, AC=z,
AD=x+y, OA=A. Menons Ba, Ce, Dd perpendiculaires 4 OA et rencontrant Oa
en b, c, d; de & et d abaissons bm, dn perpendiculaires sur Cc, Soit encore
BB’ =a, B’d’ perpendiculaire 4 OA et rencontrant Oa en d’, 6’m’ une perpendiculaire
a Ce,

2° D’aprés II. 1°, ona cd >cb ; par suite,cn>cm,ou2Ce>Cm+Cn, Ensuite,
2Ce_ (Bd. Bd Dd . Dd
Aa >(S . a) i (x “Cn/’

et, 4 la limite (II. 2°),
D) eye Phl(r-y) b (x+y)
wii ou) * :

$ (y)
3° D’aprés II. 1°, on a encore
em en Ce
ch ~ed Oc’
ou

Om —Ce — Ce (= , Bb Ce __ cb Ce
in Ue Nha Ch Ag Oa Ae’
Ce—Cn Ce Ce _ Dd, cd Cc
cd Oc’ Aa & r és) Oc Aa’
Passant 4 la limite, il vient

Gee in= Y 4,
py Raa
et, par addition,

= FY
$(2-y)-o (e+) ZY gady < pe.
La fonction @ est donc continue,

TRANSAGTIONS OF SECTION A. 581
4° Ona
cb’ >CB/— B’b’—Ce>CB+a—-2Aa=CD+a—2Aa>cd +a—2Aa,

On peut supposer 2 2Aa inférieur & la quantité fixe a; dans cette hypothése, on a
cb’ >cd, em’ >cn, Cm’ + Cn>2Cec, puis
Ue Bd’ , eye ee ae 2
Aa

*~ Cm’

et, 4 la limite,
d (2—y—a) 4 Peta) S95 a 6
p(y +a) $ (y) oe) 6)
5° Faisons tendre a vers zéro, il viendra
$(0-y) bet 9409,
o@ * oy 9

6° Des relations (a), (6) on conclut le théoréme.
IV. On démontre, comme dans le cas de la géométrie lobatchefskienne, les
propositions suivantes:

1° On a ¢ (2) =cos (2) k étant une constante.

2° Dans un triangle rectangle ayant pour hypoténuse z, pour cotés 2, y ona

wn)» (4) =e (3)

3° Dans un triangle ABC quelconque,

cos (<) = cos () cos ( *) +sin (¢) sin (e cos C,

cos C étant une fonction qui ne dépend pas de la grandeur des cétés a = BC, b= AC,
mais seulement de l’angle C opposé au cété c= AB.

9. Formule for Linear Substitution.
By Professor E. B. Exuiorr, W.A., F.R.S.

If (Ay, A,, Ag, ..- An) (2, y)”
= (yy Qyy Aq, «+» An) (lx + my, Ua + m’y)"
and Q, O denote the operators

nay = toads see tAy—
respectively, adie P (a) are a rational integral homogeneous isobaric function
Of do, Gy, Ay.» » Gn, Whose order and weight are z and w,
Digre Non asl 4)
P (A)=(n’ =m) *-" m/- emg in'-tm P(g)
Vo _Im 4
= (lin’ —U’m)” Lin-™ et elm’—'m P (a)

582 REPORT—1894,

Departments II., IIL,

A joint meeting with Section I. was held to discuss the two following Papers
by Professor Oliver Lodge :—

10. On Experiments illustrating Clerk Maxwell's Theory of Light.
By Professor Oniver Loner, 2.8.

11. On an Electrical Theory of Vision.
By Professor OLiver Lopes, F.2.S.

DEPARTMENT II.

12. On the Velocity of the Cathode Rays.
By Professor J. J. THomson, FBS.

13. On a Ten-candle Lamp for use in Photometry.
By A. Vernon Harcourt, J/.A., FR.S.

The author has in former years brought before this Section a burner consuming
a mixture of air with pentane vapour, and lamps consuming pentane vapour, which
gave a constant amount of light equal to that of an average standard candle.
When so small a light is used in the ordinary photometry of coal-gas, errors
from defects in the adjustment of the photometer, or from slight haziness in the
atmosphere of the testing-place, are greater than when a light is used more nearly
of the same magnitude as that of the gas-flame which is measured. A light of
ten candles is well suited for the purpose. It has been shown that such a light
can be obtained from an argand gas-burner consuming air saturated with the
vapour of pentane; and a gas-burner has been proposed for use which is well
suited for this purpose, except perhaps in being of a rather complex structure.
But to supply air saturated with pentane vapour at a steady pressure there is
needed a gas-holder of a few cubic feet capacity. The addition of such a gas-holder
to the apparatus makes it more costly and not easily portable. It has been shown
that great variations may occur in the proportions of pentane and air consumed by
the gas-burner without materially affecting the light given out by the lower part
of the gas-flame. The admixture of air is, however, unnecessary, since at a
moderate temperature pentane can be volatilised without there being any necessity
for reducing the atmospheric pressure by the admixture of another gas, The lamp
shown is on the same principle as the one-candle lamp devised by the author seven
years ago. The wick is raised or depressed by the ordinary rack-and-pinion
movement, the lower end of it dipping into pentane in the body of the lamp, while
the upper end is warmed by the heat conducted down from the flame. Inthe ten-
candle burner the wick fills the circular interspace between the central and outer
tubes of an argand. The only difference between this and an ordinary lamp is
that the wick does not come near the flame, and needs no cutting or renewal; nor
does the smoothness or roughness of its upper surface affect the burning of the lamp.
The dimensions of the lamp and chimney upon which the air currents inside
and outside the flame depend have been determined by experiment so as to produce
a bright and steady flame. The entrance to the inner tube is through a triangular
opening as in the usual construction of such lamps. It was found that the free
admission of air at this entrance caused an inequality in the flame, two peaks
appearing on either side of the place of admission of air. To steady and regulate
the admission of air at this point, a cylindrical case is fixed round the lower part
of the tube, into which air is admitted through a round hole 15 mm. in diameter.
The flame of a rich gas burning from a wide opening is of the colour of candle-
light even when an abundant supply of air is provided on both sides of the flame.
The light of a good gas-burner is less red, or more blue, than this; and it is

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 583

important for the photometry of coal-gas that the standard light employed should
be as nearly as possible of the same colour as the light of the gas-flame. The
light of the lamp has been brought to this colour by a small admission of air below
the point of combustion. Twelve holes, each 3 mm. in diameter, have been drilled
through the outer tube 15 mm. below the top. The draught of the chimney is
sufficient to determine an entry of air through these holes, which, happening under
fixed conditions, is constant in amount. A short cylindrical screen goes round the
chimney, the bottom of which is 58 mm. above the surface of the burner ; and both
screen and chimney are surrounded by a pentagonal shade, four panels of which
are filled with blue glass, while the fifth, which is turned towards the disc of the
photometer, is filled half-way down with a metal plate, which, overlapping the
inner screen, allows only the light from the lower part of the flame to fall on the
dise of the photometer. By supporting the lamp at such a height that the bottom
of the screen is level with the centre of the disc, errors of parallax are avoided.
Mr. Sugg, I believe, observed, and Mr. Dibdin has proved, that with the flame of
an argand burner the light thus given by the lower part of the flame is independent,
within wide limits, of the total height ofthe flame. The observation is true, not
only for a particular burner, but for many, and probably for most, argand
burners. Many alterations have been made in the structure of this lamp, and it
has generally been found, though not always with equal exactness, that the height
of the flame did not affect the light emitted from its lower part. As the lamp is
now arranged the height of the flame can be observed through the blue glass
panels, and whether the top is just visible above the circular screen or rises to the
top of the panel, the light which falls upon the disc of the photometer does not
alter measurably. The adjustment of the light to the value of ten candles—in
other words, the adjustment of the height of the circular screen—has been effected
by a number of comparisons between the lamp and the one-candle pentane
standard.

“14. On the Cause of the Spurious Double Lines sometimes seen with Spectro-
scopes, and of the Slender Appendages which accompany them. By
G. JounstToneE Stoney, J0A., D.Sc., FBS.

Spurious double lines are sometimes seen with the spectroscope. In order to
observe the phenomenon it is not necessary to use the complete spectroscope, not
is monochromatic light essential. It is sufficient to look with the telescope of
the instrument directly down the collimator, so as to see the image of the slit.
If the instrument be now pointed towards, or nearly towards, a distant fame,
and if the slit be narrowed down to a certain point, a spurious double line will be
seen in the observing telescope, instead of a correct image of the slit. The
phenomenon will be produced under the circumstances which most readily admit
of investigation when the incident light is restricted to a single beam of plane
waves, falling on the slit either normally or obliquely; and incident light which
sufficiently approximates to being of this kind is easily provided by placing a
coarse supplementary slit in front of the lamp flame and allowing only the light
which passes through this slit to reach the collimator.

Under these circumstances it will be found that when the light falls normally
on the slit of the spectroscope it will form an image in the observing telescope
which, with a certain width of slit, becomes a rather coarse double line bordered
on either side by an exceedingly fine hair-like appendage, which is visible only
when the light is sufficiently intense. By causing the incident light to fall
obliquely the two constituents of the double line may be made to thin down,
leaving a considerable dark interval between them, and then present very much
the appearance of the sodium lines when fine. In intermediate positions of the
incident light the interval between the two constituents of the double line is
occupied by a bright ruling of hair-like appendages, varying in number with the
inclination of the incident light. The conditions of the experiment may be
modified in other ways, and other appearances produced—notably a flare con-
sisting of a ruling of bright lines fading out in one direction.

584 oft REPORT—-1894.

All these appearances belong to the same class as the spurious disk of a star
with its attendant diffraction rings when viewed through a telescope, and as the
images which very minute objects present when examined by the microscope. In
all these cases the image, as was long ago pointed out by Fraunhofer, is not a
reproduction of the object. In fact, when the object is so small or so remote
that the rays of light that reach the collimating lens from different parts of it
differ only by a part of a wave-length or by a few wave-lengths, the diffraction
phenomena which are always present become of large size. These, in the cases
we have to deal with, take the form of a direct beam of light spread out, with
coloured fringes extending like a fan to the right and left. If the telescope with
which the object is viewed can take in the whole of these we get a true de-
lineation of the object. But if it can only take in some of them, then the image
we see is not a representation of the object, but the image of another object, viz. of
that object which would emit the same central beam and those only of the fringes
which the instrument can grasp, but not any of the others. In all cases this apparent
object differs from the real object, and in some cases is wholly unlike it.

If, for example, after removing the eye-piece, we look directly at the light
transmitted by the collimating lens, and make the adjustments such that the in-
strument takes in only the central beam and the first diffraction spectrum on either
side, then on replacing the eye-piece we shall see a dcuble line instead of a correct
image of the slit. This, with some very thin appendages which can only be seen
when the light is sufficiently bright, is, in fact, the kind of object which would emit
a central beam and a first diffraction spectrum, and these only, of those breadths,
in those phases, and with that ratio of the brightness of the central beam to
the first diffraction spectrum which prevail between those parts of the light as
actually received by the collimating lens.

The image that presents itself might conceivably be calculated by dividing the
wave front as it passes the collimating lens into pairs of strips, and integrating tlie
illumination these produce on the focal plane. This is the method employed in
the case of the spurious disks of stars. But even if this method were practicable
it would be inferior to a tentative geometrical treatment of the problem which,
though it does not furnish the exact result, is more instructive. The geometrical
method makes clear, which the integrations would not, why the thin appendage
lines present themselves in addition to the main double line.

It was obviously desirable to attack the problem in its simplest form, which
occurs when the incident light reaches the slit of the collimator normally. It is
possible from general considerations, based on the theory of diffraction gratings,
to conclude that then the main part of the light of the image as seen must be con-
centrated into ¢wo parallel strips constituting a so-called double line. The next
step is to assume a distribution of light in two such strips which would produce,
and which therefore would be the image formed by, a central beam and diffraction
spectra of which those of even orders, the 2nd, 4th, &c., are of zero illumination.
This can be done in various ways, producing different distributions of the light
between the central beam and the spectra of odd orders. The next step is to
select among these one which gives nearly the same ratio of brightness of the first
spectrum to the central beam as prevails in the light which actually reaches the
collimator from the slit. This was effected by making the strips broad, brighter
in the middle, and with an interval between them about one-seventh of their
width. The next step is to modify this distribution of light, so as to secure zero-
illumination in the third spectrum, while retaining the extinction of the spectra of
even orders. This was effected by removing one-eighth of the light from each of
the two strips; transferring half of this eighth to a certain part of the other strip,
and with the other half forming an appendage line outside the strip, at a distance
from it of nearly half its width, and only one-seventh as broad. The distribution
of light, when modified in this way, on both the constituents of the double line
would present the appearance of a somewhat coarse double line, with a narrow
interval between them, and accompanied by two hair-like appendage lines, one to
the right and the other to the left of the main double line; and this resembles
the image as it actually presents itself in the telescope of the instrument.

We thus see that part of the light must appear in the form of faint appendages

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 585

in order to reconcile the extinction of the third spectrum with the simultaneous dts-
appearance of the spectra of even orders. To get rid of the distant and fainter 5th,
7th, &c., spectra consistently with the other conditions of the problem in general
requires a further modification of the main lines, a modification of the appendages
already existing, and the introduction of other still fainter appendages. It should
be mentioned that it is possible to make the adjustments such that the appendage
lines, or some of them, shall overlie the main lines,and become merged in them, so
as not in the observations to be distinguishable from them.

Having, by the geometrical treatment of some simple cases, made ourselves
acquainted with the general progress of events, it is best to study by obser-
vation what the details become with each of the innumerable distributions of light
that can be made to pass the collimating lens, and to record the principal results ;
for it would be an endless task to attempt the prediction of every phase of so
Protean a phenomenon. The observations are of a simple kind, since the image
which is formed in each case may be directly viewed in the telescope, and we can
also easily ascertain what has been the light that has produced this image, by
simply taking out the eye-piece and then looking down the tube of the telescope
and through its object-glass. We thus see the collimating lens, and those parts
of the central band and diffraction fringes formed by the slit which have reached
the collimating lens, sc that these become known.

15. On the Luminosity observed when a Vacuum Bulb is broken.
By Joun BuRKE.

It was noticed by Beccaria that a luminous effect was produced when vacuum
bulbs were broken in the dark. After making some experiments upon the subject
he attributed the luminous appearance, not to the breaking of the glass, but to the
dashing of the external air, on the inside, when it was broken. Professor J. J.
Thomson, in his work on ‘Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism,’ has
brought forward the phenomenon observed by Beccaria as likely to confirm
Mr. Crookes’s theory of phosphorescence in a vacuum tube. The two phenomena,
however, that of phosphorescence in a vacuum tube and that produced by the
breaking of vacuum bulbs, seem to be totally distinct; and the luminosity in the
latter case seems to be due to the collisions of the particles of glass with each
other. Beccaria also obtained a light when air was allowed to strike against
bodies placed inside a receiver, by the bursting of a bladder, but this was un-
doubtedly due to the burning portions of the bladder, that were stopped in their
descent by the articles within the receiver, which he appears not to have observed.

The following experiments tend to disprove Beccaria’s theory. A number of
fragments of broken glass were supported at the mouth of the receiver of an air-
pump by an arrangement such that when air was allowed to rush into the
receiver by the removal of a thick glass plate which served to cover the opening
at the top, the pieces of glass were capable of descending with the air. The same
luminous effect was obtained as when vacuum bulbs were broken.

A single spark was visible when only one piece of glass was employed, and
appeared as though it had been caused by the striking of this against the side of
the receiver. When no fragments of glass were employed no light was observed,
even when a number of articles were placed at the bottom of the receiver.

Air was made to issue forth, on the surface of various substances, and especially
on the sharp edges of broken glass, from bottles containing the air in a highly
compressed state, but without any luminous effect.

‘The same results were obtained with other gases besides air.

A light was obtained when two large pieces of glass were violently struck,
but no light was observed by the mere breaking of glass either in air or in a vacuum.

Other substances instead of glass were also employed, such as cast iron, steel,
copper, ebonite, sealing-wax, bone, but without any luminous effect.

All the experiments made seem to point to the conclusion that the phenomenon
is not due to the violent impact of the air on the glass but to the collisions of the
fragments of glass with each other.

586 REPORT—1894.

16. On the Correction of Optical Instruments for Individual Eyes.
By Tempest Anperson, J.D., B.Sc.

The subject of astigmatism is now well understood, and the public are
beginning to recognise that a very large proportion of cases of defective sight
require a cylindrical as well as a spherical element in the corrective spectacles,
and can by this means obtain a much greater acuteness of vision than without it.
It is also well known that ordinary myopic or hypermetropic eyes, even if
presbyopic, can obtain perfect vision with a telescope or microscope by adjusting
the focus; but it is quite different with astigmatic eyes, for as the image comes
into focus with one meridian of the eye, it goes out with the other.

Persons with such eyes when ordered spectacles are often rather casually told
that they must wear their glasses when using a telescope or microscope, but there
the matter usually ends, for the spectacle glass is found to come against the eye-
piece, and even if it does not, the spectacle lens is not centred on the instrument,
and various ghosts and false images are formed, which cause the glasses to be
laid aside.

Few eyes are altogether free from astigmatism; probably half could have their
vision perceptibly improved by suitable cylindrical lenses; and though the defect
is not sufficient to make it worth while to wear spectacles, it is greater than would
be allowed to exist in a telescope or microscope by a good maker. The defect is,
of course, more noticeable in the use of instruments which give a pencil of rays
which fully fills the pupil, such as the lower powers of telescopes and opera glasses
and hand-magnifiers.

The remedy is simple, viz., to mount a cylindrical lens of power suitable
for the individual eye in a cap, which can be applied to the eye-piece of the
instrument. The lens can be properly centred, and causes no ghosts or false images,
and being close to the lens of the eye-piece takes up very little room, and allows the
eye to come convenienly near the instrument. Each observer will have one lens
to suit his own eyes, applied to his own instrument; but for the benefit of those
who like a complete instrument with adjustments to suit their friends, I may
point out that it is not necessary to correct the spherical error of the eye, as this
can be done by focussing, so that a set of caps containing, say, a dozen cylindrical
lenses of the ordinary powers would enable a telescope to be corrected for almost
any observer, provided he knew what cylinder he required.

17. How the Misuse of the Word ‘ Force,’ in Attractions, Electricity, and
Magnetism, may be avoided without much departure from existing
practice. By Dr. G. Jounstone Stoney, /. 2.8.

All the classical writers on dynamics of the early part of the present century—
Laplace, Lagrange, Poisson, Gauss, and many others—used the word Force in
two distinct senses, viz., for F the ‘Moving force,’ and for f the ‘ Accelerating
force.’ A distinct improvement was introduced several years ago when the word
force was restricted to the former of these meanings, and when the ‘accelerating
force’ was named the acceleration, or, as it ought rather to be called, the
accelerator.

There is, however, one exception. In treatises on Attractions it is still usual
to call f the force of attraction. There seems no sufficient excuse for this; and it
is therefore suggested that the word accelerator be used instead. We may then
say in dealing, for instance, with gravitation—

M. Mm .
Old ranted] f= —B 38 the F=—-p “a7 is the
Accelerating force Moving force
Accelerator
{New names] (often miscalled ‘ Force of Force

attraction ’)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 587

Next as regards Potential. This term is used in Dynamics, Electricity, and
Magnetism to designate physical quantities of different dimensions; but in all it
is that factor of energy which, in order to convert it into energy, requires to be
multiplied—

In Dynamics, by a mass.
In Electricity, by a quantity of electricity.
In Magnetism, by a quantity of magnetism.

This may be stated conveniently by saying that—

In Dynamics, Potential is the dynamic energy-factor. In Electricity, Potential is
the electric energy-factor. In Magnetism, Potential is the magnetic energy-factor.
Now a similar treatment of the term accelerator would at once curry out con-
sistency in our nomenclature, would point attention to the true relation between
these three sciences, and would free us from one part of the misuse of the word
force which is now prevalent. If this suggestion be adopted, we shall speak of—

The dynamic accelerator, viz., that force-factor which requires to be multiplied
by mass to convert it into a force;

The electric accelerator, viz., that force-factor which requires to be multiplied
by a quantity of electricity to convert it into a force; and

The magnetic accelerator, viz., that force-factor which requires to be multiplied
by a quantity of magnetism to convert it into a force.

And these terms will take the place of what are now miscalled the Electric Force in
an Electric Field, and the Magnetic Force in a Magnetic Field ; physical quantities
which are in reality not forces at all, but force-factors.

There will then remain only one, but it is the greatest offender of them all, viz.,
Electro-motive Force—an abominable term, since it is not a force, nor even a force-
factor. It is in reality anenergy-factor. Why not substitute the term Potency or
Potential Range, which would exactly describe what it is, and which would offer
the additional convenience of enabling us to speak, not only of the Potency
of a battery or dynamo, extending over the entire current from pole to pole, but
also of the Potential Range of each piece of apparatus introduced into the circuit
extending from the place where the current enters it to the place where it emerges ?
It is often convenient to be able to speak of this concisely and without periphrasis.
The phrase potency of a battery seems the most appropriate one for indicating how
much work the battery compels each unit of electricity that traverses the circuit
to do. This is what the term ought to imply; and the term Potency does so
without introducing a false analogy like the term Pressure which is sometimes
used.

18. On a Nomenclature for very much Facilitating the Use of Systematic
Measures. By G. Jounstone Stoney, IA., D.Sc., FBS.

In this communication the author recommended certain prefixes and affixes,
which he had been engaged for several years in testing, and which provide a means
of avoiding periphrases and of speaking and thinking concisely about matters with
which modern science has frequently to deal. The syllables suggested are—

Hyper-, -ein, -et, -o-, -el, and -ane.

The metric system of weights and measures furnishes a complete decimal series
of lengths and masses, and of the physical quantities derivable from them, such as
_ volume, density, &c.: 2.e., it presents us not only with the metre, the gram, the
cubic metre, and so on, but also with all the decimal multiples and submultiples of
each of these. Moreover, it only needs to use the metric system with the second
as our unit of time to have an equally complete series of every other physical
quantity, such as density, velocity, force, and energy in dynamics, along with the
various other physical magnitudes with which the sciences of electricity and
magnetism are separately concerned.

588 REPORT—1894.

Now C.G.S. units are one of the innumerable metric systems of systematic
physical units thus placed at our disposal. This particular system is found to be
inconvenient for use by practical men; which makes it desirable that they should
be able on many occasions to avail themselves of other metric systems equally
systematic and in closer relation to their work. This is the more to be recom-
mended since the translation from any such system into the C.G.S. system, in
which our best tables of physical units exist, or from the C.G.S. system into it,
can by the proposed nomenclature be made so conspicuous as to be always certain
and easy. The prefix hyper- and the affix -eiz are designed to provide us with
facilities for doing this.

Employing the word weights to designate the pieces of metal used with our
balances, it may be stated to be the usual practice of engineers and physicists to
measure forces by the gravitations of these weights, 7.e., by the downward forces
exerted by them at the station where the experimenter works. Now the gravita-
tions or downward forces of all weights, and therefore of the metric series—the
gram weight and its decimal multiples and submultiples—vary slightly from one
station on the earth’s surface to another; while the decimal series of systematic
forces (determined by the condition that they are the force which will produce an
acceleration of a metre per sec. per sec. in a mass of a kilogram, along with the
decimal multiples and submultiples of this force) is a system of forces quite inde-
pendent of the place of observation, and therefore each of them maintains the same
value over the whole universe. Here, then, we have two decimal series of forces—
one the fixed series required in dynamical calculations, the other the gravitations
or downward forces of the metric weights, convenient in experiments but de-
pending for the amounts of these forces upon the situation where the experiment is
made. Now it so happens that the theoretic forces are close to—about two per
cent. more than—the laboratory forces; and hyper-, when prefixed to the name of
a weight, is intended to signify the slight increase which has to be made in it to
make its gravitation become equal to the adjoining theoretical force. Thus in the
language of systematic measures the hektogram, kilogram, &c., are masses; but the
hyper-hektogram, hyper-kilogram, and so on, are forces, viz., those forces of the
systematic decimal series which are about two per cent. more than the gravitations
of the hektogram, the kilogram, and the other metric weights. The prefix
hyper- may accordingly be paraphrased into ‘10/g times the gravitation of the
weight whose mass is a —.’ The coefficient 10/g, which is indicated by hyper-,
(in which g is gravity at the station where the experiment is made, expressed in
metres per second per second), varies from 1:022 at the equator to 1017 at the
pole, and is about 1:019 in England;? or, with more exactness, an observer at

} The following is a convenient formula for the unit of absolute force :—
The hyper-hektogram =the gravitation or downward force in vacuo of

(10197'8 + 26 cos 2A+ a centigrams

at latitude A, and at the height of 2 metres above the sea.
Hence the hyper-hektogram to the nearest milligram
Grams used as
weights in va-
cuo and at
level of sea.
102:238 at the equator
101:978 at the latitude of 45°

= 1016930 7 Greenwich, which is 51° 28’
= 101:903 3 Dublin Fe 53° 20!
= 101:902 5 Manchester 53, 2 1DS2RZGE
= 101°892 5 Belfast sper HO 4SE GE
= 101°882 - Glasgow ip DD” Oly
= 101881 Edinburgh a) eposbaE

101:718 at the poles,

the extreme range, between the equator and the poles, being the gravitation of about
half a gram (0°52 gram).

—-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 589

Manchester would have to put into one scale of his balance 101-902 gram weights
(with small corrections for his height over the sea, and for the air displaced by the
weights) in order to urge this scale downwards with precisely that force (the
hyper-hektogram) which, if it acted on a mass of one kilogram, would generate in
it an acceleration of one metre per second per second. This he would express by
saying that the hyper-hektogram (that member of the series of decimal systematic
forces which differs but little from the gravitation of a hektogram) is in reality the
gravitation at Manchester of 101-902 gram weights, weighed zn vacuo and at the
level of the sea.

Another affix which will be found convenient is -ez, meaning ‘ unit of,’ so that
the forcein shall signify the unit of force, the massein the unit of mass, &c., which
we happen at the time to be employing. Thus in the C.G.S, system

The massein is one gram;
The lengthein is one centimetre ;
The timein is one second ;

whence

The forcein is the C.G.S. dyne, which is one hyper-milligram, and
The energein is the C.G.S. erg, which is the hundred-thousandth part of
one hyper-grammetre.

The dyne is far too small a unit of force for convenient use in the laboratory
of the mechanician or even of the physicist. It is the gravitation of atiny fragment
of note-paper not more than about one-eighth of an inch square. And the erg, the
unit of energy in C.G.S. measure, is still more preposterously small. The gram-
metre is already a small measure of energy, the hyper-grammetre is only about
two per cent. more; and the erg is the hundred-thousandth part of this small
measure.

Much better systems for practical use are the K.M.S. system and the M.M.S.
system. The K.M.S. system, which is based on the kilogram metre and second,
will be found the most convenient in the laboratory of the dynamical physicist.
In this system—

The massein is one kilogram ;
The lengthein is one metre; and
The timein is one second.

These are its fundamental units, whence are derived—

The velocitein of one metre per second, about an ordinary walking pace;

The densitein of one gram per litre, in which unit the maximum density of
water is 1,000, and the density of standard air is 1°276;

The forcein of one hyper-hektogram, a measure of convenient amount; and

The energein of one hyper-hektogrammetre, which is equally convenient.

The supply of this amount of energy per second is what electricians call a
‘watt.’

To the engineer and to the electrician the M.M.S. system offers certain advan-
tages over that just described ; and either of them is immeasurably to be preferred

To each of these add one milligram for every 30} metres (100 British feet) that
the station is above the sea, and add between 15 and 16 milligrams if the weights
are used in air, and if they are brass weights.

The correction for latitude may be made with sufficient accuracy within the
British Isles by allowing one centigram for every 1° 7’ that the station is north of
the latitude of 45°, z.e., one milligram for a difference in latitude of 6°7 minutes of
arc; the error of this approximation amounting to only one milligram at Edin-
burgh, where it is more than at any other of the above stations—an erior which is
usually of no account, since no determination of the kind can be made to within less
than a fifthet of its entire amount.

590 REPORT—1894.

in practical work to the O.G.S. system. In the M.M.S, system the fundamental units
are—

A massein of ten kilograms (the myriagram) ;

A lengthein of one metre; and

A timein of one second ;

whence we obtain, as derived units—

The velocitein = one metre per second ;

The densitein =ten grams per litre, in which unit the maximum density of
water is 100;

The forcein=one hyper-kilogram; and

The energein = one hyper-kilogrammetre.

Inasmuch as the engineer, if he uses metric weights, determines all his forces in
kilograms and measures energy in kilogrammetres, the M.M.S. system is the most
convenient for him. He has only to increase each of these measures by 1:9 per
cent. to have his determinations expressed in hyper-kilograms and hyper-kilo-
grammetres, 7.e., in systematic measures adapted to any dynamical calculation he
may have occasion to make. It is also deserving of note that this system is more
conveniently related than the K.M.S. system to the C.G.S. system, in which our
best tables have been computed. This arises from the circumstance that /ALM,
a physical quantity which is constantly turning up in the dimensional equations of
electricity and magnetism, is in the M.M.S. system an exact decimal multiple of
what it is in the C.G.S. system, The relation here pointed out is of importance
to the electrician.

The use of the prefix hyper- has the additional advantage of keeping steadily
before the mind of the student the actual amounts of the measures of force and
energy with which he is dealing, and thus helps him to make his conceptions cor-
respond to the facts of nature. The amount of each measure is not brought into
view by such names as dyne and erg unless supplemented by such names as byper-
milligram and hyper-fifthet-grammetre, and is apt to be lost sight of in using the
C.G.S. system.

The author wasa member of the Committee of the British Association, which in
1873 recommended C.G.S. measures for general adoption by physicists. He put
forward in competition with it the K.M.S. system, spoken of above, and also
advocated the use of the prefix hyper- to be employed as described in this paper.
It is correctly recorded in Everett’s ‘ Units and Physical Constants’ that he dis-
sented from the choice made by the Committee, but the reason for his dissent is
not correctly indicated. His main objection was that this choice needlessly led to
such out of the way values for the dyne and erg—needlessly, because other choices
might have been made, such as of either the K.M.S. or the M.M.S. system,
which, while equally adapted to the sciences of electricity and magnetism, would
have been free from this great inconvenience in dynamics. He regrets to have
observed that the choice that was then made has retarded the use of systematic
measures by practical men and even by students, and hopes that this may in some
degree be remedied by the suggestions made in the present paper.

Another useful suffix is -ef, meaning decimal submultiple. As applied to
numerals it gives us such suitable names as sixthet, tenthet, seventeenthet for a
unit in the sixth, tenth, and seventeenth places of decimals, which are otherwise
expressed as 10~®, 10°, 10-7, A convenient symbolical representation is VI‘,
X‘, XVII‘, the symbol © being very easily written and being what in Sir Isaac
Pitman’s system of shorthand spells thet, so that VIC, X‘, XVII‘ are to be read
sixthet, tenthet, seventeenthet.

The suffix -et may also be appended to the names of measures, e.g., metrets are
the decimal subdivisions of the metre. These in their order are to be spoken of as
the decimetre ; the centimetre; the millimetre; the 1V‘m, the fourthet-metre, or
fourth metret; the Vm. fifthet-metre, or fifth metret; and so on, Thus the
micron used by microsc :pists may be described either as

The sixth metret or as
The sixthet-metre,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 591

this last being an abbreviated form of ‘sixthet of a metre,’ just as half-ounce and
quarter-inch mean the same as half of an ounce and quarter of an inch. Similarly
the measure in which wave-lengths of light are usually measured may be described
indifferently as

The tenth metret or as

The tenthet-metre,

Either of these is to be preferred to the designation tenth-metre, which the
author suggested many years ago,! and which has since been in some degree used.
Either tenth-metret or tenthet-metre is correct, but the author himself prefers the
latter form.

In the same way gramets are the decimal subdivisions of the gram. As an
example of their use, it is possible by the kinetic theory of gases to arrive at an
estimate of the mass of a single chemical atom of each element. That of
hydrogen proves to be about the XXV‘g—the twenty-fifth gramet, or twenty-
fifthet of a gram, #.e., the twenty-fifth of that descending decimal series of which
the decigram, the centigram, and milligram are the first three terms.

For multiples it is convenient to introduce the syllable -o-: thus, in the case
of numbers, the name uno-eighteen will mean 10", the number which as ordinarily
written would be 1 with eighteen ciphers after it. (This is about the number of
molecules in each cubic millimetre of air at the bottom of our atmosphere.) The
above number may be symbolised by XVIII, and so on in other cases. Again,
this affix may be appended to such words as metre, gram, &c. Thus the velocity
of light %z vacuo is to be written 3mVIII/sec., and is to be read ‘three metro-
eights per second.’ In like manner a tonne weight (the metric ton) is the gramo-
six, and so on.”

Other useful affixes are -el and -ane: -el to be applied to British measures of
length, -ane to metric. An accordance between British and metric measures
of length may be brought about in either of two ways—either by slightly
shortening the British inch, foot, and yard, or else by in an equal degree lengthen-
ing the metre. In the one case the British foot is shortened down to be exactly
30 centimetres, in the other case the metre is lengthened out to be exactly 40 inches.
The syllable -e/ may be used to indicate the change required in the yard, foot, and
inch, Accordingly the words inchel, footel, and yardel will mean the inch, foot,
and yard shortened in the ratio of 63}: 624, or, which is the same thing, in the
ratio of 1016 to 100. On the other hand, the syllable -ane may be used to
signify an equal change in the opposite direction of metric measures, so that the
metrane, decimetrane, centimetrane, and millimetrane are to be understood as the
metric measures lengthened in the same ratio, z.e., as 623 : 633. With this con-
vention as to the meaning of the affixes we may write—

one inchel = 25 millimetres,
one footel = 30 centimetres,
oneyardel= 9 decimetres,
=(1—;) metre ;
and again—
one inch =25 millimetranes,
one foot =30 centimetranes
one yard = 9 decimetranes,
= (1-5) metrane.*

(Light in vacuo advances almost exactly one footel in each ninthet of a second
of time.)

* Phil. Mag. for August 1868, p. 138.

2, It would, no doubt, be more in consonance with the genius of the English
language to call these the eighteenth uno, the eighth metro, the sixth gramo, and so
on; but this consideration seems more than balanced by the great advantage
possessed by the names as given in the text, of distinguishing in the broadest
possible way between multiples and submultiples.

* The numbers we should otherwise have to use are: inch=25-4 mm., foot
= 30°48 cm., yard = 9'144 dm.

593 REPORT—1 894.

The use of these equivalents makes it easy for persons who are accustomed to
the British yard, foot, and inch to think also in metric measures. They also
furnish a link between British and metric measures which yields a ready means
of effecting a closely approximate conversion of either into the other. For
example, if we want to convert 27 yards into metres we write—

27 yards = (1— +) x 27 metranes
27

= iu 2-7
= 24'5 metranes.

The correction of 1 in every 62°5 (which is the same as ‘1 in every 6, or as

«02 in every 12) requires the addition of rather less than
+°4

which gives 24'7 metres
as the approximate equivalent. The accurate value differs from this by less
than half an inch, and, moreover, by continuing the process two steps further the

accurate value may always be got out. The calculation is of a kind which, when
one is accustomed to it, can be made in the head rapidly and with ease.

DEPARTMENT III.

1. Report of the Electrical Standards Committee.—See Reports, p. 117.

2. Determination of the International Ohm in Absolute Measure.
By Professor Virtamu Jones, /’.2.S.—See Reports, p. 123.

3. Comparison with the B.A. Units of some Coils of Low Resistance.
By R. T. Guazesrooxk, F£.2.S.—See Reports, p. 128.

4. Comparison of the Standards of the Board of Trade with the B.A. Unit.
By J. Rennize.—See Reports, p. 130.

5. Comparison of some Standards belonging to the Indian Government.
By E. O. Watker.—See Reports, p. 131.

6. On the Specific Resistances of Copper and Silver.
By Rev. T. C. Firzpatrick.—See Reports, p. 131.

7. On Standards of Low Electrical Resistance.
By Professor Virtamu Jongs, F.2.S,.

8. On the Specific Conductivity of Copper. By J. TeICHMULLER.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 593

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 15.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Displacements of the Rotational Axis of the Earth. By Professor
W. Forster.—This Paper was ordered by the General Committee to
be printed in extenso. See Reports, p. 476.

2. A Lecture-room Experiment to illustrate Babinet’s Principle. By Pro-
fessor A. Cornu, /’.2.S.—This Paper was ordered by the General Com-
mittee to be printed in extenso. See Reports, p. 480.

3. A New Explanation of the Wave-movements of a Stretched String.
By Wm. Bartow.

The writer begins by setting out the commonly received explanation which
attributes to the string when disturbed the properties of a cord slipping through a
bent tube at a velocity such as to make the pressure on the tube arising from the
centrifugal force just balance the pressure caused by the tension.’

He then argues that this course involves the fallacy that a wave-movement is
supposed to take place spontaneously in the disturbed cord, whereas all that the
argument offered proves is that 7f a wave ts set up and travels at a certain rate in a
given direction, 7t will have a constant form.

He further shows that the conditions laid down do not suffice to determine the
direction of the wave; that the direction is perfectly arbitrary.

He then suggests another explanation of the wave-movements in question.

This is based on the observed behaviour of a highly elastic cord, and he attri-
buted the wave-movement to the successive orientation of segments of the stretched
string caused by a difference of tension due to inertia, the spot at which the
difference makes itself felt travelling along the string, now in one direction, now
in the opposite, as the string swings from side to side of its normal position.

5. On Lunar Curves of Mean Temperature at Greenwich, and the
Heat of the Moon. By J. Park Harrison.

The great heat experienced in 1893 led the author to tabulate the mean tem-
peratures of the day at Greenwich for that year, according to the age of the moon,
to see how far a curve derived from them corresponded with the model curve for
618 lunations, which was exhibited by him on the last occasion when the British
Association visited Oxford. Whilst closely following the curve alluded to, the
maximum temperature showed itself two days earlier in the lunation; but the
same abrupt fall in temperature occurred immediately after the first quarter, and
continued below the average of the year from that period until the second day after
last quarter. The difference between the maximum on the fourth day of the lunation
and the minimum on the day of full moon was 6° Fahr. for twelve complete

lunations.
1 See Art. ‘Wave,’ Enc. Brit., p. 416.

1894. QQ

594 REPORT—1894.

Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor Harotp B. Drxon, M.A., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

‘An Oxford School of Chemists.’

Ir has been said, and no doubt with truth, that few Presidents of Sections start
writing an address without referring to that of their predecessor who held office on
the last occasion when the Association met in the same city. By such reference
each new President gains the advantage of many points of perspective and con-
trast ; for in the interval a generation of workers has passed away, and the last
new thing of the old meeting is the ancient instance of to-day. In the present
case I turned to the Report of 1860 with a lively hope of drawing inspiration from
it; for my predecessor at the last Oxford meeting was no less a master of experiment
and expression than the late Professor Brodie. Judge of my disappointment when
I found that Brodie had written no address at all. Whether that great man,
knowing there were better things to do here than listen to addresses, had the
courage to make an innovation he thought desirable in itself, or whether, as others
say, he was but obeying the etiquette of the Oxford professoriate, the fact remains,
the assembled chemists went away unaddressed, and the natural spring of inspira-
tion for the address of 1894 is found dry at its source. Of course you will say,
‘Why do you not follow such a good example?’ I wish I had the courage. As
it is, [ can but urge the vacuum of 1860 as some excuse for the emptiness of the
address I now present—compelled to do so partly by the force of fashion and the
demands of the assistant general secretary, and (shall I add?) partly by the grati-
fication of holding forth, with a little brief authority, in my old academic home,
endeared to me personally by so many happy memories, and hallowed in the minds
of chemists by the traditions of such great achievements in the science we pursue.

I say traditions advisedly, for the chemical achievements spoken of were largely
forgotten, or put on one side as guesses and half-truths. No chemist here will need
reminding that I refer to the first school of scientific chemistry, the school founded
two centuries and a half ago by Robert Boyle with his disciples Hooke and Mayow
—a group whom I will venture to call ‘ the Oxford school of chemists.’ And now
that chemists are met together once more in Oxford it seemed to me not inappro-
priate for us to consider what this school of chemists accomplished, and wherein it
failed, what led to the sudden growth and what to the decline of chemical investi-
gation here, and what lessons for modern Oxford may be read in the history of that
rise and fall.

The intellectual awakening which followed the re-discovery of the ancient
world of literature gave rise to the scientific interrogation of nature. In Italy
first, and then in France, England, and in Germany, the diffusion of classical
learning broke down the ancient barriers of restraint, and developed a spirit of free

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 595

‘Inquiry. It was not so much that ignorance had to be dispelled, but that the right
of search had to be established. Here and there during the Middle Ages some man
of genius had arisen—learned beyond all his contemporaries, intrepid in the pursuit
of truth—only to be crushed by a political and mental despotism. The name of
Roger Bacon arises at once in our thoughts, who from his Oxford cell sent forth
that great appeal for experimental science that nearly converted a Pope of Rome
and won three centuries for intellectual freedom. But his labour bore no fruit.
I know no better index to the dominant sentiment of the time than the following
words from a papal rescript reproving the members of an Italian university for
scientific presumption: ‘They must be content with the landmarks of science
already fixed by their fathers, and have due fear of the curse pronounced against
him who removeth his neighbour's landmark.’ Under such conditions no wonder
philosophy was at a standstill. ‘The same knots were tied and untied; the same
clouds were formed and dissipated.’' The cramped philosophy of the Middle Ages
had in alchemy a fitting colleague-—with its mysticism, its sordid ideals, its trickery,
and its arrogance. The revival of learning was thus an emancipation of the mind,
and in the new freedom the sciences of mechanics, physics, and chemistry arose.
The first necessity for progress was enlightenment, the second was experiment: in
the year that Francis Bacon died Robert Boyle was born.

The common pursuit of experimental inquiry and the need for constant criticism
and discussion among its followers led to the foundation of scientific societies.
Such societies, which have greatly influenced the progress of knowledge, sprang up
in Florence and Padua, in Paris and Oxford—wherever, among bodies of learned
men, some were found in sympathy with natural philosophy. Among these associa-
tions the Philosophical Society of Oxford has played no unimportant part, and,
however much Oxford may have undervalued its work, for one thing all chemists
are grateful, and Oxford herself may feel proud—that here, under her influence,
first grew up the idea that chemistry was no mere drudge of medicine, or genii of
the alchemist, but a science to be studied purely for itself.

The origin of this Oxford Society has been well told by Dr. Wallis, one of its
founders :—

‘About the year 1645, while I lived in London (at a time when, by our civil
wars, academic studies were much interrupted at both Universities), besides the
conversation of eminent divines, I had the opportunity of being acquainted with
divers worthy persons inquisitive into natural philosophy, and particularly of what
hath been called experimental philosophy. We did by agreements meet weekly in
London to treat and discourse of such affairs; of which number were Dr. John
Wilkins, Dr. Jonathan Goddard, Dr. Eat, Dr. Merret, Mr. Samuel Foster, then
Professor of Astronomy in Gresham College, and Mr. Theodore Haak, and many
others.

‘These meetings we held sometimes at Dr. Goddard’s lodgings, on occasion of
his keeping an operator at his house for grinding glasses for telescopes and micro-
Scopes; sometimes at a convenient place in Cheapside, and sometimes at Gresham
College. Our business was (precluding matters of theology and State affairs) to
discourse and consider of philosophical inquiries. . . . About the year 1648, some
of our company being removed to Oxford (first Dr. Wilkins, then I, and soon after
Dr. Goddard), our company divided. Those in London continued to meet there
as before, and those of us at Oxford, with Dr. Seth Ward (since Bishop of
Salisbury), Dr. Ralph Bathurst, President of Trinity College, Dr Petty, Dr. Willis
(an eminent physician in Oxford), and divers others, continued such meetings in
Oxford, and brought those studies into fashion there, meeting first at Dr. Petty’s
lodgings (in an apothecarie’s house), because of the convenience of inspecting drugs,
and, after his removal, at the lodgings of Dr. Wilkins, then Warden of Wadham
College, and, after his removal, at the lodgings of the Honourable Mr. Robert
Boyle, then resident for divers years in Oxford.’

Robert Boyle, the youngest child of the great Earl of Cork, was born at
Lismore in 1626. His mother died when he was a child, Always delicate, he

1 Whewell, Hist. o7 Ind. Sci.

QQ2

596 REPORT—1894,

was sent at twelve years of age with a tutor to the Continent; he remained abroad
for six years. He studied chiefly at Geneva and at Florence, where he read the
works of Galileo. Returning to England in 1644, he busied himself with chemistry
at Stalbridge, a manor in Dorsetshire left him by his father. On his visits to
JLondon he became one of the members of the ‘Invisible College,’ the germ of the

toyal Society. ‘Vulcan has so bewitched me,’ he writes at the age of twenty-
three, ‘as to make me fancy my laboratory a kind of elysium.’

Drawn to Oxford in 1654, Boyle spent here the most active years of his life in
experimental research. Of Boyle's scientific writings much has been said in extra-
vagant praise and much in ridicule. Boerhaave wrote: ‘To him we owe the
secrets of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, and fossils.’ This phrase is not
more grotesque than that of a recent writer, who says, ‘ Boyle’s name is identified
with no great discovery.” Dr. Johnson has very justly remarked, in a number of
the ‘Rambler:’ ‘It is well known how much of our philosophy is derived from
Boyle’s discoveries, yet very few have read the details of his experiments. His
name is indeed reverenced, but his works are neglected.’ It is, indeed, rather hard
to read through one of Boyle's papers, even in the abridged form. Though clear,
they are discursive. The writer cannot rid himself entirely of the essences and
qualities of the alchemists; and it is only when we compare these records with
the works of Van Helmont, his immediate predecessor, that we recognise the
enormous advance that has been made by Boyle. -I must pass over his physical
work on the elasticity of the air. It must suffice to say that he established by
most careful experiment the law which is known by his name—that the volume of
a given mass of air varies inversely as the pressure upon it. He determined the
density of the air, and pointed out that bodies altered in weight according to the
varying buoyancy of the atmosphere. One of his most. important chemical papers—
certainly the one most frequently cited—is ‘The Sceptical Chemist,’ published
anonymously in 1661, I will attempt the briefest account of it. The opening
words of the dialogue strike the keynote of the whole :—-

‘Notwithstanding the subtle reasonings of the Peripatetics and the pretty
experiments of the Chymists, I am so diffident as to think that, if neither can
produce more cogent arguments than are usually given, a man may reasonably
doubt as to the number of those material ingredients of mixed bodies which some
call elements and others principles.’ He proceeds, through the mouth of one of
the supposed disputants, to attack the doctrine of the three elements, the tria
prima of the alchemists—sulphur, mercury, and salt. ‘ There are some bodies,’ he
says, ‘from which it has not yet been made to appear that any degree of fire can
separate either salt, or sulphur, or mercury, much less all the three. Gold is the
most obvious instance. It may be heated for months in a furnace without losing
weight or altering in character, and yet one of its supposed constituents is volatile
and another combustible. Neither can water or solvents separate any of the three
principles from gold; the metal may be added fo, and so brought into solution and
into crystalline compounds, but the gold particles are present all the time; and
the metal may be reduced to the same weight of yellow, ponderous, malleable
substance it was before its mixture.’ He points out the confusion which earlier
chemists had made between calcination in the open air and distillation in retorts ;
he shows that in compounds, e.g., copper nitrate, the particles retain their nature,
although disguised, in the combination, for the nitric acid may be separated by
heat, the copper by precipitation. But the sceptical chemist, though pouring
ridicule on the ¢ria prima, could not but admit the power of water to produce
organic substances. He quotes Van Helmont’s famous experiment of growing a
shoot of willow in baked earth moistened with distilled water, and he repeats the
experiment in various forms. Ignorant of the existence of carbonic acid in the
air (discovered a century later by Black), he is driven to conclude that the plant
is fashioned out of the pure water. But he rejects the doctrine—as old as Thales
and as modern as Van Helmont—that water is the foundation of all things.
M. de Rochas had publisked a remarkable experiment on water. By artificial
heat, by graduations of coagulations and congelations, he had turned it into earth
which produced animals, vegetables, and minerals, The minerals began to grow

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 597

and increase, and were composed of much salt, little sulphur, and Jess mercury ;
the animals moved and ate, and were composed of much sulphur, little mercury,
and less salt. ‘I have some suspicions,’ says Boyle, ‘concerning this strange
relation; though, as for the generation of living creatures, both vegetable and
sensitive, it need not seem incredible, since we find that our common water, which
is often impregnated with a variety of seeds, long kept in a quiet place, will
putrefy, and then, too, produce moss and little worms according to the nature of
the seeds that were lurking in it.’

I will give two short quotations from the ‘Sceptical Chemist,’ which show the
author at his best and his worst. In the first he is discussing the nature of
chemical combination between elementary particles: ‘There are clusters wherein
the particles stick not so close together, but they may meet with corpuscles of
another denomination, disposed to be more closely united with some of them than
they were among themselves; and in such case two corpuscles thus combining,
losing that shape, size, or motion upon whose account they exhibited such a
determinate quality, each of them really ceases to be a corpuscle of the same de-
nomination as it was before ; and from the coalition of these there may result a new
body, as really one as either of the corpuscles before they were confounded... If
you dissolve minium in good spirit of vinegar and crystallise the solution, you
shall not only have a saccharine salt exceedingly different from both its in-
gredients, but the union is so strict that the spirit of vinegar seems to be destroyed
. . - for there is no sourness at all, but an admirable sweetness to be tasted in the
concretion.’ In this passage we can distinctly see the germ of the modern theory
of chemical affinity uniting atoms into chemical compounds. In the second
quotation Boyle is arguing that fire is not only an analyser of mixtures, but
compounds the ingredients of bodies after a new manner; mercury, for instance,
may be turned into a liquid, from which the mercury cannot be reduced again, and
consequently is more than a ‘disguise’ of it. ‘Two friends of mine,’ he says,
‘both of them persons of unsuspected credit, have solemnly assured me that after
many trials they made to reduce mercury into water, they once, by several
cohobations, reduced a pound of quicksilver into almost a pound of water, and this
without the addition of any substance, but only by urging the mercury with a fire
skilfully managed. Hence it appears that by means of fire we may obtain from a
mixed body what did not pre-exist therein.’ Boyle has sometimes been charged
with credulity, and chemists who know how mercury has a way of disappearing
without leaving even its weight of water behind wili smile to hear that the persons
of unsuspected credit responsible for this experiment were ‘the one a physician,
the other a distinguished mathematician.’

Boyle’s writings contain the record of numerous important chemical observations,
¢.g., the synthesis of nitre, and the preparation of nitric acid by the distillation of nitre
with oil of vitriol. He discovered several of the delicate tests we still use, e.g., solution
of ammonia as a test for copper, silver nitrate as a test for chlorides, gallic acid as
a test for iron. But I wish especially to refer to the work done by Boyle on the
air and its relation to combustion. The air, according to him, was composed of
three different kinds of particles: (1) exhalations from water and animals; (2) a
very subtle emanation from the earth’s magnetism, which produces the sensation of
light ; and (3) a tluid compressible and dilatable, having weight, and able to refract
light. It is this third portion of air which plays an active part in many chemical
operations. Like Van Helmont, Boyle recognised differences in gases, but did not
distinguish them as being something different in kind from air. He prepared
hydrogen by the action of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids on iron, but his chief
concern was to show that the new gas was compressible and was dilatable by
heat ; in other words, that it was really air. His observations are worth quoting ;
they contain, I believe, the first undoubted description of hydrogen, and the first
method devised for collecting and examining freshly prepared gases.

‘ Having provided a saline spirit . . . exceedingly sharp and piercing, we put into a
viol a convenient quantity of filings of steel, purposely filed from a piece of good,
steel. This metalline powder being moistened with the menstruum was afterwards
drenched with more, whereupon the mixture grew very hot, and belched up copious

598 REPORT—1894.

and stinking fumes. ... ‘Whencesover this stinking smoak proceeded, so in-
flammable was it, that upon the approach of a lighted candle it would readily
enough take fire, and burn with a blewish and somewhat greenish flame at the
mouth of the viol ; and that, though with little light, yet with more strength than
one would easily suspect.’ 1

And again: ‘ We took a clear glass vial, capable of containing three ounces of
water, with a long cylindrical neck; this we filled with oil of vitriol, and fair
water, of each a like quantity, and casting in six small iron nails we stopped the
mouth of the glass, and speedily inverting it, we put the neck of it into a wide-
mouthed glass with more of the same liquor init... . And soon after we per-
ceived the bubbles, produced by the action of the menstruum upon the metal,
ascending in swarms; by degrees they depressed the liquor till, at length, the
substance contained in these bubbles possessed the whole cavity of the vial. And
for three or four days and nights together the cavity of the glass was possessed by
the air, since by its spring it was able for so long a time to hinder the liquor from
regaining its former flaca. Just before we took the vial out of the other glass,
upon the application of the warm hand to the convex part of the glass, the im-
prisoned substance readily dilated itself like air, and broke through the liquor in
several succeeding bubbles.’

The importance of this experiment will be evident when we consider that Van
Helmont had declared that gases could be made artificially in many ways, but
could not be caught and held in vessels.”

Armed with the air-pump which he had so greatly improved, Boyle in 1660
began many experiments on combustion, which he afterwards published under the
title ‘New Experiments touching the Relation betwixt Flame and Air.’ In these
researches he shows that sulphur will not burn when the air is removed. The
sulphur was lowered on to a hot iron plate in a receiver made vacuous by the
pump; it smoked, but did not ignite. On allowing a little air to enter ‘divers
little flashes could be seen :’ these were extinguished on sucking out the air again.
A candle flame and a hydrogen flame under a receiver were gradually extinguished
when the air was pumped away. On the other hand, on dropping gunpowder on
to a hot iron plate zn vacuo there appeared ‘a broad blue flame like that of brim-
stone, which lasted so very long we could not but wonder at it’; and fulminating
gold detonated tz vacuo when heated by a burning glass, or when dropped on
heated iron. Gunpowder also he found to burn under water. He is driven to the
conclusion ‘that flame may exist without air.’ But it may be supposed that air
is mechanically enclosed in the crystals of nitre—‘in its very formation the
corpuscles may intercept store of little aereal particles. ... According to this
surmise, though our mixture burns under water, yet it does not burn without air,
being supplied with enough to serve the turn by the numerous eruptions of the
aereal particles of the dissipated nitre.’ However, he ‘ removes this suspicion’ by
obtaining nitre crystallised ex vacuo, He then suggests the possibility of the nitre
supplying ‘ vehemently agitated vapours’ which are no true air, but being exceed-
ingly rarefied by the fire ‘emulate air.’ Boyle never grasped the true function of
air in combustion. From his later experiments on the calcination of metals he
drew the same conclusion that we find in the ‘Sceptical Chemist,’ namely, that
igneous particles combine with other corpuscles to form new bodies. And yet he
saw there was a real connection between air and fire. In his tract on Artificial
Phosphori Boyle showed that a piece of phosphorus sealed up ina glass vessel
gradually lost its light. ‘It seems,’ he wrote, ‘that the air included with the
phosphorus either had some vital substance preyed upon thereby, or else was tamed
by the fumes of the phosphorus and rendered at length unfit to continue the
particular flame of our noctiluca.’

The genius of Robert Hooke was in sharp contrast with that of Boyle.

? *On the Difficulty of preserving Flame without Air,’ 1672.

? “Gas, vasis incoercibile, foras in aerem prorumpit.—Ortus Medicine. The
epithet ‘sylvestre’ was applied by Van Helmont to all artificially prepared gases.
He meant by it ‘untameable’ and ‘non-condensible ’—‘ quod in corpus cogi non
potest visibile.’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 599

Quick, restless, imaginative, he sprang from discovery to discovery. With extra-
ordinary acuteness and powers of invention, he lacked the steady purpose of
Boyle, the calm judgment and completeness of Newton—his two great scientific
contemporaries. It might be said of Hooke, as was said of a great poet, he
touched nothing he did not strike fire from; and some would add that his touch
had the same effect on persons as on things. We can hardly name a discovery
of this age which Hooke had not in | sc anticipated and claimed as his own.
Like a prospector in a newly discovered mining district, he hurried from spot to
spot, pegging in his claims and promising to return to work out the ore. And
what rich lodes he struck! The particular claim we are concerned with here is
the discovery of the relation between air and flame. In 1665 Hooke published
in the ‘Micrographia’ a description of flame and the phenomena of combustion
which in my judgment has never been surpassed. How far he was indebted to
Boyle will appear directly.

Born in 1685, Hooke spent five years at Westminster School, then under
Dr. Busby, and proceeded to Christ Church in 1653. At school and college it is
related of him that he devoted his time to designing flying machines. These
mechanical inventions attracted the notice of Dr. Wilkins, Warden of Wadham,
and a leading member of the Philosophical Society. This led to his introduction
to Dr. Willis, to whom he became assistant in chemistry and natural philosophy.
Willis recommended him to Boyle, whose assistant he became. His first work in
Boyle’s laboratory was the construction of the improved air-pump. In 1662
Boyle obtained for him the position of curator of experiments in the London
Society, soon to be known as the Royal Society. Hooke was thus Boyle's
assistant when those experiments on combustion I have described were being
carried on. Among other experiments made by Boyle were some on the dis-
tillation of wood in retorts.

‘Having sometimes distilled such woods as box, whilst our caput mortuum
[z.e., the residue] remained in the retort it continued black like charcoal, though
the retort were kept red hot in a vehement fire; but as soon as ever it was
brought out of that vessel into the open air the burning coals would degenerate
or fall asunder into pure white ashes.’1 Hooke saw the experiment and a new
light flashed on him. ‘From the experiment of charring coals,’ he writes,
‘(whereby we see that, notwithstanding the great heat, the solid parts of the
wood remain, whilst they are preserved from the free access of the air, undissi-
pated) we may learn that which has not been published or hinted, nay, not so
much as thought of by any; and that in short is this:—

‘That the air is the universal dissolvent of all sulphurous [i.e., combustible]
bodies. ...

‘That this action of dissolution produces a very great heat, and that which we
call fire.

‘That this action is performed with so great a violence, and does so rapidly
agitate the smallest parts of the combustible matter, that it produces in the
diaphanous medium of the air the action, or pulse of Light.

‘That this dissolution is made by a substance inherent and mixed with the
air, that is like, if not the very same with, that which is mixed in saltpetre.

‘That the dissolving parts of the air are but few . . . whereas saltpetre is a
mepstruum . . . that abounds more with these dissolvent particles.

‘It seems reasonable to think that there is no such thing as an element of
fire, ... but that that shining transient body which we call flame is nothing
else but a mixture of air and volatile parts of combustible bodies, which are
acting upon one another whilst they ascend; which action . . . does further
rarifie those parts that are acting or are very near them, whereby they, growing
very much lighter than the heavy parts of that menstruwm that are more remote,
are thereby protruded and driven upwards.’

Hooke quotes no other experiments in support of his theory of flame. He
states that he has made many; he has, however, only time ‘to hint an hypo-

1 The Sceptical Chemist.

600 REPORT—1894,

thesis,’ which if he is permitted opportunity he will ‘prosecute, improve,” and
publish.’ Some years later he returned to the subject of flame in his tract called
‘Lampas,’ published in 1677. ‘The flame, as I formerly proved, being nothing
but the parts of the oyl rarified and raised by heat into the form of a vapour or
smoak, the free air that encompasseth this vapour keepeth it into a cylindrical
form, and by its dissolving property preyeth upon those parts of it that are
outwards, . . . producing the light which we observe; but those parts which
rise from the wick which are in the middle are not turned to shining flame till
they rise towards the top of the cone, where the free air can reach and so dissolve
them. With the help of a piece of glass anyone will plainly perceive that all the
middle of the cone of flame neither shines nor burns, but only the outward super-
ficies thereof that is contiguous to the free and unsatiated air.’

What is practically the same theory of flame was worked out experimentally
by John Mayow, Fellow of All Souls: this was published a few years after the
‘ Micrographia.’

But Mayow went further, and distinctly showed the dual nature of the air.
One constituent of air, the nitre air, is concerned in respiration and combustion ;
the other will neither support flame nor animal life. The ideas, the names, pro-

osed by Hooke and Mayow are so exactly similar that it is impossible to
Imagine that the work was done independently. The two were working at the
same time at Oxford, and Mayow, having been an undergraduate at Wadham
under Dr. Wilkins, became the pupil of Willis. Yet Mayow nowhere mentions
Hooke’s name. A writer in the ‘ Dictionary of National Biography’! has shrewdly
observed that Hooke has brought no charge of plagiarism against Mayow, and
even proposed him for the Royal Society four years after the publication of the
‘Five Tracts.’ Knowing what we do of Hooke’s jealousy, it seems exceedingly
unlikely that Mayow was merely working out Hooke’s ideas. It seems to me
probable that Hooke and Mayow worked together under Boyle between 1660 and
1662; that in Boyle’s laboratory they saw and assisted in the experiments which
led them jointly to their theory; that Hooke, busy with other work in London,
published the hypothesis in 1€65 without further verification ; and that Mayow in
Oxford systematically worked through the experiments on which he based his
conclusions.

Let me briefly show what the experiments were on which Mayow relied.
Combustible bodies will not burn in the vacuous receiver of Boyle’s air-pump ;
they will burn zz vacuo or under water when mixed with nitre. There is, there-
fore, something common to air and to nitre which causes combustion. The fiery
particles in air and in nitre both form oil of vitriol by their union with sulphur; they
both form iron vitriol by their union with pyrites. Rust of iron is produced both
by the air and by acid of nitre; the acids of sugar and honey are formed, and wine
is soured, in the same way. The nitre-air (spiritus nitro-aereus), the supporter
of combustion and the acid producer, is therefore the same chemical substance
whether it exist in the gaseous form in air or is condensed in saltpetre.

Mayow heated a weighed quantity of antimony by means of a burning glass,
and found it increased in weight during the calcination ;* the calcined antimony,
he adds, has the same properties as the body prepared by heating antimony with
nitric acid ; it is impossible to conceive, he says, whence the increase in weight
arises except by the fixation of the particles of nitre-air during the heating.

The nitre-air does not make up.the whole of the air, but only its more active
and subtle part, for a candle under a glass will cease to burn while there is still
plenty of air left. The experiment by which Mayow shows this is so important
that I will quote his words :—

‘Let a lighted candle be so placed in water that the burning wick shall rise
about six fingers’ breadth above the water ; then let a glass vessel of sufficient
height be inverted over the candle. Care must be taken that the surface of the
water within the glass shall be equal in height to that without, which may be

1 Mr. P. J. Hartog.
2 This experiment seems to have been first described by Poppius, Basilica
Antimonii, 1625.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 601

_ done by including one leg of a bent syphon within the vessel while the other opens

_ outside. The object of the syphon is that the air, enclosed by the vessel and com-

_ pressed by its immersion into the water, may escape through the hollow syphon.

hen the air ceases to issue, the syphon is immediately withdrawn, so that no air

can afterwards get into the glass. In a short time you will see the water gradually
rising into the vessel while the candle still burns.’

In other experiments he burnt camphor and sulphur supported on a shelf in the
inverted vessel. The water rose, he says, because, owing to the disappearance of
the fire-air, the air left could not resist the pressure of the atmosphere outside.
When the combustibles were extinguished it was impossible to kindle them again
by means of the sun’s rays concentrated on them by a burning glass. The residual
air was no more able to support combustion than the vacuum of Boyle’s engine.
Again, the respiration of animals in the closed space was shown to diminish the
air, and to render it incapable of supporting combustion; the fire-air was as
necessary for life as for flame. The larger portion of the air was something
entirely different from fire-air, and incapable of supporting life or combustion. I
believe this to be the first definite statement founded on experiment that the air is
peas of two distinct gases.

have given the fundamental facts in chemistry we owe to Mayow; the limits
of his work are sufficiently obvious. He detected the existence of what we call
oxygen gas in the air, and demonstrated some of its most remarkable properties.
He did not isolate the gas, or show what became of it in combustion ; he did not
always distinguish between the gas itself and the heat produced by its action. But
the advance he made was extraordinary—not so much in the conclusions he drew
as in the experiments and arguments he founded them on. Compare him for a
moment with another writer who had previously expressed similar views concerning
the calcination of metals. Jean Rey, of Perigourd, a witty and shrewd physician,
published in 16380 a series of essays attributing the increase in weight of metals on
calcination to the fixation of the air. ‘ When asked,’ he writes, ‘ why tin and lead
increase in weight on calcination, I reply and gloriously maintain that this increase
comes from the air which is thickened and made heavy and adhesive by the long
continued heat of the furnace. This air mingles with the calx and attaches itself
to the smallest particles.’ The reply is good, but the reasons that gloriously main-
tain it are not altogether conclusive. I can only give two of them: (1) The air
has weight.—This is shown by the increase in velocity of heavy bodies falling to
the earth, because as the body approaches the earth it subtends a wider angle from
the centre of the earth, and receives more shocks from the particles of air. Again,
although the air appears to weigh nothing on the balance, this is because we weigh
it in air; it loses its weight, just as water weighs nothing in water. Fire has
weight too, and should we ever find ourselves in a region where fire is the pre-
dominant element, we shall be able to prove the statement in the same way.
(2) Fire can thicken and make air heavy.—Stand a cannon upright and put a red-
hot ball into it. You must admit that the air in the gun is so small in quantity
that it will be heated to the same temperature as the ball. Nevertheless you can
hold your hand in the mouth of the gun at first, but in a short time you cannot
do so. Not that the air has got hotter, it is cooling all the time; it is because the
air is thickened. Now if you drop a fleece of wool into the mouth, it will not
descend, and if you push it in, it will come up again, proving the air is heavier.
Lastly the air is seen to tremble over the mouth of the gun, and objects seen
through it are blurred. This is due to the thickening, it cannot be due to a motion
of the air; ‘for I see,’ he says, ‘ a lady's beauty quite distinctly through the air she
flutters with her fan.’

From what has been stated it will be clear that the Oxford School of Chemistry
was a school of research. Boyle gave no instruction in the ordinary sense; and,
indeed, had no official connection with the University. But that he thought instruc-
tion in chemistry should be given in the University is obvious from the fact that
he brought over a chemist from Strasburg, and set him up as a lecturer with rooms
next his own and the use of his laboratory. Of these lectures we find a quaint
account in Anthony Wuod’s diary :—

602 REPORT— 1894.

‘An, Dom. 1663.

‘Began a course of chemistry under the noted chemist and rosicrucian,
Peter Sthael, of Strasburgh, brought to Oxon. by the hon. Mr. Rob. Boyle,
an. 1659. He took to him scholars in the house of John Cross next on the
w. side to University Colle. The club consisted of 10 at least, whereof Francis
Turner of New Coll. was one, Ben Woodroff of Ch. Ch. another, and John Lock
of the same house, afterwards a noted writer. This John Lock was a man of
turbulent spirit, clamorous and never contented. The club wrote and took notes
from the mouth of their master, who sat at the upper end of the table, but the
said J. Lock scorned to do it; so that while every man besides were writing, he
would be prating and troublesome. After the beginning of the year 1663
Mr. Sthael removed his elaboratory to a draper’s house, called John Bowell, after-
wards mayor of the city, situate in the parish of All Saints. He built his
elaboratory in an old hall in the back, for the house itself had been an ancient
hostle ; therein A. W. and his fellows were instructed. The chemical club con-
cluded, A. W. paid Mr. Sthael 30 shill: having paid 30 shill: beforehand. A. W.
got some knowledge and experience, but his mind still hung after antiquities and
musick.’

In spite of Boyle’s private position, his blameless life, his devoutness, and his
charity, his work aroused bitter animosity in Oxford. He was attacked in the
University pulpit, in public orations, in private squibs; his theories were described
as destructive of religion, his experiments as undermining the University. But
what chiefly drew the indignation of his opponents was that he, a gentleman by
birth and fortune, should concern himself with low mechanical arts. Against
these attacks Boyle replied with irresistible logic. His vindication of the nobility
of scientific work constitutes one of his greatest claims on our gratitude.

Boyle left Oxford in 1668. Mayow died in 1679. In 1683 Anthony Wood
informs us that ‘ the Oxford elaboratory was quite finished ;’ but the impulse given
to the study of Chemistry in Oxford gradually died out. I do not know the
history of the Chair of Chemistry in Oxford (if there was one) in the eighteenth
century. Richard Frewin, of Christ Church, is described as Professor of Chemistry in
1708. He does not seem to have taken himself too seriously in this capacity.
Uffenbach, who visited Oxford in 1710, says he found the stoves in fair condition,
but everything else in the laboratory in dirt and disorder. Frewin himself was
elected Camden Professor of Ancient History in 1727. He seems to have thrown
himself into his new work with greater ardour; for Hearne relates that, on his
election, he at once bought one hundred pounds’ worth of books in chronology and
history to fit himself for his duties. For a companion picture to this we may
glance at the appointment in 1764 of Richard Watson (afterwards Bishop of
Llandaff) to the Chair of Chemistry at Cambridge, which had been founded in
1702. Dr. Watson, we are told, knew nothing at all of chemistry; had never
read a syllable nor seen a single experiment on the subject. On his election he
sent to Paris for an ‘operator, and set to work in his laboratory. In fourteen
months he began to lecture to a large audience.

But Watson at Cambridge was succeeded by Wollaston. We had to wait till
Brodie for a successor to Boyle.

Il.

We have seen what a vigorous effort Chemistry made to plant itself in Oxford
in the seventeenth century. If the soil had been prepared the roots must have
struck deep. But the University paid little heed, and after a few years of prodigal
growth the plant withered and died out. It would seem that the positions are
reversed at the present day. The University spends large sums for supervision
and appliances; the young plants are brought here and nurtured at great expense,
but the fair blossoms produce little fruit. Even our best friends admit that the
results are somewhat disappointing. If these are the facts—and I speak as one
who shares the responsibility for the present condition of chemistry here—it is the
duty of those concerned to speak out; and I can conceive no more fitting oppor-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 603

tunity than the present for pointing out some of the causes that appear to hinder
our growth. Let no one think I wish to disparage the University. I should be
the last person to do so. I owe to my old college the opportunity, the help, and
the example which made me a chemist, and gave me an interest in life. I only
wish to see more general the advantages it was my luck to meet with in Christ
Church.
Chemistry in modern Oxford is accorded a place side by side with older studies.
No one can complain that scholarships are not offered broadcast, that money has
not been freely given for laboratories; and yet I think the student does not feel
around him the atmosphere in which an experimental science should be cultivated.
We see Chemistry endowed and extended, we do not see it respected by the bulk
of students and of learned men. In my undergraduate days a rhyme was current
here (I think it was coined in Cambridge—the Parnassus of parodies) expressing
views which were undoubtedly held concerning the claims of chemistry as a sub-
ject a a degree. One verse ran—it was from the Lamentation of a would-be
Bachelor—

‘I thought to pass some time before, but here, alas, I am,
Having managed to be plucked in every classical exam.
I cannot get up Plato, so my reverend tutor thinks
I had better take up Chemistry, which is commonly called “ Stinks.”’

I do not quarrel with the versifier (except as a poet), I do not even quarrel
with the reverend tutor, whose opinion of us is obviously small, because I do not
think myself that Chemistry as it is taught is a very good subject for a degree.
Still less is it a subject which we should allow to monopolise the schoolboy’s time.
While holding strongly that the elements of Physics and Chemistry form a neces-
sary part of a liberal education, I believe we have made two mistakes with regard
to the teaching of science. We have by our science scholarships encouraged too
early specialisation at school; we have overburdened our undergraduates here
with a multitude of facts they cannot retain. A boy specialises for two years at
school; he learns a prodigious array of facts from the latest text-book, and also
acquires some skill in the art of quickly reproducing what he has learnt. He wins
a science scholarship. We then tell him he must go back to, or begin, the study
of the classical languages we look on as essential for our degrees. By a certain
time he must reach a certain (rather low) standard, or his scholarship lapses. He
learns that it is advisable to get assistance from those who have made a special
study of preparing candidates for pass examinations. He crams; or he goes to a
crammer and iscrammed. Let us suppose, as is usually the case, that the obstacle
is Greek. I will not deny that the standard of Greek demanded may imply some
important discipline at school, and some real culture of the mind, provided the
instruction given is on wholesome lines and forms part of a liberal course. Got
up in a hurry as it too often is, solely with the object of passing, it means time
and effort wasted and worse than wasted. It is of no value in itself, for it is
forgotten in less time than it took to acquire; and it gives the student the first
pernicious taste of that superficiality and false knowledge it should be our special
aim to remove. Is it not desirable that scholarships should be the reward of pro-
gress and ability 7x the general subjects of school education among which the
elements of science should have a place? The brightest and most persevering boys
would come to the University, and there make choice of the special course they

_ wished to pursue.

My second complaint is that we teach too many facts, They are not al}
important. After three or four years’ steady accumulation our men go into the
schools walking dictionaries of chemistry. Parents not unnaturally think that
their sons, after four years of college training, should be fit to take responsible
places wherever chemists are in demand. But manufacturers, as a rule, do not
care for University graduates, I cannot blame them. We cannot guarantee that

_ the men we send out with honours in Chemistry can attack a new problem, can
work out new processes, can prepare new dyes. German manufacturers, on the
other hand, prefer a University graduate, for they have in their degree a guarantee

604. REPORT—1894,

that the student has successfully attacked some unknown problem, and added to
the store of knowledge.

The influence of science onthe nation’s industry has been recognised and
insisted on by those who can make their voices heard. The country has at length
awakened to the fact that something is wanting, and cries out for Technical
Instruction. It is not afraid of spending money: indeed, many well-meaning
bodies are spending—and in some cases, I fear, wasting—money with a prodigal
hand. And what, after all, is the great need? Speaking for the subject I know
best, I say unhesitatingly that we want scientific chemists who can and will make
discoveries ; we want men trained, not only in what has been done, but taught how
to set about winning new knowledge. The Universities, I urge, should teach the
art of research. This is what is wanted, and this, as all experience shows, is what
the Universities can do better than anyone else. And no exorbitant amount of
time need be demanded for this purpose. If the student has learnt the elements of
acience at school, three years at most should suffice for the preliminary degree
course. The graduate, armed with the necessary manipulative skill, would then start
research work under proper guidance as the second and more valuable portion of
his University training. And here the new research degree (by whatever name it
may be called) may give us most valuable help. I hope that serious work will be
demanded for it, and that the research course will become the recognised avenue to
science fellowships and lectureships in the University. Two years would show what
the man had in him. In that time either he would have proved himself no chemist,
or he would have made some useful advance in our knowledge, and would have
secured a testimonial of fitness such as no examination could confer. Five years in
all—the minimum time now laid down for a medical qualification—would surely
be not too much to ask for the chemist’s training.

No extra expense need be incurred to carry out this plan. Some of the college
scholarships at present offered on entrance might be reserved for research student-
ships on graduation. These studentships should be the reward of the successful
undergraduate career. On this point, which I have urged for many years, I am
glad to find myself in entire agreement with the President of the Chemical
Society. At Owens College our most successful endowment in Chemistry has
been the Dalton Scholarship, awarded for a research done in the College labora-
tories. In the Victoria University we have lately founded scholarships for the
encouregement of research, which are awarded on the results of the final exami-
nation in the several Honours Schools. The winners are entitled to hold their
scholarships at any university at home or abroad where they can continue their
special studies.

I plead, then, for greater encouragement of chemical research in Oxford. Make
it part of the normal course of training for everyone who wishes to be a chemist in
fact as well as in name. Consider, not only the country’s need, but the value of
research itself as a mental training, as stimulating and strengthening the activities,
as creating that sense of devotion and discipleship which becomes the tradition of
every great school of learning.

Lastly, let us own that we ourselves—the teachers here—have been perhaps too
critical, too much afraid of making mistakes, forgetting that the witty American’s
remark—that he who never makes mistakes never makes anything—has a far
wider application in science than in politics. Only by practice and drill can we
learn to collect our strength and swing it with precision into acts. Without that
training, uo matter how much faculty of seeing a man has, ‘ the step from knowing
to doing’ is rarely taken. There is nothing, I believe, in Oxford antagonistic to
eur cause. The genius of the place has not declared against scientific research ;
and if it be a true saying that men here imbibe a liberal education from the very
air breathed by Locke and Berkeley, surely we also may draw scientific inspiration
fom this air, not only breathed, but first explained by Boyle and Hooke and

ayow.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 605

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on an International Standard for the
Analysis of Iron and Steel.—See Reports, p. 237.

2. Report of the Committee on Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative
Analysis.—See Reports, p. 160.

3. On the Proportions of Carbonic Acid in Air which are Hatinctive to
Flame, and which are Irrespirable. By Frank Ciowss, D.Sc., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University College, Nottingham.

It is generally maintained that a man cannot breathe air which contains suf-
ficient carbon dioxide to extinguish a candle-flame. ‘Tne correctness of this state-
ment is of great importance to those who have occasion to work in an atmosphere
which may contain large proportions of carbonic acid, such as that in a colliery on
mine, or in a well-shaft.

The careful determination of the proportion of carbonic acid in air which is
just sufficient to extinguish flame has been made by the author, the method adopted
differing essentially from the methods previously employed. Experiments by earlier
investigators had shown very wide discrepancies.

The author finds that the flames of candles, oil, paraffin, and alcohol are extin-
guished by air containing from 13 to 16 per cent. of carbonic acid. The flame of
coal-gas, however, required the presence of at least 33 per cent. of the extinctive
gas, and the flame of hydrogen was not extinguished until the amount of carbonic
acid in the air reached 58 per cent.

Taking 15 per cent. of carbonic acid as the proportion in air which is extinctive
of ordinary portable illuminating flames, it is of interest to note that this percentage
of the gas in air appears from the recent experiments of Mr. J. R. Wilson ' to be
quite harmless when breathed. Mr. Wilson found that a rabbit which had
breathed for an hour air containing 25 per cent. of carbonic acid was none the
worse for its experience, but appeared at the end of the hour more lively than at
the beginning. Air containing 60 per cent. of carbonic acid, however, proved fatal
to the rabbit after it had been breathed for a few minutes only. Unfortunately no
intermediate proportions were experimented with.

It is therefore apparently safe to say that air containing at least 10 per cent.
of carbonic acid more than that required to extinguish a candle-flame can be
breathed with impunity. Probably a much higher proportion of carbonic acid
than this can be breathed.

Dr. Angus Smith and many others fully support from experience the statement
that a man can breathe and work in air containing more than sufficient carbonic
acid to extinguish a flame.

The extraordinary vitality of the hydrogen-flame in the presence of high propor-
tions of carbonic acid renders it valuable for maintaining the flame ina miner's safety-
lamp in foul air. The composite safety-lamp described by the author at the
Nottingham Meeting of the British Association * serves this purpose well. It can
burn either an oil-flame or a hydrogen-flame or both together. When used for
gas-testing, one of the flames only is used as occasion may require. But it has.
been found that when the lamp runs the risk of being carried into foul air, it is
most advantageous to burn the hydrogen-flame alongside the illuminating oil-flame-
A comparatively low proportion of carbonic acid extinguishes the oil-flame, and
this would leave the miner in darkness and without the means of recovering his
light, since the lamp may not be opened and relighted in the mine. But the
hydrogen-flame continues burning in the presence of over 50 per cent. of carbonic

1 American Journ. Pharm., 50, No. 12.
2 British Assoc. Report, 1893, p. 728.

606 REPORT—1894.

acid, and will rekindle the oil-wick after the foul air has been left or passed
through.

Tews worthy of note that the proportion of carbonic acid which was extinctive
of any particular flame was independent of the size of the flame.

Further, it was noticed that the wick-fed flames gradually diminished in size as
the proportion of carbonic acid in the air was increased ; this was evidently due to
the lowered temperature of the flame leading to a diminished supply of combus-
tible gas or vapour being produced from the combustible solid or liquid ; the flame
ultimately died because it was starved of fuel. The flames of gases fed from jets,
on the other hand, increased in size as the proportion of carbonic acid in the air
was increased. It appeared that the flame extended its surface in the air containing
a diminished proportion of oxygen, in its endeavour to obtain the supply of oxygen
necessary for its combustion. This expansion of the flame lowered its temperature
ultimately below the kindling point of the gas, and the flame was therefore extin-
guished by being cooled. The extinctive proportions of carbonic acid for different
flames was therefore determined by the amount of oxygen required for combustion,
and by the extent to which the temperature of the flame in air surpassed the
kindling point of the combustible gas or vapour.

Results obtained with Naked Flames.

Extinctive Proportion of Carbon Dioxide
added to the Air

Percentage Composition of

Combustible Sunienee burnt in the Pbreadtagel! |P: the Mixture
ixture - =
of Carbon S;
Dioxide N wri
Bp 6]
mideg Oxygen Carbon
Dioxide
I.—Candle . 2 : : i 4 14 18:1 81:9
Colza and petroleum. - A 16 17°6 82-4
Ordinary lamp paraffin . Q 15 17:9 82°1
Alcohol, pure . : = : 14 181 81:9
Alcohol, methylated ; : = 13 183 81:7
Il.—Hydrogen : 3 < : : 58 8:8 91:2
Coal-gas . A : : . ; 33 14-1 85°9
Methane (fire-edamp) . . A 10 18°9 81:1
Carbonic oxide (white-damp) . 24 16:0 840
Ethylene : : : : : 26 155 84:8

4. On some Experiments with Free Hydroxylamine.
By Dr. C. A. Lopry pz Bruyn, Amsterdam.

The President of this section, Professor H. Dixon, has invited me to give some
account of my researches concerning free hydroxylamine. In responding to this
friendly request, I only propose to show you some of the properties of this sub-
stance by some experiments, for the time at my disposal forbids a detailed treat-
ment of the subject ; moreover a paper, containing the results of the investigation,
has been published im eztenso, in the ‘ Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-
Bas.’

In a few words I may remind you that the free base can be prepared in the
following way. The hydrochloric acid salt of the base is dissolved in absolute
methyl alcohol, the equivalent quantity of methylate of sodium is added, the
common salt which precipitates is filtered off, and the solution of the free base
concentrated by distillation at 100 or 200 mm. By fractionating the residue at the
pressure of 20 mm., the pure free base passes over at 58° as a crystallised substance

|

|
:
:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 607

melting at 33°; it is of a high specific gravity (1:35), without odour, hygroscopic
and volatile.

The reason why the free hydroxylamine must be distilled at a low pressure is
that the substance is pretty violently explosive, and that explosion occurs sponta-
neously at the temperature of 180°. Thus care must be taken never to heat the
substance too strongly, for if heated at the ordinary pressure to 70° or 80°, an
explosion may occur, the spontaneous decomposition raising the temperature. The
hydroxylamine is an endothermous compound, and can be transformed totally into
gaseous products, the two conditions which, as is known, characterise an explosive.
I have produced an explosion in the following manner: 1 or 1-5 c.c. of the melted
base were put into an ordinary open test-tube, with a thermometer in it ; the tube
stood in an ordinary beaker, which, heated by a burner, acted as an air-bath.
When the temperature had reached 90°, the flame was withdrawn ; the spontaneous
decomposition was vigorous and the temperature rose to 130.° Then a violent
explosion took place, the glass apparatus was reduced to powder, the copper-gauze
on which the vessel stood was torn to pieces, phenomena which prove that the
explosion is of the same nature as that of high explosives. If one drop of the
melted base in a tube is brought into a flame, a loud explosion is heard.

The free base can burn in the air with a feeble yellowish flame.

That hydroxylamine is a highly reducing agent is known since Lossen, about
thirty years ago, discovered the salts of the base. It is obvious that the free base
must show reducing properties in a much higher degree. On exposure to the air
at the ordinary temperature it gradually attracts oxygen ; one of the products of
the oxidation is nitrous acid. When the free surface in contact with the air is
extensive the oxidation is accompanied by a rise of temperature—for instance, when
some filter paper or asbestos is moistened with the melted substance. A current
of oxygen passing over the substance gives rise to the formation of fumes containing
nitrous acid, the temperature rising at the same time.

It is not surprising that oxidising agents act violently with the free base; thus,
for instance, the solid permanganate of potassium, chromic acid, and some peroxides,
in contact with some drops of the substance, produce inflammation. Powdered
bichromate of potassium causes a sharp detonation; solid iodate of sodium and
nitrate of silver are also reduced instantaneously. The action of anhydrous sul-
phate of copper is also very violent ; the reduction of the salt may be accompanied
by inflammation.

Metallic sodium also acts violently, producing a flame. If the action is
moderated by adding some dry ether, hydrogen is evolved and a white substance,
NaONH,, is formed. This compound is a dangerous one because it explodes by
contact with the air.

The halogen acts vehemently with the free base ; chlorine inflames it; bromine
and iodine disappear immediately, producing the corresponding acids, water, and
nitrous oxide.

As to the solvent properties of the free base, these are nearly equal to those of
water. It dissolves different salts, some of them, as for instance KI, in great quantity.
Gaseous ammonia, introduced at 16° into the melted base, is dissolved rapidly and
gives a solution containing 20 per cent. of the gas.

In the same way the substance behaves like water with respec’ to other
liquids; it is consequently only easily soluble in the alcohols and nearly insoluble
in the ordinary organic liquids. Methyl and ethyl alcohol are miscible with the
melted base in every proportion; these solutions, however, below the melting point
of the base are supersaturated with respect to the solid compound. There exists,
however, a difference between liquid hydroxylamine and water, the former not
being miscible in all proportions with propyl alcohol. :

That hydroxylamine can occupy the place of the hydrate water in salts has
been proved by Crismer, who has prepared the salts ZnCl,, 2NH,OH, BaCl,, NH,OH,
&c.; by means of dry ammonia Crismer has prepared the free base from these
double-compounds.

The presence of the hydroxyl group in hydroxylamine explains the analogies
between this substance and water; the difference in their behaviour must be

' explained, at least partly, by the greater molecular weight of the former.

608 REPORT—1894.

Solid caustic soda is also very soluble in the melted base; care must be taken
to keep it cool when adding the soda. This solution is much more liable to oxida-
tion than the free base ; exposed to the air the solution may spontaneously inflame.
So we see that the presence of alkali (or rather of NaONH,) increases in a high
degree the liability to oxidation, the free base oxidising not so quickly as the solu-
tion of NaOH in it, while the solid NaONH, explodes in contact with the air.

Although, as has been shown, free hydroxylamine is a strong reducing agent,
it can be reduced itself by means of zinc dust. If this substance is moistened with
the base (in an atmosphere of nitrogen), a pretty violent reaction occurs five or ten
minutes later, and ammonia and zinc oxide are formed.

5. The Chemical Action of a New Bacterium in Milk.
By ALEXANDER BERNSTEIN.

Up to the present time the chemical action of bacteria on sugar has received
the largest share of attention, the alcoholic and acid fermentations offering them-
selves most readily for observation.

In regard to the effect of bacteria on casein, it has generally been considered as
sufficient to say that some bacteria seem to have a rennet-like action, whilst others
have a peptonising effect. It was assumed that a certain class of bacteria have
the peculiarity of producing an enzyme which curdles the milk under alkaline
reaction, and afterwards producing another enzyme which dissolves the curd
again. Such actions can be noticed if a milk is strongly heated and then left to
itself,

The author succeeded in isolating a bacterium, which had such an unusual
effect on sterilised milk, that further studies appeared desirable. These investiga-
tions have been carried on by the author at the Hygienic Institute of Berlin.

The special bacterium is a very short rod, scarcely 141 long and ‘5p in diameter :
it shows rapid whirling motion, forms colourless liquid colonies on peptone-
gelatine, which is soon entirely liquefied; on agar a white slimy growth; on
potatoes a smooth brown skin. No spores could be observed. The microbe has
received the name Bacterium peptofaciens.

A practical method of inoculating large quantities of milk with this bacterium
was next described, the object being to obtain a new product out of milk in which
all the casein is in a dissolved state, as it is well known that ordinary milk is not
easily digested by many grown-up persons on account of the undissolved state of
the casein.

Milk which had been deprived of its cream by separators was used for this
purpose. After incubation during eight days at 20°C. the further action of the
bacterium was prevented by heating the milk. This killed the bacteria and caused
coagulation of that part of the casein which had not been dissolved. A clear
filtrate was obtained : it had a yellow-reddish colour, an aromatic smell, and a taste
reminding one of almonds.

The results of a detailed chemical analysis were given. It was shown that
more than one-half of the casein had been hydrated and formed into albumose and
peptone. The various reactions of the dissolved protein substances were stated.

A small amount of lactic acid was formed, and a very slight amount of acetic
and butyric acids, these last two together coming only to ‘03 per cent. The bac-
terium does not produce any gaseous products, even after weeks of action.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, indol, and skatol were not formed. The sulphur of the
casein was still contained in the peptone. Ammonia was present in the form of
salts, the amount of ammonia being equal to ‘07 per cent. Of tyrosin only the
existence could be shown, the amount being too small to show crystals under the
microscope.

Reference was made to similar products generated during the ripening of
cleese, which is entirely the action of microbes.

1 1n4=0:001 mm,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 609

The liquefied milk is slightly concentrated by evaporation, and to the new
product so obtained the name of ‘galacton’ has been given. The investigation in
regard to any enzyme being formed by the Bacterium peptofuciens gave the result
that this is not the case. As compared to the meat peptones now largely used,
the galacton has the advantage of containing no gluten-peptone, which probably
explains the much better taste; further, that no chemicals, such as hydrochloric
acid, are required in its preparation.

Formerly it has been supposed that milk-sugar could only undergo acid
fermentation, but lately special yeasts have been found which produce alcoholic
fermentation of milk-sugar. By means of such yeasts an alcoholic beverage can
be made out of galacton.

The author concluded with the remark that bacteria have of late been most
conspicuous in the minds of most people by the fact that, out of the enormous
number of bacteria existing, there are a few which have pathogenic effect. But
the action of bacteria in nature is an eminently useful one, and by the chemical
study in this direction we shall learn how to utilise their peculiar action to our
advantage.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

A discussion on the behaviour of gases with regard to their electrification and
the influence of moisture on their combination was opened by the reading of the
three following papers :—

1. On the Connection between Chemical Combination and the Discharge of
Electricity through Gases. By Professor J. J. Tomson, I.A., F.R.S.

[This paper was ordered to be printed in extenso.—See Reports, p. 482.]

2. On the Electrification of Molecules and Chemical Change.
By H. Brereton Baker.

[This paper was ordered to be printed in extenso.—See Reports, p. 493.]

3. On the Rate of Oxidation of Phosphorus, Sulphur, and Aldehyde.
By Tuomas Ewan, B.Sc., Ph.D.

Gaseous oxygen appears sometimes to be more active chemically in the dilute
state than when it is more concentrated. This remarkable behaviour was studied
in the cases of phosphorus, sulphur, and aldehyde, by the author in Professor
van't Hoff’s laboratory in Amsterdam.

With phosphorus and oxygen (saturated with aqueous vapour at about 20°) it
was observed that for pressures of oxygen greater than 700 mm. the rate of oxida-
tion was excessively small or nothing at all. Below 70U mm. it increases rapidly.
This limit corresponds with that found by Joubert, below which phosphorescence:
begins. After reaching its maximum velocity a very simple relation exists between
the rate of oxidation and the pressure of the oxygen, provided that the change in
the rate of evaporation of the phosphorus, which, according to Stefan, is produced
by the change in the pressure of the oxygen, is taken into account. The rate of
oxidation is then directly proportional to the pressure of the oxygen. In the
absence of water the oxidation also begins suddenly, but at a much lower pressure
(about 200 mm.). Again allowing for the change in the rate of evaporation of the
phosphorus, the velocity of the reaction quickly reaches a maximum and then
decreases, as nearly as could be made out, proportionally to the square root of the
pressure of oxygen. The results here were not so certain as might be desired,
owing to the layer of oxide formed on the surface of the phosphorus disturbing
the regular course of the reaction.

1894. RR

610 REPORT—1894,

With sulphur in dry oxygen, where the course of the reaction can be con-
veniently followed at 160°, it appears (again allowing for the change in the rate
of evaporation) that the velocity of the reaction is proportional to the square root
of the oxygen pressure.

No limit was observed here up to 800 mm., beyond which no observations were
made.

To eliminate the uncertainty introduced by the correction for the rate of evapo-
ration of the phosphorus and sulphur, the reaction between the vapour of acet-
aldehyde and oxygen was studied (at 20°). The reaction was found to go perfectly
regularly, and its velocity was proportional to the product of the pressure of the
aldehyde vapour and of the square root of the pressure of the oxygen gas.

The interpretation of these facts would appear to be that only that small part
of the oxygen which is broken up into atoms takes part in the oxidation.

4, New Methods of Spectrum Analysis, and on Bessemer Flame Spectra,
By Professor W. N. Hartuey, F.2.8.

This communication comprises three parts :—

1. On the Separation of Spectra of the Alkalies from those of the Alkaline Earths.
—This is accomplished by fusing the material with boracic acid, hydrated silica, or
dissolving in hydrofluosilicic acid. The salts so formed are used in the ordinary
manner in a Bunsen flame,

2. Methods of obtaining Spectra with Flames at High Temperatures.—The difti-
culty of obtaining spectra at high temperatures arises from the necessity of having a
support for the substances to be examined which is practically infusible in the oxy-
hydrogen flame. The mineral kyanite from County Donegal is suitable for supports
in the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe flame. A commoner material is ordinary tobacco-
pipe, which serves as a support for various metallic salts. The spectra obtained in
the oxy-hydrogen flame have the following characters, by which they may be
classitied :—

(1) Lines: lithium, thallium, nickel, cobalt.

(2) Bands: antimony, bismuth, gold, tin, sulphur, selenium.

(3) Bands and lines together: copper, iron, manganese, tellurium, lead, and

silver.

(4) More or less continuous spectra with lines: sodium, potassium, magnesium,

chromium, cadmium.

(6) Continuous spectra: zinc, carbon, arsenic.

(G6) No spectrum: platinum.

Band spectra can be converted into line spectra by reducing the quantity cf
substance in the flame. This is shown by the lines of silver which are found to be
present in spectra obtained from ordinary copper; the spectrum of silver being
itself a band spectrum. A distinct flame spectrum may be emitted by compounds
at high temperatures. Examples of such spectra are those of magnesia, lime,
copper-oxide. Some compounds emit only the spectra of the metals they contain ;
such are compounds of iron, nickel, cobalt, chromium, manganese, sodium, potas-
sium, lithium, thallium, and rubidium.

3. Bessemer Flame Spectra.—Up to the present time the precise nature of the
spectrum, the cause of its production, its sudden disappearance when decarburisa-
tion of the metal takes place, and the connection between the decarburisation of
the metal and the extinction of the spectrum, have not been satisfactorily explained.
According to Roscoe, Lielege, Kupelwieser, and Spear Parker, the spectrum is
characterised by bands of carbon or of carbon monoxide, which disappear when all
carbon is burnt out of the metal.

On the other hand, according to the investigations of Simmler, Brunner, von
Lichtenfels, and Wedding, the spectrum is not due to carbon (Roscoe), or to car-
bon monoxide (Lielegg and Kupelwieser), but to manganese and other elements in
the pig-iron.

The very careful examination of these spectra by Watts, and his comparison of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 611

them with that of the Bessemer flame; led to the conclusion that it was not the
spectrum of carbon in any form, or of manganese, but that of manganic oxide.

The spectrum is a complex one, which exhibits differences in constitution
during different periods of the ‘blow,’ and even during different intervals in the
same period. As originally observed by Watts, the spectrum differs in different
works, the difference being due to temperature and to the composition of the
metal blown.

During the First Period.—The lines of the alkali metals, sodium, potassium,
and lithium, are seen unreversed on a bright, continuous spectrum caused by
carbon monoxide. The C line of hydrogen, and apparently the F line, were seen
port during a snowstorm, when much moisture entered the metal with the

ast.

During the Second Period, the ‘ Boil’—Bands of manganese are prominent,
overlying the continuous spectrum of carbon monoxide. There are lines of carbon
monoxide, manganese, and iron, also those of the alkaline metals.

During the Third Period, the ‘ Fining Stage.’—The spectrum is the same as the
foregoing, but the lines of iron are not so strong and not quite so well defined.
Some of the short lines of iron disappear; the lines of the alkali metals are
visible,

The alkali metals do not show themselves in the Bessemer flame until a layer
of slag has been formed and the temperature has risen sufficiently high for these
basic constituents to be vaporised. At the temperature of the ‘boil,’ cr second
period, both metallic manganese and iron are freely vaporised in a current of
carbon monoxide which rushes out of the bath of molten metal. The evidence of
this is the large number of bands of manganese and lines of iron in the spectrum.

When the metal blown contains but little manganese, the manganese spectrum
in the flame does not arise from that substance being contained in the bath of
metal; it must be vaporised from the slag. That this is so has been proved by
photographs of the spectrum from samples of slag obtained from the Crewe works.
This explains the fact observed by Brunner, namely, that when a converter is
being heated with coke after it has been used, but not relined, the spectrum of the
Bessemer flame makes its appearance; manifestly it comes from the adhering slag.

The luminosity of the flame during the ‘boil’ is due, not merely to the com-
bustion of highly heated carbonic oxide, but also to the presence of the vapours of
iron and manganese in the gas.

The disappearance of the manganese spectrum at the end of the ‘fining stage,’

or third period, is primarily due to a reduction in the quantity of the heated
carbon monoxide escaping from the converter, which arises from the diminished
quantity of carbon in the metal. When the last traces of carbon are gone, so that
air may escape through the metal, the blast instantly oxidises any manganese
either in the metal or in the atmosphere of the converter, and furthermore oxidises
some of the iron. The temperature must then fall with great rapidity.
' The entire spectroscopic phenomena of the ‘blow’ are undoubtedly determined
by the chemical composition of the molten iron, and of the gases and metallic
vapours within the converter, the temperature of the metal, and that of the
issuing gases.

The Temperature of the Bessemer Flame.—The probable temperature of the
Bessemer flame at the finish is that produced by the combustion in cold air of
carbonic oxide heated to about 1,580° C.—that is to say, to the temperature which,
according to Le Chatelier,! is that of the bath of molten metal from which the gas
has proceeded.

5. On the Chemistry of Coal Formation.
By J. W. Tuomas, /.I.C., F.C.S,

The age of the coal, and the physical conditions, such as the effect of water,
heat, and pressure, should throw light upon the chemistry of coal formation; but

; 1 Comptes Rendus, vol. cxiv.
RR2

612 REPORT—1894.

the coals in one ‘ field’ are found under different physical and chemical conditions
from those of another, and little evidence is obtained by comparison.

The decomposition of peat and of wood teaches us more of the chemistry
of coal formation. In both instances the woody fibre disappears first, leaving a
residue richer in resinoids. The lignites of Bovey Tracey have, as in the case of
decaying peat and wood, an excess of resinoid matters over the vegetation which
formed them. Hutton found mineral resin in Carboniferous coals, and others since.
‘Witham showed long ago, and much recent evidence proves, that conifers and
other dicotyledons flourished during the Carboniferous period. Just as lime and
other trees shed saccharine matter on the leaves and grass underneath, so it is
probable that liquid, gummy, and resinous matters were showered from the forest
vegetation during the Carboniferous and Tertiary periods. |

The chemical changes in coal formation took place chiefly at and near the
surface. In the formation of paraffin shale and some Scotch cannels the woody
fibre of the forest growths was destroyed, little else but bituminous matters remain-
ing. A resinous vegetation without much dicotyledonous trees, or if with dicotyle-
dons, considerable surface exposure and decomposition of the woody fibre, would
produce rich bituminous coal, Wigan cannel, &c. A luxuriant resinous and
dicotyledonous vegetation, assisted by heat and pressure, without much surface
decomposition, probably gave rise to semi-bituminous, steam, and anthracite coal.

Our present chemical knowledge of coal may be summed up as follows :—

J. It contains water after air-drying. The hygroscopicity of coal has not
received due attention. The water is in chemical combination. Further, the
hygroscopicity is most probably the key tc the spontaneous combustion of coal.

2. Coal contains the gases, liquids, and solids of the paraffin series, but these
together will not make up more than 1 per cent. of Carboniferous coals.

3. The bulk of coal is carbon, with more or less hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur, and ash. We shall probably never know how the carbon is combined or
how much is in the free state.

Further experiments are suggested as follows :—

1. Upon the decomposition of dicotyledons to throw light upon the formation
of coal.

2. Upon the hygroscopicity of coal; and to study its bearings upon the
spontaneous combustion of coal on board ship.

3. Upon coals from all British coal-fields, to determine the quantity and, if
possible, the constituents soluble in gasolene (petroleum ether) or benzine as
employed by Mr. Watson Smith.

4. To act upon the various coals with a weak solution of potassic hydrate.

6. On the Iodine Value of Sunlight in the High Alps. By Dr. 8. Ripeat-

At the meeting of the Association in Nottingham I had an opportunity of sub-
mitting the values of the sunlight in the Upper Engadine in terms of the amount
of iodine liberated from an acidulated solution of potassium iodide during the
month of January 1893. These experiments have been continued during the
months of January and February of the present year by my brother, A, W. Rideal,
and the results may therefore not be without interest. The recent experiments
were conducted in exactly the same way as those of last year, so that in all respects
they are strictly comparable.

The solutions were standardised by standard iodine solution prepared in
England, and the hyposulphite solution was checked against this solution from
time to time during the progress of the experiments.

During the last winter the weather was, on the whole, bad, and the number of
days on which snow fell or which were overcast were more numerous than in the
corresponding period of last year.

The maximum value was obtained on February 4, and was equal to 14:52 mgms.
of iodine per 100 c.c., as compared with 13°5, the maximum value on January 1],
1898. The lowest value was 3:53 on December 9, 1898, as against 5°7 on

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

January 24 of last season. The number of bad days on which little or no sun was
recorded lowers the average for the period under examination.
7:05 mgms. per hour, whilst in January 1893, taking only the bright days, the

quantity was 9°34.

I understand that the ordinary meteorological record was kept as usual, and
that the data are to be found in the ‘Alpine Post’ for the days on which these

experiments were carried out. I append, however, a brief note as to the atmo-

spheric conditions in a separate column.

No. of
Date Hours
1893. Dec. 6 . 3°5
” ” 7. 4:5
” ” 8 ba 55
nA ae cot. 4°75
” » 10. 5
* Sees LL 4:25
” »” 29 5
¥, ou! s 5
oe i we 7
1894. Jan. 1 . 45
a Bena as) « 45
” ” 3 = 5
3 Fee a 4:5
PP 7 5. 4:5
“7 AES ee 4-5
” ” 7. 55
5 SPAtELOU 5°25
” ” 9 . 45
” ” 10. 5
” ae! 5
” » 12 5
” ” 13 5
” ” 14 5
” ” 15 5-75
” ” 16 5°25
” ” 17 5
” ” 18 5
” » (19 5
” ” 20 5
oY Rr abierd: 5°25
” » 22 5°25
” ” 23 5
” ” 24 5
+ » 20 5°25
2h is, 20 4°75
a emer i 5:5
a Paes) 5-5
33 “jem ise 5°75
x} wo oO. 5:75
iy “peat ae 55
fee el eb; © 1: |: 5°75
4 yee tae 5°75
Hy eh mae 65
” ” 4 . 6
ter: SF ib. 168
” ” 6 . ff
ay eae 65
» ya) ce) enh
” ” 9 e 7

Total Mgms.
Iodine
per 100 c.c.

27:93
35'S

36-08
26°77
355

33°75
37°83
32°01
38°99
34:33
26°77
21:53
19-78
20°95
16°85
20°95
1978
35°5

37°53
42-48
39°86
54:12
34:63
38°99
41-61
34:92
22°98
22°11
35°79
44:23
42°77
18-62
21°82
43°65
24:15
48°88
73°04
46°56
58°49
22°89
21°86
34°38
44-91
87:17
64°41
38°71
72°69
39 89
56°73

Conditions

Sunny

”

”
Overcast
Sunny
Sun with clouds
Sunny
Sun, but solution frozen
Sunny, solution frozen
Sunny

», some clouds

» overcast 2 hours
Overcast
Very little sun
No sun, snowing

Overcast most of the day
Sunny

”

’
» 3 hour after sunset

”

Cloudy
Snowing

Sun and clouds
Sunny

”
Sgow all day
Snowing
Sunny
Snowing
Sun with clouds
Sunny
Overcast
Fair, not much sun
Half sun and overcast
Overcast, snow

” ”
Not much sun
Sun all day
Sunny
Sun and clouds
Sunny
Sun and clouds

It amounts to

614 REPORT— 1894.

= Total Mgms.
: No. of on Hour bay
Da‘e Fonte ee es Wins Conditions

| 1894. Feb.10./ 8 Jy (58:21 727 | Sun and clouds

Ja ght ool Teil BOBS 7:26 see, Pictur

. ee eis T 67:03 9°57 | Sunny

S 5 elon 6:25. | 28-95 463 | Sun 1 hour, then snow
Secs Berm Iz, nes tf 46°98 671 ,, then overcast
akin Me ee Som ag | 52:00 G50) |e Pee A:

» » 16.) 65 38°11 6-92 9} 33 ”

. Sheol ae 6:5 26°59 4:09 | Snow, little sun

5 ot he Ser met f 55:25 7:89 Sunny :

F Pa lt 65 36°64 5°63 | Sun and clouds

FA ee Uae 7 | 55°84 T97 Sunny

. » 21.| 6S | 54-96 8-45 72

ae ae Wea ed ds, Ra ds

own

3 0 20 Bs 7 | 59°16 845 | Sun and overcast

3 gehen) 6 lDedhege O08 5:45 | Overcast

9 Cee Ad) 675 | 55°10 8:10 | Sun and clouds

3 pone 7 32°77 4:48 Snow and rain

eee ees it 16 ae 60-90 9:02 | Sunny

ef 3 Lome 7:25 82°87 11-43 | Sun 1 hour after sundown

Tt has been remarked in the Engadine that the amount of sunlight during the
winter months has been diminishing, but so far as I have been able to ascertain,
there is no accurate information upon which a statement of this character can be
based. The average value per hour obtained from my experiments last year for the
month of January, including the bad days, amounted to 841 mgms. of iodine
per 100 c.c., per hour, whilst, as already mentioned, the mean from the above
experiments, extending over a longer period, is 7-05. This shows that the average
amount of light was less during the 1893-4 season than during the previous one,
but I do not think that from the records of two seasons any deductions can
legitimately be made.

I hope to make arrangements for a continuance of this work during the ensuing
winter, and should be glad to hear of similar work being carried on at some of the

other centres in the High Alps.

7. Interim Report of the Committee on the Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials.

8. Interim Report on the Bibliography of Solution.—See Reports, p. 246,

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.

1. A joint meeting with Section A was held, at which Lord Ray eEicn,
Sec.R.S., and Professor W. Ramsay, F.2.S., gave a preliminary account
of a New Gaseous Constituent of Air.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 615

The following Papers were read :—

2. On Schuller’s Yellow Modification of Arsenic.'
By Professor H. McLeop, 1.2.5.

3. On the Electrolysis of Glass.
By Professor W. C. Roperts-Austen, 12S.

4. On the Relations between the Viscosity of Liquids and their Chemical
Nature.2 By Dr. T. E. Tuorps, F.2.S., and J. W. Roper.

During the past four years the authors have been making observations on the
viscosity of liquids with the view of establishing relationships between this property
on the one hand and molecular weight and molecular structure on the other. They
have employed the tube-method of measuring the viscosity coefficient, and in the
case of each liquid the observations extend over the temperature range between (UF
and the ordinary boiling-point. More than eighty liquids have now been
examined.

For liquids which do not appear to contain molecular aggregates, at any tem-
perature, the following conclusions may be drawn :—

1. In homologous series the viscosity coefficient is greater the greater the mole-
cular weight.

2. The coefficient of a normal compound is greater than that of the isomeric
iso-compound.

3. The coefficient of an allyl compound is intermediate to those of the corre-
sponding normal propyl and iso-propyl compounds, and, in general, constitution
exerts a regular effect on the viscosity coefficient.

Liquids which appear to contain complex molecules in certain cases donot obey
these rules. Formic and acetic acids are exceptions to Rule 1. The alcohols do
not conform to Rules 2 and 3. In general, the effect of temperature upon viscosity
is much greater for complex than for simple liquids. In both classes of liquids the
behaviour of the initial members of several homologous series does not accord with
that of higher homologues.

In attempting to quantitatively connect viscosity with chemical nature, the
authors have used two magnitudes—the molecular viscosity and the molecular vis-
cosity-work—which may be derived from the viscosity coefficient. If y be the
viscosity coefficient and'v be the molecular yolume, the molecular viscosity is nvs,
or the product of 7 and the molecular area. The molecular viscosity-work is v,
the product of 7 and the molecular volume. The values of these magnitudes
have been examined at three different series of temperatures of comparison—viz.,
the ordinary boiling-points, the corresponding temperatures of 0°-6, and tempera-
tures of equal slope or points on the viscosity curves at which temperature is
exercising the same effect upon the viscosity of each liquid. On ascribing
definite partial values to the atoms and the different modes of atom-linkage—the
iso-grouping, double linkage, the ring-grouping, &c.—it has been found possible to
calculate the viscosity magnitudes of the great majority of the simple liquids.
The results obtained at equal slope are by far the most precise, but even here the
alcohols, water, and, to a less extent, the acids are anomalous, doubtless on account
of the influence of molecular complexity. A strong point in favour of the new
method of using equal slope as a condition of comparison is that the stoichiometric
relationships obtained at any one value of the slope appear to be general, and thus
to be independent of the particular value of the slope at which the comparisons
are made. This conclusion applies even to complex liquids like water and the acids,
but not to the alcohols, which of all the liquids examined exhibit, at all of the
systems of comparison, the most exceptional behaviour.

} Published in the Chemical News, 1xx., p. 139, Sept. 21, 1894,
2 Published in full in the Phil. Trans., 1894,

616 REPORT—1894,

5. Some Haperiments on the Rate of Progress of Chemical Change.
By Dr. J. H. Guapstone, £.2.8.

In the last February number of the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ Mr. Veley
pointed out four stages of a chemical reaction: ‘ First, the commencement ; second,
the period of inertness or reluctance, followed by acceleration ; third, of constancy ;
fourth, of diminution of velocity.’ This reminded the author of various old
experiments which had never been published, and he returned to the subject with
a view of seeing whether this period of inertness followed by acceleration occurred
in such simple cases as that of reciprocal decomposition of salts, and whether,
where it did occur, it was capable of any explanation on known principles. The
reciprocal decomposition of potassio-platinum-chloride and potassium-iodide slowly
produces the iodine salt which makes itself manifest by its deep red colour. In
examining this in various ways the action always appeared most rapid at first and
gradually slackened till a balance of the salts in solution was obtained. In such
cases, on the contrary, as that of the formation of bitartrate of potassium or
calcium, where a larger amount of the products is formed than can be kept in
solution, it is some time before crystals make their appearance, and then they come
with a rush, gradually diminishing to the end of the reaction. This seems to be
due partly to the phenomenon of super-saturation and partly to the necessity of
rapid redistribution of the acids and bases when the bitartrate produced is thrown
out of the field of action and reaction. In cases where almost insoluble salts are
formed, such as strontium sulphate, the liquid becomes milky almost at once, a
constant redistribution being necessitated by the separation of the insoluble salt,
and the curves representing the course of the action closely resembled those of the
platinum salt given above.

There are unquestionably many cases in which there is very little appearance
of action at first, but afterwards it comes on rapidly, and then, of course, diminishes,
The formation of zinc-methyl was quoted, but a more interesting instance was the
reaction between cuprous oxide and silver nitrate in rather weak solution. At
first little or nothing is seen; after a while long filaments of metallic silver shoot
forth, the reaction becoming very rapid, until the silver solution is very much
weakened, when, of course, it proceeds more slowly. In explanation of this we
may conceive of some possible ‘induction,’ or charging up of the metallic oxide, or
the influence of the local rise of temperature, or the greater scope for voltaic action
between the growing silver and the copper compound. ‘The author, however, did
not insist on any particular explanation, but gave the facts as a contribution to the
general subject.

6. The Determining of the Freezing-point of Water, van’t Hoff’s Constant,
Arrhenius’ Law of Dissociation, Ostwald’s Law of Dilution. By Dr.
MEJER WILDERMANN.

I have already given an account, in the Physical Section, of the method
devised, in concert with the late P. B. Lewis, for accurately determining the
freezing-point of aqueous solutions which freeze at temperatures just below 0° C.

The depression of the freezing-point of a solution of any concentration is stated
in degrees below the freezing-point of water. The freezing-point of water and of
extremely dilute solutions is very difficult to determine with accuracy. Under
ordinary circumstances a cap of ice forms round the bulb of the thermometer; if
the formation of this capis prevented, the freezing-point of water determined by my
thermometer divided to 0°-001 is higher by 0°-0015 to 0°0017 than when the cap
exists and a constant error in the determination of the freezing-point is not removed.

The method of determining the freezing-point of very dilute solutions which
was devised by my late friend P. B. Lewis, and my investigations of the freezing-
point of water, and of extremely dilute solutions, give usa means of submitting
van’'t Hoft’s constant, Arrhenius’ law of dissociation, and Ostwald’s law of dilution
to a more accurate verification.

It is well known that it was van’t Hoff who first drew attention to the fact
that the equations representing the generalisations arrived at by Boyle, Gay Lussac,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 617

and Ayogadro in the case of gases are equally applicable to dissolved substances if
the osmotic pressure of the dissolved molecules be substituted for the pressure
of the gas.

' While yan’t Hoff was able to establish a thermodynamic relation between the
esmotic pressure of a dissolved substance and the molecular lowering of vapour
pressure, the molecular lowering of the freezing-point of solutions furnishes a
rational basis for the empirical generalisations of Raoult, and of Babo and Wiillner.

In van't Hoff’s thermodynamical argument the solutions are assumed to be
very dilute, and hence experimental verification is specially important for the case
of such solutions,

I have found that in the case of aqueous solutions of sugar and urea the agree-
ment between the value calculated by van’t Hotf by means of the equation

02 'T?

we = (which must equal 1-89 if W=79 kal., and is 1-87 if W =80 kal.) and
the observed value of the constant is excellent. Even in the case of alcohol the
values do not vary by more than 14 per cent. from 1:87—a difference which may
be accounted for by the difficulty of determining exactly the percentage of alcohol
in a solution from its density. That this is the case is shown by the fact that the
value 1-84 or 1:85 is observed for all concentrations. It is also possible to calculate
van't Hoff’s constant without determining the freezing-point of water in the
following way: Sugar, urea, and alcohol are not electrolytes, 7.e., are in water only
very slightly dissociated. We can, therefore, determine the relation between con-
centration and depression of freezing-point, starting from a solution of any convenient
concentration, where an ice cap is not formed, instead of from pure water, and thus
eliminate the influence of any error in the determination of the freezing-point of
water. From these observations made with my thermometers divided to 0°01
and 0°-001 I have been able to establish van’t Hoff's constant by a second inde-
pendent method. Also, if the results obtained by Loomis with a thermometer read-
ing to 0°-01 are similarly treated, the van’t Hotf’s constant becomes evident in the
case of sugar, less evident in the case of water and alcohol, though the variations
are so great that the probable error is greater than he suspected, and the concentra-
tion of the solution was probably wrongly determined.

We proceed to the generalisation of Arrhenius, Van’t Hoff showed by four
different methods that a law analogous to that of Avogadro was valid for solution
of non-electrolytes like cane-sugar. It then became of importance to account for
exceptional cases in which the depression of the freezing-point was abnormal, and
in particular the cases of salts, acids, and bases in aqueous solutions. The explana-
tion was given when Arrhenius showed that by two independent, quite ditferent
methods, the observation of the lowering of the freezing-point and of the electrical
conductivity of a solution, the same value could be obtained for the factor 7, which
denotes the ratio of the pressure actually exerted by the substance to the pressure
which the substance would exert if it consisted entirely of undissociated molecules.
This law, which is of special importance owing to the light thrown by the
dissociation-theory on various physical and chemical problems, must, like those
of van’t Hoff already mentioned, be more valid in very dilute solutions, and
should at first be verified for them. For sugar, urea, a!cohol, which are bad con-
ductors of electricity, we have found normal depression and a constant 1:89 or
187. For KCl, SO,H,, dichloracetic acid, trichloracetic acid, and nitrobenzoic
acid, which are good conductors and show at the same time abnormal depression,
I found that the degrees of the dissociation from the lowering of freezing-point and
from the electrical conductivity are nearly the same.

It is obviously desirable that Ostwald’s dilution law, one of the laws of the
action of masses, and a most important foundation for the theory of dissociation,
should be verified by determinations of freezing-points, just as it has been verified
by determinations of electrical conductivity ; and for the reasons already stated the
experimental verification is most important in the case of the most dilute solutions.
The effect of experimental error in the calculation is here very considerable, and the
freezing point methods hitherto in use have not been sufficiently delicate to verify
the dilution law. The more accurate method already referred to has to a large

618 REPORT—1894,

extent supplied the deficiency, and in the case of trichloracetic acid and ortho-
nitrobenzoic acid I have experimentally verified the validity of the dilution law
2
a
(1—a)v
of the Chemical Society ’ and in the ‘ Zeitsch., f. physik. Chemie.’

=k. An account of these investigations will be given in the ‘ Journal

7. On the Effect of Dilution upon the Colowrs of Salt Solutions and the
Measurement of this Effect. By Wyarr W. Ranpatt, Ph.D.

The writer called attention to the conclusions deduced by Ostwald from the
hypothesis of electrolytic dissociation with regard to the source of the colour of
salt solutions, and to the work of Knoblauch, Kriiss, Traube, Arrhenius, Maena-
nini, Ostwald, Wagner, and others upon this subject. The experiments and
conclusions of Vernon were then more particularly discussed, to show the
inaccuracy which the author believes characterised them. A drawing was then
shown of an apparatus, through the use of which the author hopes to be able to
determine with comparative accuracy the effect of dilution upon the colours of
salt solution. Since, according to the theory of electrolytic dissociation, the
colour of a salt solution is due to the presence in it of free coloured ions, it follows
that with increased dissociation the colour must become proportionally more
intense. One of the simplest ways to produce more complete dissociation is by
dilution, Hence a dilute solution, ceteris paribus, should, in proportion to the
amount of salt contained, show a more intense colour than a concentrated one.
In the apparatus shown the author examines the relative length of column of
coloured solutions of different concentrations which show the same intensity of
colour, in order to determine whether or not the colour remains proportional to
the concentration. Several advantages claimed for the apparatus were pointed
out. It is, for example, so arranged that the light transmitted through the
stronger solution also passes through a column of water equal in length to the
difference between the lengths of column of the concentrated and the dilute
solutions. By this means any error due to the colour, &c., of the water of the
solutions is presumably eliminated. The tubes through which the light is trans-
mitted are silver-plated, and the measurements are made in a dark room, in order
that all error due to diffused light may be removed.

The results, so far as they have gone, indicate that the colour remains practi-
cally proportional to the concentration, whereas in the solutions examined the
dissociation varied in amount from about 25 per cent. to nearly 60 per cent. The
author, however, desires his results thus far to be considered as merely preliminary.
The behaviour of one solution examined suggests that the effect produced upon
the colour by varying the rate of dilution, which Vernon claims to have noticed
in the case of certain compounds of chromium, may be much more general than
that investigator imagined. This point will in the future receive special
attention.

8. On the Distinction between Mixtures and Compounds.
By P. J. Harroa, B.Sc.

The distinction between mixtures and compounds, as it is now understood,
dates from the controversy between Berthollet and Proust at the beginning of the
century. Most text-books state that Proust showed that ‘the same compound
always contains the same elements united in the same proportions,’ and imply that
the statement does not hold good for ‘the same mixture.’ Interpreted literally,
the statement is a mere truism, and applies equally to both classes of substances. By
altering its form somewhat we are led to the postulate: ‘Substances in other
respects’alike possess the same quantitative composition ’—a postulate daily made
use of in the laboratory, though it is not to be found in the text-books. This
postulate was tacitly accepted by Berthollet as well as Proust, and has nothing to
do with the distinction sought for; we see, therefore, that the points at issue

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 619

between the two men have been misrepresented. The author has shown else-
where ! how this misrepresentation has arisen. Proust was unable to furnish the
experimental distinction between compounds and mixtures which Berthollet
demanded again and again; nor until lately has it been possible to establish one.
It is possible that such a éne may Ve based on the recent work of Raoult, who has
shown that the melting-point of a pure compound is always lowered and its
boiling-point raised by the addition of a small quantity of some dissimilar sub-
stance. But it is important to realise that a satisfactory experimental distinction
is still a desideratum, and that the only definition that we can give of a compound
to distinguish it from a mixture is a theoretical one based on the consideration of

molecules.

9, The Atomic Weight of Carbon.2 By Professor J. A. WANKLYN.

Members of this Section who, like myself, a third of a century ago were at
that time charged with the responsibility of teaching chemistry to the students of a
University will have a lively recollection of the incidents attendant on the change
of notation at that period. The controversies of that day evolved, as will be
remembered, a short and easy method of arriving at the molecular weight of a
chemical substance, and likewise a short and easy method of finding the atomic
weight of an element.

In Kekulé’s words, very slightly modified, these methods were as follows :—

‘Defining standard volume (or, as it was called, the standard two volumes) as
that volume which is occupied by two grammes of hydrogen at a given suitable
temperature and pressure, we were told that, if we would know the molecular
weight of any chemical substance, we must ascertain how many grammes of the
substance were required to fill the standard volume with the vapour of the sub-
stance, and that that number was the molecular weight. And the atomic weight
of an element was to be found by observing what was the very least quantity of
that element ever entering into the standard volume filled with a compound
of that element.’

Having laid down the law much in that style, advocates of the new notation
forthwith proceeded to make the practical application by noting that the least
number of grammes of carbon ever occurring in the standard volume of any
carbon compound was 12—ergo, the atomic weight of carbon is 12.

It was at the same time incidentally noted that in all those cases where more
than 12 grammes of carbon was found in the standard volume, the number was
either 24 or 36, or some other multiple of 12. And so the matter has rested until
the present day.

I have now to announce that, as the result of most laborious investigation
carried on conjointly with my friend and colleague, Mr. Cooper, there exists a
multitude of carbon compounds wherein the quantity of carbon in the standard
yolume is not a multiple of 12, but is a multiple of 6. And the consequence
follows that the atomic weight of carbon is 6, as was commonly believed by
chemists a third of a century ago.

10. Popular Method for the Estimation of Carbon Dioxide in the Air.
By J. B. Conen, PA.D., and G. Appieyarp, Yorkshire College.

The method consists in determining the time required to precipitate the lime in
dilute lime water containing an insufficient quantity of lime to unite with all the
CO, present.

Phenolphthalein is used as indicator, and the end of the reaction is determined
by noting the point at which the liquid becomes decolourised.

A 22-ounce stoppered bottle is used with 10 c.c. of lime water made from
saturated lime water, diluted 100 times with distilled water. One-third of a c.c.

1 Nature, June 14, 1894.
2 See Phil. Mag., May 1894, p. 495.

620 ‘ REPORT—1894.

of phenolphthalein solution is added, which is prepared by dissolving ‘2 grm. of
phenolphthalein in 100 c.c. of equal volumes of alcohol and water.

Time Condition of the Air
Under 3 minutes . . ; Ie : Bad
Above 3 and under 5 A : : 4 ; ; Fair

Above 5 s = = < . 4 Good

11. On the Diffusion of very Dilute Solutions of Chlorine and Iodine.
By A. P. Laurie.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Investigations on Tautomerism. By Professor W. J. Briuu.

2. On Ortho-dinitroso Derivatives of the Aromatic Series.
Ly Professor E. Nozsxrine, Mulhouse, Alsace,

In a paper jointly published about two years ago by Messrs. Grandmougin,
Michel, and myself, the fact has been mentioned that ortho-nitrodiazobenzeneimide,
upon being heated with water or distilled with steam, evolved nitrogen, and that
finally a new body fusing at 70°-71° was produced.

A recent investigation of that body, undertaken in collaboration with Dr.
Karl Kohn, has proved its composition to agree with the formula C,H,N,O,, and
the determination of its molecular weight gave numbers corresponding to this
simplest formula and not to that of a polymere.

5 The action of reducing agents resulted in the formation of ortho-phenylene-
iamine.

These facts render it probable that the new body is ortho-dinitroso-benzene, a
pooner of which had already been made known by Nietzki. It was produced

y the oxidation of para-quinone-dioxime. The analogous oxidation of ortho-
naphto-quinone-dioxime into the corresponding ortho-dinitroso-compound has,
some time before Nietzki, been carried out by Ilinski. This oxidation is rendered
evident by the following formula :—

NOH NO

CwHK Non #0=H,0+C,H, No

Now the investigation of Mr. Kohn and myself on the products of decomposi-
tion of the two ortho-nitronaphtalenediazoimides

al
| \N NO, N
“\/\xo NS a
| er Con:

by heat, has proved the identity of the products thus obtained with the ortho-
dinitroso compounds described by Ilinski.

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 621

llinski bas proposed for his compound the formula

N—O
Ci, H< | |

The formula
NO

OH
10 *\xo
analogous to that of Bamberger’s nitrosobenzene, is however also possible. No
conclusive argument can be adduced in favour of either of them, but, beyond all

doubt, our benzene derivatives must have the same constitution as Ilinski’s
naphthalene compounds. The reaction then proceeds according to the equation

N

I aN
‘ae See eee pee | i 0
No, NO

Ortho-nitrodiazobenzeneimide Ortho-dinitrosobenzene

A convenient method of obtaining dinitroso derivatives from the corresponding
ortho-diazoimides consists in heating the latter in a solution of glycerine at tempera-
tures ranging from about 100° to 120°. When the evolution of nitrogen has
ceased, water is to be added and the nitroso-compound thus precipitated is filtered
off. By crystallisation from boiling alcohol it may be easily obtained in a state of
perfect purity.

Ortho-dinitrosobenzene crystallises from its aqueous solution in needle-shaped,
crystals, from alcohol in plates, fusing at 70°-71°. It is sparingly soluble in water,
easily in alcohol, ether, &c.

It sublimes readily, and may be volatilised in a current of steam. The odour of
its vapour is slightly irritating, and resembles in a dilute state that of nitrobenzene.

When heated, either with nitric acid of 65 per cent. on the water bath, or
treated with concentrated nitric acid at 0° in sulphuric acid solution, it yields a
mono-nitro derivative, crystallising in yellow needles; fusing-point 143°.

This mono-nitro derivative has the constitution

NO
A\xo

| so,

as, by reduction, it yields the known 1. 2. 3, triamidobenzene.
We have also obtained an isomeric compound—

in the same manner,

622 -REPORT—1894.

By the same process, ortho-nitrotoluoldiazoimide
N

| \N
“NNO,

Legh
SZ

cH,

yields dinitrosotoluene
NO

ore
y
ch,
On the other hand, the diazoimides
N N

NC || NS |

| \N | \w
“\NO, and CH,” \NO,

|
XY
cH,

in which a methylic group occupies an ortho-position in respect of the

N
“a
xl

group, have hitherto resisted every attempt of decomposition by heat, from some
cause yet to be investigated.

3. On the Formation of Indazol Derivatives from Aromatic Diazo-compounds.
By Professor E. Norttine, Mulhouse, Alsace.

Professor Witt, Dr. Grandmougin, and myself showed a few years ago that the
diazo-derivative of nitro-orthotoluidine, fusing-point 107°

N=N-Cl
a
NO,
\A
when heated with water, not only yields the corresponding nitrocresol
OH

/\cn,

|

Og

but in about equal quantity a new body, which we proved to be nitro-indazol,
IN S
NH
Vaan
|

pay

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 623

We also found that the diazo-derivatives of 1. 2. 4, nitrotoluidine and 1, 2. 4. 5,
nitroxylidine

NH, NH,
fae oF
\ KON /
NO, cH,

did not undergo a similar decomposition, but were exclusively transformed in the
corresponding phenols.

In collaboration with two of my pupils, Messrs. Lorber and Gurwitsch, I have
studied the decomposition of the diazo-compounds of several other nitrated amines,
containing the methylic and the amido-groups in the ortho-position.

Some of them yielded indazols, while others were only transformed into
phenols.

The indazol-yielding nitro-derivatives were

NH, NH, NH, NH, NH,
ie ae NO/ meee pachin casa tas
HO U Neti den, ca OS pk Ne
Br CH, CH,
L Il. III. IV, v.
whilst
NH, NH, NH,
“\cu, CH, /\cn,
| | | | and | |
CH NO, CH / \ 0:
No, cif,

only produced phenols,

In the case of I., II., and IV., the yield of indazol was a very large one, about
90 per cent. ; III. and V., on the other hand, gave more phenol than indazol.

Not only is the presence of the nitro-group advantageous to the formation of
indazols, but also the halogens, and, in some measure, the sulpho-groups act in the
same manner; for instance, the diazo-compounds of

NH, NH, NH,

Sw
Br CH, SO,H
are readily transformed into the corresponding indazols, and

tae
gives only the nitroscresol-sulpho acid.

4, On some New Colouring Matters, By Dr. H. Caro.

624 4 REPORT—1894.

5. On the Tartrarsenites.

By G. G. Henperson, D.Sc., M.A., and A. R. Ewina, Ph.D.

Arsenious oxide dissolves readily in a boiling solution of sodium hydro-
gen tartrate, and on concentration and cooling a compound of the formula
C,H,0,AsONa. 24 Aq. crystallises out in aggregates of needles or prisms. The salt
is quite stable when dry, and may even be heated for several hours at 185° without
undergoing further change than loss of water of crystallisation. It has a sweetish,
not unpleasant taste, and is easily soluble in water, but it appears to be decomposed
slightly by a large excess of water. It crystallises from dilute alcohol in colourless

lates.
The corresponding ammonium salt, C,H,O,AsONH,. $ Aq., which is prepared
in a similar way, crystallises in small glistening needles which are easily soluble
in water. The crystals effloresce slowly, and appear to undergo partial decompo-
sition on standing for some time.

The potassium salt is not so easily prepared, owing to its instability in aqueous
solution. It is obtained by adding arsenious oxide to a boiling concentrated solu-
tion of potassium hydrogen tartrate so long as it dissolves, filtering, cooling the
filtrate, and then adding two volumes of alcohol to it. The white, finely crystalline
precipitate which is formed is washed with alcohol and dried on a porous plate.
Analysis of this compound gave results agreeing fairly well with the formula
C,H,O,AsOK. Aq. When the salt is treated with water, even in the cold, it
decomposes into arsenious oxide and potassium hydrogen tartrate, but it may be
recrystallised from dilute alcohol, from which it separates in long needles, Slight
decomposition occurs in this case also.

When a dilute solution of barium chloride is mixed with a dilute solution of
the sodium salt, delicate glistening needles of the barium salt are gradually formed.
It has the formula (C,H,O,AsO),Ba. Aq., and is only slightly soluble in hot water.
It is decomposed to some extent by boiling with much water. The corresponding
strontium and calcium salts are obtained in a similar way, but the mixed solutions
are boiled for a short time. They crystallise in small shining cubes, apparently
isomorphous, and are more soluble than the barium salt. Other compounds of this
series have not yet been prepared.

All of the compounds described above are decomposed by excess of mineral
acids, with liberation of arsenious oxide. If, however, the salt is kept in excess, a
substance is obtained in solution which has the properties of an acid, but which
has not been isolated owing to its instability. When the barium salt, suspended
in water, is decomposed by sulphuric acid (taking care to keep the salt in excess),
barium sulphate is precipitated and a clear solution is obtained; which remains
unaltered even after standing for several weeks. The solution has a strong acid
reaction, but contains no free sulphuric acid, and with hydrogen sulphide it gives a
copious precipitate of arsenious acid. If heated, or allowed to evaporate spon-
taneously over sulphuric acid, or mixed with alcohol, it is decomposed into
arsenious oxide, which: precipitates, and tartaric acid, which remains in solution-
It undergoes the same change at once if a drop or two of a mineral acid is added.
It decomposes the carbonates of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths, carbon
dioxide being evolved, and the salts described above being formed. A quantitative
examination of the solution showed that it contained exactly the quantity of
arsenic required on the assumption that a substance of the formula AsC,H,O, was
present. It may be concluded, therefore, that there is a definite compound of this
composition in the solution, and that it is stable at ordinary temperatures if the
solution be not too concentrated. Taking its properties into account, this substance

H,O

may be regarded as a tartrarsenious acid Ast OH 6, 4.e.,a8 a derivative of the

hypothetical orthoarsenious acid As(OH),, and the compounds described above may
be considered to be the salts of tartrarsenious acid, or the tartrarsenites.

Arsenic acid and various acid oxides likewise appear to form definite compounds
when treated with the acid alkaline-salts not only of tartaric acid but also of other
organic oxyacids, but the investigation of this subject has not proceeded far enough
to justify the publication of results. ,

{

4

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION

B. 625

6. On the Constitution of the Acid Amides.
By J. B, Conen, Ph.D., Yorkshire College.

Formation of the Acid Amides.—These compounds are usually obtained by
three methods, to which the following equations are assigned :

1. Ror H.NH,+R or H.CO,H=R or H.NH.
2. R or H.NH,+R.COCI =RorH.NH.
3. R or H.NH,+R or H.CO,R=R or H.NH.

CO.R or H+H,0
CcO.R +HCl
CO.Ror H+R.OH

In 2 and 3 the mode of formation would point to the following constitution for
the acid amides, which until recently has been generally accepted :

R or H.NH

|
RorH.C:0
Carbonyl formula.

The first equation might be construed so as to yield
RorH.N

is if ‘
RorH.C.OH .
Hydroxyl formula.

a body of the constitution

Derivatives of this class have actually been obtained by Pinner and others, and
termed imido-ethers, and dre therefore isémeric with derivatives of the substances

having the first formula:

H.N, H.N.R
I |
R.C.OR R.C:0
Imido ether. Alkyl amide.

Evidence upon which the choice of formula of the acid amide itself rests is of a

very unsatisfactory kind.
The action of cone. HCl, conc. NaOH, PCl,, P,O,,
formula.

or Br would satisfy either

One reaction appears definitely in favour of the carbonyl formula, whereas there-

are two which point equally distinctly to the hydroayl

formula.

Caustic soda and sodium ethylate unite with a few acid amides to form Na

derivatives, in which the Na may be replaced by an al

kyl group by the action of

alkyl iodide, and yields a compound in which the new group is undoubtedly attached.

to the N atom.
H.N:. R? -

|
R'.C: 0,
On the other hand, many a¢id atnides unite with

silver oxide to form silver~

compounds in which one atom of H is replaced by Ag, and these bodies treated

with alkyl iodide yield the isomeric imido-ethers.

Beckmann’s reaction, which ¢onsists in a molecular change produced by PCI,
and other reagents on ketoximes forming isomeric acid amides, points at least to the
intermediate formation of a compound of the hydrowyl formula.

Since working on the aromatic amides it has frequently struck me as curious
that of the series formanilide, acetanilide, &c.,including benzanilide and oxanilide,
the first—formanilide—should possess chemical and physical properties so totally

different from the others of the series.
Formanilide crystallises in long prisms from alcohol,

whereas the others, includ-

ing benzanilide, form glistening plates all su similar in appearance that it would be

impossible to identify them by their exterior alone.

Formanilide, of which the

formula is usually written C,H,NH .COH, yields with NaOH and Ag,O, Na and

Ag compounds, which none other of the series do.
fundamental difference in constitution.

This evidently points to a

Recent Views on the Constitution of the Acid Amides.—Tafel and Enoch showed

that the Ag compound of benzamide differs from the
1894,

Na compound by the fact
88

626 REPORT—1894

that by the action of alkyl iodides the former yielded the imido-ether and the
latter the isomeric alkyl] amide thus:

1. O,H,.C. OAg +1C,H,=C,H,.C. OC,H, + Agl
I l|

NH NH
2. C,H,.C. NHNa+IC,H,=C,H,.C. NHC,H, + Nal
I I

and Comstock shortly afterwards showed that similar reactions occurred in the
case of formanilide. Formanilide was therefore regarded us an example of tauto-
merism; a view which is now generally held in regard to the constitution of the
acid amides,

Leaving for the present the consideration of the Na compounds of the amides,
I will take the larger class of acid amides in which an atom of hydrogen is
replaceable by an atom of Ag.

The following form Ag compounds, and the solids crystallise in needles or prisms :

H.CO.NH Ag . - s - : ; . Formamide.
CH,.CO.NH Ag . F - . ; s . Acetamide.
CH,.CO.N(CH,)Ag_ . F . 5 : . Methyl acetamide.
CH,.CO.N(C,H,) Ag . = : = - . Ethyl acetamide.

H.CO.N(C,H,) Ag . F ° ; : . Formanilide.
C,H,.CO.NH Ag . : : : é : . Benzamide.

C,H,.CO.N(C,H,) Ag . ‘ : : : . Ethyl benzamide.

The following do not form Ag compounds, and crystallise in plates :
CH,.CO.N(C,H,)H ‘ : F . . Acetanilide

C,H,.CO.N(C,H,)H “ : A : : . Propionanilide
C,H,.CO.N(C,H,)H 3 : 4 : . Butyranilide
C,H,.CO.N(C,H,)H : : A 5 : . Benzanilide
(C,H,)HN .CO.CO.N(C,H,)H 3 c c . Oxanilide

In order to account for the different properties of the two groups, we must
fall back upon Hantzsch’s researches on the stereo-isomerism of the nitrogen

compounds.
Hantzsch’s Theory.—Hantzsch has shown that bodies of the following general

formule exist in two modifications:

Anti Syn
1. Aldoximes 3 5 - - F an OH R'C.H
I l
N.OH HO.N
2. Ketoximes 2 ee Pin i ‘ - reel HOF 1 Rie ane
I I
N.OH HO.N
3. Diazobenzenes . ae z s beaenetay RLY R’ .N
| I
N.OH HO.N
4. Amidoazobenzenes , Z 4 bist hii tA R’ .N

I I
N.NHR’ R’HN.N
The two modifications vary in stability according to the relative attraction of

the groups.
he following is the order of attraction of various radicals for the OH group,

according tu Hantzsch:
CO,H.CH,; CO,H; C,H,; C,H,X; C,H,S; Casi; CH,

The first attract and the last repel. The group C,H, also repels NHR’.
This attraction may be reversed in certain of the metallic compounds of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 627
first three groups, and by the action of a metallic oxide the one configuration is
converted into the second more stable one.

Thus NaOH or Na,CO, convert

C,H,C.H into C,H,C.H
HO.N N.OM’
C,H,C . CH, * C,H,C. CH,
HO.N N.OM’
C,H; .N ” C.H;N
HO.N N.OM’

Application of the Theory to the Acid Amides,—Suppose we reverse the con-
figurations 1 and 2, we get a formula which is capable of forming two con-
figurations :

Syn Anti
R'N RN
I I
HO.C.H HC.OH
R/N R/N
I l
HO.C.R? R?,C.OH

These formule will fully account for the constitution of the acid amides.

Before proceeding to apply the theory, I will assume that the acid amides,
which form Ag compound and crystallise in prisms, belong to the ‘anti,’ and those
which do not, belong to the ‘syn’ configuration, and crystallise in plates. We can
now predict which of the acid amides belong to the former class and which to the
latter group.

1, All the acid amides derived from ammonia or fatty amines must be ‘ anti’
compounds of the general formula

H or Cy Hon4iN

I
H or CnHon+1 or C,H; .C.OH

2. Bodies derived from aromatic amines must have the ‘syn’ configuration:
C,H,N

l
HO.C.H or CyHons1 or C,H, &c.

Formanilide forms the only exception. This substance should belong to Group
2, but evidently belongs to Group 1. The other modification, which should be
easily obtainable, will crystallise in plates, and will not form an Ag compound
without reversal into the ‘anti’ form.

In anthranil, oxindol, and hydrocarbostyril, we have inner acid amides corre-
sponding to the first three anilides. In these compounds it is obvious that the
hydroxy] group must occupy the anti-configuration, and should unite with silver oxide
and crystallise in prisms. This is the case, although in anthranil the Ag compound

_ rapidly undergoes reduction :

C,H,—N C,H, N C,H,—__—_N
aed | | I
C.OH CH,.C.OH CH,.CH,.C. OH
Anthranil Oxindol Hydrocarbostyril

The same principle may be applied to the closed chains in the fatty compounds,
which should give stable Ag compounds :
CH,—N CH,—N
| I
CH,—C.OH Soe
CH,—C .08

628 REPORT—1894.

It also accounts for cases of isomerism, such as the two succinamides, which
will probably have the configurations

OH H OH
ont _N ont =N
CH,—C=N and Y

on Hi CH,—C=N
On H

Formation of the Sodium Compounds.—In the course of numerous attempts to
prepare pure Na acetanilide, one experiment gave an unexpected result, and it
‘appears to me not only to bear out the above view of the constitution of these
bodies, but to throw some light on the formation of the sodium compounds.

If acetanilide is dissolved in dry ether, and one molecule of solid sodium
methylate is added, the liquid becomes turbid, and a compound of the formula
C,H,N .C(OH)CH,.CH,ONa separates out in needles. The two molecules are
very loosely attached, and the acetanilide may be easily dissolved out from the
other substance. The formation of this compound points to the following:

1. Acetanilide is an unsaturated compound.

2. The formation of the sodium compounds in the case of anti compounds is
»receded by the formation of addition compounds, with subsequent loss of one
molecule of water, thus:

C,H,N + NaOH =C,H,N . Na=C,H,N. Na+H,0
H.C.OH hace S02 H.C:0
The experimental part of the work has been carried out in conjunction with
Mr. Archdeacon, and will shortly be communicated to the Chemical Society.

7. Report of the Comméttee on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
See Reports, p. 161.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 15.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on the Action of Light on Dyed Colours.
See Reports, p. 238.

2. Report of the Committee on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.
See Reports, p. 268.

3. A Discussion took place on Dr. J. B. Conen’s Paper on the Constitution
of Acid Amides.—See p. 625.

4. On Certain Phenomena occurring during the Evaporation of Salt
Solutions. By Dr. W. MryveRuHoFFER, Vienna.

When a solution is partially evaporated it is not necessarily the case that the
solid dissolved salts u1e also precipitated. J'rom the closer examination of what

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 629

occurs when such a solution is evaporated, the four following cases may be distin-
guished:

(1) Solutions of a single salt.

(2) Solutions with two or more salts, all of which contain the same acid
or basic radical, and form neither double salts nor isomorphous mixtures,

(3) Two salts that are in a condition to form a double salt.

(4) So-called ‘reciprocal’ salts, z.e., salts which can be formed from two acids
and two bases.

Cases 1 and 2 present nothing calling for special notice. In the case of 3, it
is shown under what conditions a pure double salt crystallises out of the solution.
Similarly, in the case of 4, instances are discussed in which either two or three salts
result by evaporation, and an account of new experiments with NH,Cl+NaNO,
in this relation is given. Lastly, the study of the occurrences which are discussed-
in the paper is recommended in respect to many technical processes, and the
formation of natural salts.

5. On some Derivatives of Camphene. By J. E. Marsu and J. A. GARDNER.

6. On Fluorene Diacetate. —,
By Professor W. R. Hopexinson and A. H. Coorr.

In some previous communications to the Chemical Society by one of us, halogen
and other derivatives of fluorene have been described. With the exception of
diphenylenketone, there is no derivative in which it is for certain known that the
methylenic hydrogen is replaced. When solutions of fluorene, dibenzyl or ace-
naphtene are acted upon by chlorine, bromine, &c., substitution invariably takes
place in the benzenoid nucleus.

From the results of some experiments made by one of us on the sulphonates of
fluorene and acenaphtene dissolved in strong H,SO,, it appeared probable that dry
chlorine might act upon these hydrocarbons in the absence of a solvent, and perhaps
at some high temperature in a similar manner to its action on toluene, &e.

Experiment proved this to be the case,

The hydrocarbons were dried and treated with very dry chlorine at the ordinary
room temperature, and also at or about the boiling-point of the respective hydro-
carbons. Action commenced immediately, and a tendency was noticed for the
chloride produced to distil over in the current of chlorine.

The action is, however, not quite confined to the methylenic hydrogen, for the
chlorides first produced act as solvents for the still unacted-upon fluorene or
acenaphtene, and some substitution in the benzene nucleus takes place. The
amount of this can be reduced by letting the chlorine act rapidly.

By careful distillation under reduced pressure it is possible to effect a partial
separation. A better plan is to dissolve in absolute alcohol, and fractionally
erystallise by cooling with a CO, alcohol bath.

From fluorene the following bodies appear to be produced :—

- I. II. IV.
CCl, CHCl CCl, CCl,
oN 7N Va as
H,C,—6,H, H.C,—-CMp He G=-cucl H,6,-cmol

Acenaphtene is converted almost entirely into a dichloride. None of the

- ehlorinated fluorene products gives diphenylenketone when oxidised under the

same conditions as produce diphenylenketone from fluorene.
One fraction of the chlorinated fluorene which distilled under about 300 mm. at
320° to 330° C. gave 29°52 per cent. Cl; the calculated amount for C,,H,Cl, is

30-28 per cent.

A diacetate was prepared from this by digesting with alcoholic potassium
acetate. On analysis this gave 71°23 per cent. carbon and 3:92 hydrogen—C,,Hy.
(CH,CO,), requires 72°35 C and 4:9 H. This product boiled at 326° to 330° U. at
760 mm. pressure.

630 REPORT—1894.,

A large quantity of the crude chlorination product was digested with acetate.
From the result several bodies have been separated by fractional distillation, a
comparatively easy process, since the acetates are much more stable than the
chlorides.

A fraction at 322° C. gave 72°61 C and 4:28 H. ‘Therefore nearly pure diacetate.

We have some proof that a chlormonacetate is also formed as well as some
chlorinated diacetates. Of these we have isolated one product, which on analysis
gives (I) 11:01 per cent. Cl; (II) 11:4 per cent. Cl: C,,H,Cl.(C,H,O,), requires
11:2 per cent. Cl. It melts at about 60° C.

Acenaphtene diacetate distils at about 290° C. and melts at 46°.

Weare obtaining larger quantities of these acetates—fluorene, acenaphtene, and
dibenzyl—in order to study them further.

7. Interim Report of the Committee to inquire into the Proximate Chemical
Constituents of the various kinds of Coal.—See Reports, p. 246.

8. Interim Report of the Committee on the Properties of Solutions.

9. Report of the Committee for preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Hlements.—See Reports, p. 248.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 631

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section—L. Frietcner, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

WITH an anxious desire to conform to the traditions of the past, I have sought in the
Reports of the Association for guidance in my present difficulty, and, doing so, have
remarked that it is customary for a president, on first taking the Chair, to express
a deep sense of unworthiness for the position to which he has been called. My
first duty, then, seemed a simple and obvious one; till I further remarked, to my
dismay,that the more able and distinguished the President the more humble have been
the terms in which such expression has been made. Hence I feel that it may appear
to you presumptuous on my part if I myself make any apology at all, and it would
doubtless imply a claim to the highest ability and distinction were I to make that
humble apology which would be really appropriate to the circumstances of the case.

Instead, however, of dispensing with the apology altogether—that might be
too radical an innovation to be introduced this year—I propose, with your
sanction, to make a lesser change, and merely to defer the apology from the first
to the last day of our session. I may reasonably hope to be able, at that later
stage, to make clear 1o you, by simple reference to your own experience during
the Meeting, that the apology I shall then feel it my duty to make is of no merely
formal character, but one which is worthy of your serious consideration.

I would ask that in the meantime your continuous sympathy be extended to
one who now finds himself in a position he would have been the last to seek, and
whose ordinary duties in life involve speechless communion with inanimate Nature
rather than oral address to an assembly of fellow-workers.

This matter of apologetic precedent being thus disposed of to our common
satisfaction, I should have preferred to have brought the delay of the normal
business of the Section to an immediate end by calling upon the author of the
first paper to now address you. Such, indeed, was the ordinary course of pro-
cedure in the earlier, and perhaps presidentially happier, years of the Association ;
but the occasion of taking the chair having been once seized upon, in absence
of mind, by a mathematical president for the delivery of an address, it has come
about that each president now feels it his bounden duty, not merely to give an
address, but to make that address at least as long and at least as elaborate as any
which has preceded it.

We shall all agree that a presidential address, if there is to be any at all,
should he elaborately short and elaborately simple; it should deal, not with
technical details such as are only intelligible, even to the president himself, after
much study, but with general principles such as can be immediately grasped by
every member of an audience: an opening address which is so long that it can be only
partly read, and is written to be studied afterwards in the Reports of the Associa-
tion, may more appropriately be issued as an ordinary memoir. I make this remark

632 REPORT—1 894.

,

to safeguard the interests of future audiences, for the example of technicality which
I am now about to set is one which I cannot recommend my successors to follow.

As for subject, a record of recent scientific progress is always interest-
ing and instructive, and immediately suggests itself as the natural basis of
a presidential address. But seeing that, so lately as in February last, the
geologists have had the advantage of an address from the retiring president of
their Society, Mr. Hudleston, which has been virtually exhaustive in its survey
and criticism of the British geological work of the last seven years, the time has
scarcely yet arrived when a continuation of that review by the president of this
Section can be of service to the members of the Association.

For this and other still more weighty reasons which I need not directly
mention, I feel myself debarred from undertaking any review of recent geological
discovery, and shall therefore ask you to allow me to confine myself, in the
remarks it is my duty to make, to a science which, though it is not purely
geological, and in the Reports of the Association has long been associated with
the science of another Section, Chemistry, is yet very closely related to the science
of our own Section, Geology

I trust that the members of the Section of Chemistry and Mineralogy are now
so closely engaged in another place that they will fail to discover, or at any rate to
resent, the technical trespass on their own domain: as for yourselves, you will
perhaps be more ready to pardon the temporary excursion from the field of pure
Geology if I remind you that the Fathers of the Geological Society defined their
sole object to be ‘the investigation of the mineral structure of the Earth ;’ and I
may add, if further defence be desired, that in the first half of this century the
relationship of Mineralogy and Geology was so intimate that it was possible for a
Section of the British Museum to be long officially designated ‘the Department of
Mineralogy, including Geology.’

I was the more impelled to choose this subject for our consideration to-day
when I reflected that pure Mineralogy has been hitherto almost completely out of
sight, and therefore probably out of mind, at the Meetings of the Association. It
is true that at the first Meeting, held sixty-three 3 years ago, Mr. Whewell, then the
Professor of Mineralogy at Cambridge, was invited to draw up a report on the state
of knowledge of the science, and that his report was submitted and printed in the
following year. But in the course of the sixty-three years during which the Asso-
ciation has flourished, it has chanced that a devotee of pure mineralogy has on only
one occasion, that of 1862, been seated in a presidential chair; and since at that
time presidential addresses had not yet come to be regarded as necessary to the
existence of the Sections, Professor Miller, with admirable discretion, refrained from
inflicting a mineralogical dissertation on an audience which, he had reason to pre-
sume, must consist entirely, or almost entirely, of chemists.

Perhaps you might be tempted to think that the want of prominence of the
mineralogists at our previous Meetings has been due to a becoming sense of
modesty Yesulting from the study of that science: this would be a mistake. The
fact is that a mineralogical memoir, dealing largely with numerical quantities and
involving great variety of experiment and technicality, may be read and studied,
but should never be heard; like the mathematician, the mineralogist despairs of
making clear to an audience, especially a mixed one, the bearing of any researches
which have been made in his subject. But now that sixty-two years have elapsed
since the issue of Professor Whewell’s Report, the time has perhaps at length
arrived when it is advisable, notwithstanding the difficulties surrounding an oral
treatment of Mineralogy, to attempt to give ‘to the Association a faint idea of the
present position of the study of the subject. And if most of my hearers find that
the remarks are too technical to be in any great part intelligible, let them console
themselves with the reflection that, if the future at all resembles the past, only
Shalum and Hilpa can have to endure again that particular kind of mauvais quart
@heure which is to precede the Geological Feast of to-day.

The Systems of Crystallisation—At the time of the publication of Professor
Whewell’s Report it had already been established by the researches of Romé de

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 655

VIsle, Haiiy, Mohs, and Weiss that the position of any single face of any crystal
can be exactly defined by means of two sets of quantities: firstly, three lines or
axes, of which the lengths and mutual inclinations are characteristic of the substance
itself; secondly, three whole numbers or indices, rarely rising higher in magnitude
than the number 6; further, an empirical arrangement of crystals into systems
had been based by Mohs and Weiss on the relative lengths and inclinations of the
axes. And a long series of observations of the optical characters of crystals had
revealed to Brewster the fact that the boundaries of the classes of optically isotropic,
uniaxal and biaxal crystals form part of the boundaries of the empirical systems.
But whereas only three optical classes of crystals had been recognised, it was certain
that there were at Jeast four geometrical systems, and it was a matter of contro-
versy as to whether the independence of two others should not be regarded as
geometrically established.

The first important discovery following the issue of Whewell’s Report was one
which proved that the two doubted systems are natural ones. It was found by
Herschel and Neumann that the biaxal crystals are not optically similar, as had
hitherto been supposed, but are of three kinds. In crystals of one kind—for
example, barytes—the two lines bisecting the angle of the optic axes internally and
externally, and a third line perpendicular to both, are constant in direction in the
erystal whatever the colour of the light ; in a second kind—for instance, selenite—
only one of these lines is constant when the colour varies; in a third kind—for
instance, axinite—none of the three lines has any constancy of direction. And these
three kinds of biaxal crystals correspond exactly in their facial development to the
three systems of crystallisation of which the independence had already been asserted
by some crystallographers on geometrical grounds. From this time the arrange-
ment of crystals into the six systems has been regarded as a natural one; and the
optical method based on the figures seen in plates when examined in convergent
polarised light has been in constant use, and is an invaluable aid in the determination
of the system of crystallisation.

Crystallographic Notatton.—For a simple method of expressing the relative
positions of crystal faces by a symbol, crystallographers are infinitely indebted to
the late Professor Miller of Cambridge. The symbols introduced by Mohs, Weiss,
Lévy, Naumann, and the modification of the latter suggested by Dana, though
interesting, are not to be compared for legibility, pronounceability, or utility im
calculation, with the simple symbol which is associated with the name of Professor
Miller. Though the symbol was not invented by him, he was the one who, so to
Say, gave it life. He discovered and made known its many advantages; and in
his Treatise published in 1839—a treatise which is a masterpiece of mathematical
terseness and simple elegance—he gave the methods of crystallographic calcula-
tion which render the advantages of the symbol particularly manifest. It may be
here remarked that in that treatise the rationality of the anharmonic ratios of any
four tautozonal planes of a crystal was first made known, and the property was
largely used in the simplification of the methods of calculation: the fact that the
fraction was of the kind which had been already termed an anharmonie ratio,
however, had escaped the attention of the author.

But the change of a method of notation, like a change in a system of weights
and measures, involves such serious practical difficulties that many years passed
away before the Millerian symbol received abroad the consideration which it
deserved. Now, at last, no Continental text-book of Mineralogy fails to introduce
the Millerian indices, even if the symbols of Lévy or of Naumann are given in
addition ; and it is evident that within a few more years the mineralogist will be
completely relieved from the tiresome necessity of translating each crystalline
symbol into another form to make it intelligible to him, and the student will be
able to make a more advantageous use of the time which has been hitherto
devoted to acquiring a mastery over a second and unnecessary form of crystallo-
graphic notation. Tor this result credit is largely due to Professor Groth of
Munich, whose adoption of the Millerian symbol in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir Krystallo-
graphie’ has done much to bring home its advantages to the foreign worker. It is
to be hoped that Professor Groth will earn the further gratitude of students by

634 REPORT—1894.

encouraging the adoption of the true Millerian symbol in the still outstanding case
of the Rhombohedral System.

Rationality of Indices and the Law of Zones.—It may here be pointed out
that, although the importance of zones for the simplification of crystallographic
calculation had been recognised by Weiss, it was only later that Neumann proved
that the fact that all possible crystal faces can be derived by means of the inter-
section of zones is a necessary consequence of the rationality of the indices; that,
indeed, the law of zones is mathematically identical with the law of rationality.
To the same able physicist and mathematician we owe the development of the
method of stereographic projection now in common use by crystallographers for
the representation of the poles of crystal faces.

Symmetry.—We have said that the recognition of six systems of crystallisation
was aresult of consideration of the lengths and mutual inclinations of certain
lines called axes. Now, it had long ago been remarked that any one face of a
erystal is accompanied by certain others similarly related to the geometrically
similar parts of what may be regarded asa fundamental figure: such a group of
concurrent faces is called a simple form. It came to be recognised, too, that all
the faces of such a form can be geometrically derived from any one of them by
repetition, according to certain laws of symmetry, and that the same laws of
symmetry are binding for every simple form or combination of forms exhibited by
crystals of the same substance. Hence it came to be perceived, though very
slowly, that the essential differences of the systems of crystallisation ‘are not mere
differences of lengths and mutual inclinations of lines of reference, but are really
differences of symmetry. ver since his appointment to the professorship of
Mineralogy in this University, now thirty-eight years ago, Mr. Maskelyne has
been persistent in directing attention to the importance of symmetry, and such
importance now receives universal recognition.

Thirty-two Types of Symmetry in Crystals.—But in each system of crystallisation
it becomes necessary to recognise both completely and partially symmetrical types.
In the latter, the symmetry is in abeyance relative to various planes or lines which
in other crystals of the same system are active as planes or axes of symmetry. But
this abeyance of symmetry is itself found to be subject to a Jaw, for all planes or
axes of symmetry which are geometrically similar are either simultaneously active
or simultaneously in abeyance. By means of this law relating to partial symmetry,
it has been inferred that altogether thirty-two types of symmetry are possible in
the six crystalline systems.

The possible existence of these thirty-two types of symmetry of crystals is thus
an induction from observation: the question naturally arises as to why only these
thirty-two exist or are inferred by analogy to be possible. Axes of symmetry are
observed round which faces of crystals are symmetrically repeated by twos or threes
or fours or sixes; why is it that in crystals no axis of symmetry is ever met with
round which the faces are symmetrically repeated by fives or sevens? A few words
as to how this most important problem has been attacked and solved may be of
interest.

‘We mow that the characters of a crystal relative to any line in it vary with
the direction of the line, but are the same for all lines parallel to each other. Such
a property will result if we imagine with Bravais that in a crystal elementary
particles are arranged at equal distances from each other along every line, end are
similarly arranged in all those lines which are parallel to each other; the distances
separating particles being, however, in general different for lines which are inclined
to each other. Such an arrangement of particles is termed parallelepipedal: space
may be imagined to be completely filled with equal and similarly disposed parallele-
pipeds, and an elementary particle to be placed at every corner or quoin of each.
Further, each particle is regarded, not as being spherical, but as having different
characters on its different sides; and the particles must be similarly orientated—that
is, have similar sides in similar positions.

Now, it will be seen on examination of a model or figure that with such an
arrangement any plane containing three particles will contain an infinite number,
all arranged at the corners of parallelograms, Further, any such plane will clearly

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 635

have whole numbers for the indices which fix its position, for along any line the
distance between two particles is by hypothesis a whole multiple of the common
distance between any two adjacent ones in the same line. Thus the first great
erystallographic law—the law of the rationality of the indices—is an immediate
consequence,

In the next place, it was found that the possible modes of symmetry of arrange-
ment of the particles of such a system depend on the form of the parallelepiped,
and that any possible arrangement of the particles must present a symmetry which
is identical with one or other of the six completely symmetrical types already
referred to. And calculation shows that any other mode of grouping—a repetition
by fives or sevens, for example—round an axis of symmetry, would involve the pre-
sence of planes having irrational indices; and this according to the first law is
impossible.

The abeyance of symmetry, however, met with in the partially symmetrical
types required the aid of an auxiliary hypothesis—namely, that the abeyance of
symmetry belongs to the particle itself, and not to the arrangement of the
particles.

But the parallelepipedal arrangement imagined by Bravais is unnecessarily
special. Our actual observations of physical characters relate not to single lines of
particles, but to groups of parallel lines of particles: the identity of character
observed in parallel directions is thus not necessarily due to actual identity of each
line with its neighbour, but may be due to statistical equality, an equality of
averages. If, for example, a plane were divided into regular hexagons, and a
particle were placed at each corner of each of these figures, the physical properties
of the system of particles would be the same along all lines parallel to each other
as far as experiment could decide, and yet the arrangement of the particles in the
plane, though possibly crystalline, is not that of a Bravais system. In any straight
line passing along the sides of a series of the hexagons, the particles will not be
equidistant from each other: they are in equidistant pairs, and the two nearest
particles of adjacent pairs are twice as far from each other as the particles of the
same pair.

Sohncke accordingly suggested a more general definition than that of Bravais
for the regularity of the arrangement, a definition which had been proposed some
years before by Wiener—namely, that the grouping relative to any one particle is
identical with that relative to any other. This definition admits of the possibility
of the hexagonal arrangement just mentioned ; further, it allows of the orientation
of the particles themselves being different in adjacent lines. Following a mathe-
matical process which had been already employed by Jordan, Sohncke deduced all
the possible modes of grouping consistent with the new definition, and for a time
was under the impression that the types of symmetry found by him to be mathe-
matically possible are exactly identical with those already referred to; and this
without introducing the auxiliary hypothesis relative to partial symmetry of the
elementary particles of merosymmetrical crystals, except in cases of hemimorphism.
It was, however, pointed out by Wulff, who has himself made valuable contri-
butions to the subject, that though no unknown crystallographic type belongs to
such a regular arrangement, one type of symmetry, that presented by dioptase, is
missing ; and it seems that, in this case at least, the merosymmetry can only be
accounted for by the merosymmetry of the particle, or something equivalent to
it, if the definition of regularity suggested by Sohncke is to be accepted. It was
recognised by Sohncke that each of his point-systems can be regarded as a com-
posite Bravais system, one of the latter being repeated in various positions corre=
sponding with the symmetry of the parallelepiped itself.

More recently, Schénflies has made a more general hypothesis still—namely,
that in each substance, whether its crystals be completely or partially symmetrical
in facial development, the particles are not of a single kind, but of two kinds,
related to each other in form in much the same way as a right-hand glove and a
left-hand glove. With this hypothesis he finds that all the thirty-two known types
are accounted for without any specialisation of the characters of the particle, and
that no other type of symmetry is mathematically possible.

36 REPORT—1894.

It now only remained to discover that Professor Hessel had already arrived at
the thirty-two types of crystallographic symmetry by mathematical reasoning
more than sixty years ago ; his work, being far in advance of his time, appears to
have attracted no attention, and the memoir remained unnoticed till more than half
a century after its publication.

Starting from Sohncke's definition of a regular point-system, and proceeding,
though independently, by a method which closely resembles that of the regular
partitioning of space by Schéntlies, Mr. William Barlow has given in a paper just
issued a general definition applicable to all homogeneous structures whatever, and
has shown that every such homogeneous structure falls into one or other of thirty-
two types of symmetry, coinciding exactly with the thirty-two types of crystal-
symmetry. He points out that each of those homogeneous structures which possess
planes of symmetry or centres of symmetry does so by reason of its having an
additional property beyond mere homogeneity, namely, that if we disregard mere
orientation, it is identical with its own image in amirror. Mr. Barlow further
discovers that every one of the Sohnckian point-systems can be geometrically con-
structed by finite repetition of some one of a certain ten of them.

Lord Kelvin, who, with characteristic versatility, has lately enlightened us with
his researches on Molecular Tactics, has quite recently attacked another problem
of the same group, and has sought to discover the most general form of cell which
shall be such that each cell encloses a single point of a Bravais system, while all the
cells resemble the parallelepipeds, of which we have already spoken, in being equal,
similar, similarly orientated, and in completely filling up space. He finds that in
the general case the cell can have at most fourteen walls, which may be themselves
either plane or curved, and may meet in edges either plane or curved. Having
regard, however, to the limited time at our disposal, we may hesitate before
following Lord Kelvin into his curious and many-walled cell.

The deduction of the thirty-two types of symmetry by mathematical reasoning
was also made independently by both Gadolin and Viktor von Lang thirty years
ago frem the law of rationality of indices; while edorow points out that the
method of deduction recorded in the recent German treatise of Schénflies is
remarkably similar to the one independently published by himself in Russia.
Both Curie and Minnigerode have also lately given comparatively brief solutions
of the problem.

Nor must I omit to mention to you the elaborate memoir dealing with the
symmetry of parallelepipedal point-systems which was written by the late Pro-
fessor Henry Stephen Smith, whose too early death this University has so much
reason to deplore. To the outer world he was perhaps best known as one of the
most perfect mathematicians of the age, but those who had the good fortune to find
themselves among his pupils will always treasure up in their memory rather the
kindly courtesy, the warm sympathy of the man, than the genius, however tran-
scendent, of the mathematician.

To sum up this part of the subject—it is now established that a definition of the
regularity of a point-system can be so framed that thirty-two, and only thirty-two,
types of symmetry are mathematically possible in a regular system, and that these
are identical with the types of symmetry that have been actually observed in
crystals, or are inferred by analogy to be crystallographically possible.

It remains for subsequent investigators to determine what the points of the
system really correspond to in the crystal; according to Schonflies, the physicist
and the chemist can be allowed in each crystal absolute control within a definite
elementary region of space, and the crystallographer is only entitled to demand
that the features of this region are repeated throughout space according to one or
other of the thirty-two types of symmetry already referred to; or, what appears
to be the same thing, the crystallographer requires mere homogeneity of structure.

Simplicity of Indices—We have seen that the planes containing points of a
regular point-system have rational indices. But there still remains unaccounted
for the remarkable fact that the indices of the natural limiting faces, and also of
the cleavage-planes of a crystal, are not merely whole numbers, but are in general
extremely simple whole numbers. Bravais and his followers have sought to account

——E————

ee

_— ee 2 ee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 637

for this by the hypothesis that both the natural limiting planes and the cleavage-
planes are those planes of a point-system which are most densely sprinkled with
points of the system. Curie and Liveing, independently of each other, have been
led to the same result from considerations relative to capillary constants. Sohncke,
however, pointing out that there are many cases—for instance, calcite—where an
excellent cleavage-plane is rarely a limiting plane, suggests that his generalised
point-system is more satisfactory than a Bravais system in that not only the density
of the sprinkling must be had regard to, but also the tangential cohesion of the
particles in the plane, and that in his system these may be independent of each
other; while Wulff remarks that Sohncke’s arrangement is identical with that of
Bravais for the anorthic system, where the same objection holds, and he denies the
legitimacy of the reasoning by which the hypothesis of a relation between the
density of the sprinkling of points on a plane and the likelihood of the natural
occurrence of the plane as a limiting face is supported.

Complexity of Indices.—Doubtless, however, crystal faces are observed of which
the symbols involve indices far exceeding 6 in magnitude—so complex, in fact, that
one is tempted to doubt the rigidity of the experimental proof that indices are
necessarily rational. Often, though the numbers are high, their ratios differ by
only small amounts from simple ones. A most patient and detailed study of such
faces was made for danburite by the late Dr. Max Schuster of Vienna, and the
results were brought by him some years ago to the notice of this Section. From
careful examination of similar faces in the case of quartz, Molengraaff has been
led to conclude that it is extremely probable that such faces are of secondary
origin and have been the result of etching: they would in such case correspond,
not to original limiting planes, but to directions in which the crystal yields most
readily to solvent or decomposing influences.

Optical Characters.—Passing from the purely geometrical characters of crystals
to the optical, we may in the first place remark that the relationship between crys-
talline form and circular polarisation discovered by Herschel in the case of quartz
has been generalised since the issue of Whewell’s Report. We now know that
many crystallised substances belonging to different systems give circular polarisa-
tion, and that all of them are merosymmetrical in facial development or structure;
further, they belong to types of symmetry which have a common feature, though
this is only a necessary, not a sufficient, condition.

The importance of the discovery of the dispersion of the mean lines has
already been referred to.

We may recall attention to the fact noticed by Norremberg, that when cleavage-

lates of biaxal mica are crossed in pairs and the pairs are piled one upon another
in similar positions, the optical figure yielded by the combination approaches nearer
and nearer to that of a uniaxal crystal the thinner the plates and the more nume-
rous the pairs: in the same way, by means of triplets of plates, each plate being
turned through one-third of a complete revolution from the position of the preced-
ing one, Reusch found it possible to closely imitate the optical figure of a right-
handed or a left-handed circularly polarising crystal.

And it has been observed that repeated combinations of differently orientated
parts actually occur in crystals. Large crystals of potassium ferrocyanide, for
example, are really composite, and the different parts are differently orientated :
on the one hand, a thick slice may give an optical figure which is uniaxal; on
the other hand, a thin slice shows two optic axes inclined to each other at a con-
siderable angle.

It has been suggested that the circular polarisation of quartz and other crystals
is due to a spiral molecular arrangement corresponding to that of the mica-triplets
as arranged by Reusch. Such a spiral arrangement is shown by the points of the
corresponding Sohnckian system.

Optical Anomalies.—As already mentioned, we owe to Brewster the establish-
ment of the relation between the optical behaviour of crystals and the systems of
crystallisation. But in the course of his long research Brewster met with numerous
puzzling exceptions, and to the investigation of the origin of their peculiar optical
behaviour he devoted much study; subsequent workers have concurred in express-

638 REPORT—1894..

ing their admiration of the accuracy of his observations and descriptions, more
especially when regard is had to the extreme simplicity of the apparatus available
in those early days.

It was recognised by Brewster that some of these optical anomalies are due to
a condition of strain of the crystal, as in the case of the diamond. But in other
minerals, as analcime and apophyllite, the hypothesis of strain was not entertained
by him: he regarded the crystals as being truly composite and not simple; and,
recognising optically different kinds of apophyllite, went so far as to give to one of
them the specific name of tesselite by reason of its distinctive characters. Biot, on
the other hand, sought to account for this kind of optical behaviour in another
way, by the hypothesis of lamellar polarisation: a crystal of alum, for example, he
held to be built up of thin ilaminz arranged parallel to the octahedral planes, and
imagined that light which has traversed such a crystal is polarised by its passage
through the aggregation of laminz in the same way as by passage through a pile
of glass plates. But in the latter case there is a frequent passage of the light from
air to glass and glass to air, whereas in the case of alum there is no evidence of the
existence of atmospheric intervals. Frankenheim sought to overcome this diffi-
culty by the further hypothesis that the successive layers of a composite potassium-
and ammonium-alum are of different chemical composition, but such a difference of
material would be insufficient for the desired object by reason of the nearness to
each other of the refractive indices of alums of different composition. Still, it is a
remarkable fact that neither a pure potassium-alum nor a pure ammonium-alum
shows any depolarisation-effects at all; these belong only to the alums of mixed
composition, and yet there is no visible difference in the physical structure of the
crystals of simple and composite material.

An epoch was made in the history of the so-called optical anomalies by the
publication in 1876 of an elaborate memoir by Professor Ernest Mallard of Paris,
whose death last month deprived Mineralogy of its greatest philosopher. To make
the position more clear, we may take as a definite illustration the mixeral boracite.
In development of faces and magnitude of angles the crystals of this mineral are,
as far as measurement with the goniometer can decide, precisely cubic in their
symmetry. But an apparently simple crystal of boracite, when examined in
polarised light, behaves exactly like a regularly composite body. If the crystal be
a rhombic dodecahedron in external development, all the twelve pyramids which
can be formed by drawing lines from the centre to the angular points are found to
be exactly similar to each other in everything but orientation ; and, further, each of
them has the optical characters of a biaxal crystal, the optic bisectrix of each
individual pyramid being perpendicular to the corresponding base, and thus having
a different direction for each of the six pairs of parallel faces of the dodecahedron.
Hence Mallard inferred that boracite belongs really, not to the cubic, but to the
orthorhombic system, and that its crystallographic elements are so nearly those of
a cubic crystal that the molecular structure is in stable equilibrium, not only when
different molecules have their similar lines parallel, but also when only approxi-
mately similar lines have the same orientation; further, the cubic symmetry of
the external form was regarded by him as a consequence of the approximation of
the crystallographic elements to those of a cubic crystal and of the variety of
orientation of the constituent molecules, Variety of orientation of constituent
molecules is, in fact, already recognised in the case of ordinary interpenetrant
twins. The variation of optical character in different crystals of the same
substance or different parts of the same crystal was then explained as being due
to the variation in the number of molecules belonging to each mode of orientation.

According to another view, it was contended that a crystal of boracite is really
cubic and simple, but that, like unannealed glass, it is in a state of strain related
to the external form. It was replied that the optical characters of such
unannealed glass are changed with the change of strain which follows the fracture
of the specimen, while those of boracite are unaltered when the erystal is broken.
To this it was rejoined that a once compressed gum retains its depolarising cha-
racter unchanged on fracture of the specimen, and that the same permanence may
very well be a character of some strained crystallised bodies.

’RANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 639

The controversy, however, passed to a fresh stage when it was discovered that
boracite becomes optically isotropic when sufficiently heated, and resumes an
optically composite character on cooling. Mallard showed that the temperature at
which the change takes place is a definite one, 265° C., and that a definite amount
of heat is absorbed or given out during the change of condition.

It is now agreed that boracite is really dimorphous ; that above 265° itis cubic
in symmetry, below 265° orthorhombic: the only remaining point of controversy
as regards boracite seems to be whether the external form owes its cubic symmetry
to the crystallisation having taken place at a temperature higher than 265°, and
therefore when the structure itself was truly cubic, or at a temperature below
265°, in which case the cubic character of the form would be ascribed to the fact
that the orthorhombic constituent particles are so nearly cubic in their dimensions
that at any temperature they may by variety of orientation combine to form a
structure having practically cubic symmetry, and naturally limiting itself by faces
corresponding to such a symmetry.

In exactly the same way leucite and tridymite become respectively optically
isotropic and uniaxal when sufficiently heated, and the optical characters then
correspond exactly to the symmetry of the external form.

Three yearsago Dr. Brauns prepared a most useful summary of the ninety-four
memoirs which had up to that time been contributed relative to the much-dis-
cussed subject of the optical anomalies of crystals, and added many new experi-
mental results which had been obtained by himself. He concludes that the
original view of Mallard—namely, that an optically anomalous structure consists
merely of differently orientated particles of the same kind and of symmetry
approximating to a higher type—is only applicable to a very limited number of
crystals, such as those of prehnite ; that dimorphism is the true cause in others,
boracite being an example; that in the remaining minerals the cause is strain,
which in some of them is due to foreign enclosures, as in the case of the diamond,
and in others is due to a molecular action between isomorphous substances, as in
the mixed alums and the garnets.

Planes of Gliding.—One of the most startling of crystallographic discoveries
was one made by Reusch, who found that if a crystal of calcite is compressed in a
certain way each particle springs into a new but definite position, exactly as if the
crystal had undergone a simple shear and the particles at the same time had each
described a semi-somersault: a simpler method of producing the same result was
discovered afterwards by Baumhauer. If only part of the calcite crystal is sheared,
the two parts of the structure itself are related to each other in the same way as
the two parts of a twin growth ; but in general the external form is different from
that of a twin, since after the shearing of the material few of the faces retain their
former crystallographic signification. The property has since been shown by Bauer,
Liebisch, and more especially Miigge, to be a very general one; and doubtless the
so-called twin lamellz met with in rock-constituents have in many cases resulted
from pressure during earth-movements long subsequent to the epoch of formation
of the crystals. Similar lamellz have been produced artificially in anhydrite and
some kinds of felspar by exposure of the crystals to a high temperature.

Piezo-electricity.—The most remarkable addition to our knowledge of the
relation of minerals and electricity has been the recent discovery of the electrifica-
tion produced by strain (piezo-electricity). It has been shown by J. and P. Curie
that if a quartz-plate, with faces cut parallel to the axis and silvered to make them
conductive, be strained in a certain direction, the two faces either become oppositely
electrified or show no signs of electrification at all, according as the faces of the
plate are cut to be perpendicular to the prism-faces, or to pass through the prism-
edges. Lord Kelvin says that this result is explicable by electric eolotropy of the
molecule and by nothing else, a character which he had suggested for the molecule
thirty-four years ago : experiments confirmatory of this hypothesis of the permanent
electrification of the molecule were made some time ago by Riecke.

Pyro-electricity.—The development of opposite electricities at different parts of
a crystal during changing temperature (pyro-electricity) has long been known in
the case of tourmaline. We owe to Hankel a long series of investigations of this

640 REPORT—1894.

kind relative to boracite, topaz, and various other minerals, but it seems to be now
established that most of the electrifications observed by means of his method are
really piezo-electric, and are due to strains caused by inequality of temperature in
different parts of the cooling crystal. A model has been lately made by Lord
Kelvin which gives a perfect mechanical representation of the elasticity, the piezo-
electricity, and also the pyro-electricity of a crystal.

Electrical Methods.—A delightfully simple method of investigating the
difference of electrical condition of the parts of a cooling crystal and of making the
distribution of electricity visible to the eye has been invented by Kundt. Mixed
particles of (red) minium and (yellow) sulphur are oppositely electrified by their
passage through the meshes of a small sieve; falling on the cooling crystal, each
particle adheres to the oppositely electrified region, and the electrical condition of
the latter is thus immediately indicated by the colour of the adherent powder.
Mr. Miers remarks that this method is practically useful as a means of discrimina-
tion even when the crystals are extremely minute.

Other Physical Characters.—Of other physical characters much studied since
the issue of Whewell’s Report, I may recall to you more especially the dilatation
of crystals on change of temperature, in which the observations of Mitscherlich
have been extended by Fizeau and Beckenkamp; the forms of the isothermal
surfaces of crystals, as determined by Sénarmont, and afterwards by Réntgen; the
magnetic induction treated of by Faraday, Lord Kelvin, Pliicker, and Tyndall ;
the hardness of crystals for different directions lying in the same faces, by Grailich,
Pekarek, and Exner; the elasticity of crystals, investigated by Neumann, Lord
Kelvin, Voigt, Baumgarten, and Koch; the distortion of crystals in an electro-
magnetic field, by Kundt, Réntgen, and MM. Curie.

Chemical Relations—In the short time I can reasonably ask you to allow me
it is clearly impossible to enter upon any discussion of the increase of our know-
ledge of the chemical relations of minerals, and to treat of the much-investigated
subjects—isomorphism, polymorphism, and morphotropy ; nor can I attempt to give
you any idea of the advance which has been made towards a natural classification :
nor must I mention the experiments which have been made relative to the growth
of crystals, the etching of their faces, or their directions of easiest solution.

Systematic Mineralogy.—s regards systematic mineralogy an immense amount
of progress has been made. The condition of affairs in 1832 was described by Whewell
as follows:—‘ We have very few minerals of which the chemical constitution is not
liable to some dispute ; scarcely a single species of which the rules and limits are
known, or in which two different analyses taken at random might not lead to
different formulz ; and no system of classification which has obtained general accep-
tation or is maintained, even by its proposer, to be free from gross anomalies’ An
idea of the extent of the improvement will be best obtained from a comparison of
the first edition of Dana’s ‘Treatise, published in 1837, and that treasury of infor-
mation, the sixth edition, which appeared in 1892. The names of Miller and
Desclcizeaux are to be honourably mentioned in connection with this detailed
work on species. In the interval of time under consideration the number of well-
established species has been more than doubled, and the rate at which new species
are discovered shows as yet no sign of diminution. In particular, I may remind
you of the work which has been done in the correlation of the members of large
groups, like the felspars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, scapolites, micas, tourmalines, and
garnets. A paper just published by Penfield relative to topaz furnishes an
excellent illustration of the important results which are still to be arrived at from
a careful study of a common mineral. It has long been known that the mutual
inclination of the optic axes of topaz is very different in different specimens, and it
has been suspected that the variation might depend on the percentage of fluorine.
Professor Penfield has carefully determined, not only the fluorine, but also the
water yielded in the course of analysis of specimens from different localities, and
ficds that the analytical results are best explained by the hypothesis of an iso-
morphous replacement of fluorine by hydroxyl; further, he discovers that the
magnitude of the augle between the optic axes is a function of the amount of that
replacement.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 641

The successes achieved in the artificial formation of minerals, the advances
made in the methods of discrimination of minerals by the blowpipe and micro-
chemical reactions, the increase in our knowledge of the modes of alteration of
minerals, of their association, of their modes of occurrence, must all be left
undiscussed.

Instruments.—I may add a word relative to the instrumental appliances which
have been placed at the service of the mineralogist since the issue of Whewell’s
Report. As regards goniometers, the provision of two mechanical circular move-
‘ments in perpendicular planes for the easier adjustment of a crystal-edge parallel
‘to the axis of the instrument, first suggested by Viktor von Lang when assistant
at the British Museum, has proved a great convenience and is n>w in general use.
The employment of a collimator with interchangeable signals, of a telescope with
interchangeable eyepieces, and the provision of lenses and diaphragms for obtaining
images from faces so small as to be invisible to the unassisted eye, would seem to
have brought the retlective goniometer, the invention of our distinguished country-
man Dr. Wollaston, to a degree of perfection where further improvement is scarcely
to be looked for; though two crystallographers, Fedorow and Goldschmidt, have
recently constructed instruments with an additional telescope and entirely different
arrangements. Itmay be worthy of remark that, though reflective goniometers are
generally made for use with very small specimens, one was constructed for the British
Museum some years ago by which it is possible to measure the angles of a valuable
crystal without removal of the specimen from a matrix of several pounds’ weight.

The polariscope for use with convergent light, the stauroscope, the employment
of polarised light with the microscope, the adaptation of the microscope for the
observation of the interference-figures yielded by extremely minute crystals, the
spectroscope in the investigation of selective absorption, have all proved of great
service in the advancement of our knowledge of the characters of minerals.

Worthy of special mention is that recent addition to our resources, the total
reflectometer, an instrument by which it is possible to determine with wonderful
accuracy the refractive index or indices from observation of the reflected light.
‘The process was long ago suggested by Wollaston; but it is only within the last
few years that forms of instrument have been devised by Kohlrausch, Soret, Lie-
bisch, Pulfrich, and Abbe, which make the method as precise in its results as that
which depends on refraction by a prism. In its more refined forms. the total
reflectometer has been used to test the accuracy of the form of Fresnel’s wave-
surface: in the convenient, though less precise, form devised by Bertrand, the
instrument is useful in the discrimination of the species of minerals.

For the measurement of the optic axal angle, when the angle is so large that
the rays corresponding to the optic axes are totally reflected at the surface of the
plate and do not emerge into air from the crystal, Professor W. G. Adams
made the valuable suggestion that the crystal-plate should be interposed between
two hemispheres of glass; several instruments on this principle have been con-
structed abroad, and have only been imperfectly satisfactory, but one lately made
in this country for the British Museum, under the superintendence of my excellent
colleague Mr. Miers, proves to be most efficient for the intended purpose. Mr.
Tutton’s apparatus for supplying monochromatic light of any desired wave-length
is a noteworthy addition to the instrumental resources of the mineralogist. The
meldometer of Joly for the more accurate determination of the fusing point of
minerals should also be recalled to you.

In this slight sketch it has been possible to make only the barest mention of
some of the more important results which have been arrived at since the issue of
Whewell’s Report. You will doubtless think that it must have been possible in
the year 1832 to look forward enthusiastically to the progress which was about to
be made. But though Protessor Whewell was himself confident that valuable
discoveries would reward the mineralogical worker, he was sadly depressed, and,
I think I may venture to say, with good reason, by the neglect of mineralogical
study in this country. His own words are: ‘This decided check in the progress of
the science has, I think, without question, very much damped the interest with which

1894, ca

642 REPORT—1894.

Mineralogy, as a branch of Natural Philosophy, has been looked upon in England.
Indced, this feeling appears to have gone so far that all the general questions of
the science excite with us scarcely any notice whatever. But a more forward
and nopeful spirit appears to have prevailed for some time in other countries,
especially Sweden, Germany, and more recently France.’ Those are the words
of despair of the future of British Mineralogy. I may add that in the same year
he resigned his professorship of Mineralogy, and directed his vast energy to the
advancement of other subjects; many of you will remember that he afterwards
became Professor of Moral Philosophy and Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Now, | think that a country like our own, which aims at taking and maintain-
ing a high place in the scale of civilisation, ought in some way or other to secure
that in every important branch of learning there is a group of men in the country
who will make it the main purpose of their lives to render themselves familiar
with all that has been and is being discovered in the subject, will do whatever is
possible to fill up the gaps in the science, and, last but not least, will make the
more important results accessible to other workers for whom so complete and
original a survey is impracticable.

No one will doubt that Mineralogy should be such an important branch of learning.
Minerals existed before man was thrust upon the scene; they will possibly con-
tinue to exist long after he himself has passed away: at least as persistent as
himself, they will have an interest for every age.

The Continental nations have not only long recognised the importance of
mineralogical study, but have acted accordingly. The difference between action
and inaction will be most clearly grasped if we compare the position of Mineralogy
in Germany with that in this country.

In Freiberg, the centre of a mining district in Saxony, an institute was opened
in the year 1766 for the scientific training of those students whose interest was in
minerals, and the lectures on Mineralogy given there by Professor Werner became
a prominent feature; of the many pupils of this remarkable man, Breithaupt,
Von Buch, Haidinger, Humboldt, Mohs, Naumann, and Weiss may be especially
mentioned as having afterwards distinguished themselves by their scientific worl.
Of other Germans, who have likewise gone to their rest after much labour given
to the advancement of Mineralogy and Crystallography, men whose names will
long be household words for mineralogists, we may especially recall Beer, Bischof,
Blum, Credner, Hessel, Klaproth, Kobell, Lasaulx, Mitscherlich, Pfaff, Plattner,
Pliicker, Quenstedt, Vom Rath, Reusch, Gustay Rose, Heinrich Rose, Sadebeck,
Scheerer, Sartorius von Waltershausen, Websky, and Wohler. Of the many Ger-
mans who are now contributing to our knowledge of minerals it is an invidious
task to make a selection, but we may mention Arzruni, Bauer, Beckenkamp, Biick-
ing, Cathrein, Cohen, Goldschmidt, Groth, Haushofer, Hintze, Hirschwald, Klein,
Klockmann, Knop, Laspeyres, Lehmann, Liebirch, Liidecke, Miigge, Neumann,
Osann, Rosenbusch, Sandberger, Streng, Voigt, Weisbach and Zirkel: most of them
are University Professors of Mineralogy; all of them hold important positions as
teachers of the subject. Further, the laboratories and instruments available for the
teaching of practical work are in many cases, notably at Strassburg, Munich, Got-
tingen, and Berlin, of an elaborate character.

So much for Germany; let us now look at home. In the Universities of
England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland there is a grand total of—two Pro-
fessorships of Mineralogy, one of them at Cambridge, the other, and younger one,
at Oxford. Further, the stipends are nearly as low as they can be made; in the
former case, according to the University Calendar, the stipend paid from the Uni- —
versity Chest to the present holder of the office amounts to 300. a year; in tlie
more ancient but less extravagant University of Oxford, the Calendar states that
the present professor receives, subject to previous deduction of income-tax, the
annual sum of 100/., and the necessary instruments and many of the specimens
have presumably been provided from his private resources; in case of residence he
is to be allowed another 150/. a year for the luxuries which University life involves.
And these are the only teaching appointments in his own subject that a successful
investigator of minerals can look forward to being a candidate for! The result is

——

a.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 643

inevitable; all those students who intend to earn their own living, all those who feel
anxious to undertake professorial work, conclude that, however much they may
be interested in the investigation of the characters of minerals, they will do well
to follow the example of Professor Whewell and turn to other branches of knowledge
in which there is a more hopeful prospect of their studies meeting with practical
recognition, :

It cannot be expected that advanced Mineralogy will ever be able to command
the attention of more than a limited number of students, seeing that its successful
pursuit requires a preliminary knowledge of at least three other sciences—mathe-
matics, physics, and chemistry—sciences which must be assigned a fundamental
importance in any scheme of education ; if a preliminary knowledge of geology can
be added, so much the better. Only few students can find time in their undergraduate
days to acquire a competent knowledge of these sciences and to proceed afterwards
to the study of Mineralogy. But the comparatively flourishing condition of the
science in Germany, France, and other countries indicates that this is not a
sufficient reason for refraining from giving proper facilities and encouragement to
those who wish to enter upon its study. Some years ago the University of
Cambridge took a step in the right direction, and introduced Mineralogy into their
examinational system in such a way that the students of Physics, Chemistry, and
Geology can give time to the acquisition of a knowledge of Crystallography and
Mineralogy, and obtain credit for that knowledge in the examination for a degree.

It is clear that if in the future there is to be an honourable rivalry between
this and other countries in the advancement of the knowledge of minerals, each of
our Universities should be enabled in some way or other to found Professorships
of Mineralogy, and be prevailed upon to follow the example of Cambridge in en-
couraging the students of Physics, Chemistry, and Geology to acquire a knowledge
of Crystallography and Mineralogy before their education is regarded as complete,
Ieven where a student has no intention of devoting himself to advanced mineral-
ogical study, an elementary knowledge of Crystallography and Mineralogy will be
extremely useful in giving him a better grasp of his own special subject.

And if, perchance, any of you are anxious to reduce the amount of those un-
mentionable duties of which we have heard so much of late, and feel that you can
best do this by the endowment of Professorships of Mineralogy in our Universities,
I would advise you not to do what has been so long practicable at this Association,
couple Mineralogy with any other science—that would be an unwise economy.
Each of the sciences is now so vast in its extent that no professor can be thoroughly
master of what has been done, and is now being done, by other workers, in more
than one of them. I remember that in my younger days it was held by some at
Oxford that the Professor of Mineralogy, a so-called subordinate subject, should
continue to be paid on a lower scale than his brother professors, and that he should
obtain a living wage by adding a college tutorship or a lectureship in some other’
subject to his professorial duties. It is not by the prospect of such appointments
that you can expect the most capable men to be attracted to the study of minerals.
The practical effect of such an arrangement would only be that a college lecturer
would give formal teaching in Mineralogy while devoting his real energy to
another subject in which the pupils are more numerous.

- It only remains to thank you for the way in which you have listened to a
technical address relative to a science for the study of which very few facilities
have been offered to you in our own country. Not often does the mineralogist

_ present himself before an audience; he sees only too clearly that

The applause of listening senates to command,
To read his history in a nation’s eyes,
His lot forbids ;

but I shall not have broken the long silence in vain if I have made clear to you
that, though the Science of Mineralogy is itself making great progress, we have
hitherto given too little encouragement to its study in our own Universities, and
lag far behind both Germany and France in the recognition of its importance,

TT 2

644 REPORT—1894.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Some Points of Special Interest in the Geology of the Neighbourhood
of Oaford. By Professor A. H. Green, IA., FERS.

There are several spots around Oxford the names of which have come to be
household words in the literature of geology.

It is not likely that I can add anything to what has been long known about
localities which were favourite haunts of Buckland, Phillips, and other of our
feremost geologists. But, as excursions to some of these places have been planned,
I hoped it might be serviceable to recall attention to the more important of the
specialities of these spots.

We hope to visit historic Stonesfield. Work will be begun at some brick- and
ironstone-pits at Fawler, where the Liassic zones of Ammonites capricornus,
A, margaritatus, and A. spinatus are well shown. Above these comes an at-
tenuated representative of the Upper Lias, not more than 10 feet thick. The
basement bed, with its mixture of ammonites elsewhere relegated to separate
zones, which has been studied by Mr. Walford, is present. Above the Upper Lias
we have the representative of the Inferior Oolite, here reduced to the two bands of

Chipping Norton Limestone.
Clypeus Grit.

The latter is referred to the Parkinsoni zone, the lower zones of the subformation
being here absent.!_ On the hill above lie the workings in the Stonesfield Slate,
with its mixture of terrestrial, fresh water, and marine forms, too well known to
need special description. Quarries may afterwards be visited in Great Oolite
(Upper Zone), Forest Marble, and Cornbrash, one of which shows a curious case of
contemporaneous erosion.

An excursion over Shotover will show a succession from the Oxford Clay to
the Neocomian Ironsands, One point of interest here is the little coral reefs of
the Corallian Beds, and the bank of finely comminuted material, derived from
their wear, which adjoins them.? The Portland Beds are sandy and shingly, and
mark the margin of the southern Portlandian sea.

The Neocomian Ironsands are part of a long strip which runs from Wiltshire,
through Oxfordshire and Bedfordshire, to Cambridgeshire and onwards. They
are coarse, shingly, very current-bedded, obviously shore deposits. Possibly they
were formed in a long strait that connected the northern and southern Neocomian
basins. At most of the spots where they yield fossils, these are marine. But it
is only natural that, as we go along a coast line where the physical conditions
change from place to place, there should be a corresponding change in the
character and fossils of the deposits. And it is so here. On a hill adjoining
Shotover the Ironsands have long been known to contain fresh-water fossils.
We are here facing wkat was the mouth of a river. At Faringdon, again, the
beds depart widely from their normal type. There is no current bedding, indeed
very little bedding at all. Their abundant fossils include sponges, most of which
are very perfect, and delicate bryozoa but little worn, with scattered specimens
of perfect brachiopods, all embedded in a matrix of very finely comminuted
organisms, These facts seem to me to point to a tract of still water such as
would be found in a sheltered bay. In the deeper water of the centre the fossils
would be preserved entire, while over the shallow margins they would be ground
pie and the finely comminuted matter swept into the central pit till it was

Ned up.

An T atapeating section occurs in a brick-pit near Culham, It shows—

3. Gault clay, with a band at the bottom containing sand, pebbles, and rolled
fossils derived from the Neocomian Ironsands.

2. Thin band of earthy limestone; Kimmeridgian (?) or Portlandian,

1. Kimmeridge Clay.

! Walford, Q.J.G.S., xli. (1885), p. 38.
? Blake and Hudleston, Q.J.G.S., xxxiii. (1877), pp. 308-311.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 645

The Neocomian Ironsands are in full force hard by; at this spot they have
been denuded before the Gault was deposited, and their ruins have accumulated
towards the base of that subformation.

The Purbeck and Portland rocks of the Swindon outlier have been so often
described that they need no special notice.1 The shell-marks and tufaceous lime-
stones of the Purbeck lie in a hollow worn out in the Portland rocks, and the
two are most sharply marked off from each other. A limestone crowded with
Cerithium Portlandicum marks the upper limit of the Portland. It has been
irregularly denuded, and here and there small isolated blocks, which have escaped
denudation, project up into the Purbeck. The Portlands have a shingly character
in some beds, which must have been formed in shallow water.

2. Report of the Committee for making new Sections in the Stonesfield
Slate-—See Reports, p. 304.

3. On the Terraced Hill Slopes of North Oxfordshire.
By Epwin A. WatForp, /.G.S.

The green slopes of many of the minor vales of North Oxfordshire are scored with
parallel terraces or terraced banks, frequently of such regularity in depth of step
and slope as to present to the mind any other origin for their formation than that
of the every-day work of natural forces. They have been described as camps,
entrenchments, and amphitheatres, and those of. other districts Mr. Gomme has
described, and has cited the many theories of their origin.

Mr. Walford first drew attention to the Oxfordshire and Warwickshire terraced
fields in 1886,? and dealt at greater length with the subject in 1890.°

He gives as causes of formation—

1, The downward creep of the surface and sub-surface soil.

2. The occurrence of the terraces upon one precise geologic line, the micaceous
marls of the Middle Lias which come in below the Red Rock bed. The marls are
porous and non-cohesive. On the slippery slopes the soil must creep. The rain and
rain-wash loosen the light soil below and about the roots of the herbage and urge
its movement downward. ‘Terraces from an incipient stage, like an ordinary grass
ridge, to minor and major terraced banks of varying regularity of form can be
traced. Below these marls are depths of compact bluse clay (the zone of Ammonites
margaritatus if in near contact with the marls). A little below the point where
the marls and clays meet is the line of water outflow. Along the line there is
constant removal of marl by chemical and mechanical solution, The effect is the
loosening and sliding of the land downwards and outwards. This movement is
aided by the weight of the overlying mass of rock, sometimes twenty-five feet in
thickness.

3. Free passage of water through the rock and marl is necessary, for the Upper
T.ias clays have, on the Oxfordshire terraced hills, either been wholly stripped from
the hill top or pushed back by atmospheric denudation. Regularly terraced slopes
are not found on clay-covered hills; the appearance of terraces is coincident with
the wearing away of the clay ‘ roof.’

The amphitheatre form of terraced land is always a valley head. The outflow
of the stream—the valley-maker—marks ordinarily the base of the amphitheatre.
More frequently the terraces of the valley head are small in step and their curvature
is broken. Such an instance is Kenhill, near Shennington. An instance of
greater regularity of curvature and greater depth of step is the Beargarden, Ban-
bury.

! Blake, Q.J.G.S., xxxvi. (1880), p. 203.

2H. A. Walford, Hdge Hill: the Battle and Battlefield, p. 24. Banbury, 1886.

3 E. A. Walford, ‘On some Terraced Hill Slopes in the Midlands,’ Journ. North-
ampton Nat. Hist. Soc., January, 1890.

64.6 REPORT—1894. :

From the Edge Hill escarpment a fork of the Horton vale runs alongside
Adsum Plantation, and makes what is known as Adsum Hollow. The terraces’
sweep in regular curves along the high banks of the stream, and where it joins the
main vale to the North of Horley the steps are so prominent as to give the name
of Steps Meadow to the ground. Gredenton Hill, on the Burton Darrett range, is
very regularly and beautifully terraced on three sides.

The author does not attempt description of the chalk hills or the lynchets of
Dorsetshire. The sandy marls of the Dorsetshire Inferior Oolite have a composi-
tion approaching that of the micaceous marls of the Midlands, and reasons like
those brought forward will no doubt prove their similar mode of formation.

. Lhe Probable Range of the Coal-Measures under the Newer Rocks of
Oxfordshire and the Adjoining Counties. By Professor Boyp
Dawkins, 2.8.

The principle laid down by Godwin-Austen and Prestwich that the master
or tectonic folds in the pre-Carboniferous and Carboniferous rocks are lines of
weakness along which the newer rocks have been folded in later times, has been
recently applied by Bertrand to the district-of northern France. In the present
communication the author proposes to see how far it can be used in the search
after the buried coal-fields of the counties of Oxford, Buckingham, Berks, and
Wilts.

From the relation existing between the tectonic anticlines and synclines in the
districts of South Wales, Gloucester, and the West of England, where they can
be studied at the surface in the Paleozoic rocks, most important conclusions may
be drawn as to the coal-fields buried under the newer rocks in southern England.
They are as follows :—

1. The Mid-Devon syncline, traceable eastwards until it cuts the sea-line near
Bognor.

"2. The North Devon anticline, which runs eastwards through the Vale of
Wardour, past Salisbury, and along the anticline of the Weald from Petersfield
to Dungeness.

3. The Mid-Somerset syncline, which sweeps eastwards through the Vale of
Bridgewater and Glastonbury, through the chalk downs between Heytesbury and
Hindon, to Haslemere. From this point it is continued to the east through
Tunbridge Wells and Tenterden to the sea to the south of Hythe.

These three folds have no bearing on the range of the coal-fields in the drainage
area of the Thames. The fourth, or Pembroke-Mendip anticline, and the fifth,
or South Welsh syncline, are the two great tectonic folds which remain for
consideration.

The Pembroke-Mendip anticlinal range, highly faulted and folded, is traceable
westwards into South Ireland, and eastwards, through Pembroke and the peninsula
of Gower, to the south of Cardiff, through Weston-super-Mare and the Mendip
Hills. Throughout this area it forms the southern margin of the coal-fields,
Near Frome it plunges beneath the Oolites. It is, however, clearly marked by
the Upper Greensand anticline of the Vale of Pewsey, and by the Upper Green-
sand inliers of Ham and Kingsclere. Thence it passes along the line to the
high downs past Basingstoke and Farnham to Peasemarsh, south of Guildford,
where it is seen in an inlier of Weald clay. It is carried still further to the east
by similar inliers south of Westerham, and at Wateringbury and Maidstone.
From Maidstone it sweeps to the south-east, through Otham and Ashford,
arriving at the coast close to Hythe. In the eastern portion of its course it has,
in my opinion, been the chief factor causing the south-eastern trend of the North
Downs in the district of Maidstone. It forms also the southern boundary of the
South-eastern coal-field discovered in the boring at Dover, and of the coal-fields of
northern France and Belgium.

The South Welsh syncline, only two miles wide at St. Bride’s Bay, in the
anthracite district of Pembroke, widens out into the coal-field of South Wales,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 647

twenty miles in width. As it approaches the upper estuaty of the Severn it is
represented by the outlying cval-tield of the Forest of Dean, and the three par-
tially or wholly covered fields to the north of the Mendip Hills, distributed through
an area measuring forty-five miles from north to south. The wedge-like syncline, with
its more or less connected coal-fields, continues to widen eastwards, its northern
boundary being probably represented by a line drawn from the northern rim of
the South Welsh coal-field to the north of the Forest of Dean, and continued due
east beneath the Secondary and Tertiary rocks to some point between Walton-on-
the-Naze and the mouth of the Blackwater. It passes through Gloucester,
Rissington, in the valley of the Windrush, Blenheim, Kirtlington, Quainton,
Luton, Bishop’s Stortford, Dunmow, Braintree, and Colchester. The width of
this great tectonic syncline between Colchester and Dover is about fifty miles,
and it occupies nearly the whole of the London Tertiary basin, which, it must be
noted, is of the same wedge shape, widening to the east.

The boring recently described by Mr. Whitaker at Culford, near Bury
St. Edmunds, in which a slate rock, probably of Silurian or pre-Silurian age, was_
struck at a depth of 637 feet 6 inches from the surface, shows that in all probability
that area isan anticlinal area. About forty-two miles to the south, in the deep boring
at Harwich, the Yoredale shales come in. Both these points are, be it remarked,
to the north of the line in question. Both indicate a Paleozoic area in Suffolk
and northern Essex older than the Coal-Measures, and similar to that on the same
meridian in South Wales and Gloucestershire which lies to the north of the
western coal-fields. We have, therefore, not merely a well-defined Pembroke-
Mendip anticline forming the southern boundary of the coal-tields both in the
west and in the east, as proved by the south-eastern coal-field at Dover, but also
evidence of the continuation of the South Welsh pre-Carboniferous barrier of
Hull, which forms the northern boundary of the visible coal-fields due eastwards
into Suffolk. It may therefore be reasonably inferred that similar coal-fields,
isolated from each other by tracts of older rocks, are to be found in the South
Welsh syncline where it lies buried beneath the Secondary and Tertiary strata.
In other words, we may conclude that there are coal-fields in North Wilts, in the
counties of Berks, Oxford, and Buckingham, and the Tertiary basin of the Thames
within the limits laid down above, and in a direction indicated in 1871 by the
Coal Commissioners.

One such coal-field, indeed, has already been discovered in a deep boring at
Burford, near Whitney, in the valley of the Windrush. The discovery, however,
has unfortunately not been followed up, and we do not know whether it is of wide
east and west range, similar to that of South Wales, or of Bethune and Namur, or
whether it is small and unimportant, like some of the smaller coal-basins north of
the Mendip Hiils. It offers a sure basis for other deep borings, which may have
the same industrial effect on Oxfordshire as those which have extended the range
of the buried Coal-Measures in northern France, ninety miles to the west of
Charleroi, and converted a purely agricultural into a great manufacturing district.
There is no practical difficulty arising from the depth at which the Coal-Measures
may be expected to occur in this region. At Burford they were struck at
1,184 feet from the surface, and at Dover at 1,113 feet below high-water mark.

The borings in the area of the London Tertiaries prove that the Palzozoic rocks are
not buried to a greater depth than about 1,200 feet below sea-level, and in Hertford-
shire to as little as 796 feet. ‘The most important collieries in England are carried
on at depths ranging from 1,500 to more than 3,000 feet. :

The new light thrown upon the question of the buried coal-fields by recent dis-
coveries places it in a very different position from that which it occupied in 1871,
when Godwin-Austen, Prestwich, and Hull gave their evidence before the Royal
Commission. The boring at Dover, revealing the existence of a valuable coal-field,
now offers a fixed point for further discovery in south-eastern England. That at
Burford offers a similar basis for the proving of the Oxfordshire coal-tield. The many
other wells and borings made in the area of London, and as far north as Bury St.
Edmunds, also afford important information as to the northern boundary of the
productive South Welsh syncline. The development of our mineral wealth is of

648 REPORT—1894,

such vast importance that it would be quite worth the while of the Government to
undertake a series of experimental borings, which would indicate the exact position
of the buried coal-fields. In the present state of the mining laws it is a task not
likely to be undertaken by the private adventurer. It might, however, be carried
out by the County Councils, or by a combination of landowners, either with or
without a compulsory rate, on the property which would be benefited by the
discovery of new fields. It is one of those objects of public utility which are
especially worthy of the regard of the British Association at this time and in this
place.

5. On the Deposit of Iron Ore in the Boring at Shakespeare Cliff, Dover.
By Professor Boyp Dawkins, F.B.S.

The general results of the boring at Dover were laid before the British Associa-~
tion at Cardiff in 1892, so far as relates to the discovery of the south-eastern coal-
field. In the present communication the author treats of a bed of ironstone, which
is likely to be of great importance in the new industries which will spring up
sooner or later in Kent in consequence of the discovery of coal in workable
quantities.

The strata penetrated in the boring are as follows:—

Feet

Lower Grey Chalk and Chalk marl . - 130

Upper Cretaceous , . ,Glauconitic marl. : : : : 8
Gault. . . F F . c 20

Folkestone Beds . = : = . 64

< - Sandgate Beds . ‘ é : ‘ Lea Lid
PICARORARL Hite NF) fowl eethe Beds ul clasagld agit oh Ya
larherfela Clays : : - : yi 28

Portlandian : - : . ’ se

Kimmeridgian . . , ; : su 463

Le Corallian . - . ; ! ‘ Reis)
aetas Oxfordian ) 188

Callovian f° : ‘
Bathonian . . , . . . - 156

Total e , M * . Dts
Coal-measures with twelve seams of coal 23 feet 5 inches thick . - 1,0683

The ironstone occurs in the Kimmeridgian part of the section, and as shown in
the following details :—

Portlandian Beds :—
Grey marl with oolitic grains of ferric oxide 3 . .
Hard grey limestone :
Brown calcareous sandstone : - F :
Grey shelly limestone with oolitic grains of ferric oxide
Dark-grey marl : ; :
Hard blue limestone with Littorina
Brown oolitic ironstone
Grey limestone . ° .
Dark bituminous clay .
Flaggy sandstone :
Grey sandy clay . ° : c
Arenaceous limestone with Cidaris
Dark bituminous shale ; : : : - -
Grey nodular limestone : z : 7 5 : °
Coralline Oolite with the usual fossils, Pecten vagans, kc. .

ty
2
©
or

_

to
NWANNFE PE OPRW REDE be DD

to

The ironstone presents very singular physical characters. It is composed of
small dark-brown shining grains of hydrated oxide of iron like millet seed, embedded

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 649:

in a crystalline base partly of calcium carbonate, and partly of iron carbonate.
These grains are oolitic in structure, and are probably the result of the same chemi-
cal change by which the calcareous beds of the Inferior Oolite in Lincolnshire have
been converted into the iron ores. They occur, it will be noted, in several strata
above the main bed, 12 feet in thickness in the above section.

This bed of iron ore is identical with that described by Blake and Hudleston at
Abbotsbury in Dorset, where it occurs between the Kimmeridge clay above and
the Corallian rocks below.

It is also physically identical with the valuable iron ore worked for many years
at Westbury in Wiltshire, where it is met with at a lower horizon, being there
separated from the Corallian limestones by 4 feet of marls and sands.

This stratum, although probably of purely local origin, is to be looked for in the
beds above the Corallian throughout the whole of southern England, from Dorset
eastwards. Its discovery at Dover is only second in importance to that of the
South-eastern Coal-field. It will bave to be taken into account in the future
development of the coal-fields in southern England,

6. On the Cause of Earthquakes. By J. Locan Lostey, £.G.S.,
Professor of Physiography, City of London College.

Although a connection between the cause of volcanic and of seismic action is
generally assumed, neither has been satisfactorily determined, though both are
usually attributed in their inception to a shrinkage of the globe from secular cool-
ing. The author took exception to this view, and adduced the great amount of rock-
folding since the Cambrian Period, as showing that if this were due to planetary
shrinkage, which rock-folding is assumed to prove, the earth’s radial contraction
must have been at least 100 miles during post-Cambrian ages, that such a contraction
would require a loss of heat to the extent of 5,000° F., that therefore the globe
would have had at the Cambrian Period a temperature 5,000° F. higher than
at present, and that such a temperature was altogether incompatible with terres-
trial conditions. Neither, apart from greater terrestrial heat, would meteorological
conditions be at all like the present, with a surface 100 miles further from the
centre, for an attenuated atmosphere and different gravities would affect all
climatal conditions and all the agencies of nature.

Both the petrological and the paleontological teachings of the Cambrian rocks:
are entirely at variance with any such conditions, since they indicate terrestrial
inorganic conditions and agencies similar to those of the present epoch.

It was submitted, therefore, that the assumption of a planetary shrinkage was
opposed to geological facts, and that consequently another cause must be sought
for seismic phenomena.

The author thought the hypothesis he brought before the Section in 1888 to
account for volcanic action! would meet the difficulty, and expressed the opinion:
that earthquakes were originated by chemical action arising from favouring
physical conditions at separate and isolated dynamic foci, at moderate depths and
quite unconnected with any central fused mass. These originating foci, like those .
of both volcanic and plutonic action, were in a thin outer rind of the globe of a
few miles in thickness, which with all its foldings and plications rested upon a
solid foundation, giving the earth its ascertained rigidity, and since the Cam-
brian Period there has been no appreciable decrease of the bulk of the globe or of
terrestrial heat.

? “On the Causes of Volcanic Action,’ Report of the British Association for 1888
(Bath Meeting), p. 670.

650 ° REPORT—1894.

7. On Certain Volcanic Subsidences in the North of Iceland.
By Tempest Anperson, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S..

Perhaps the most striking features in Icelandic scenery are the gids (pronounced
‘geow’), or fissures and chasms which are so frequently met with in all the districts
in which recent volcanic activity manifests itself. They are usually, and in most
cases rightly, ascribed to the lower stratum of a molten lava stream having obtained
an outlet after the surface has consolidated into a crust of greater or less thickness.

Gids of this class are, so far as the author has been able to observe, confined
within the limits of a single lava stream, and do not affect previously formed rocks.
Usually there is a large gid roughly parallel with each side of the original lava
stream, and the space between these has subsided considerably. Any gids in this
subsided portion are much smaller, and obviously of secondary importance.
Examples of this are to be found in the well-known Almanagia, at 'Thingvalla,
which has a throw of about 100 feet, while the sides of the smaller gids which
enclose the Logberg in the subsided portion are practically on the same level.

There are also several such subsidences near Lon and Asbergi, in the North of
Iceland. The main subsidence at Asbergi is a little more complicated, though
evidently due to the same causes. Here a large roughly triangular area has sub-
sided, the throw at the apex being probably nearly 300 feet, but a space in the
middle has remained at its original height, so that a depression has been produced
like a great Y/, the portions both between and outside the legs having remained
standing. In the case of Thingvalla it appears not unlikely that the lava which
flowed down into the lake solidified on coming in contact with the water and
formed a wall sufficiently strong to hold up the lava plain till it formed a firm
crust, and that the giving way of this and the escape of the molten lower layers
into the deeper parts of the lake caused the subsidence.

Similarly the lava which escaped from Asbergi may have been that which now
occupies the low ground near the estuary of the Jokulsa, in the direction of Léon.

On the east and south-east of Lake Myvatn a very extensive eruption, or series of
eruptions, has taken place from a chain of craters locally called Gardr Borgir (‘the
castles of Gardr,’ which is the name of a farm). The lava flow has occupied nearly
all the bed of Lake Myvatn, and flowed down the valley of the Lax to its mouth
at Laxamyri. AJ] this stream of lava is very remarkable for the number and size
of the spiracles with which it is studded, and a regular gradation of sizes exists,
between spiracles the size of a haycock and cones some of which cannot be less
than 200 feet high. These cones and craters, which constitute such a striking
feature of Lake Myvatn, may probably be nothing more than spiracles formed by
the escape of steam generated by the conflict of the hot lava with the water of the
lake. The barrier which holds up the water of the present lake consists of this
lava, and caves exist in it which are obviously channels by which molten lava has
escaped. These and deeper-seated ones would be those by which the lava escaped

and left the depression occupied by the present lake. Between the craters of,

eruption and the lake no spiracles were noticed, but there is a very remarkable
series of rocks—the Dimmuborgir—masses of lava of fantastic shape, 30 or 40 feet
high, which have remained standing while the intervening portions have subsided.
They present slickenside marks where the subsiding portions have scratched the
masses that have remained standing, and tide-marks where the crust has halted in
its descent; also in many places bulgings, where the lava has been scarcely stiff
enough to stand, and others where it has actually formed stalactitic masses.

So far for actual lava subsidences.

The special object of this paper is to draw attention to a subsidence on the
slopes of Leirnukr, a volcano several miles north of Myvatn, where a large strip
of land, perhaps 200 yards wide and one mile or more long, has been let down to a
varying depth, averaging perhaps 60 to 80 feet.

The faults bounding it, like nearly aJJ the fissures in this district, run north
and south; and the east face, which is most perfect, cuts right through a thick
stream of old columnar lava and through a large boss of tuff, round and over which
the lava has bedded itself, and also through the tuff rocks at each side of the lava

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 651

stream. It would appear worthy of consideration whether this great depression,
which thus affects all the crust of the volcano impartially, may not have been
caused by the falling in of one of the steam cavities which may be presumed to
exist under volcanoes after the lavas have been expelled by the steam pressure.

This would accord with the observation that sedimentary rocks near volcanoes
often dip towards those voleanoes. Mr. Goodchild has informed the author that
the sedimentary rocks round Arthur's Seat are much thicker the nearer they are
to that old volcano, as if the ground had slowly sunk while they were being
deposited.

Near Lon the author was shown a small gid, said to have been formed
during an earthquake in February 1885. The crack was of a freshness correspond-
ing to such a date, and was only a few inches wide, and so short that it could not
be determined whether it extended beyond one bed of lava. It certainly was not
an example of the escape of liquid lava from below a crust, nor of a subsidence
over a steam cavity, and its chief interest in this connection is as showing that at
least three separate sets of causes are at work in producing the gids of Iceland.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

1. A joint discussion with Section H on the Plateau Gravels, &c., West Kent,
was opened by the following two communications :—

(a) On the Geology of the Plateau Implements in Kent.'
By Professor T. Rupert Jones, /.A.S., L.GS.

This subject having been fully treated of by Professor Dr. Prestwich, the
requisite references to his various memoirs elucidating the general geology of the
local drift-deposits, the geological stages of their formation, and the peculiar flint
implements of the plateau were given. He has shown that certain superficial soils
on the North Downs between Sevenoaks and Rochester contain numerous rudely
worked flints, discovered by Mr. B. Harrison; and that these were derived from
a gravel, of very great antiquity, originally formed on the side of the old Wealden
Hill-range or Mountain, which once rose about 3,000 feet above where Crow-
borough and other hills in Sussex now are. Man existed at the time of these
gravels, and used the flints for tools. These gravels and the implements left in
them were removed by natural agencies, such as rain, rivers, sea, frost, snow, and ice,
and distributed by torrential streams on the Chalk slopes (now part of the North
Downs) at a lower level on the flanks of the range.

These rude old flint implements have an ochreous colouring, due to ferruginous
gravel whence they came; and are now found on the plateau, sometimes with
limited patches of some of the ochreous flint gravel, together with Tertiary
pebbles, less-worn flints, and fragments of Lower Greensand, on the red ‘clay-
with-ilints’ covering the Chalk. It was shown how desirable systematic excava-
tions, to prove the extent and thickness of the implementiferous soil, would be.

Professor Prestwich’s history of the origin of the ancient Wealden Dome,
Island, and Hill-ranges, and of the gradual destruction of those uplands, in the
course of untold ages, with the resulting formation and removal of successive
geological groups of strata, such as the Thanet Sands, Woolwich-and-Reading
Beds, London Clay, Lenham Beds, and the old ferruginous gravel with its rude
implements above mentioned, was noticed in detail.

The Diestian or Lenham Beds were formed in the Early Pliocene period ; and
the denudation of Holmesdale probably began directly afterwards, at about the
time of the Red or the Chillesford Crag in Late Pliocene, or in Post-Pliocene
times; and the old ferruginous gravel had not only been formed, but washed
away to a lower level before that time.

1 This paper has been printed in full in Natural Science, October 1894.

652 REPORT—1894.,

The ultimate denudation of the valleys cutting off the Chalk from the Weald
being subsequent to the formation and removal of that gravel, the latter must have
been Pre-glacial in age.’

(b) On the Age of the Plateau Beds. By W. WuiTaker, F.R.S., F.GS.

Mr. Whitaker said that the flints exhibited might be divided into two classes, the
few that would be allowed by every qualified observer to be the work of man and
the many as to the authenticity of which judgment should be deferred. He then
alluded to the two points of view from which the subject was approached, the
anthropological and the geological. In the former the work of man was the
starting point; but, as a geologist, he thought that Nature should be duly con-
sidered, and the varied way in which she worked, sometimes leading to results
that were somewhat unexpected. The district in question, too, was of a double
character. In the first place, we had to do with a tract, south of the Chalk range,
over which there were in parts beds of gravel, sometimes along the courses of the
stream-valleys, but sometimes having no connection with the present drainage-
system, In the latter case the composition and position of the gravel seemed to
point to a time when the features of the country were not the same as now, when
the streams ran in different courses, and when the Chalk escarpment and other
similar ranges of hill reached further south than now. He pointed out that the
district was at and near the watershed between the Medway and the Darent, and
that in such a position alterations in the flow of streams could be brought about
by smaller causes than lower down along the river-valleys. The other part of the
district was along and north of the great Chalk range, and the deposit here mostly
met with over the Chalk could not properly be called Drift ; it had not been brought
into its present position from elsewhere by sea, river, or ice, but had grown where
it stood ; it was a residuum, the matter left from long-continued gradual dissolu-
tion of the chalk and the leaving behind of its flints and other insoluble matter,
to which was added a mass of loam, resulting presumably from the remains of old
Tertiary beds. With regard to the gravels, flint implements of undoubted work-
manship having been found in them, it must be conceded that man existed at the
time of the deposition of those gravels. This certainly carried man back, locally
at all events, beyond the time of the river gravels, which occur in the bottoms and
along the slopes of the valleys. He could not admit, however, that there was any
good evidence to connect these ancient men with Pre-glacial or even with Glacial
times, as there were no deposits of undoubted Glacial age in or near the district.
Over the Clay-with-flints of the Chalk tract many implements had been found, but
these were on the surface, and therefore we had no evidence of their age other
than that given by their form. He understood that it had been said that a very
few implements had been found in the Clay; but even were it so we should be
little wiser as to their age, the formation of this clay having continued over a long
time, right down to the present day. Elsewhere implements had been found in a.
brickearth that was associated with the Clay-with-flints; but in this case we were
still ignorant of the age of the deposit, no other bed having been found above.
He thought that in such a matter great caution was needed lest observers should
be carried away by their zeal in discovery, and that the right spirit was to approach
the question with wholesome doubt, contesting the views of those whose faith led
them to believe very ordinary-looking chippings to be the work of design, so that
they should have to prove that the balance of probabilities was in favour of their
view.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

2. On the Traces of Two Rivers belonging to Tertiary Time in the Inner
Hebrides. By Sir ArcuiBatp Gerxiz, /.R.S.

Many years ago the author had described part of the course of a stream which
had cut its channel in the lava-plateau of the Isle of Eigg, and, as shown by the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 653

materials of its gravel deposits, had flowed from east to west. The channel of
the main river, as well as those of some of its tributaries, had been sealed up
under a flow of pitchstone, which, after ages of waste, now forms, owing to its
greater durability, the prominent ridge of the Scuir, the original higher ground of
bedded basalt having been worn down into lower slopes. The river-course thus
entombed must be assigned to the volcanic period of older Tertiary time in this
country. Its western end is truncated by a precipitous sea-cliff, at the top of
which a section of it is displayed, with its underlying shingle and overlying pitch-
stone, at a height of some 500 feet above the sea. This summer the author had
enjoyed a favourable opportunity of visiting Hysgeir, a small low islet about
eighteen miles to the west of Eigz, which had recently been identified by Professor
Heddle as a continuation of the rock of the Scuir. He was able completely to
corroborate this identification. The pitchstone of Hysgeir in its external forms
and internal structure precisely resembles that of Higg, presenting, indeed, so close
a resemblance that it looks like a detached piece of the high ridge of the Scuir.
Unfortunately, the columnar rock everywhere slips under the sea, and allows no
trace to be seen of what it rests upon. If it be approximately as thick as it is in
Eigg, its base may be 200 or 300 feet below sea-level. The gradual fall of the
river-bed from east to west had been noticed at the Scuir, and the position of the
pitchstone at Hysgeir showed a continued declivity in the same direction of
perhaps as much as 35 feet in the mile. No visible rock rises to the surface of
the sea between Hysgeir and Kigg. The region has been intensely glaciated, and
the low ridge and rocky slopes of Hysgeir are strewn with erratics, which show
that the ice moved westwards from the Inverness-shire highlands.

A much older river, but one still belonging to the volcanic period, has left
some interesting records in the islands lying to the north of Hysgeir. A succession
of coarse river-gravels are there found intercalated on different horizons among
the bedded basalts. The materials of the lowest of these conglomerates are
remarkably coarse, blocks 6 feet in length being occasionally visible. They con-
sist in large measure of volcanic rocks, especially slaggy and amygdaloidal
varieties. ‘These constitute the largest and least water-worn blocks. Pieces of
Torridon sandstone, epidotic grit, quartzite, and various granites and schists‘ are
generally well-rounded and smooth, and especially abound in the finer and more
stratified gravels. The rapid dying out of thick sheets of coarse conglomerate is a
conspicuous feature of the deposits, their place being sometimes taken by layers of
fine tuff or volcanic mudstone, or by shales with remains of land-plants. Some
portions of the conglomerate pass into true volcanic agglomerate, and this latter
rock can in one place be seen to rise as a neck enclosing blocks of scorize and basalt
sometimes 16 feet in length.

The sequence of events which these various deposits indicate appears to be as
follows. During the outpouring of the lavas of the great basaltic plateaux of the
Tnner Hebrides a river flowed across the volcanic plain from the Western High-
lands, whence it carried large quantities of shingle. By successive violent floods
these materials, together with the detritus of the lava-fields, were strewn irregu-
larly far and wide beyond the immediate channel of the river. In the pools
left, behind, fine volcanic silt gathered and entombed leaves and stems of the
surrounding terrestrial vegetation. But volcanic activity still continued, and,
though cones of slags and pumice were swept down, new eruptions took place by
which masses of rock, sometimes 9 feet in diameter, were thrown out to a distance
of a mile or more, and fresh streams of lava were poured out, completely burying
the previous accumulations. Renewed river-floods of gradually lessening severity
spread fine detritus over the cooled sheets of basalt, and again these later fluviatile
deposits were entombed beneath fresh outbursts of lava. Perhaps no more
striking evidence can be elsewhere obtained of the conditions of the land-surface
over which, from many scattered vents, the materials of the volcanic plateaux of
the Inner Hebrides were slowly piled up.

654 REPORT—1894.

3. On a New Method of Measuring Crystals, and its Application to the
Measurement of the Octahedron Angle of Potash Alum and Ammonia
Alum. By H. A. Migrs, JA., L.GS.

The two fundamental laws of crystallography—namely, (1) the constancy of the
angle in crystals of the same substance, and (2) the law of simple rational indices—
seem to be violated by those crystals which are liable to irregular variations in
their angles, or those which have the simple faces replaced by complicated ‘vicinal’

lanes.
i Both these anomalies are exhibited by potash and ammonia alum. Brilliant
and apparently perfect octahedra of these salts show large variations in the octa-
hedron angle ; other crystals show low vicinal planes in place of the octahedron
faces.

If it be true, as is supposed, that the octahedron angle varies in different
crystals, it would be interesting to ascertain whether progressive variations can be
traced during the growth of a single crystal, and whether some or all of the octa-
hedron faces change their direction in space if the crystal be held fixed during

rowth.

5 In order to solve this problem a new goniometer has been constructed, in which
the crystal is fixed at the lower end of a vertical axis, so that it can be immersed
in a liquid during measurement.

This device is in reality an inversion of the ordinary goniometer with horizontal
disc; the liquid is contained in a rectangular glass trough with parallel-plate sides ;
one side is placed rigidly perpendicular to the fixed collimator, and the other is
perpendicular to the telescope, which is set at 90° to the collimator. The trough is
supported on a table which can be raised and lowered, so that the crystal ean be
placed at any required depth in the liquid. If the liquid used be its own concen-
trated solution the crystal can be measured during growth, and the changes of
angle, if any, can be observed at different stages.

In order that it may be held rigidly, the crystal is mounted, when small, in a
platinum clip, which it envelops as it grows larger.

The results derived from the measurement of a large number of alum crystals
are as follow :—

(1) The faces of the regular octahedron are never developed upon alum growing
from aqueous solution.

(2) The reflecting planes (which are often very perfect) are those of a very flat
triangular pyramid (triakis octahedron) which overlies each octahedron face.

(3) The three faces of this triangular pyramid may be very unequal in size.

(4) The triakis octahedron which replaces one octahedron face may be different
from that which replaces another octahedron face upon the same crystal.

(5) During the growth of the crystal the reflecting planes change their mutual
inclinations; the triakis octahedron becomes in general more acute, z.c., deviates
further from the octahedron which it replaces, as the crystal grows.

(6) This change takes place not continuously, but per saltwm, each reflecting
plane becoming replaced by another which is inclined at a small angle (generally
about three minutes) to it.

(7) During growth the faces are always those of triakis octahedra ; if, owing
to rise of temperature, re-solution begins to take place, faces of icositetrahedra are
developed.

Conclusions.

The above observations prove that the growth of an alum crystal expresses an
ever-changing condition of equilibrium between the crystal and the mother liquor.
It does not take place by the deposition of parallel plane layers; new faces are
constantly develop:d: since these succeed one another per saltwm they doubtless
obey the law of rational indices, though not that of s’mpde rational indices.

From the mutual inclinatiors of these vicinal faces it is possible to calculate
with absolute accuracy the angle of the faces to which they symmetrically approxi-
mate. This angle is found to be that of the regular octahedron, 70° 312’. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 655
octahedron angle of alum is not, therefore, as appeared from the observations of
Pfaff and Brauns, subject to any variation.

The angle at which a given vicinal plane is inclined to the octahedron face is
independent of the area of the plane, and of the temperature of the solution and
of the barometric pressure: it appears: to be conditioned by the concentration of
the solution at the surface of the plane.

In confirmation of this view it is found that the upper and lower portions of an
octahedron face which stands vertical are often replaced by two different triangular
pyramids ; also that the three faces of one such pyramid are at a given moment
not necessarily equally inclined to the octahedron face which it replaces.

When, as is often the case, one of the three vicinal planes is large and the
other two are too small to give a visible reflexion, the face appears to be a single
reflecting plane. It is this which has been mistaken for the octahedron face in
previous observations.

Similar phenomena of growth are exhibited by crystals of other substances
belonging to different systems. The conditions of equilibrium between the crystal
and the solution are such that vicinal planes appear in place of simple forms;
these vary with the concentration of the solution, and give rise to variations in the
measured angles which are only apparently anomalous. Their true position can be
determined on a crystal of cubic symmetry (such as alum) whose theoretical angles
are known.

A further study of the faces developed during the growth of crystals will, it is
hoped, lead to a better understanding of the reasons why a simple face like the
octahedron should not be a surface of equilibrium, and of the relation between
the vicinal planes and the structure of the crystal.

4. A Comparison of the Pebbles in the Trias of Budleigh Salterton and of
Cannock Chase. By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., VRS.

The pebbles in the two deposits correspond in certain respects. In both vein
quartz and various quartzites are abundant, with certain dark green rocks, which
undoubtedly in some, probably in most, cases owe their colour to minute
tourmaline. The compact quartzites so common in Staffordshire are found in the
Devonshire deposit, but less abundantly, while other quartzites more rare in the
former are commoner in the latter, A quartz-felspar grit like the Torridon
Sandstone occurs in both. The following are points of difference. The shape of
the Staffordshire pebbles is nearer to a prolate spheroid, that of the Devonshire to
an oblate one: igneous rocks are much rarer in the latter, and the compact
tourmaline rocks in the former. The author thinks that the pebbles at Budleigh
Salterton must have travelled from a more or less south-westerly quarter, and
that the frequent correspondence of materials indicates that somewhat similar
eral rocks fringed the archzean rocks of the ancient western land in localities
ar apart.

: ”
5. On a Soda-Felspar Rock at Dinas Head, North Coast of Cornwall.
‘ By Howarp Fox.

Dinas Head adjoins Trevose Head, four miles west of Padstow.

The base and foreshore of the headland appear to be entirely composed of
greenstone containing much calcite, probably an altered dolerite.

Between the greenstone and the slate, as well as interbedded with the slate,
occurs a rock which covers about an acre. It assumes various characters, all of
‘which contain nearly 10 per cent. of soda and from 64:4 to 66°6 of silica. The
compact verieties are crypto-crystalline, and might easily be mistaken for cherts.
The concretionary and spherulitic varieties show grains and blades of a felspar
which is doubtless albite. It varies in colour from creamy grey to light brown and
dark bluish-grey ; it weathers white, and is often studded with cavities filled with

656 REPORT—1894.

rusty brown material containing crystallised quartz. This rusty-coloured material
occasionally weathers out as nodules 8-10 mm. in diameter, projecting 10-15 mm.
beyond the white surface of the rock. In other places this rock contains lenticles
and concretions of calcareous matter of considerable size, with concentric structures
around some of them. When interbedded with slate it is densely studded with
small rusty brown spots, sometimes irregular and sometimes of such forms as would
be yielded by rhombs; they are undoubtedly pseudomorphs after carbonate. It has
in places all the appearance of a stratified rock, and is distinctly bedded. In one
locality this rock assumes a nodular form, with the outer edges composed of spheru-
lites varying from 2 to 10 mm, in diameter. The central portions of the spherules
are composed of crypto-crystalline material, the outer portions of radiating blades
or prisms of felspar, presumably albite. Ferric oxide is scattered through the rock
in irregular patches, in veins, or in radial streaks between the blades of felspar, or
occasionally it is almost wholly concentrated in the polygonal sutures formed by
the mutual interference of adjacent spherulites.

The greenstone is posterior to and intrusive in this soda rock, and cuts across,
bends, and disorders its beds. Extreme crushing has in places altered the original
junction line, and thrust planes and fault breccias are seen, Quartz veins traverse
both rocks, but are more numerous in the soda rock.

The slate is interbedded on the northern side of the headland with bands of
blue limestone, and is occasionally studded with ferruginous patches and nodules
in much the same way as the soda rock.

A rock containing as much as 7°54 per cent of soda is said by Kayser to occur
as a contact product due to greenstone in the Hartz. ‘The question arises, Is this
Dinas Head rock an adinole or a soda felsite—z.e., a keratophyre? The presence
of ferriferous carbonates favours the theory of ‘its being an altered sedimentary
rock, whilst the spherulitic and concretionary structure favours the theory of its
being an igneous rock.

6. Report of the Committee on Geological Photographs.
See Reports, p. 274.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

—"

. Report of the Committee on Paleozoic Phyllopoda.—See Reports, p. 271.

bo

. Report of the Committee on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the
Pentland Hills.—See Reports, p. 302.

3. Preliminary Note on a New Fossil Fish from the Upper Old Red
Sandstone of Elginshire. By R. H. Traquair, MD., LR.

These remains consisted of large broad thick plates gently hollowed in boat-
like fashion, and showing no articular surfaces alone any of their free margins.
None of these plates had been found entire, though pieces had occurred of over a
foot in length and a quarter of an inch in thickness. To these plates the author has
given the name of Megalaspis Taylori.

(te

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 657

4. On the Homes and Migrations of the Earliest Forms of Animal Life
as indicated by Recent Researches. By Henry Hicks, ILD., F.R.S.,
LAS.

The author, after giving a history of the finding of zones of animal life at
lower and lower horizons in the Cambrian rocks during the past forty years,
referred to some recent evidence which points to the extension of similar forms of
life over very large areas, That there were many centres of dispersion in different
parts of the world seems certain; but as the migrations of the forms found on each
side of the Atlantic seem to have taken place contemporaneously, the author believes
that the original home of these forms must have been at some point in the Atlantic
when that basin was much narrower than it is at present. The author then referred
to the evidence, showing a gradual development in these earlier forms of life, and
to some points bearing on the question of evolution.

5. On some Vertebrate Remains from the Rhetic Strata of Britain. (Third
Contribution.) By Montacu Browne, .G.S., F.Z.S.

LABYRINTHODONTIA.

Parts of jaws and teeth of a Labyrinthodont Amphibian are found commonly,
though very imperfect, in the ‘ bone-bed’ of Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire. So much
material has been accumulated that it may be as well to record that ten specimens
of the pre-maxilla—showing large ‘tusks’ and a serial outer row of smaller teeth—
are known to the writer, four of which are in the Bristol Museum, where they are
labelled ‘Jaws of Enaliosaurians,’ and six others, from Aust and Westbury-on-
Severn, are in his own possession. One of these was sent as the ‘scute of a reptile ; ”
and another, before its development from the matrix, was so much like a coprolite
as to lead to the inference that others may have been previously passed over. Of
the maxilla there are six large portions and several smaller ones, carrying both
large and small teeth of two distinct characters. Several large and many small
pieces represent the mandible, some, near the symphysis, showing large teeth. Of
teeth, both seated upon the bone and broken away, there are agreat many examples
of all sizes. Five pieces are apparently portions of the palato-vomerine element,
carrying large and small teeth.

Between fifty and sixty specimens are fragments of the jaws, and there are
many specimens which are doubtless portions of the elements of the skull and of
the thoracic plates. A few portions of limb-bones are doubtfully referable to the
Labyrinthodontia.

The definite determination of the pre-maxilla, portions of the maxilla, man-
dible, and some other parts of the Labyrinthodontia, appears’ to be a new record for,
the Rheetic of Britain. No speculation is hazarded as yet as to the generic or
specific determination of these remains, as if not referable to Metoposaurus (Meto-
pias) diagnosticus,' they appear to have affinities with Trematosaurus in the
character of the united or single pre-maxilla, and by the large tusks being internal
to the serial mandibular teeth; on the other hand, the anterior or ‘tusk’ teeth are
large—some of them 3 in. in diameter—cach with a correspondingly large pulp-
cavity, and although apparently simply plicated in the exserted portion, yet at the
extreme base the plications of the dentine are complex, and somewhat resemble
those shown in the teeth of Mastodonsaurus Jiigeri as figured by Meyer.”

The presence of teeth of two characters—large or Labyrinthodont, and small or
‘Saurichthyan "—in the same jaws, together with the characters of the external
_ surface and alveolar palatal extension of the maxilla and of sections thereof, leads ©
_ to the conclusion, hinted at in the last Report under the heading of Termatosaurus
_ erocodilinus,® that ‘ Saurichthys’ is a non-existent piscine genus, and that jaws

Miall, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1874, p. 157; but see Lydekker, Cat. Foss. Rep. and
Amph., p. 157.
* Die Saurier des Muschelhalkes (1847-55), Tab. 64, fig. 2.
* Montagu Browne, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1893, p. 749.
1894. UU

658 REPORT—1894.

figured under that heading are mainly referable to those of Labyrinthodonts, and that
teeth of ‘ Saurichthys’ of various authors can be definitely assigned—

1. To Labyrinthodontia, sp.

2. To Plestosaurus rostratus.

3. To Hybodus, sp. (symphysial teeth).

4. To Gyrolepis, sp., and perhaps Colobodus, sp.

‘Rysostevs,’ !

This genus was instituted by Owen from the examination of a single anterior
dorsal vertebra ‘half imbedded in its pyritic matrix from the bone-bed of Aust
Passage, near Bristol,’ and of other portions from Westbury-on-Severn; the type
specimen not being in existence has apparently prevented any reference to similar
specimens since that time, and it may be as well to put on record that some few
nearly perfect examples of dorsal and other vertebra, and many portions of others,
of the character of those attributed to Rysostews Oweni,* have been procured by the
writer from Aust Cliff and Westbury-on-Severn, Gloucestershire.

Whether Zysosteus be truly a reptile is not mooted at present, until the whole
of the material in the writer’s possession has been exhaustively examined ; but, from
the striated character of the neural and heemal spines, and the characters of the
centra of the vertebrie, &c., the resemblance to some amphibian such as Urocor-
dylus Wandesfordii* is by no means incomplete.

DINoSAURIA.

Phalangeals similar to those from Aust Cliff in the British Museum, and attri-
buted to Zanclodon (?), are in the writer’s possession, but a fairly large vertebra,
24 in. in length by 2 in. in height, exclusive of the neural spine, which is missing, may
pertain to Zanclodon, or is perhaps more closely allied to Massospondylus ; in either
case this vertebra will be a new record for Britain. Limb-bones, both large and
small, are also in his possession, and are provisionally assigned to this order.

6. On some Forms of Saurian Footprints from the Cheshire Trias.
By Osmunp W. JEFFS.

The picturesque quarries in the Lower Keuper (building stones’ series), situated
at Storeton Hill in Cheshire, have long been familiar to geologists as being the
scene of the earliest discovery in England of the famous Cheirotherium footprints by
Messrs. Cunningham and Yates in 1839. Besides the impressions of Chetrotheriwm
and Rhyncosaurus (figured by Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S., in his ‘ Geology of the
Country around Liverpool’) these quarries yield impressions made by other species
of animals, which have been obtained by the author during several years’ study
of Ha district. Some of these forms (hitherto undescribed) were exhibited. They
include—

(a) Genus non det.—Slab of Keuper sandstone showing hind and fore feet of
a smaller animal than C. Stortonense, with narrower toes, which curve inwards
and are not separated, nor do they radiate as in true species of Cheirotherium.

(6) Genus non det.—Tracks of a small animal 4 inch in length, with a stubby
foot and having very distinct claws on the digits.

_ (c) Genus non det.—A still more minute form, } inch in length, showing four
digits tapering to a point, with no vestige of claws,
_ (a) An oval impression, with concave terminated digits and a hinder pro-
Jecting ‘spur.’ Toes webbed. This may be the impression of a chelonian,

" R. Owen, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1841 (1842), pp. 159, 160; J. Morris, Cat. Brit. Foss,
1854, p. 353.

* A. S. Woodward and C. D, Sherborn, Cat. Brit. Foss. Vert., 1890, p. 282.

* 'T. H. Huxley and E. Perceval Wright, rans. Roy. Trish Acad, 1867, pp-
359-362, pl. xx.

* The paper will be published in extenso in the Geological Magazine.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 659

The author thinks it desirable that some of the more definite forms among
the variety found on the slabs from the ‘ footprint bed’ at this quarry should be
accurately determined, if possible, instead of being included, as at present, under
the general term of ‘ Cheirotherian.’

The author pointed out that, although fifty years have elapsed since its
original discovery, the nature of the animal which made the impressions is still
as much a mystery as ever; and that the more we study the known forms of
Labyrinthodonts, we are forced to conclude that, whatever was the animal by
which the larger five-toed footprints at Storeton were made, it cannot be referred
to any known species of Labyrinthodont.

Dr. Tempest Anderson exhibited in the Geographical Section Room a series of
lantern slides illustrating the volcanoes of Iceland.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Erratic Blocks.
| Will be published in the Report for 1895.]

2. Report of the Committee on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits of
Clava, &c.—See Reports, p. 307.

3. On some Lacustrine Deposits of the Glacial Period in Middlesex.
By Henry Hicks, JD., FBS, £.GS.

In this paper the author refers to some deposits, consisting of stratified gravels,
~sands, and clay, varying in thickness from a few feet to over 20 feet, which are
spread out over the plateaux of Hendon, Finchley, and Whetstone. They are
frequently covered over by the chalky Boulder Clay with northern erratics; but
seldom themselves contain other materials than those which could have been
derived from the Tertiary or Cretaceous series in the south-east of England. No
marine fossils of contemporaneous age have been found in these deposits, but
remains of land animals occur occasionally in and under them. The author has
found that their geographical distribution is much wider than has usually been
supposed, and he has been led to the conclusion that they must have been deposited
during the glacial period in a lake, whose waters attained to a height of nearly 400
feet above present O.D. This lake, he believes, occupied a considerable area in the
south-east of England, and spread for some distance south of the Thames, but was
dammed up on the east and west by ice and morainic matter. As the lake became
gradually reduced in size, lakelets were formed in the Thames valley, and the
stratified deposits now found there, except those in the immediate proximity of the
present Thames and its tributaries, date back to that period. Man, however, lived
in the valley before any of these deposits were thrown down; hence it is that the
flint implements and the mammalian remains usually occur under, or in the lower
parts of, the deposits.

4. On Sporadic Glaciation in the Harlech Mountains,
By the Rev. J. F. Buakn, JLA., F.GS.

The author drew a distinction between two results of glaciation—the one,
negative, in which the rocks are rounded and striated, and all or nearly all the
débris removed; the other, positive, in which the rocks are covered by a thick
deposit of drift with boulders. In the Harlech Mountains district areas showing

uu2

660 REPORT—1894.

these opposite results lie side by side. Most of the glaciation is of the negative
kind, but the areas drained by the Crawewellt and the Ysgethin are covered by
glacial cones of dejection. This difference is accounted for in the first instance
by the local drainage being opposite to the general drainage, and in the second
by the small size of the gathering ground for the ice. From these results it was
argued: 1. That drift deposits are, as a rule, left beyond the area of ice-flow.
2. That no submergence could possibly have taken place here since the Glacial
period, or the features above noted would have been obliterated.

5. On the Probable Temperature of the Glacial Epoch.
By Professor T. G. Bonnry, D.Sc., LL.D., PRS.

The Alps afford a means of estimating the highest mean annual temperature at
which glaciers can begin to form. This must not be more than about 27° F.
They also indicate the limits between which glaciers of various moderate sizes
form. The author finds that (assuming the present levels of sea and land un-
changed) a fall of 20° F. might just bring the Welsh glaciers down to the
sea-level, would certainly do it for: the Cambrian hills, and would probably
produce an ice-shed in the Highlands. A slightly less fall would suffice for the
Alps and Pyrenees. Again, a consideration of the traces of glaciers in the
Sierra Nevada, Sierra Guadarama, the Apennines, Corsica, Auvergne, the Vosges,
and the Schwartzwald shows that these indicate a fall of about 15°, while a
greater lowering of temperature would make their glaciers too large. The require-
ments of North America, New Zealand, Australia, and Tasmania, and other
places would be satisfied by about 15°, and in some cases by less. The limits
accordingly of the temperature of the*glacial epoch must be from about 12° to 20°
lower than at present, according to situation.

+ eS

6. On the Inadequacy of the Astronomical Theory of Ice Ages }
and Genial Ages. By Epwarp P, Cutverwet., J/.A., F.7.C.D.

In reference to Sir Robert Ball's numbers, 63 and 37, giving the proportion of
summer and winter heat in the northern hemisphere, the numbers on which he
bases his theory, it is pointed out that in the latitudes with which the Ice Age is
concerned the contrast between summer and winter heat is vastly greater than is
shown by these numbers, which lump together the heat everywhere, at the
equator, the poles, and the intermediate latitudes. Nevertheless, though the
arguments on which the theory is based may be made much more clear and
striking by taking the heat distribution over the northern part of the hemisphere,
the method of calling on the imagination to conceive what vast differences of
terrestrial temperature may be produced by a slight change in the daily distri-
bution of the (unchanged) annual heat is dangerous as not being sufficiently based
on experience. The argument is that, as the earth is kept at a temperature of,
say, 400° F. above zero by sun heat, we might expect a fall of 10 per cent. to
lower the temperature by, say, 40° F. But in this argument a number of very
important elements are overlooked—the diminished radiation from the cooler
body, the great time required for any considerable cooling, and the flow of heat
by water and air from the hotter to the cooler parts of the terrestrial surface. In
fact, so greatly do these causes modify the result that in these islands we now live
without inconvenience in a state of deprivation of solar heat during our coldest
199 days somewhat greater than that which, continued for the 199 days winter
of the great eccentricity period, was believed by Sir Robert to involve necessarily
an ice age over the northern hemisphere.

The estimation of the change in terrestrial temperature due to the changes of
eccentricity made in the author’s communication is obtained by an entirely

} A paper giving details of the calculation will be published in the Phil. Mag.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 661

different method. The comparative amounts of solar heat for the various
latitudes are calculated (a) for the ‘glacial’ winter of 199 days and (6) for the
coldest 199 days of our present winter. The result may be expressed thus: In
the ‘glacial’ winter latitudes 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°, and 80° receive about as much heat
in their 199 coldest days as 44°°5, 54°, 64°, 74°, and 85° receive in the 199 coldest
days at present. Hence, so far as solar heat is concerned, the utmost effect of the
eccentricity would be to shift the winter isothermals by 4° to the south, the
summer isothermals being shifted by a far greater amount to the north. Hence
the astronomical theory cannot account for a shift of the isothermals by more than
4° S, in winter and an average of more than 10° N. in summer—a result ludicrously
inadequate to produce an ice age in Great Britain or Ireland, or in the United
States, unless, indeed, as a result of the ‘ glacial’ winter, latitude 50° receives vastly
less heat from the equatorial regions by air and ocean currents than latitude 54° at
present receives in an equal time; and the general principle that the passage of
heat to equalise temperature is greater the greater the difference of temperature
between the hot and the cold body would, if applicable here, show that 50° in the
glacial period should receive even more heat than 50° now, so that we should not
expect as great a shilt as 4°, even without taking account of the increased summer
temperature.

When we examine the genial age by this method the result is still more
remarkable. The calculations in the paper show that the summer and winter
isothermals would be shifted by about 23° only of latitude north and south
respectively. It seems entirely out of the question that any change, direct or
indirect, depending on so slight a cause could enable walnut trees to flourish in
Greenland.

After a further examination of the astronomical theory as put forward by
Croll, the paper deals with the relation of existing ice-fields to isothermals, to
isobars, and to contour lines; and the belief of the author is that, while no
climatic changes due to causes known to be active at present could account for
the genial age, a local glacial period might easily follow from changed barometric
conditions, combined with a gradual elevation of land in a northern latitude.
Hence it would appear that either genial periods and glacial periods are due to a
shift of the pole, or else glacial periods are due primarily to elevation of the land,
while the genial age was due to greater solar activity and greater terrestrial heat
in the earlier geological ages.

7. On the Mechanics of an Ice-sheet. By Rev. J. F. Buaxk, JLA., F.G.S,

The author attempted to explain how an ice-sheet can carry boulders up a
slope, and leave them at a height of 1,000 feet or more above sea-level. The sides
of the channel are, in the first instance, supposed to be parallel, so that the mass of
ice may be represented in a diagram by its longitudinal section. Taking for
simplicity the shape of the surface moved over to be represented by two
straight lines, one corresponding to the slope down from the mountains, the other
the slope up from the sea bottom to the final destination of the boulders, and taking
the surface of the ice as flat, the ice-sheet is represented by a triangle. This is
supposed to settle down in such a way that though the level of the end is higher,
the centre of gravity of the whole is lower. This fall of the centre of gravity is
the effective cause of the motion of the ice-sheet, the resistance to be overcome
being that of the ice to change its shape. If the ice-sheet be supposed divided
into strips parallel to the slope from the mountains, these will be like a series
of overlapping glaciers, and under the influence of the pressure will swell out
at the bottom, and thus push the further end of the whole mass a little way up
the counter-slope. Continual additions of snow at the end where the ice-sheet
commences, or elsewhere on its surface, will be cumulative in their effects, and thus
the further end of the ice-sheet will ultimately ascend as required. Again divide
the triangle into strips by lines parallel to the counter-slope. The lower of these
strips will be pressed together, and any point on the base will be carried on in the

662 REPORT—1 894.

direction of the whole motion at a greater rate than the higher layers, and thus
the stones, &c., on the sea bottom will be pushed up to their final resting-place,
and anomalies of distribution might thus be accounted for by the previous dispersal
of the boulders. It was then shown that differences in shape of the ice-sheet and
its spreading out at the further end will make little difference in the argument,
and under certain conditions will aid the motion.

The author then discussed the question of the glacial erosion of lakelets, and
indicated the conditions under which this is possible, particularly referring to the
difference between an ice-sheet such as that dealt with in the paper and an ordinary
glacier.

8. Report of the Committee on the Elbolton Cave.—See Reports, p. 270.

9. Report of the Committee on the Calf-hole Cave.—See Reports, p. 272.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Permian Strata of the North of the Isle of Man.
By Professor Boyp Dawkins, F.2.S.

The main features of the geology of the island are identical with those of
Cumberland and Westmoreland. The Ordovician strata form the ‘ massif’ in
both areas, and constitute the sea-worn floor upon which the Carboniferous rocks
rest unconformably. The Red Sandstone series of Peel, 1,368 feet in thickness,
occupies but a very limited area, extending from the Creg Malin, along the sea
front, in a line of picturesque cliffs, about one and a half mile to the north-east,
and extending inland about 1,700 feet.. The rocks may be divided into two distinct
groups. First, the Peel Sandstone series, or Rot-Rottodt-liegende, which presents
a thickness of 913 feet, and the calcareous conglomerates and breccias of the Stack
series, 455 feet thick, representing the magnesian limestone of the Permians.
These rocks are faulted into the Ordovician slates, and neither their true base nor
their upper boundary is visible. The pebbles of Carboniferous Limestone in the
conglomerates point to a post-Carboniferous age, and the physical characters of
both divisions are identical with those of the Permian rocks of the North of
England, and more particularly with those of the Lake District, of the Vale of
Eden and Barrow Mouth, described by Sedgwick, Harkness, Binney, Eccles, and
* Nicholson. It is clear that north-eastern Ireland, the northern part of the Isle of

Man, and the area of the Lake District, including the Vale of Eden, were parts of
the same Permian marine basin, in which, as it approached southern Lancashire,
the waters became more highly charged with mud, the calcareous element being

conspicuous in the one, and being replaced in the other by thick accumulations of
marl,

2. The Carboniferous Limestone, Triassic Sandstone, and Salt-bearing Marls
of the North of the Isle of Man. By Professor Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S.
The Ordovician slates, quartzites, and conglomerates, and the associated

volcanic rocks of the ‘ massif’ of the island gradually pass underneath the sand,
shingle, and clay of the Boulder Clay series in going northward along the coast

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 663

towards Kirk Michael, until they disappear altogether from the cliffs and the
shore. They stand up conspicuously along the ancient shore line extending from
Kirk Michael to Ballaugh, Sulby, and Ramsey, commanding the low, sandy, and
marshy region which forms the northern portion of the island, contrasting in its
flatness withthe lofty rolling Ordovician hills behind, culminating in Sartfell,
Snaefell, and North Barule. ‘This contrast is obviously the result of a difference
in the physical character of the rocks in the two districts. The problem as to
which rocks underlie the glacial strata in the former, which had occupied the
author’s mind for many years, is now partially solved by the three borings which
have been made under his advice by Messrs. Craine in 1891-4 in search of the
Coal-Measures of the Whitehaven field, at the Point of Ayre, at Blue Point, and at
Lhen Moar. The boring at Lhen Moar revealed the existence of the Carboniferous
Limestone at a depth of 167 feet 6 inches below the drift. The next bore-hole, at
Blue Point, about 4,050 feet to the north-east of that at Lhen Moar, revealed the
presence of more than 60 feet of Red Sandstone buried 171 feet beneath the drift.
The Red Sandstone in this section is, in his opinion, identical with the St. Bees
sandstone, or lowest member of the Triassic formation in the district of the Lakes.

This conclusion is greatly strengthened by the discovery in the third boring at
the Point of Ayre, to the east of the lighthouse, of the Triassic marls with salt, at a
distance of a little under five miles from Blue Point. The diamond drill was used
from a depth of 452 feet to the bottom. The total thickness of the salt-beds
amounts to 33 feet 6 inches, and the bore-hole happened also to intersect a brine run
2 feet 6 inches in depth. If this section be compared with that published by Mr.
Dickenson of the saliferous marls of Duucrue, near Carrickfergus, it will be found
to be practically identical. The same series of salt-bearing marls is also worked at
Barrow-in-Furness and at Preesal, near Fleetwood. The salt-beds in each of these

“eases are variable in thickness, and those in the Isle of Man are thinner than in the
other localities. It must, however, be remembered that the Manx boring has not
been put down to a sufficient depth to test the true thickness of the salt-field. The
discovery is of great theoretical importance, because it links on the deposit at
Barrow to that of Carrickfergus, and shows that the Irish Sea was an areain which
the salt-bearing Triassic marls were deposited. It points towards the truth of Mr.
Dickenson’s suggestion that the Cheshire salt-field was formerly continuous with
that of Ireland. These marls have since been broken up, faulted, and denuded
away in many places. It is an open question how far those of the Isle of Man
are now continuous under the sea eastwards to Barrow and Fleetwood, and to the
north-west in the direction of Carrickfergus.

All these rocks are buried under a ereat thickness of boulder sand, gravel, and
clay, amounting at the Point of Ayre to 298 feet. To this also must be added the
height of the drift hills close by, formed of the same materials, which would give the
total thickness as not less than 450 feet in the extreme north. The rocky Hoot on
which it rests dips rapidly to the north-east towards the deeper part of the Irish
Sea.

The discovery of this salt-field is likely to add a new industry to the resources
of the Isle of Man.

3. Strictures on the Current Method of Geological Classification and
Nomenclature, with Proposals for its Revision. By Sir Henry
Howorth, £.2.S.

4. On the Pleistocene Gravel at Wolvercote, near Oxford.
By A. MonteomeriE BeEtx, 1.4.

The section is a typical illustration of a somewhat advanced period of
Quaternary time, and in its general features resembles the sections at Hoxne and
Bedford, originally published by Sir John Evans, while it is very different from
the implementiferous beds of an earlier age which are found on the Greensand
escarpment of Kent and Surrey.

664 REPORT—1 894.

(1) The Oxford clay, the bed-rock of the district, is furrowed at the surface
into wavy hollows, irregularly filled with earth containing quartz, lydian-stone,
and quartzite pebbles, and bunches of unstratified gravel from the Thames basin.
it is certainly a northern drift, in the writer’s opinion a glacial drift.

(2) At Wolvercote this drift is invaded, and for a certain distance removed by
river action, which has hollowed out the clay to a depth of 174 feet, and
subsequently filled up the hollow with horizontal layers of gravel, mud, and sand.

(3) The junction where the river eats into the drift is clearly visible. ‘The
bank of drift, underworn by the water, overhangs the horizontal layer.

(4) The lowest bed of the riverine deposits differs from the others: it consists
of 24 feet of gravel and sand, in lenticular, shorn, and current-bedded layers,
showing by the size of the pebbles a somewhat rapid current. At the very base,
half embedded in the clay, many mammalian bones have been found, and six
Paleolithic implements. The implements represent well-known types of the river-
valley period, and the mammoth is conspicuous among the animal remains, though
Equus, Cervus elaphus, and Bison priscus are also present.

Layers of sand are intercalated with the gravel, from which eleven species of
shells have been identified, They are all recent and, generally speaking, stunted
in size.

(5) Above the gravel are two inches of sandy peat, marking a land surface of
some duration. Nine plants were identified by Mr. Clement Reid, which are alli
species still to be found in the immediate neighbourhood.

(6) For 143 feet sand and mud foliow in successive layers. In these no fossil
has been found. They indicate quiet river action and an increase of pluvial
conditions.

(7) Towards the surface they are traversed by an irregular line of trail, which
marks apparently the movement of a sludgy mass along the surface, punching it
downwards by its weight.

(8) The surface level at Wolvercote is 240 feet above Ordnance datum. The
adjacent river surface is 195 feet. The gravel at Somerton and Oxford is about
218 feet. Thus between the two gravels there is a distance of 22 feet. At the
present rate of erosion many thousands of years would be necessary to remove
22 feet from the general surface; but the fact that the remains of man and of
animals are the same in both gravels proves that they belong to a similar age,
though the gravel at Wolvercote is somewhat older than the other. We must
therefore consider that the denuding agents—rain and frost—were more active at
that period than they are at the present day.

5. On Prehistoric Man in the Old Alluviwm of the Sabarmati River im
Gujarat, Western India. By R. Bruce Foorr, £.G.S.

Two finds of chipped (Paleolithic) implements were made in a bed of shingle
occupying a definite horizon in the lower part of the old alluvium of the Sabarmati
in latitudes 23° 25’ and 23° 40’ N. (about 330 miles north of Bombay). The
implements were found at a depth of about 70 feet below the surface of the
alluvium, which is here over 100 feet thick, The alluvium is overlaid by léss
and wind-blown loam, which varies from 80 to 150 feet in thickness. The river
has cut itself a bed varying from 100 to 200 feet in depth in these deposits, show-
ing that a great interval of time must have elapsed since the deposition of the old
alluvium in which the implements are embedded. On the surface of the ldss,
and in many cases on the summits of the blown-loam hills, Neolithic remains in
the form of flint flakes and cores of the Jabalpur type were found together with
fragments of archaic pottery.

6. On the Shape of the Banks of Small Channels in Tidal Estuaries.

By Professor H. Hennessy, /.2.S.

Many years since my attention was attracted by the peculiar shape of the soft
mud banks bordering the channels through which water drains off the beds of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 665

tidal estuaries. These banks, instead of presenting sloping planes or concave
surfaces, are always convex when the matter of which they are formed is soft and
yielding. A section of such a pair of banks would present an approximation to a
cusp in the middle portion.

This peculiar outline is manifestly due to the action of water on the yielding
matter. A few years since I found a result which may assist in exploring this
phenomenon. The velocity of water in a channel is well known to depend on the
ratio of the area of the cross-section to its perimeter. This ratio is variable in all
known channels of water flowing through rigid materials such as canals and rivers.

On investigating the form of section corresponding to a constant ratio of the
quantities referred to, I found that it would be represented by a pair of catenaries
with their ends meeting so as to form a-cusp like that in the estuary channels.}
The result would be that, with every depth of water in such a channel, the flow
would have nearly the same velocity.

7. Report of the Committee on Earth Tremors.—See Reports, p. 145.

8. Interim Report of the Committee on the Investigation of a Coral Reef.

9. Report of the Committee on Underground Waters.—See Reports, p. 283.

10. Report of the Committee on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea.
See Reports, p. 318.

11. On a Keuper Sandstone cemented by Bariwm Sulphate from the
Peakstones Rock, Alton, Staffordshire. By W. W. Warts, J.4., F.G.S-

Professor F. Clowes? has described a sandstone from the Himlack Stone, near
Nottingham, in which the grains are cemented with crystalline barytes, the
amount of this material varying from 28 to 50 per cent. in different specimens.
This rock occurs at the base of the Keuper Sandstone of that locality, A some-
what similar rock, occurring at about the same horizon, is described by Mr. A.
Strahan,’ from Beeston Castle in Cheshire, and the same author refers to the frequent
occurrence of barytes in the Keuper breccias.

Bearing these facts in mind, the writer visited a curious isolated stack of rock,
called the ‘ Peakstones Rock,’ near the village of Alton in Statfordshire, which is
figured in Professor Hull’s memoir on ‘The Triassic and Permian Rocks of the
Midland Counties of England.’ This stack is made of the lower beds of Keuper
Sandstone, but its outer portion has lost whatever cement it may once have con-
tained. It is, however, situated at the end of a spur which projects into a valley,.
and exposes a good deal of bare rock. This rock contains what at first look like
several veins of barytes two or three inches thick, striking along the spur and
straight through the place occupied by the Peakstones Rock. On examination of

1 Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xliv. p. 108.

2 Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1885, p. 1038; 1889, p. 594; 1893, p. 732 ; and Proc. Roy,
Soc., vol. xlvi. pp. 363-369.

8 Mem. Geol. Survey. Exp. Quarter Sheet, 80, S.W., p. 7.

666 REPORT—1894.,

specimens the veins are seen to be planes along which the sandstone is cemented
by barytes. The specific gravity of the rock is 3:09, and, as the grains are chiefly,
subangular fragments of quartz and felspar, it must contain about 28 per cent.
of barytes. This almost insoluble cement has undoubtedly given rise to the spur
above alluded to, and almost as certainly has caused the survival of the Peakstones
Rock, which now, however, is so much exposed to the weather on all sides, and both
to mechanical and chemical disintegration, that if any cement is still left it can only
be in the inner part of the mass which cannot be reached by ordinary means. Another
specimen from ‘ West of Kent Green, near Congleton,’ containing barytes, and with
a structure very like that described by Mr. Strahan, was also referred to. The
paper was illustrated by a set of photographs which the author owed to the kind-
ness of Mr. A..A. Armstrong and Mr. P. Simpson.

12. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius.
See Reports, p. 315.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 667

Section D.—BIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEctTIon.—Professor I. Baytey Barovr,
M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
[For the President’s Address see below. ]

The following Reports were read :—

1. Report on Investigations made at the Zoological Station, Naples.
See Reports, p. 335.

2. Report on Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 345.

3. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—See Reports, p. 343.

4, Report on the Fauna and Flora of the West India Islands.
See Reports, p. 344.

5. Report on the Index Generum et Specierum.—See Reports, p. 347.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Tue prospect of visiting Oxford to-day has, I am sure, been to all of us a pleasant
one, and we who are specially interested in biology have looked forward to our
meeting at this time with the distinguished members of the Oxford Biological
School. But as we gather here there will, I think, be present to the minds of all
of us a thought of one member of that school, whom we had hoped to meet, who
is recently gone from it in the prime of his intellectual life. By the death of
George John Romanes biological science is bereft of one of its foremost expositors,
Oxford is deprived too soon of one whose mental power was yet in its zenith, and
each one of us who knew him cannot but feel a deep sense of personal loss; and
we shall in our meeting here sadly miss the man brimming with a geniality which
robbed differences of their difficulty and charmed away bitterness from those con-
troversies in which he reyelled. This is not the occasion upon which to dwell on
his character, his merits, or his work. We must all, I think, have appreciated the
graceful accuracy with which these were sketched in the pages of ‘ Nature’ by one
of his colleagues; but under the shadow, as we are here, of his recent death, I

668 REPORT—1894.

believe I give utterance to feelings every one of you would wish expressed in
paying this passing tribute to his memory from the chair of the Section of the
Association devoted to the subject of his life-work.

I cannot open the business of the Section without referring to the fact that its
organisation appears to be variable, like the objects of its study. It has changed
its constitution more than any other Section of the Association, under influences
partly from within in the strength of its elements, partly from without in the local
circumstances of its meetings. At its origin it was the Section of Botany, Zoology,
Anatomy, and Physiology; in the following year anatomy and physiology became
a new Section, E, only after some years to merge again in the original one. Then
a partition was tried—a physiology department and an anthropology department
were formed within Section D; but the Montreal meeting saw anthropology as
Section H of the Association and physiology again an integral portion of Section D.
This year, as you are aware, physiology—I must be careful to say animal physi-
ology—has again become a definite Section—I. Whether or no the habit thus
acquired through the environment of Oxford will be so permanent as to be trans-
mitted and appear at future meetings of the Association is a problem upon
which I refrain from speculating; my reason for mentioning this matter at all is
to point out that, as in previous devolutions of subjects from Section D, animal
physiology is the only physiology which is concerned. It was part of the original
proposal that plant physiology should form a portion of the province of Section I.
To this the botanical members of Section D are unable to assent. We all readily
admit that the development within recent years of our knowledge of plant-life is
entirely in the direction of bringing to light fundamental similarities between the
vital processes in plants and in animals. To no one do we owe more in this sphere
of investigation than to two of the distinguished botanists from Germany whom
we are glad to welcome at this meeting—Professors Pfeffer and Strasburger.
And we fully reciprocate the desire for mutual comment and criticism implied in
the suggestion of combination. But allowing these as grounds for the conjoint
treatment of the physiology of plants and animals in one section, what we botanists
feel is that we are a compact body of workers in a science the boundaries of which
it is at present not difficult to define, and that to divorce physiology from mor-
phology and other branches of botany would tend to loosen our cohesion, would be
to go against the current of our progress, and would take all the vitality from our
discussions. To have papers on plant physiology dealt with in Section I, whilst
those on other botanical subjects were dealt with in Section D, would be not merely
an extremely inconvenient arrangement, from causes inherent in the subjects
themselves, but would strike at that fraternity and spirit of camaraderie amongst
those treading the same path of science, the promotion of which is the chief, if
not the only, function the British Association now fulfils. At the outset, there-
fore, of our meetings, 1 wish to make it known that papers and discussions on all
botanical subjects will take place in Section D.

And now I pass to the special topic upon which I am to address you. In
selecting it I have followed the lead of those of my predecessors in this chair who
have used the opportunity to discuss a practical subject. Forestry, about which I
purpose to speak, is a branch of applied science to which, in this country, but little
attention has been given by any class of the community. By scientific men it has
been practically ignored. Yet it is a division of Rural Economy which ought to
be the basis of a large national industry.

There are no intrinsic circumstances in the country to prevent our growing
trees as a profitable crop for timber as well as our neighbours. On the contrary,
Great Britain is specially well adapted for tree-growing. We have woodlands of
fine trees, grown after traditional rule-of-thumb methods, abundant in many dis-
tricts. The beauty of an English landscape lies in its trees and its pastures.
Nowhere in the world, probably, are to be found finer specimens of tree-growth.
As arboriculturists we are unrivalled. But the growing of trees for effect and in
plantations is a very different matter from their cultivation on scientific principles,
for the purpose of yielding profitable crops. This is sylviculture. The guiding
lines of the two methods of culture are by no means the same—nay, they may be

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 669

opposed; and it is the sylvicultural aspect of the science of forestry which has
hitherto been neglected in this country. The recognition of this is no new thing,
But within recent years it has attracted considerable public attention, as the im-
portance of wood cultivation in our national life has been more realised ; and
although various proposals have been put forward, and some little effort made for
the purpose of remedying the admittedly unsatisfactory state of forestry practice,
there has been so far no great result. 1 attribute this in great measure to the
apathy of scientific men, especially botanists, and I am convinced that until they
devote attention to forestry the great issues involved in it will not be rightly
appreciated in the country.

It is not the first time the subject has been before this Section. I find that in
1885, at the Aberdeen meeting, a committee was appointed by it to consider
‘whether the condition of our forests and woodlands might not be improved by
the establishment of a forest-school.’ The good intention of the promoters was not
fulfilled, however. The committee did not meet.

In the first instance, let me briefly refer to the national economic features of
forests as they affect us.

There are two aspects from which forests are of importance to a country—
firstly, as a source of timber and fuel; secondly, on account of their hygienic and
climatic influences. ;

With regard to the latter, it is a popular notion that trees exercise consider-
able influence upon atmospheric conditions; but it is only within recent years, and
as the result of long experimental research in Switzerland, France, Austria,
Germany, and other areas where forestry is practised at a high level of excellence,
and also in the United States, that any sutticient data have been forthcoming to
form a basis of scientific conclusion upon so important a matter. Although many
points are still far from clear, the evidence goes to show that the direct influence
of tree-growth upon climate is no mere superstition. Stated in the most general
terms, it is proved that forests improve the soil drainage, and thereby modify
miasmatic conditions; whilst, like all green plants, trees exercise, through the
process of carbon-assimilation, a purifying effect upon the air, the existence of the
increased quantity of ozone often claimed for the vicinity of forests is not yet
established; by opposing obstacles to air currents, forests prevent the dissemina-
tion of dust particles with their contingent germs; they reduce the extremes of
temperature of the air; they increase the relative humidity of the air and the
Baeeetion in rainfall, and they protect and control the waterflow from the
soil.

To us these effects do not appeal with the same force that they do in Con-
tinental areas. Our insular and geographical position renders us in a measure
independent of them. The data for these Continental results, it must be remem-
bered, are derived from large forest areas such as do not:exist here. For this
country I know of no experimental evidence on the subject. “As, however, the
effects of forest influence are felt mainly in local modifications of climatic condi-
tions, we are not justified in reearding the conclusions that have been reached as
inapplicable to Britain. No little interest attaches, therefore, to a statement
based upon these Continental observations to which Dr. Nisbet has recently done
well to call attention—that ‘where the rainfall is over forty inches it is undesir-
able to increase the forest area.’ The significance of this dictum, if it be esta-
blished, to Britain, dependent so largely upon her agriculture, is evident. Wet
years, unfavourable to farm crops, are, under existing conditions, more numerous
than favourable dry ones, and any extensive tree-planting in agricultural areas
might therefore prove disastrous. But I may here emphasise the point that, whilst
for the growing of specimen trees we may agree with Evelyn when he says, ‘If I
were to make choice of the place or the tree, it should be such as grows in the best-
cow-pasture, or upland meadow, where the mould is rich and sweet,’ yet the
harvest which scientific sylviculture reaps comes from land unsuited to agriculture,
which would otherwise lie barren and waste, and therefore schemes for the
_ afforestation of such areas in non-agricultural districts need not be prejudiced by
the prospect of an increased local rainfall. At the same time we must not fail to

670 REPORT—1894.

learn the obvious lesson that afforestation is not, as some suppose, a simple matter
of employment of labour, but that it involves the consideration of weighty
scientific problems.

Forests, as a source of fuel, have not the direct importance to this country,
rich as it is in coal-supply, that they have in States less favoured, but their
economic importance to us as a source of timber needs no comment. There are
no means available through which to estimate the annual output of timber from
our plantations, but indirectly we can gauge the insufficiency of our woodlands to
supply the timber necessities of the country by reference to the returns showing
the amount and value of forest produce annually imported. This has been
steadily increasing until in 1893 its value exceeded eighteen million pounds. Of
course a considerable proportion of the materials thus imported could not in any
circumstances be produced in Britain. But, after allowing a liberal discount for
these, there remains a large bill which we pay for produce, no small portion of
which could be furnished at home. No one would suggest that in the limited and
densely populated area of Great Britain timber-trees of kinds suiting our climate
could be grown sufficient to supply all our demands; that would be impossible.
But few would venture to deny that we could do very much better for ourselves
than we do, and that our labour payments abroad might be materially reduced.
It is admitted that well-zrown home timber is, of its kind, equal to, if not superior
in quality to, that which is imported ; it is surely, then, legitimate to expect that a
large supply of well-grown timber would enable us to hold the market to a much
larger extent than is presently the case, and that we might be very much less
dependent than we are upon the surplus timber of other nations.

The importance of this to the country is increased by the consideration of the
continued appreciation of timber. There is abundant evidence forthcoming to
indicate that the present rate of timber consumption of the world is in excess of
the present reproduction in the forests of the great timber-supplying countries,
and with the persistence of existing conditions we would appear to be within
measurable distance of timber famine. Experience, too, teaches that we may
expect not a diminution but rather an increase in consumption. No doubt as
civilisation advances the discoveries of science will, as they have done in the past,
enable us to substitute in many ways for the naturally produced wood other
substances prepared by manufacture; but this saving in some directions has been,
and will probably continue to be, counterbalanced by greater utilisation in
others—witness, for example, the enormous development within recent years of
the wood-pulp industry abroad, and consider the prospect opened up by the manu-
facture of wood silk which is now being begun in Britain.

That the possibility of forest exhaustion is no chimera should be evident to any-
one conversant with current timber literature. Taking North Europe for in-
stance :—In Norway, ‘raw timber is yearly becoming more expensive and more
difficult to obtain.’ To Sweden ‘pitch pine long beams are taken from America,
suitable ones of sufficient size and quality being unobtainable now in Sweden.’ In
Scandinavia, the virgin forests, ‘excepting such as are specially reserved by the
Government in the districts where mills are situated, are almost exhausted.’ In
Russia, the Riga ‘supply of oak is exhausted.’ These sentences, culled within
the past few weeks from trade journals, show that this is a more pertinent
question than some would suppose. In Sweden, which, it is remarkable, is actually
importing logs from America, the situation is regarded as so serious that proposals
are on foot for the imposition of a tax upon exported timber for the purpose of
raising a fund for replanting denuded areas, But it is not only in North European
countries that there are signs of the giving out of timber forests. As they fail
the demand upon Canadian and American stocks increases, and when we look at
these Canada ‘ shows signs of beginning to find it hard to continue her voluminous
exports to Europe, and at the same time send sufficient supplies to the United
States.’ But the most striking evidence is that furnished by the chief of the United
States Department of Forestry, in his official report for the year 1892, in which he
says: ‘ While there are still enormous quantities of virgin timber standing, the
supply is not inexhaustible. [ven were we to assume on every acre a stand of

TRANSACTIONS’ OF SECTION D, 671

10,000 feet B.M. of saw timber—a most extravagant average—we would, with our
present consumption, have hardly one hundred years of supply in sight, the time
it takes to grow a tree to a satisfactory log size. Certain kinds of supplies are
beginning to give out. Even the white pine resources, which a few years ago
seemed so great that to attempt an accurate estimate of them was deemed too
difficult an undertaking, have, since then, become reduced to such small proportions
that the end of the whole supply in both Canada and the United States is now
plainly in view.’

It must be owned that there are those who do not regard the suggestion of
forest exhaustion as a serious one. They argue that the prophecy is no new one,
and yet we are none the worse off than we have been ; that failing supply from one
source it has always been possible to tap another, and so it will probably con-
tinue; and then, the period when exhaustion is likely to take place is so far off,
there is ample time for the growth of new forests to replace those being cut. No
doubt there is time. But this is just the kernel of the whole forestry question.
With proper conservancy of forest areas, the application of scientific principles to
the recuperation of areas recklessly denuded, and the afforestation of barren and
waste lands, timber sufficient to meet a greater demand than is now made could be
produced. This is the aim of scientific forestry, and it is to secure this that those
who have given attention to the subject are working, conceiving it to be a duty of
this generation to hand down to its successors a heritage no less valuable than that
which it received.

With an acreage of wooded land amounting to only 4 per cent. of their total
area, Great Britain and Ireland possess a smaller proportion so covered than any
other European country. Denmark comes near with only about 5 per cent., in
France the percentage rises to 15, in Norway and Germany to 25, in Austria-
Hungary to 30, whilst in Sweden the amount is over 40 percent. The United
States is estimated to have about 25 per cent. These figures do not, however, give
a fair basis of comparison of the amount of timber area in Great Britain with
other countries, inasmuch as in the Continental lands the bulk of the woodlands is
true forest, whilst a large part of the area included in the British return is merely
pleasure ground, and another large portion is only plantation ; of real forest the
area is extremely limited. It is not surprising, then, that we are not able to
furnish ourselves with an adequate supply of timber. But although there is so
little land under wood, there are thousands of acres unsuited for any other crop,
and these, for reasons I have already indicated, it is desirable to have planted.
How to have this accomplished, and how to secure that woodlands already existing
shall be tended so as to produce a maximum result, giving a profitable return, are
the problems we wish to see solved.

It will conduce to appreciation of the question if I briefly discuss the causes
which have been active in developing the present condition of woodlands in Britain,
and in bringing about the disparity between it and other countries in respect of
woodland area.

State ownership of Continental forests will probably occur to most people as the
reason for the difference in area just pointed out, This is true with, however, some
qualification. In consequence of the circumstances of their situation Continental
States have been compelled to recognise the national economic importance of forests.
This they have done, not so much by the creation of State ownership in vast forests
as by the organisation of a State Department of Forestry and a State system of
forestry education. It is altogether a mistake to suppose, as is often the case, that
the whole or even a large part of the forests on the Continent belong to the respec-
tive States, The amount of State-owned forest is surprisingly small. Fernow gives
it in Germany as about 83 per cent. of the whole forest area, in Scandinavia 15
to 20 per cent., in France some 10 per cent., in Switzerland 4 per cent., whilst in
Italy it is not 2 per cent. The bulk of the forest is in the hands of private owners
or corporate bodies, subject, though apparently not always, to some control or
limitation by the State. But the example of the States in the management of their
own woods, their readiness to give advice through their officials, and the education
which is carefully provided for those concerned in forestry work, have resulted in

672 REPORT—1894.

those privately-owned forests being as well managed as those of the State. It is
important to make clear this distinction, because it shows that a State system of
conservancy and supervision of forestry is quite compatible with large private
ownership in forests, and that efficient sylviculture upon a, large scale is not
inseparable from State ownership.

But someone may say, ‘ We, too, have State forests!’ Yes, but it is almost
absurd to mention them in the same sentence with those of the Continent for any
part they play at present in connection with forestry in Britain, The nine thousand
acres at Windsor are mainly covered with specimen trees. Of the twenty-five
thousand acres in the Forest of Dean, a portion is supposed to be cultivated for a
profitable crop, but appears to result in an annual deficit. The New Forest, with
its sixty-three thousand acres of soil-area, affords us one of the most interesting
object-lessons, showing the triumph of sentiment over common-sense, that the
country affords. Its history is well enough known, and I need only remind you
that Parliament has decreed the major part of it to persist asa barren waste, whilst
in the remainder which is covered with trees the practice of forestry is prohibited,
so that slowly the whole is going to wreck and ruin. This illustrates the value to
us of State forests! In the days of the ‘ wooden walls’ the dockyards obtained
valuable timber from them, but now their large area is, one may say, of no State
service whatever as forest, if one excepts a small portion of Windsor Forest
recently attached for instruction purposes to Coopers’ Hill College. There can be
no question that if the State had set an example of scientific forestry in even a
portion of these areas, the practice of sylviculture now throughout the country
would have been very different.

I need not dwell on the fact that the conditions of land tenure in the country
have exercised an important influence upon the extent of wood-planting in the
country; and they must always do so, ‘The oak scorns to grow except on free
land’ is a saw that sums up pithily the relationship between land-laws and wood-
lands in England. Copyholders could hardly be expected to plant much timber
when the lord of the manor claimed the crop; and I believe it is possible in some
counties to trace the boundaries of copyholds by the entire absence of trees on one
side of a line and their luxuriant growth on the opposite side. The intricacies of
entail and the fact that life-renters had themselves to bear the expense of planting,
except where necessary for shelter, without prospect of seeing a return for the
outlay, must have operated prejudicially to an increase in woodlands,. Happily,
since 1882 in England, and by an Act of last year for Scotland, the last-mentioned
restriction upon tree-planting is removed.

Nor shall I pause over the question of game, which has been at once the
origin and the destruction of forests in Britain. Not that it is-an, unimportant
element. But the instinctive love of sport in the British race is proof against all
argument of utility, and the needs of sport will always be a barrier, as they have
been in the past, to the planting of large areas well adapted for timber-growing.
It cannot well be otherwise. Jandowners can hardly be expected to forego large -
and immediate game-rents for what appear the long-delayed, even though possibly
greater, profits of timber-cultivation. In this case the inevitable must be accepted. -
Nevertheless, there are large areas, the game-rent of which is infinitesimal for their
acreage, which might be planted.

The most potent factors in bringing about the present condition of our
woodlands are probably to be looked for in the nature of the crop itself and
in the want of appreciation of its character manifested by landowners; in a word,
in a want of knowledge of the principles of scientific furestry. Forestry is handi-
capped as compared with agriculture by the fact that the crop cannot be reaped
within the year. The owner who plants and incurs the initial expense of stock,
fencing, and perhaps draining, may after some years secure intermediate return
from thinnings, but it will rarely happen that he reaps the final yield at maturity
of the crop he has sown; it will fall to his successor. It is this planting for
posterity that makes demands upon the landowner to which he is unequal.
Hence it comes about that woodlands, beyond what may be requisite in the way ,
of cover plantation and for shelter, are often regarded as expensive luxuries, and,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 673

in the time of high agricultural values, landowners have even grubbed out trees
to make way for annual crops yielding an immediate return. But scientitic tree-
growing for profit does not consist in the covering of soil area indiscriminately
with trees, without definite system and relation of its part one to the other,
Just as the farmer has to plan his rotations on a definite system with reference
to his total acreage, so in properly managed timber-growing must areas be
arranged in such a way that some part of the forest will be yielding annually its
final return of mature crop, and cleared areas will by a natural process of regene-
ration replenish themselves without recourse to the expensive operation of planting
being necessary. Scientifically worked, a forest area on suitable land, of which
there is such abundance in Britain, should be capable of yielding an annual net
revenue as regular as that obtainable by any other form of soil cultivation.

It is nevertheless frequently urged as a reason for not growing timber that
wood will not pay in Britain. A landowner will tell you he has acres of land
which do not return him more than half a crown, and if it would pay better he
would be glad to put them under timber, but he does not believe it would; and
he will point to rates on woodlands which must be paid although no crop is
being reaped.’ He will demonstrate that there is no market for home timber,
which seldom fetches its value, and that there is a prejudice against it which
increases the difficulty of any attempt to compete with the foreigner.

There is some reason in the latter part of this contention. The wood-grower
in Britain has, [ think, just cause for complaint when he finds his produce not
only handicapped by preferential transport rates to foreign timber, as has been
the case in the past, but that it is also disparaged by exclusion from, or admission
only under conditions to, competition with foreign timber by the terms of building
specifications. It is said to be the common practice of architects and others to
bar home timber in this way, and the Government itself has not been guiltless in
the matter. The Post Office form of tender a couple of years ago for telegraph
poles entirely cut out native produce from competition, and the conditions of
contract framed by the Board of Agriculture under the Land Improvements
Act were until recently almost prohibitive to home timber. These latter are
now modified, but whether or not the Post Office still boycotts home produce I
cannot say,

However it is:come about—and there are no doubt various effective causes—this
undervaluing of home-grown timber is quite unreasonable, and the slur cast upon
it is undeserved, so far as its quality is concerned. At the same time, there is
ground for saying that the difficulties, occasioned in this and other ways, of dis-
posing of home timber at remunerative prices are due to causes not altogether
beyond the control of landowners who grow timber.

It is generally admitted that with a more regular and certain supply, as well
as a larger amount in different districts, home timber would have a better chance
of holding its own in the market. This is just what scientific forestry would
bring about. Given a systematic cultivation of forest on scientific principles of
rotation, and the conditions are prepared for a steady output of timber by annual
cut, as well as for a supply of raw material for utilisation in the manufacture of
the many subsidiary products derivable from forest growth. If landowners
would only provide such supplies, they would alter altogether, and to their own
advantage, the conditions under which they dispose of so much of their home
wood. The timber merchant who now travels hither and thither over the
country picking up small lots where they may occur for transport to his, pro-
bably distant, mills, at a cost which eats a big hole in the value of the trees to
the landowner, would find it worth his while—and, for that matter, it would be
worth while for the landowner himself—to erect, in the vicinity of the forest, mills.
for the purpose of converting and preparing the timber, and to put up machinery
for the extraction of us+ful products from the waste wocd. In such conditions
a steady market could be created in which the advantage would lie altogether on
the side of the home-grown article, and materials, the débris of the forest, now
thrown aside as useless would be turned to account to the greater benefit of the
landowner. Encouragement, too, would be given to the establishment of local

1894, xx

674 REPORT—1894.

industries dependent upon forest growth, through which fresh outlets for forest
produce would be provided. ,

The amount of profit returnable from timber cultivation must of course vary
with the circumstances of the area in each case, but in comparing values it must
always be borne in mind that timber land is land which can yield no agricultural
rent. The official statistics relating to Continental State forests show us the result
of forestry on a large scale, and it is interesting to note how, under what we must
believe to be an equally efficient system of forestry management, the net revenue
from the several areas differs greatly. Thus from its two million acres of forest
area Bavaria draws a little over five shillings per acre per annum; Wurtemberg,
with nearly half a million acres, getsa return of about eleven shillings; and Saxony,
with a somewhat less area, receives over seventeen shillings per acre per annum.
For this country we have no such figures. Our State forests result ina loss. It is
unfortunate, too, that no returns are available from private forests and woodlands,
either in Britain or abroad. Lstimates of possible profits in this country we have
abundantly, but solid figures of expenditure and receipt in relation to timber-
growing there are none. By the favour of Mr. Munro-Ferguson, M.P., who, as a
landowner, exhibits a most enlightened spirit in regard to forestry, I am, however,
able to cite the case of a pine and larch wood at Novar, in Ross-shire, twenty-four
acres in extent, which was clean cut in 1883, and gives instructive tigures. After
sixty-one years’ growth on land similar to that which in the neighbourhood yields
a grazing rent of from one to two shillings per acre, it is found to have yielded a
net sum equal to a revenue to the landlord during the whole period of its growth
of over nine shillings per acre per annum, or an increased value of quite seven
shillings per acre per annum. Although it refers to only a single wood of limited
extent, this return shows how profitable waste land may become under timber.
No doubt from the estates of other of our landlords who own extensive woodlands,
where, if there is not the highest scientific forestry, there is certainly good wood
management, results of an equally instructive kind could be obtained—many would
he better; and it is much to be desired in the interest of forestry that they should
be made known as an object-lesson to those who doubt the profit of tree-growing.

But in the return I quote from there is another interesting point which I must
not fail to note. During the period of growth of the wood, the outlay upon labour
in connection with it amounted to a sum equal to an expenditure of over thirty-one
shillings per acre per annum. That is to say, this sum was distributed in wages to
the people of the neighbourhood. This exhibits the benefits brought in the train
of forestry, which are no less important to the community at large than is the
profit of the crop to the landowner. The scientific treatment of woodlands and
cultivation of forests for profit on a proper scale involve the employment of a con-
siderable amount of labour, much of it at a time when there is little else doing in
country districts, not only in the actual tending of the forest area, but in the
manipulation and subsequent preparation of the timber, and in the manufacture of
the numerous by-products obtainable from it. In these days of congestion in cities
the importance of the development of such an industry which can provide occupa-
tion in the country, and thus may aid in restraining migration to the towns, has not
escaped notice, and it cannot be too often or too greatly emphasised.

The influences, to which we have just given attention, that have prevailed in
bringing about the present limited area of woodland in Britain are, it will be seen,
not wholly irremovable, nor are the obstacles to betterment insurmountable. And
the question we have now to discuss is—How are these to be counteracted and
overcome? By what means is.it possible to bring forestry in Britain more in line
with that of other nations? At the outset I would say that if forestry is to be
established on a sound commercial basis, the only one on which it should rest, if
we are to have a national home-timber industry, it can only be when the issues
involved are more fully realised than they are nowadays. As in agricultural
practice failure can only be obviated by the application of scientific methods in
farm cultivation, so is it with forestry. To become a profitable industry it must be
practised as an applied science, and not as an empirical routine.

We live beyond the days when it would be possible to apply the autocratic

—_———

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 675

remedy for want of woodlands introduced in Scotland by the Jacooean statute,
which compelled the landlords not only to plant wood and forest and make hedges,
but also enjoined them under penalties to see that each of the tenants planted one
tree for every marke of land. Nor, indeed, can much be said of the success of the
compulsion. And TI do not imagine anything could be gained nowadays by the
method adopted in Scotland in the middle of last century by the ‘Select Society,’
as it was called, of offering a premium to farmers who planted the most trees
within a specified time. That such processes were deemed necessary is interesting
as showing how old standing has been the recognition of the want of sufficient
woodland area in the country. At the present time there are those who would
reverse, as it were, the process of the old statute, and who look to the acquisition
by the State of large areas of waste land, and their afforestation by it, for the
solution of this forestry question. It is, no doubt, a wise policy which encourages
private enterprise to deal with the details of industries, and only invokes State aid
as a directive and controlling force when its need can be clearly shown. That
there is need for State aid in the case of forestry I do not deny, but it is not
required to the extent just mentioned.

I unhesitatingly say that the State ought to treat the forest areas now in its
possession in a reasonable and scientific manner, instead of leaving them as objects
for the finger of scientific scorn. They might be made, in part at least, models of
the best forestry practice. It is no use to dispute with the sentiment and taste
which have prevailed in making the New Forest what it now is, and it is hopeless
to expect a unanimous verdict as to the destiny of State woods and upon the
method of treatment to which they should be subject. We have had recently, in
the lively discussion regarding the management of Epping Forest, an illustration
of how large is the number of people who have views upon the subject of the
management of woodlands, and how the majority of them, if they had their way,
would, through ignorance, defeat the very object they desire to accomplish. We
must be prepared in any proposal for utilisation of State forests to incur the
opposition of those who regard all scientific handling of woods as vandalism,
although I do not know that forestry in itself involves a want of recognition of the
beautiful, or dulls the feelings which a sylvan landscape invokes in the minds of
those in touch with Nature. It is allowed there are areas in our State forests
sacred by many memories, possessing a grandeur and picturesqueness with which no
hand, whether of forester or landscapist, would venture to meddle. But, on the
other hand, there are tracts which without damage to the natural beauty, and
without depriving in any sensible degree the people of their privileges of recreation
they prize so much, might be and should be dealt with as forest cultivated on
scientific principles. These might serve as instruction areas, showing all that is
best for the information of foresters. The creation of some such experimental
teaching stations in State forests is one of the essentials for forestry in Britain. I
would yo further and say that the area of State ownership should be increased to
the extent of the establishment of forest stations, of an acreage sufficient to allow
of a satisfactory rotation, in other parts of the country as centres of instruction.
There have been, as you are aware, proposals for the afforestation of some of the
three million and more acres of waste land in the Highlands of Scotland capable of
growing timber, and we await with some interest the report of the Deer Forest
Commission, which has taken evidence on the subject. It, as has been suggested
may be possible, afforestation is attempted through any system of State-aided
planting, an opportunity would be afforded for securing what would be of so
much advantage to the country. Beyond this system of model experimental
stations, the State ownership of forest in Britain does not seem to me to be
necessary in the cause of forestry.

Replying recently to Sir John Lubbock in the House of Commons, the President
of the Board of Agriculture, after recounting what his Board is now doing for forestry
in Britain, added: ‘I shall always be glad to receive and to consider any suggestion
for the increase of sound technical knowledge on this subject.’ Well, now, 1 have
a suggestion to make. In a practical science like forestry ‘au increase of sound
technical knowledge’ can only be possible when facilities for practical instruction’

xx2

676 REPORT—1894.

are provided. I would, therefore, ask the President to consider what I have just
said with regard to State forest experimental areas. These cannot, of course, be
created by a stroke of the pen, but the initiative for their formation would
naturally come from the Board of Agriculture. It is possible that, with better-
ment in forestry practice, Jandowners might be found who would be willing to
devote portions of their land for the purposes of instruction, following for forestry
the noble example of Sir John Lawes in his work for agriculture; and everyone
interested in forestry must hope this may be so, But when the State has already
in its hands the means through which a large national industry can be fostered, it
is surely incumbent on it to utilise them for the purpose. And mark you, in
asking for this, one does not make a large demand upon the Treasury. The whole
could be done at no ultimate cost, for the profits from the areas could unquestion-
ably more than repay any outlay incurred upon them.

The true solution of the forestry question in Britain is to be found in the
diffusion of accurate knowledge of forest science. The landowner has to be
convinced that through scientific forestry a sound and profitable investment for
his capital is to be found in woodlands; the factor or land agent must be
instructed in the scientific principles of tree-growing for profit to enable him to
secure a steady income to the landowner from his invested capital; and the
working forester has to be taught methods of cultivation based upon science, by
which his faith in traditional practice, when it is, as is so often the case, un-
scientific, may be dispelled. It is through education alone that we can arrive at
improved forestry.

This was recognised by the Select Committee upon Forestry of the House of
Commons in its report in 1887, which performed a very valuable service by its
exposure of the prevalent ignorance of scientific forestry and of well-known facts
of tree-cultivation amongst those professedly engaged in its practice and study—
an ignorance the continued existence of which manifests itself in some of the
‘writings in current periodicals. The remedy it suggested of a State Forest
Board, including representatives of science and of bodies interested in forestry,.
charged with the superintendence of the formation of forest. schools and the
preparation of forest literature, was superseded by the later institution of the
Board of Agriculture, in which were absorbed such functions in regard to forestry
as the Government of the day accepted. We are so accustomed to anomalies in
our administrative system that the discovery of an additional one hardly surprises
us. Yet it is difficult to understand why it is that a board which deals with
subjects so essentially based on science as does the Board of Agriculture should
not have on its staff scientific men representative of the fields of science within its.
purview. But I do not know that either agriculture or forestry is so represented.
It seems odd that this Board should be dependent for scientific advice upon out-
siders, and now that it proposes to undertake the responsibility of the publication
of a journal which, I take it, will be a means for the circulation of accurate infor-
mation upon scientific questions, I do not see how its functions can be adequately
performed without scientific help from within. No one of us would expect to see,
either to-day or to-morrow, in this country a Board of Agriculture with an organi-
sation like that of the similar department in the United States, which excites our
admiration by the excellence of the practical information it circulates. But there
is a wide interval between the completeness of the American department and the
incompleteness of ours; and if I may make another suggestion to the President of
the Board of Agriculture, I would ask him to consider whether it would not
strengthen the Board in the discharge of its rapidly growing functions if it had
competent scientific advisers upon its staff. Such a man for forestry would, I
believe, do much for ‘the increase of sound technical knowledge’ in Britain, and
promote to no little extent its interests.

Since.1887 we have made some advance along the lines of improved literature
and of teaching pointed out by the Select Committee as those by which reform could
be accomplished.

If one looks at the literature available up to a recent period to anyone desirous
of learning something about forestry, one need feel little surprise at the ignorance

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 677

which prevailed. It was alike meagre in amount and deficient in quality, consist-
ing chiefly of the records of empirical practice of men who had had no scientific
training. It is satisfactory to note that these are now being replaced by works
having some pretension to scientific method and accuracy. I'rom Cooper’s Hill
there is issuing, more slowly than could be wished, Professor Schlich’s excellent
‘Manual of Forestry,’ and from his colleague Professor Fisher we may, I believe,
soon expect an important forestry book. You all know Professor Marshall Ward’s
lucid little books on timber and plant-diseases, and we are promised immediately,
under his editorship, a translation of Hartig’s ‘ Diseases of Trees,’ by Professor
Somerville. A most valuable and interesting contribution to forestry literature is
the book by Dr. Nisbet, recently issued from the Clarendon Press, containing the
lectures he delivered in the University of Oxford during the past year; and to his
marvellous energy we shall owe the new edition of ‘ Brown's Forester,’ which is
shortly to appear, and an English version of Hartig’s ‘'Text-Book’ for foresters.
All this activity shows an increasing interest in forestry, but it is only the begin-
ning of a movement to make up for the preceding dearth. Botanists are greatly
indebted to the Delegates of the Clarendon Press—and it is fitting I should here
acknowledge the obligation—for the splendid series of standard foreign works on
botany they have brought within the reach of English-speaking students, and which
have done so much for the progress of botany in Britain. If we have now got
beyond the stage of dependence in pure botany, we are far from it in scientific
forestry, and I would hope that the Clarendon Press will add to its botanical
series some of the standard foreign forestry books, and thus aid in the dissemina-
tion of the knowledge so essential to progress in the subject.

I must not omit to refer here to the excellent opportunity that is afforded for
the circulation of scientific information by the new journal of the Board of
Agriculture, of which intimation has recently been made, and it is to be hoped
that forestry will find a place in it side by side with agriculture.

The attention paid to the teaching and study of forestry by Continental States,
their many schools and copious literature of forestry, make it remarkable that,
apart altogether from the economic side, forestry as a subject of study and
investigation has not been long ago introduced in some cf our teaching centres.
I think the Sibthorpian Chair of Rural Economy of the University of Oxturd was
for long the only one through which forestry was recognised as within the sphere
of university education. So far the limited tenure of this chair, in its new dress,
has been held by agriculturists—in their line the most distinguished men; but I
should like to think that one may look forward to a time when forestry shall have
its turn, if by that time it has not come about that it is otherwise provided for.

Tt was, however, only the necessities of India which, at a comparatively recent
date, led to the first starting of forestry teaching in Britain, and then only at the
cost of India, and for those destined to serve there as foresters. Cooper’s Hill
College, the outcome of these, with its excellent equipment—including now, I
believe, a slice of Windsor Forest for purposes of practical work—possesses the
elements of a successful forestry school, and it has within recent years opened its
doors to outsiders who may wish to learn forestry. But, so far as I am aware, it
does not draw the young landowners of the country as it should do. Possibly the
expense of the special education, which equals that of the universities without
offering the advantages in other directions they afford, may be deterrent; but I am
inclined to think that if the authorities made the fact better known that men
other than foresters for India are admitted to the college, more would ayail
themselves of the opportunity.

Beyond this and some slight notice of forestry at agricultural colleges, there
have been no facilities for forestry-teaching in Britain until within the last half-
dozen years. I leave out of reckoning mere examining boards. Can we wonder,
then, that there is a general want of intelligent appreciation of scientific forestry ?
Even now all that has resulted from the agitation in favour of more attention
being given to this subject is—a lectureship on forestry in the University of
Edinburgh, supported partly by the Board of Agriculture and partly by an
endowment from subscriptions among landowners and others (and, I may mention

678 REPORT—1894.

here, forestry is now included as an optional subject in the university curriculum
for an agricultural degree); a chair, or part of one, in the Royal College of
Science at Newcastle, founded conjointly by the Board of Agriculture and the
County Council; a course of instruction in science for practical foresters in the
Royal Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, maintained by the Board of Agriculture ;
and a lecture course on forestry in the Giasgow and West of Scotland Technical
Institute, similarly provided for. I must not omit to mention, too, the beginning,
just made, by the Surveyors’ Institute of the formation of a forestry museum in
London, which should have an important educative influence. Little though it is,
I think there is occasion for congratulation that even so much has been done to
provide instruction, and I would have you note that in this education the different
classes concerned with forestry are all recognised. Valuable as the teaching so
being given is, it must have an effect in showing the need there is for more. In
one way the teaching of all these bodies is incomplete, and must be imperfect,
inasmuch as they have not the means for practical forestry work. Until this is
provided, as I have indicated already, the teaching of forestry cannot be thoroughly
carried out.

But, after all, what has been done in the way of supplying our wants in the
way of teaching is nothing to what is required if forestry is to be adequately
taught in Britain. Dr. Nisbet, who, in his book already mentioned, has had the
last say on this question, boldly states the requirements at six forestry chairs in
universities, and four schools of practical sylviculture in the vicinity of forests. I
do not think he put the needs one whit too high. I should be even disposed to add
to them, because I note he has omitted to take into account the claim of Wales,
whence there has recently been a request for the establishment of forestry teaching.

But there are two questions strictly pertinent to this demand, which need
answering if the proposals are to be brought within the sphere of practicability—
tirstly, whence are the funds to be obtained for this organisation ; and, secondly,
where are we to get the teachers ?

Dr. Nisbet puts his hand in the Treasury pocket for the money—some five
thousand et per annum—reguired by his scheme. 1 do not think many of us
will be so sanguine as to expect the whole financial aid could te directly obtained
in this way. But it may be, I think, of significance in regard to this to consider
the sources from which money has been forthcoming for what has already been
done. The Government, through the Board of Agriculture, has given most, the
remainder has come from the County Councils and from private contributions.

There is no reason to suppose the Board of Agriculture will be less willing in
the future than it has been to aid in the establishing of forestry teaching in suitable
centres; but its support from the limited funds—eight thousand pounds—at its
disposal for educational purposes is always given as a grant in aid, and is contin-
gent upon evidence of local effort towards the end desired, which we must therefore
look to in the first instance.

It is of no use to speculate upon the prospects of private munificence providing
equipment in any centre. We may hope for it, but I do not think times are such
as to lead us to expect large pecuniary aid from landowners. After vigorous effort
amongst them, extending over some years, to secure an endowment for a chair of
forestry in Edinburgh, a sum of a little over two thousand pounds is all that has
been raised,

But forestry is one of those subjects to the teaching of which we may be more
sanguine of support from County Councils. It will always be a matter of regret
to scientific men, and those interested in the industrial progress of the country, that
the grand opportunity furnished by the fund dealt with under the Local Taxation
Act (1890) was not taken more advantage of by the Government of the day.
Distributed, even in part, through representative educational institutions, it could
have provided equipment for technical education of the highest kind beyond our
dreams. Thrown at the heads of the County Councils, before these bodies had had
time to settle to their prescribed work, there has been, in the opinion of those well
qualified to judge, no little waste. You could not create all at once the machinery
requisite for the most efficacious expenditure of half a million of money on tech-

S|

OE

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 679

nical teaching. Much of the work done by these bodies is admirable. It is indeed
surprising in the whole circumstances how efficiently technical instruction has been
carried out, and no doubt it willimprove. But it had a most extravagant start.
It is difficult to trace, in the general returns of the technical education undertaken
by the County Councils, the details of their work, and I have not been able to
discover how far forestry has been treated as a subject of instruction. It has not,
I think, been often included. But the example of Northumberland and Durham
in respect of the Newcastle chair is one that gives encouragement for thinking that,
if the due importance of forestry to the community were made clear, County
Councils, in districts favourable for forestry and its concomitant industries, might
come forward with some of the financial support needed for the provision of the
educational equipment.

It appears to me that whilst we must obtain from the Government the institu-
tion of sylvicultural areas for practical instruction, our best chance of success in
acquiring the necessary endowment for the rest of the teaching lies in the line of
combination between the Board of Agriculture and the County Councils, with, it
may be, aid from private benefactors. But if we were to draw financial support
from County Councils, or from private sources, we must as a first step towards
this make known, more thoroughly than it is, the nature of the national interests
involved. We must disabuse landowners, land agents, and practical foresters of
the notion that forestry consists in the random sticking in of trees, which anyone,
no matter how unskilled, may accomplish. We must bring home to the people's
minds that in science is to be found the only sure guide to proper timber-growing,
and that scientifically managed forests are alike a profit to the producer, a benefit
to the community of the region in which they are reared, and a source of national
wealth. Once we have got so far as to create this opinion, the funds for as
extended a scheme of forestry education as may be necessary will, I venture to
think, be forthcoming.

There is still the other question to answer— Whence are the teachers to come ?
This is, I think, fundamental. For, given a competent teacher, he will soon find
opportunity for teaching. If to-morrow the whole or even a half of the chairs
suggested by Dr. Nisbet as essential were founded, how should we meet the demand
for men to fill them? We might, of course, draw upon the Indian Forest Ser-
vice, but I do not know where you would find teachers in Britain. But if there is
no prospect of such immediate requirement of teachers, that does not make the
fact of their deficiency of any less moment. There is surely something wrong
when men capable of giving scientific instruction in so important a practical
subject are so scarce.

This is how it touches us botanists, and upon our shoulders I am disposed to
throw the blame for the present outlook. We do not seem to have realised, except
in relation to medicine, that modern botany has an outlet. Perhaps it has been
the influence of medicine that has engendered this. We find chemists and
physicists devoting their science to the furtherance of practical aims. Zoologists
have applied theirs to the elucidation of problems bearing on the fishery industry ;
and we see in that monument to the ability and energy of Professor Ray Lankester,
the marine biological laboratory at Plymouth, an experimental station which,
while it contributes to the nation’s prosperity, serves at the same time as a home of
pure research. But where is the practical outcome of modern botany? I must
not overlook such brilliant work as that of Marshall Ward, full of purpose, and
significant as it is to many large industries, nor that of Oliver in its bearings on
horticulture. But it does seem to me that the general trend of botanical work in
Britain is not utilitarian. Perhaps as good an illustration as could be given of the
slight practical importance attached by the lay mind nowadays to botany is the
fact that the Scottish Universities Commissioners have made itt—though I must
add it is bracketed with zoolory—optional with mathematics for the degree in
agriculture !

It is matter of history that its utilitarian side gave the first impetus to the
scientific study of botany. The plant-world, as the source of products of economic
value and drugs, attracted attention, and out of this grew, by natural development,

680 ; REPORT—1894,

the systematic study of plants. The whole teaching of botany was at the first, and
continued for long to be, systematic and economic, and it was from this point of
view that, the herbalist having become the physician, botany became so essential
a branch of medical study. It is noteworthy that as an early practical outcome of
the study came the establishment of botanic gardens, which, at their institution,
were essentially what we would now style experimental stations, and contributed
materially to the introduction and distribution of medicinal and economic plants,
and to the trial of their products. If they are now in many instances simply
appendages of teaching establishments, or mere pleasure-grounds, we at least in
Britain are fortunate in possessing an unrivalled institution in the Royal Gardens
at Kew, which still maintains, and under its present able Director has enormously
developed, the old tradition of botanic gardens asacentre in our yast empire,
through which botany renders scientific service to our national progress.

In Britain, consequent perhaps on our colonial and over-sea possessions, the
systematic side of botany continued predominant long after morphological and
physiological work had absorbed the attention of the majority of workers and
made progress on the Continent. Not that we were wanting in a share of such
works, only it was overshadowed by the prevalent taxonomy, which in the hands
of many no longer bore that relation to its useful applications which had in the
first instance given it birth, and hal become little more than a dry system of
nomenclature.

The reaction of a quarter of a century ago, which we owe to the direct teaching of
Sachs and De Bary and the influence of Darwin, many of us can remember: init some
who are here to-day had a share. Seldom, I think, is a revolution in method and
ideas of teaching and study so rapidly brought about as it was in thisinstance. The
morphological and physiological aspect of the subject infused a vitality into the
botanical work which it much needed. The biological features of the plant-world
replaced technical diagnosis and description as the aim of teachers and workers in
this field of science. No weightier illustration of the timeliness of this change
could be found than in the attitude of medicine. But a few years ago he would
have been rash who would predict that botany would for long continue to be
recognised as a part of university training essential to medical students. Its utility
as ancillary to materia medica had lost point through the removal of pharmacy
from the functions of the physician. But what do we see now? Not the exclusion
of botany from the university curriculum of medical study, but the recognition to
such an extent of the fundamental character of the problems of plant-life, that it
is now introduced into the requirements of the colleges,

But if the old taxonomic teaching was stifled by its nomenclature, there is, it
seems to me, a similar element of danger in our modern teaching, lest it be
strangled by its terminology. The same causes are operative as of old. The
same tendency to narrowing of the fieid of vision, which eventuates in mistaking
the name for the thing, is apparent. With the ousting of taxonomy, and as the
laboratory replaced the garden and museum, the compound microscope succeeded
the hand-lens, and for the paraphernalia of the systematist came the stains,
reagents, and apparatus of microscopical and experimental work as the equipment
necessary for the study of plants, the inwards rather than the outwards of plants
have come to form the bulk of the subject-matter of our teaching, and we are
concerned now more with the stone and mortar than with the general architecture
and plan of the fabric ; we are inclined to elaborate the minute details of a part at
the expense of its relation to the whole organism, and discuss the technique of a
function more in the light of an illustration of certain chemical and physical
changes than as a vital phenomenon of importance to the plant and its surroundings.
This mechanical attitude is quite a natural growth. It is a consequence of
specialisation, and it is reflected in our research. But it must be counteracted
if botany is in the future to be aught else than an academic study, as it was of old
an elegant accomplishment. It has come about very much because of that want
of recognition by botanists, to which I have already referred, of the natural outlets
of their study—of their failure so far to see the lines through which the subject
touches the national life, Modern botany has not yet found in this country its

—— = «.™

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 681

full application. It has not yet rendered the State service as it ought, and as was
done by the taxonomic teaching it supplanted.

It is from this point of view that I wish to point out to you to-day that
through forestry—and although I have particularly dealt with this branch of Rural
Economy, what I say is equally true of horticulture and agriculture—modern
botanical study should find a sphere of application by which it may contribute to
our national well-being, and which would have a directive influence upon its
teaching, taking it out of the groove in which it tends to run. What we botanists
need to do in this connection is to teach and to study our subject from a wider
platform than that of the mere details of individual form, and to encourage our
pupils to study plant-life not merely in water-cultures in the laboratory, but in the
broader aspects exhibited in the competitive field of Nature.

If forestry is ever to thrive in Britain botanists must lay the foundation for it
in this way. We cannot expect to make our pupils foresters, nor can they yet
get the practical instruction they require in Britain. In this we must depend
yet a while on Continental schools; the stream of Continental migration, which
needs no longer to flow in morphological and physiological channels, must now
turn in the direction of forest schools. But we can so mould their studies and
give bias to their work as will put them on the track of this practical subject. If
we had only a few men so trained as competent foresters, and capable of teaching
forestry, there would be an efficient corps with which to carry on the crusade
against ignorance and indifference, the overcoming of which will be the prelude to
the organisation of forestry schools and scientific sylviculture in Britain. The
influence of the individual counts for much in a case like this. The advent of a
capable man started forestry teaching in Scotland, which years of talk had not
succeeded in doing. And so it will be elsewhere.

I have endeavoured, thus briefly, to sketch the position, the needs, and the
prospects of forestry in Britain. Its vast importance as a national question must
sooner or later be recognised. It is a subject of growing interest. Its elements
are complex, and it touches large social problems; but the whole question
ultimately resolves itself into one of the application of science. ‘To botanists
we must look in the first instance for the propagation of the scientific knowledge
upon which this large industry must rest. They must be the apostles of forestry.
And forestry in turn will react upon their treatment of botany. Botany cannot
thrive in a purely introspective atmosphere. It can only live by keeping in touch
with the rational life, and the path by which it may at the present time best do
this is that offered by forestry.

' The Section was then divided into two Departments: (1) Zoology, (2) Botany.

DEPARTMENT OF ZooLoGy.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Didermic Blastocyst of the Mammalia.
By Professor A. W. W. Husrucut, LL.D.

It is a fact that about the simple and early didermic stage of the mam-
malian blastocyst very divergent views are at the present moment held by
different observers. Only lately an English embryologist, who with great technical
skill has considerably added to our knowledge of the development of the mouse,
brought forward certain ingenious speculations concerning this didermic stage in
other mammals besides those with which he was personally acquainted. The author
referred to Dr. Robinson’s paper in vol. xxxiii. of the ‘Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science.’

According to these views the outer layer of the monodermic blastocyst is in
teality a hypoblastic layer. The didermic phase essentially originates out of this

682 ; REPORT—1894..

by a gradual spreading of epiblast cells outside the more primitive hypoblastic
wall,

However ingenious these speculations may be, the author holds them to be
erroneous.

As an example of a mammal the early development of which furnishes us
with decisive evidence in this respect, the author wishes to call attention to
Tupaja javanica, a small insectivorous mammal from the Malay Archipelago, of
which a stuffed specimen was exhibited.

Of this mammal the author possesses a most complete series of preparations
of the early developmental phases, including the extrusion of the polar bodies, the
fecundating process, the segmentation, &c. Selections from these preparations
were brought over by him to the meeting, which were demonstrated to those who
were desirous to look at them more closely.

On the plate exhibited to the Section a few of the more important stages were
figured by which the growth of the didermic blastocyst is elucidated.

It was seen that during the early stages of cleavage of the ovum there is no
sensible difference in size of the cells then arising. Still, as early as the solid
morula-stage, there is an unmistakable outer layer and an inner core of cells, the
latter increasing from one to about a dozen cells. When the latter number is
exceeded a cavity arises, the outer layer becomes the wall of this early mono-
dermic phase, and the inner core is massed together.

With equal rapidity, however, a further differentiation of this inner core into
a layer of flattened cells and a knob of more cubic ones is now inaugurated, the
former arranging themselves into the inner wall of what then becomes the
didermic blastocyst, the latter being at the outset a local thickening of this inner
layer. ‘The outer layer forms a closed sac over and above the inner layer and the
thickened knob. The outer layer is what the author has called the trophoblast,
the inner layer the hypoblast, the thickened knob containing the material out of
which both the epiblast and the hypoblast that are going to contribute towards
the formation of the embryo itself will be evolved.

This takes place simultaneously with a rapid extension in size of the didermic
blastocyst.

The embryonic knob may be said to have a more flattened and a more convex
surface ; the former is applied against the trophoblast, the latter protrudes into
the cavity of the blastocyst. Where these two surfaces meet, the peripheral
hypoblast and the embryonic knob are connected together.

Soon, however, the convex surface of the embryonic knob is seen to be
gradually converted into a cell layer, which remains in connection with the
peripheral hypoblast, but which gradually becomes separated from the rest of the
embryonic knob.

An expanse of cells has then been interpolated into the primitive hypoblast of
the early didermic stages, in the region where the embryo is going to be evolyed—
2.e., in the region of the embryonic shield.

As yet the epiblast is, however, not expanded into a shield, but folded together
in the embryonic knob. ‘Ihe first indication of its expansion is a dehiscence in
the central portion of the knob, by which the hemispherical knob becomes con-
verted into a hollow cup. The upper rim of this cup at the same time becomes
confluent with the trophoblast that overcaps it, the convexity of the cup becomes
Jessened, and the trophoblast then no longer covers the embryonic epiblast.
Finally, the convexity altogether disappears, the hollow cup surface is stretched,
and the flat or slightly curved embryonic shield has come into existence. The
pypobleet below the embryonic shield is much less flattened than the peripheral
hypoblast.

This may be called the final stage of the didermic blastocyst. It is directly
comparable to the similar stage of other mammals, and somewhat more indirectly
to that of the Sauropsida, with a considerable amount of food-yolk.

The formation of mesoblast, with which we will not here occupy ourselves, is
very soon inaugurated.

The phenomena described above leave no doubt but that the wall of the tran-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 683.

sitory monodermic stage is epiblastic in nature, and not hypoblastic, as Robinson
will have it. The true hypoblast spreads out against its inner surface, much in
the same way as Van Beneden has described it for the rabbit, Van Beneden and
Julin for the bat, Heape for the mole, Selenka for the opossum, and the author for
the shrew. This conversion of the monodermic into a didermic stage is, however,
in Tupaja brought about in a stage when the dimensions of the blastocyst are
yet exceedingly small.

In conclusion the author pointed out that the early developmental stages here
sketched have confirmed him in the conviction that in the formation of the
mammalian blastocyst czenogenetic processes play a prominent part. It is by pre-
cocious segregation that cell-matter of epiblastic and of hypoblastic ancestry is
arranged into a two-layered vesicle, whereas the really formative matter out of
which the embryo will be built up is yet quiescent in the embryonic knob.

This fact has made the mammalian blastocyst a very puzzling structure to com-
parative embryologists; and we can only come to a clear conception of its real
nature if we are willing to acknowledge that the holoblastic segmentation of the
mammalian ovum is something totally different from the holoblastic segmentation
of very many invertebrates and of Amphioxus, Being an apparently palin-
genetic feature, it is all the more misleading. And we must not wonder that the
later processes of mesoblast formation have been affected by the ceenogenetic
changes just alluded to which have come about in the very early stages.

2. On the Ancestry of the Chordata. By W. GARSTANG.

3. On the Structure of the Integument of Polyodon.
By W. B. Counce.

4. On the Vertebre of Amphisile. By W. E. CoLiiner.

DEPARTMENT OF BorTany.

1. Zwo Irish Brown Alge. By Professor T. Jonson.

The author described the characters of Reinke’s genus Pogotrichwm, founded
in 1892, and compared them with those of Litosiphon, founded in 1850 by
Harvey. The recently discovered plurilocular sporangia of Litosiphon Laminarie,
Harv., were described, and it was considered that the evidence afforded by their
position and characters with the differences in the vegetative organs was sufficient
to justify the continuance of Pogotrichum as a genus distinct from Litosiphon.
Lantern slides, microscopic and other illustrations, were shown.

2. Some Chalk-forming and Chalk-destroying Alge.
By Professor T. Jonnson.

The author exhibited and described the characters of a number of Corallinacee
(chalk-forming red alge) collected by him at different parts of the Irish coast
during the past three years. Preparations were shown of chains of spermatia form-
ing the antheridia in Lithophyllum (Melobesia) lichenoides, and attention was
called to their possible mode of formation. Specimens (microscopic, &c.) of shell-
boring algse were shown and new features in their life-history and distribution
described. Suggestions as to the relation of the carbonate of lime to the two groups
were made and asked for.

684 REPORT—1894.

3. On the Development of Cystocarp in Polisiphonia nigrescens.
By H. Pures.

4. An Exhibition of Alge. By A. Cuurcn.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Relations of Protoplasm. By Professor E. vAN BENEDEN.

2. On the Periodic Variation in the Number of Chromosomes.
By Professor E. SrrasBurGER.

3. On Chlorophyll in Animals.
By Professor E. Ray Lankester, J”. 2S.

DEPARTMENT OF ZooLocy.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Origin and Morphological Signification of the Notochord.
By Professor E. vaN BENEDEN,

2. On the Carpus of the Greenland Right-whale compared with those of
Lin-whales. By Professor J. Srruruers, M.D., LL.D.

In his preliminary notice in 1885 the author stated the general. conclusion
that he found diminution in the number of boues in the second carpal row from
Hyperoodon to Mysticetus. The following further observations relate to the
whalebone whales only. The species and number dissected were: two of Balena
mysticetus, tive of Balenoptera musculus, one of B. borealis, two of B. restrata,
and one of Megaptera longimana.

Besides noting the surface grooves, horizontal sections were made, showing the
lines of fibrous suture marking off the limits of the cartilages and bringing into
view ossifications not seen on the surfaces. As the fibrous sutures uniting these
flat-walled cartilages are so narrow and firm as to prevent movement, these car-
tilages must be regarded as individually functionless, and we are prepared to find
differences between the species and variation among individuals of the same
species.

In regard to the first row of the three usual mammalian pro-carpals in Mysti-
cetus the intermedium sends up a peak between the forearm bones, articulating with
ulna as well as with radius, and the pisiform is widely separated from the ulnare,
in both of these particulars contrasting with the finners.

In the second row, instead of the usual four disto-carpals in mammals, Mysti-
cetus has but one broad cartilage bone, supporting digits III. and II., and in part
digit I. Digits IV. and V. are supported by the ulnare, digit V. in part resting
on the ulna, so that, on the ulnar side, the ulnare represents the entire carpus.

The ossifications in Mysticetus vary. In the 48-feet-long female, which may be
reckoned adult or nearly so, the only bones ossified in the left carpus are the inter-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 685

medium and ulnare, and largely so; in the right carpus an ossification occurs
also in the disto-carpal, of medium size. The radiale is not ossified in either carpus.
In the 35-feet-long male Mysticetus, in the right carpus (the left not obtained), three
ossifications occur, but they are in the radiale, the intermedium, and disto-carpal,
not in the ulnare. Moreover, in this two-thirds-grown Mysticetus the metacarpal
of the pollex is fully ossified, while in the adult the pollex is entirely cartila-
inous. °

i In the finners, in the distal row, two cartilage bones, more or less ossified, occur
normally, supporting the two greatest digits. In the 653-feet-long B. musculus
these two are united into one bone, notches above and below and a groove on the
surface indicating synostosis of two formerly separate bones. In three of the five
B. musculus a disto-carpal was found supporting the inner of the four digits, car-
tilaginous in the 50-feet-long one and in the 60$-feet-long one, and with a small
ossification in the 653-feet-long one. In the 45-feet-long one there was no trace
of this third disto-carpal, either bony or cartilaginous, nor was it present in the 36-
feet-long B. borealis, nor in either of the two adolescent B. rostrata.

In the Megaptera, 40 feet long, the ulnare is a very broad bone, extending for
over one-third of its breadth below the radius, thus occupying also the locality of
an intermedium, and between it and the radiale occurs an undersized intermediate
bone. These two latter form the entire carpus, as one row, between the radius and
the massive radial metacarpal. Small ossitications occur in the radiale and in the
ulnare to its ulnar side.

The pisiform is, in the great finners, large and square-shaped; in B. rostrata,
narrow and directed upwards; in Mysticetus, transversely elongated. Regarded
by some as merely a sesamoid, it serves as a stretcher, civing breadth to this broad
part of the limb, steadied by the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, which the author has
found to be present in all the cetacea he has dissected, whether whalebone or
toothed. In the 60}-feet-long B. musculus it had an ossification as large as a
walnut. The pisiform may be said to be the only one of these bones adapted to
serve a function. The mass of cartilage forming the carpus serves to give some
low flexibility and elasticity at that part of the limb, like a piece of firm india-
rubber in the middle of an oar; but the mapping into distinct cartilage bones, more
or less ossified, in these whales can be explained only on the view of inheritance
from some mammal whose diarthrodially jointed carpal bones were adapted to allow
of particular movements.

3. On the Species of Amphioxus. By J. W. KirKawpy.

I. Branchiostoma Lanceolatum (Costa).

Distribution.—Mediterranean Sea, English Channel, North Sea, Coast of
Norway.
_ Gonads 26 pairs.
Both metapleural folds die away behind the atriopore.
Myotomes 35, 14, 12.
Snout fin of medium size, pointed.
Caudal fin lancet-shaped.

II. Branchiostoma Californiense (Cooper).

Distribution.—Coast of California.

Gonads 31 pairs.

Both metapleural folds die vut behind the atriopore.

Myotomes 45, 17, 9.

Head region very small, snout fin not marked off from the dorsal tin.
Tail fin long and shallow.

Ill. Branchiostoma Belchert (Gray).

Distribution.—Borneo and Torres Straits, Australia.
Gonads 25 pairs.
Both metapleural folds die out behind the atriopore,

686 REPORT—1894.

Myotomes 37, 17, 10.
Snout fin long.
Caudal fin wide and short.

IV. Branchiostoma Caribeum (Sundevall).

Distribution.—Kast Coast of S. America, Gulf of Mexico, West Indies.
Gonads 27 pairs.

Both metapleural folds die out behind the atriopore.

Myotomes 37, 15, 8.

Snout and tail fins small.

Anus far back.

V. Heteropleuron Bassanum.
Branchiostoma Bassanum (Giinther).

Distribution.—Bass Straits, Australia.

Gonads 30, unpaired.

Right metapleuron continuous with the caudal fin.
Left metapleuron dies away behind the atriopore.
Myotomes 44, 15, 17.

Snout fin large and pointed,

Tail fin long.

VI. Heteropleuron Cultellum.
Branchiostoma Cultellum (Willey).
Epigonichthys Cultellus (Peters).

Distribution.—Torres Straits, Australia.

Gonads 19, unpaired.

Right metapleuron continuous with the caudal fin.
Left metapleuron dies away behind the atriopore.
Myotomes 32, 10, 10,

Dorsal tin very high.

Anterior expansion of notochord club-shaped.

VII. Heteropleuron Singalense.

Distribution.—Ceylon,

Gonads 25, unpaired.

Right metapleuron continuous with the caudal fin.
Left metapleuron dies away behind the atriopore.
Myotomes 39, 17, 8.

Anus far back.

Snout and caudal fins small.

VIII. Assymetron Lucayanum (Andrews).

Distribution.—Bahamas,

Both metapleura meet at the anterior end of the pre-oral chamber, and are
continuous with the snout fin.

Oral hood far back, and with few cirri, of which two sets, about a median
cirrus, are webbed.

Gonads 20, unpaired.

Right metapleuron continuous with the caudal fin.

Lett metapleuron dies away behind the atriopore.

Myotomes 44, 9, 15.

Long caudal extension.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 687

_

DEPARTMENT OF Borany.

—

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Phylogenetic Position of the Chalazogamic Amentifere.
By Miss M. Benson.

The author reviewed the points of resemblance that obtained between the
Cupulifere: and the four chalazogamie genera, Alnus, Betula, Corylus, and Carpi-
nus, and was led to the conclusion that, with the exception of the difference in the
route of the pollen tube and the concomitant adaptations, no fundamental distinc-
tions could be drawn between the chalazogamic and porogamic genera.

The author also described and exhibited some abnormal inflorescences of Fagus
syivatica, Quercus Ilex, and Alnus glutinosa, and suggested atavism as their
explanation.

2. On the Hygroscopic Dispersal of Fruits in certain Labiates.
By Miss D. Pertz.

3. On the Hybridisation of Orchids. By Dr. JAmEs Ciark.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Interim Report on a Digest of the Observations on the Migration of
Birds at Lighthouses.—See Reports, p. 348.

2. Report on the Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs.
See Reports, p. 347.

3. Report on a Deep-sea Tow Net.

4. On Temperature as a Factor in the Distribution of Marine Animals.
By Dr. O. Maas.

In the question of the influence of temperature on marine animals no sufficient
distinction has been made hitherto between three classes of facts :—

1. Between the animals of the Plankton, the Benthos, and the Nekton.

2. Between the vertical and the horizontal differences of temperature.

3. Between eurythermal animals which can stand great differences of tem-
peratures, and the eurythermal ones which cannot.

The eurythermal animals cannot be appealed to in proof of anything regarding
temperature,
For the stenothermal the average temperature of a locality is of small zoo-
geographical value, while the extent of variation is the most important factor.
'_ The Nekton animals are more eurythermal; otherwise their power of swim-
ming, which brings them into very different conditions of temperature, would be
of no use to them.

688 REPORT—1894.

The Plankton and Benthos animals are (with some exceptions discussed) more
stenothermal ; hence results the known division of the coasts.

A distribution of the animals of the open ocean into regions is possible too,
chiefly on account of the currents.

Some instances of that were given from the facts of the Plankton expedition,
chiefly of the Meduse, which have been worked out by Dr. Maas. Most interest-
ing in this regard are the Geryonids, which in every ocean basin do not exceed a
certain N. or S. latitude, and which as Plankton animals occupy a_ similar
portion of the map as the corals of the Benthos.

Dr. Maas is led to the conclusion that a comparison between the vertical
differences and those found in higher latitudes can only be carried to a limited

depth.
The horizontal distribution of the pelagic fauna is not compensated by the

vertical differences.

There are no various belts of vertical life; the intermediate fauna between the
Plankton of the surface and the Benthos of the abyss may be supposed to be only
Nekton.

This is valid for the deep sea. In lower seas the life may be continuous from
the surface to the bottom. Sometimes special conditions, especially of temperature,
prevail (c.g., in the Mediterranean, where a depth of 2,000 m. shows 13°), The
occurrence of a deep-sea pelagic fauna, neither belonging to the surface nor in
connection with the ground, as well as the survival of deep-sea animals coming
to the surface, may be explained by this higher temperature.

5. Second Report on the Zoology of the Irish Sea.
See Reports, p. 318.

6. On Marine Fish-hatching and the Dunbar Establishment of the
Fishery Board for Scotland. By Professor W. C. McInrosu, 7.2.8.

It was stated that we are yet in doubt as to the beneficial effects to the fisheries
of the artificial hatching of sea-fishes, but that the importance of the issue demanded
a thorough trial. Several nations, such as the Americans and Norwegians, had
chiefly experimented with the cod, other forms having. been dealt with in small
numbers. Though the sole was selected as the most suitable species, the lateness
of its spawning period gave an opportunity for a preliminary series of experiments
with the plaice. Accordingly a total of 396 plaice were collected, the average
size of the males being about 17 inches, and that of the females about 20 inches.
From these 27,350,000 ova were obtained, hatched in the boxes (Danneyig’s), and
the larval plaice—to the number of 26,060,000—sent into the sea, the loss in the
process being only about 4°4 per cent.

At Dunbar the eggs are shed in the spawning-pond, and carried to the spawn-
collector by the current. They are then counted and placed in the hatching-
boxes. The sea-water for these is passed through a series of flannel-filters, so as to
secure purity. Moreover, besides the current entering the end of the box, an up-
and-down movement is communicated to them twice every minute, so that the ova
are evenly distributed through the water. On the whole the operations for the
first year were most successful.’

DEPARTMENT OF Borany.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Correlation between Root and Shoot. By Professor L. Kyy.

1 A full account of the experiments will be given by Dr. Fulton in the forth-
coming Zwvelfth Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland. .

2 CC

Lae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 689

2. On the Sensitiveness of the Root-tip. By Professor W. PFErFer. "

3. Exhibition of Diagrams. By Professor L. Kyy.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Interim Report on Telegony.—See Reports, p. 346.

2. On some Difficulties of Darwinism.
By Professor D’Arcy THompson.

3. On Social Insects and Evolution. By Professor C. V. Ritey.

Experiment and discussion on the question as to whether acquired characters are
transmitted or not through heredity have of late been largely based upon the
economies of insects, and especially of the social species, The author gives a
summary of what is known of the habits and economies of bees, wasps, ants, and
termites, especially as to the development of the young. He points out that the
origin of neuters, with their diversitied forms, in these social insects has been con-
sidered one of the greatest difficulties with which the theory of natural selection has
had to contend. Weismann, in urging his own particular theories to account for the
variation which organisms have undergone, insists, and has, within the last year,
in his controversy with Herbert Spencer, emphasised his belief, that these neuter
insects absolutely preclude the idea of the transmission of acquired characters.
The author believes, on the contrary, and endeavours to show, that while these
neuters among social insects, with their varied structures and habits, do indeed offer
serious obstacles to the theory of natural selection as an all-sufficient theory to
explain the phenomena, these are nevertheless perfectly explicable upon the general
principles that have governed the modification of organisms, among which natural
selection plays an important but limited part.

Among the social Hymenoptera, where, as in the bees and wasps, the larva is
nursed and brought up in a definite cell or cradle, the three castes of male (or
drone), fertile female (or queen), and neuter (or worker) are quite definitely fixed
and separated. The differences between the worker and the queen are, however,
solely due to the treatment of the larve, and are consequently under the control of
the colony. The same larva, according to treatment and nurture, may produce
either a perfect queen or a worker, between which the differences as to size, struc
ture, external and internal organisation, and length of life are very great. This is
absolutely and definitely proved for the bees, and is doubtless equally true, though
with less absolute proof, of the wasps, in which the same three castes of male,
female, and neuter obtain in some species, while in others the neuters are replaced
by parthogenetic or unimpregnated females, normally capable of reproducing. In
the ants, where the larva is not confined to a definite cradle, and where there are,
in the more typical species, two castes of neuters, viz., soldiers and workers, the
variation between the different castes is greater, and thereis also more variation in
the individuals composing the different castes ; but the evidence all points to the
fact. that these different individuals are also the result of food and nurture, very
much as with the bees and wasps.

In the three families of social Hymenoptera above mentioned the young are
maggot-like and absolutely helpless and dependent on the nurses. In the termites,

1894. a

690 REPORT—1894,
which,.belong to a. different order (Platyptera),.much:older in time according to

the paleontological record—an order in which the young are born in the image of
the parent and are more or less independent from birth—one would expect to find
larval nurture and environment less potent in influencing ultimate structure. Yet
all the facts known, and particularly the late most painstaking observations and
experiments of Grassi, prove conclusively that here, also, the young are dependent
upon the nurses, and, more remarkable still, may be diverted, according to the food
and treatment given, to any of the four castes which characterise the typical
termite colony, there being, in addition to the male and female, two kinds of
neuters, viz., soldiers and workers, as in the true ants. In the first larval stage, or
when first hatched, the individuals are, to all appearances, absolutely alike, and each

ossesses the potentiality of becoming either a worker, or a soldier, or a perfect sexed
individual. Nay, further, the pupe, or nymphs, may be diverted into reproductive
forms which never acquire wings and which are called supplementary queens and
kings; and even lary may be so diverted into reproductive forms, with no further
external structural development, when.they become complementary or neotinic
kings and queens.

The steps in the development from the simpler to the more special structures
and attributes belonging to the species with the most perfect social organisation
may be traced in the different species and genera of their respective families in all
social insects of the present day. ‘The amount of variation is often great in the
ants and termites, where the environment is less fixed than in the bees and wasps,
and this variation, among termites, is particularly manifest in the economy of the
same species, as exemplified in Zutermes, which the author has studied in the West
Indies, and in which the number of queens varies from one to niue or more. It is
not generally known, but it is a fact, that existing termites (using the term in the
broader sense, so as to include several genera) exemplify all the steps in develop-
ment from species which are active in broad daylight (the neuters having faceted
eyes and dark integument, and, so far as is known, no definite nest or termitary),
to the more specialised species in which the economy.and division of labour are
most perfect, and in which the neuters and soldiers are blind and always work in
the dark and build elaborate structures. Further, the neuters in termites are truly
without sex or are modified individuals which might have produced either sex ;
while in the Hymenoptera they are invariably modified females,

In so far as these different forms of neuter insects depend for their development
on the food and treatment given by the nurses, they are outside the domain of
natural selection. The author believes, however, that there is a potential, inherited
tendency in the young larva to develop in the various directions that have been
fixed for each species in its past development, as he cannot believe, e.g., that young
larve taken from one species of termites, and brought up under the care of the
nurses of any other species, can be diverted to the forms peculiar to this last. There
is a possibility, since the food of these young in the social insects consists largely of
secretions from the nurses, that these secretions may so influence the changes as to
contine them to the specific forms of its own species, regardless of the parentage of
the young. That there can be any such powerful influence of nurture as would
neutralise and overcome the inherited tendencies of species is, however, extremely
improbable: its bare possibility opens up a most interesting field for experiment,
which is easily made, and doubtless soon will be made.

The author believes, with Darwin, that the variations in social insects have
been guided by natural selection among colonies, but that there has also been what
he calls social selection among individuals. Competition has been between colonies
rather than individuals, and those colonies which have acquired, through heredity,
the habit of producing, from one or more fertile females, the different castes
characteristic of the species have, in course of time, survived. He believes, how-
ever, that this colony-selection, as well as the social selection among individuals,
has been not only along lines that were and are useful to the species, but along lines
of secondary utility, and even along lines which are purely fortuitous and still most
variable and unfixed.

Finally, as between Weismann’s views and those held by Darwin himself, the

=

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 691

author feels that the facts furnished by the ‘social insects strongly favour the trans+
mission, through heredity, of acquired characters, both psychic and structural, but
that they also require other factors besides that of natural selection to explain them.

The trouble with all theories of reproduction and heredity based solely on em-
bryologic and microscopic methods is, that the essence, the life principle, the
potential factors, must always escape such methods. Any theory that will hold
must cover the psychical as well as the physical facts—the total of well-established
experience—and this truth was recognised by Darwin in framing his tentative
theory of pangenesis. We are all in these matters simply discussing processes, and
the author believes that too much has been made of the cell theory, the cell being
but the medium through which assimilation, growth, organisation, rereneration, and
reproduction are effected by the ultimate elements and the inherited potential
forces, call them what we may. The idea that the individual during its lifetime
develops all that is potential in the germ seems to him more philosophic than the
idea that the germ originates, at a specific moment of time, the tendency to all
that develops in the individual. It may be a perfectly correct conception, to use
‘Weismann’s language, that the primary constituents for the characters of the
different forms of social insects are included in the egg, and that a particular form
of stimulus decides as to which group shall undergo development ; but it is diffi-
cult to believe, in the licht of the facts which are known concerning social insects,
that the different kinds of ids and determinants which are thus conceived to
characterise the germ have not been impressed upon it as a consequence of the
characters, both acquired and congenital, of the parents.

The author finally calls attention to the significant fact that just as in man,
among Mammalia, the higher intellectual development and social organisation are
found correlated with the longest period of dependent infancy ; that this helpless
infancy has been, in fact, a prime influence in the development, through family,
clan, tribe, and state, of our highest organisation and civilisation; so in the insect
world we find the same correlation between the highest intelligence and dependent
infancy, and are justified in concluding that the latter is, in the social insects as in
man, in the same way a prime cause of the high organisation and division of labour
so characteristic of them.

4. On the Réle of Sex in Evolution. By Joun Berry Haycrart, I.D.,
Professor of Physiology, University College, Cardiff:

While Weismann admits that the power to vary isa property of protoplasm,
he looks upon sexual conjugation as a means whereby the number of these
variations may be increased. But we find that the power to vary is itself a most
varying character of protoplasm, for both in the case of sexual and asexual
reproduction certain species constantly produce striking varieties, while others
rarely produce them. We can therefore state, not only that variation is a quality
of protoplasm, but that it has and can acquire this quality in varying degree and
apart from sexual congregation; moreover, greater varieties in the progeny can be
obtained simply by increasing the number of the offspring. It would appear
therefore that, if we accept the view held by Weismann, we must assign to sexual
conjugation a function already possessed by protoplasm, and it is difficult to under-
stand its utility. If, however, we remember that the varieties which occur in
newly allied forms (the only ones which conjugate) are variations chiefly in quantity
(differences in size of the whole or parts, amount of pigment, &c.), we can hardly
doubt the generally accepted and more popular view, that the children tend to the
mean of their parents; a view supported by Galton’s admirable researches. If this be
true sexual conjugation tends to diminish variations, and the author suggests that this
is indeed the réle of sex in evolution. Our attention has been so much engrossed
with the changes of the environment, and with the consequent production and
establishment of new varieties, that we have perhaps considered too little the fact
that often for long periods of time the environment may remain stationary, and
that under these conditions existing types must remain stable. The persistently

xyx2

692 , REPORT—1894,

preserved types in our inland ponds and Jakes, types such as the housefly and cock-
roach, which for ages have remained the same, illustrate this stability. Living
matter must therefore be capable both of the power to vary and of stability; the
first it possesses, the second it gains by sexual conjugation, which tends to prevent
the slight deviations of a form which has become adapted to its environment from
producing still further deviation by blending them together so that some, at any
rate, of their progeny may preserve the useful ancestral qualities. To sex we owe
our fairly defined species and genera; without sex we cannot doubt that life would
exist in the form of innumerable varieties that we should fail to group together.

5. On the Relation of Mimetic Characters to the Original Form.
By ¥, A. Dixey, IA., M.D., Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford.

An objection that has been often brought against the theory of mimicry, as
enunciated by Bates and accepted by Darwin, is the difficulty of imagining the
first stages in the production of a mimetic pattern. Fritz Miiller ! endeavoured to
meet this objection by alleging that mimicry chiefly originated between forms that
already bore considerable resemblance to each other. The main instance (that of
Leptalis melia) on which he relied in order to prove his point was not well chosen,
for there is reason to think that he was in error both in considering that it
represented the ancestral form of Zeptalis and in supposing that it was not
protected by mimicry. Nevertheless, his contention is sound in so far as it
emphasises the fact that the process of mimetic assimilation depends rather on the
development of old than on the starting of new features.

An illustration of this principle is afforded by a comparison of the non-
mimetic butterflies Prerts locusta and P. thaloe with the mimetic species of the
closely allied genus Mylothris, and with Heliconius numata, which serves as the
model for the latter; all these forms inhabiting the same part of the neotropical
region. An almost perfect transition can be traced on the undersides from the
non-mimetic species of Pieris, through M. lypera 3, M. lorena 3, M. pyrrha 3,
M. lorena 9, to M. pyrrha @, this last butterfly being a very close copy of
Heliconius numata. The whole series shows (1) that a practically perfect
mimetic pattern can be evolved by gradual and easy stages without any violence
or abruptness of change; (2) that it is not necessary that the forms between
which mimicry originates should possess considerable initial resemblance ; (3) that
so small a beginning as the basal red patches on the underside of the hind-wing of
many Pierines gives sufficient material for the assimilative process to work on.

The feebler development of the mimetic pattern in the males of this group calls
for some explanation. No doubt the females require more protection, but does
there exist any active check on the fuller assumption of mimetic patterns by the
males? The retention of the original white by the latter sex has been in similar
instances attributed to female choice; Mr. Wallace, on the other hand, thinks it
due to the difference of habits in the two sexes, the females alone flying in
company with the mimicked Heliconiz. But this leaves unexplained the presence
of a partial mimetic pattern in the male. The probability is that, although on the
wing it may be advantageous rather than otherwise to the male, as Mr. Wallace
thinks, to be taken for an ordinary white butterfly, yet when the insect is at rest and
settled with the wings erect, any Heliconine resemblance would be to some extent
protective; and the whole aspect of these males, the underside alone of which shows
any mimetic features, is the resultant of these two divergent tendencies. The mimetic
features of the male cannot be regarded as a mere incidental result of the more com-
plete transformation of the female, because in many species of other groups the female
is completely mimetic while the male shows no approach whatever to a mimetic
change ; moreover, there is a species of Hesperocharis (H. hirlanda) in which not
only the male but both sexes show a partial mimetic pattern no further advanced
than that of M. lorena 3 or M. pyrrha g. It is difficult to believe that in this
case the pattern is not in some degree protective.

1 Jenaisch. Zeitschr., vol. x.

TRANSACTIONS -OF SECTION D. ° 693

-Red basal spots like those of the mimicking Pierines are in some cases found
in the mimicked Heliconii: this is especially the case in those that form models
for the Pierine genera Euterpe and Pereute, These spots are too widespread in
the Pierine sub-family to have arisen from imitation of the Heliconw; their

resence in the latter is probably due to ‘reciprocal mimicry’ between distasteful
forms, as suggested by the author in ‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.,’ 1894, p. 298,

A curious case of a mimetic group is afforded by the Pierines Euterpe critias
and ZL, bellona, together with their respective models Papilio zacynthus and the
Helicon of the thelaiope group. The Papilio and the Helicon have no close
resemblance to each other, but appear to be held together, as it were, by the
intermediate Pierines. If the Heléconid are considered as the models for the whole
group, the question arises why £. critias should copy a mimic, and not a very good
one, instead of the original distasteful model. It is more probable that here also we
have an instance of an ‘ inedible association; ’ this conclusion being strengthened by
the fact that a certain amount of ‘ give and take,’ or ‘reciprocal mimicry,’ seems to
have occurred between the Pierines and the Papilio,

The paper was illustrated by coloured drawings of the species referred to,

6. On Certain Principles of Progressively Adaptive Variation Observed
in Fossil Series. By Professor H. F. Osporn,

7. On the Wing of Archeopteryx Viewed in the Light of that of Some
Modern Birds. By W. P. Pycrart.

In this paper the author contended that certain of the Galliformes, such as the

common fowl and turkey for instance, are descended from an ancestral form of
a strictly arboreal habit, in which the pollex and index digits were armed with
elaws to assist in climbing as well as to save itself from falling. These claws
remained functional until a sufficient number of the primary (and secondary)
remiges had developed to convert the wing into an organ of flight. Until this was
effected, the development of these remiges nearest the wing (Nos. 8, 9,10) was
arrested, so that the tip of the index digit might be left free for grasping. The
arrested development of the remiges referred to is the only clue we have left at
the present day, the claw of the second digit having been lost, whilst that and the
pollex are very small. These deductions were drawn from a precisely similar
arrangement shown by the author to exist in Oprsthocomus cristatus, a bird which
shows many other unmistakably primitive characters.
_ It was also pointed out that there is reason for believing that the claws of
Archeopteryx were of prime importance only during a similar period of life—the
nestling period. A restoration in the shape of a model of the wing of Archzeopteryx
was exhibited, in which it was shown that the remiges rested upon the third digit,
so as to leaye the tip of the second free in a manner more or less resembling the
nestling condition of Opisthocomus. It was, however, pointed out by the author
that this digit might have supported the semiplume-like feathers seen in the fossil,
overlying the quill feathers. These may have possibly extended to the tip of the
second digit, and represented what we know as ‘major’ coverts.

8. On the Nephridial Duct of Owenia.
By Professor G. Gitson, of Louvain.

Owenia is a tubicolous annelid discovered by Delle Chiaje in the Gulf of
Naples, and especially studied by Claparéde. The latest writer on its anatomy,
Dr. von Drasche, confesses his ignorance as to the presence or absence of the
nephridia, as well as to the way through which the genital products are led out of
the ccelom.

694 REPORT—1894.

Although my own researches are far from terminated, I am able to give some
information on the subject.

In fact, the nephridial system is not altogether absent, but is in a state of
extreme reduction and seems to have lost all secretory function. It consists
usually of one pair, sometimes two pairs, of very small funnels, lying in the
posterior part of the sixth segment, against the muscular layer, in an extremely
dorsal position.

Fach of these funnels ends in a very thin tube, which passes through the
muscular coat; but, instead of opening directly and freely on the epidermic
surface, these tubes fall into a longitudinal duct which runs forward and opens,
through a tiny pore, at the other end of the sixth segment.

This duct is a merely epithelial structure ; it lies outside of the thick basal
membrane, within the epiderm itself. Being thus superficially situated, it is
exteriorly visible, and appears as a very sinuous line, extending the whole length
of the sixth segment. Dr. von Drasche, in his valuable monograph, very accu-
rately represented this line, though he did not male out its significance.

1 have seen this epithelial duct opening at certain places, thus taking the shape
of a groove instead of that of a tube. These occasional imperfections of its
structure, together with the peculiar disposition of its constituent cells, show that
this canal originates as a longitudinal folding of the epithelium. They lead us
also to consider it as an organ still in full course of phylogenetic evolution. Its
utility, as well as the original cause of its formation, is obvious, I have shown
elsewhere that the sandy tube in which the Owenza lives is rather tight round the
fore end of the body. The genital products could scarcely reach the exterior were
they directly ejected into the space between the worm and its protective sheath,
‘The animal is obliged to protrude its body out of its dwelling, but, thanks to the
epidermic canal, it is spared the trouble and danger of laying bare more than its
tive anterior segments, though the funnels lie in the posterior part of the sixth.

A question now presents itself: What is thé morphological significance of
this epidermic duct P

It is not my intention, in the present state of my researches, to enter into a
full discussion of the subject. I shall content myself with calling attention to the
bearing which the discovery of the epidermic canal of Owenia may have on the
discussion of the homologies of the excretory system in general.

We know other instances of a Jongitudinal duct in connection with the
nephridia. The most classical one is that of ZLanice conchilega, described by
Mr. Cunningham and Dr. E. Meyer.

The longitudinal duct of this species is generally regarded as an unsegmented
part of the longitudinal row of cells which gives origin to the excretory system—an
opinion which I have no reason to oppose.

But certain morphologists go further than that, and compare the longitudinal
duct of Lanice, Polymmia, Polygordius, and others to the segmental canal or primi-
tive ureter of vertebrates. Professor Wilson, in his remarkable paper on the germ-
bands of Zwmbricus, goes even so far as to consider this homology as evident.

On this point I venture to recall attention to Professor Haddon’s hypothesis
as to the phylogenetic origin and epiblastic nature of the segmental duct of
vertebrates.

The existence of such an evidently adaptive structure as the epidermic duct of
Owenia seems to give a remarkable confirmation to his suggestion as to how a
continuous groove into which the nephridia opened may have been converted into
a canal.

It is not evident at all that the segmental duct really is, in its whole length,
an unsegmented part of a cell-row homologous to that of Clepsine or Lumbricus.
It may have appeared at a much later period of the phylogenetic evolution, and
have been, at a given moment, a new structure corresponding to new wants, just
as the epidermic duct of Owenta corresponds to a peculiar disposition of the pro-
tective tube of the worm. The coexistence of a segmental duct analogous to the
epithelial duct of Owenia, and of a structure homologous to the longitudinal cana}
of Lanice, is even possible,

———_—_———«—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 695

I do not affirm that the epidermic duct of Owenia really represents the
segmental duct at an early stage of its phylogenetic development. I rather
think that we have here a case of homoplasy, not of homogeny. But I believe
that the homology of the primitive ureter is not a settled question, as the
American professor would have it, but that it remains a question open to further
investigation.

DEPARTMENT OF Botany.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Origin of the Sexual Organs of the Pteridophytes.
By Professor Doveias H. CAMPBELL.

While the close affinity of the Bryophytes and Pteridophytes has been long
recognised in the origin and early divisions of the sexual organs, there exist
differences that have been looked upon as radical. This is especially noticeable in
the archegonium.

A comparison of the structure and develorment of the sexual organs of the
higher hepatics (Anthocerotiz) with those of the Eusporangiate Pteridophytes,
z.e., Opbioglossexe, Marattiaceze, Equisetinex, and Lycopodine, shows remarkable
points of resemblance, enough to warrant the hypothesis that here is to be sought
the connection between the Bryophytes and Pteridophytes.

2. Notes upon the Germination of the Spores of the Ophioglossece.
By Professor Doueuas H. CAMPBELL.

The gametophytic stage of these plants is very imperfectly known, and hitherto
only the very advanced conditions in two species.

The author succeeded in germinating two other species—Ophioglossum (Ophio-
derma) pendulum and Botrychium virginicum. In both the first division of the
spore occurs before any chlorophyll is formed.

The author also found old prothallia of B. virginicum with young plants
attached, but too far advanced to study the development of the reproductive
organs and embryo.

3. On Sterilisation and a Theory of the Strobilus.
By Professor F. O. Bower, /’.2.S.

In submitting a theory of the strobilus to Section D it is assumed that
Hofmeister’s general conclusions will be accepted, that antithetic alternation
was constant throughout the evolution of archegoniate plants, and that the
pecepbyte has been the result of elaboration of the zygote. The main points of
the theory may be briefly stated as follows :—

1. Spore-production was the first office of the sporophyte: its spore-bearing
parts are to be regarded as primary, its vegetative parts as secondary in point of
evolutionary history.

2. Other things being equal, increase in number of carpospores is an ad-
vantage. A climax of numerical spore-production was attained in homosporous
vascular cryptogams.

8. Sterilisation of potential sporogenous tissue has been and is a widespread
phenomenon, appearing as a natural consequence of increased spore-production.

4, Parts of the sterile tissue appeared as septa, partitioning off the remaining
sporogenous tissue into separate loculi.

5. Septation to form synangia and subsequent separation of the sporangia are
phenomena illustrated in the upward development of vascular plants. :

696 REPORT—1894,

6. Such septation may have talen place repeatedly in the same line of descent.
_ 7%. The sporogonial head as a whole is the correlative of the strobilus or
flower, and the apex of the one corresponds to the apex of the other.

8. The progression from the one to the other depended upon (a) septation by
formation of sterile partitions, (6) eruption of the surface to form appendicular
organs upon which the sporangia are supported (sporangiophores, sporophylls),

9. The sporophylls, originally small and of simple form, were in the course of
descent susceptible of great increase in size and complexity of form.

10. In certain cases foliage leaves were derived from sterilisation of sporo-
phylls.

4, On a Method of Taking Casts of the Interiors of Flowers,
By Miss N. F. Layarp.

5. On the Function of the Nucleus. By Professor E, ZAcHARIAS,

6. Exhibition of Diagrams. By Professor Lio ERRERA.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Blood of Magelona, By W. B. Brennan, D.Sc.

The blood of this annelid differs entirely from that of any other chetopod
hitherto examined. Instead of a red (hemoglobinous) liquid plasma, in which
float a few nucleated (culourless) corpuscles, or free nuclei, the blood-vessels of
Magelona are completely filled with very small spherical globules of a madder-pink
colour, floating in an extremely small amount of colourless plasma. These globules
are not cells; there are free nuclei scattered amongst them, but the coloured
globules are not nucleated. The colour of the globules is due to a pigment similar
to hemerythrin; the globules themselves, when shed, exhibit.a marked tendency
to run together like oil-drops and fuse with one another. This peculiar and
rather viscous mass seems to be intermediate, in some respects, between the abso-
lutely liquid, coloured plasma of cheetopods generally and the red corpuscles of
mammals, which float in a comparatively small amount of colourless plasma;
further, the globules in Magelona probably originate, as those of: mammals do,
‘within cells, from which they are released.

2. Suggestions for a New Classification of the Polycheta.
By W. B. Brennan, D.Sc.

The Polycheta may he divided into two grades—(a) the Eucephala, in which
the prostomium retains its original condition as a lobe overhanging the mouth,
and the peristomium shows no tendency to overgrow it. The body segments are
all alike. The second grade (4) may be called Cryptocephala, as the peristomium
grows forward and fuses with, or even entirely conceals, the prostomium, which is
greatly reduced. The body segments are differentiated into two groups, indicated
externally by the sudden alteration of the chet, and internally by certain
-differences,

The Eucephala includes four sub-orders :— :
Sub-order 1. The Neretdiformia (= Errantia, auct.) together with Ariciide.—In
this group, with a few exceptions, the prostomium carries tentacles and palps, and

TRANSACTIONS- OF SECTION D. 697

the peristomium usually carries special cirri, The parapodia are well-developed
lobes, supported by strong acicula. The chetz are jointed (gomphotrichs) or un-
jointed (holotrichs) ; no uncini occur, A pharynx exists, which frequently is armed
with jaws. There are other characters drawn from internal organs.

Sub-order 2. Scoleciformia includes the four families—Ophelude, Arenicolide,
Scalibregmide, and Maldanide.

The prostomium does not carry tentacles or palps, the peristomium is without
special cirri. The parapodia are but feebly developed knobs or ridges, and are not
supported by acicula, The chete are holotrichs. Sensory processes feebly deve-
loped or absent. Internally the most marked feature is the diminution in
number of the nephridia connected with the incomplete character of the septa,
There are no jaws, though the anterior end of the gut may be eversible.

Sub-order 3. Terebelliformia (Families.—Cirratulide, Chlorhemide, Sterna-
spide, Tercbellide, &c.).—The prostomium carries tentacular appendages (the
branchial processes of Chlorhemid@). The achzetous peristomium may carry fila-
_mentous processes. Parapodia, mere ridges or knobs; no acicula; chet are
holotrichs and uncini. Dorsal cirri may be present on a few of the anterior
segments, and they function as gills. Buccal region not eversible. Internally
the nephridia present a dimorphism, accompanied in many cases by reduction in
number.

Sub-order 4, Capitelliformia includes the family Capiteliide.

The second grade, Cryptocephala, is divided into two sub-orders :—

Sub-order 1. Spioniformia (Families—Spionide, Magelonide, Chetopterida,
Ammocharide) retains the prostomium as a small lobe, without definite tentacles
or palps, but the peristomium is relatively large, and extends forwards on either side
of the prostomium ; this segment usually carries very long flexible tentacles. The
parapodia are only feebly developed and inccmplete; no acicula ; the chet holo-
trichs ; uncinimay occur. Dorsal cirri, if present, become branchial organs. Buccal
region eyersible, but without jaws. Nephridia but imperfectly known.

Sub-order 2. Sabelliformia (Sabellide, Eriographide, Serpuhide Hermellide).
The prostomium is in most cases entirely concealed by the great development of
the peristomium, and may be reduced to mere sensory knobs. But the palps are
very greatly developed and function as gills. Parapodia only slightly projecting,
or mere ridges; chete holotrichs and uncini. Dorsal cirri, if present, are
branchial, or modified to form a thoracic membrane. Nephridia dimorphic—the
anterior pair large, opening by a median dorsal pore on the first segment. The
remainder act as genital ducts,

3. On Museum Preparations, By E. S. Goopricu.

4, On Random Publishing and Rules of Priority.
By Tuomas R. R. Srepsine, JA.

Modern zoology is a study of continually extending scope. The literature is
vast, costly, and polyglot. The channels of publication are so innumerable that
naturalists can scarcely tell which way to turn. In books, in magazines, in
reports of learned societies, the information required by one set of students is
often so combined with that required by several other sets that the expense of
obtaining it becomes prohibitory. The proposal is hazarded that the leading
societies should set an example by arranging among themselves for a division of
labour, in the hope that by degrees scientific workers might be induced to issue
their new discoveries from a few well-recognised centres, instead of insisting on
the present liberty of ubiquitous publication. A Committee of the British Associa-
tion, it is suggested, might usefully undertake a preliminary consideration of what
is possible or expedient in this respect; and, while ventilating the larger subject,
might also propose a settlement of some debated questions of zoological nomencla-
ture, A special proposal put forward is, that for every country there shall be a
single authorised journal to receive the names of new genera and species, with

698 REPORT—1894.

brief descriptions appended ; all claims to priority being dependent on the date of
this record,

5. On the Relations of the Cranial Nerves to the Sensory Canal System
of Fishes. By W. HK. Couuince.

6. On some Models of the Crania of Siluroids. By H. B. Pouuarp.

7. On the Epidermis of the Plantar Surface and the Question of Use-
Inheritance. By F. A. Dixey, M.D., Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford.

It is well known that in the human adult the skin of the sole of the foot is
thickened as compared with that of the dorsum, and it is also known that this
local thickening on the plantar surface is present before birth. It is therefore not
the direct result of the use of the sole in walking, though it might possibly be held
to be due to use-inheritance. But in addition to the general plantar thickening,
there is also known to exist a special thickening, in the adult, of the skin covering
the heel and toe-ball, which is no doubt correlated with the heel-and-toe gait
specially characteristic of man. It was suggested by the late Professor Romanes
that it would be of importance to ascertain the time of appearance of this special
as distinct from the general plantar thickening, inasmuch as its appearance before
birth, should that be proved to occur, would seem to be more easily accounted for
on the principle of use-inheritance than on that of pure natural selection. The
general plantar thickening in the embryo might be held to be simply representative
of the condition in a prehuman ancestor ; not so, however, the special thickening of
the heel and toe-ball. Six embryos, whose ages varied from about the third to the
ninth month, were examined in concert with Professor Romanes. As the inner
limit of the corium is in most cases not exactly determinable, the epidermis alone
was measured, and the results were as follows:—(1) The general plantar thickening
had begun in the earliest embryo examined. (2) The special thickening of the
toe-ball had also begun at the same age. (3) The special thickening of the heel
was not discoverable in any one of the specimens, which ranged up to the time
just preceding birth. These results were unexpected, for it had been anticipated
that both the special thickenings would have been found in the embryo to be either
absent or present together, and at first sight it seemed as if no light were thrown
by the observed facts on the question at issue. On further consideration, however,
and after special study of the gait of the lower primates, it appeared to the author
that the thickened epidermis of the toe-ball in the embryo simply represented an
ancestral condition when the gait resembled that of most monkeys, who walk, as a
tule, with the heel raised from the ground, only using the whole length of the sole
when resting or squatting. The phenomenon would, therefore, seem to admit of a
far more easy explanation under the theory of natural selection pure and simple
than under that of use-inheritance.

DEPARTMENT OF BorTAny.

1. On Pachytheca, By G. Murray.

2. On the Structure of Fossil Plants in its bearing on Modern Botanical
Questions. By Dr. D. H. Scort, FBS.

3. A Thames Bacillus. By Professor MarsHatt Warp, J.2.S.

4. On the Influence of Light on Diastase. By Professor J. R. GREEN.
5. A Contribution to the Geological History of Cycads. By A. C. SEwarD.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 699.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section—Captain W. J. L. Wuarron, R.N., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

You will not be surprised if, having called upon an hydrographer to preside over
this Section, he takes for the subject of his review the Sea. Less apparently
interesting, by reason of the uniformity of its surface, than the land which raises
itself above the level of the waters, and with which the term geography is more
generally associated, the ocean has, nevertheless, received much attention of late
years. In Great Britain, especially, which has so long rested its position among
the nations upon the wealth which our merchant fleets bring to its shores, and
upon the facilities which the sea affords for communication with our numerous
possessions all over the globe, investigation into the mysteries, whether of its ever-
moving surface or of its more hidden depths, has been particularly fascinating. I
purpose, therefore, to attempt a brief survey of our present knowledge of its
physical condition. :

The very bulk of the ocean, as compared with that of the visible land, gives it
an importance which is possessed by no other feature on the surface of our planet.
Mr, John Murray, after a laborious computation, has shown that its cubical extent
is probably about fourteen times that of the dry land. This statement appeals
strongly to the imagination, and forms, perhaps, the most powerful argument in
favour of the view, steadily gaining ground, that the great oceans have in the
main existed in the form in which we now see them since the constituents of the
earth settled down into their present condition.

When it is considered that the whole of the dry land would only fill up one-
third of the Atlantic Ocean, the enormous disproportion of the two great divisions
of land and sea becomes very apparent.

The most obvious phenomenon of the ocean is the constant horizontal move-
ment of its surface waters, which in many parts take well-defined directions.
These great ocean currents have now been studied for many years, and our know-
ledge of them is approaching a point beyond which it is doubtful whether we shall
ever much advance, except in small details. For though, while indisputably the
waters continually move in each great area in generally the same direction, the
velocities vary, the limits of the different streams and drifts vary, mainly from the
ever-varying force and direction of the winds.

After long hesitation and much argument, I think it may be now safely held
that the prime motor of the surface currents is the wind. Not, by any means, the
wind that may blow, and even persistently blow, over the portion of water that is
moving, more or less rapidly, in any direction, but the great winds which blow
generally from the same general quarter over vast areas, These, combined with
deflection from the land, settle the main surface circulation.

I do not know if any of my hearers may have seen a very remarkable model,

700 * '~“REPORT—1894,

devised by Mr. Clayden, in which water disposed over an area shaped like the
Atlantic, and sprinkled over with lycopodium dust to make movement apparent,
was subjected to air impelled from various nozzles, representing the mean direc-
tions of the permanent winds. It dispelled the last doubt I held on the subject, as
not only were the main currents reproduced, but the smaller effects and pecu-
liarities of the Atlantic drifts were produced with surprising accuracy.

There is a small current, long shown on our charts, but which I had always
regarded with suspicion. I refer to the stream which, after travelling from the
Arctic Ocean southward along the east coast of Greenland, turns sharply round
Cape Farewell to the northward into Davis Straits, where it again doubles sharply
on itself to the southward. ‘his is exhibited, in the model, in all its details, and
is evidently caused by the pressure of the water forced by the mimic Gulf Stream
into the Arctic region, where it has no escape except by this route, and is pressed
against the land, round which it turns as soon as it can. This is, no doubt, the
explanation of the real current.

The very remarkable winter equatorial current, which runs in a narrow belt
eastwards, just north of the main stream travelling west, was also reproduced with
extraordinary fidelity.

The winds, however, that are ordinarily considered permanent vary greatly,
while in the monsoon areas the reversal of the currents caused by the opposite winds
exercise a great influence on the movements of the water far beyond their own limits,
and anything like a prediction of the precise direction and rate of an oceanic stream
can never be expected.

The main facts, however, of the great currents can be most certainly and simply
explained in this manner.

The trade winds are the prime motors. They cause a surface drift of no great
velocity over large areas in the same general direction as that in which they blow.
These drifts after meeting and combining their forces eventually impinge on the
land.

They are diverted and concentrated and increase in speed. They either pour
through passages between islands, as into the Caribbean Sea, are pressed up by
the land, and escape by the only outlets possible—as, for example, the Strait of
Florida, and form a great ocean current like the Gulf Stream—or, as in the case of
the Agulhas current and the powerful stream which runs north along the Zanzibar
coast, they are simply pressed up against and diverted by the land, and run along it
with increased rapidity.

These rapid currents are eventually apparently lost in the oceans, but they in
their turn originate movements of a slower character, which on again passing over
shallow water or on meeting land develop once more into well-defined currents.

We find an analogous state of things on the western side of the Pacitic, where
the Japan current is produced in a similar manner.

The fact that on all western shores of the great oceans towards which the trade
winds blow we find the strongest currents running along the coast, is almost enough
of itself to prove the connection between them.

The westerly winds that prevail in higher northern and southern latitudes are
next in order in producing great currents. From the shape of the land they in
some cases take up and continue the circulation commenced by the trade winds; in
others they themselves originate great movements of the water.

Compared to the great circulation from this source the effect of differences of
temperature or of specific gravity is insignificant, though no doubt they play their
part, especially in causing slow under-circulation, and in a greater degree the
vertical mixing of the lower waters.

No drop of the ocean, even at its greatest depth, is ever for one moment at rest.

Dealing with minor points, the American officers of the Coast and Geodetic
Survey have found after long and patient investigation that the velocity of the Gulf
Stream in its initial and most marked part, the Strait of Florida, is greatly affected
by the tide, varying as much as one-half its maximum rate during the twenty-four
hours,

These American investigations are of greatest interest. They have extended over

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 701

the whole area of the Caribbean Sea and its approaches, the Gulf of Mexico, and the
Gulf Stream proper and its vicinity. In no other part of the ocean has observatior
of this detailed character been carried out, and they throw a great light om
oceanic circulation. The ‘ Blake,’ the vessel specially fitted for the purpose, has dur-
ing the several years in which she was employed on this work anchored in over
2,000 fathoms water, or a depth of considerably more than two miles ; a feat which
would a short time ago have been deemed impossible.

One great point that has come out very strongly is the continual variation in
the strength and direction of the currents, and the varying depths to which the
surface current extend.

Eastward of the chain of the Windward Islands the general depth of the sur-
face movement may be said to be about 100 fathoms, below which tidal influence
is very distinct.

There is also a very plain backward flow of water, at depths which vary,
caused by the submarine ridge which connects the Windward Chain of the West
Indian Islands. These observations also generally support what I have already
mentioned: that the velocity of a current depends on the strength of winds, pos-
sibly thousands of miles distant, which have given the original impetus to the
water, and this, combined with tidal action when the current approaches or runs
along a coast, will always cause uncertainty on the resultant velocity.

Dealing for yet another moment with the Gulf Stream, there are two points
which have not been much dwelt upon, but which have a great effect on its power
of bringing the modifying iniluence of its warm water as far as our shores.

The first is the prevention of its spreading, as it leaves the Strait of Florida,
by the pressure of the portion of the equatorial current which, unable to get
through the passages between the Windward Islands, is diverted to the north of
the Bahamas, and bears down on the eastward side of the Gulf Stream proper,
compressing it between itself and the cold water flowing southward along the
American coast, and at the same time adding to its forces and maintaining its
high temperature.

The second is that by the time the Gulf Stream has lost its velocity as a
current, in about the vicinity of the Banks of Newfoundland, it has arrived in the
region of the westerly winds, that is of winds whose average direction is from
west; whose influence, causing a surface drift somewhat comparable to that of the
trade winds, bears the water onward to the British Islands and Norway. Without
these prevailing westerly winds the warm water of the Gulf Stream would never
reach these shores.

The depth to which the surface currents extend in other parts is little known.
Direct observations on under-currents have been rare.

In the first place, it is not an easy observation to make. Apparatus has gene-
rally to be improvised. This has usually consisted of some form of flat surface
lowered to the required depth, and suspended in the water by a buoy, which
presents to the resistance of the upper stratum a very much smaller area than that
of the surface below.

More perfect machines have been devised, notably, that used by the Americans
in their West Indian experiments.

These, however, are delicate, and require so much care and experience in work-
ing, and so much time is wanted for such observations, that under the pressure of
the more urgent requirements on surface movements in the interests of navigation
very little has been done.

The ‘Challenger’ made some observations on the depth of the equatorial
current in mid-Atlantic, but they were not very conclusive for lack of suitable
appliances. They, however, tended to show that below 100 fathoms there was but
little current.

It has been calculated theoretically that winds blowing steadily in one direction
with the ordinary force of the trade winds would in 100,000 years by friction
between the particles put the whole of a mass of water 2,000 fathoms deep, not
otherwise influenced, into motion in that direction; but the direction and force of
the trade winds are ever changing, and the actual strong currents of the ocean are

702 REPORT—1894.

not in the trade wind areas, but are the result of these drifts meeting one another
and being compressed by the conformation of the land. We cannot, therefore,
expect this theoretical effect to be realised.

One instance of the underrunning of one current by another is brought very
plainly to our notice in the North Atlantic, to the east of the Great Bank of
Newfoundland, where the icebergs borne by the arctic current from Baffin Bay
pursue their course to the southward across the Gulf Stream running eastward.

These great masses of ice, floating with seven-eighths of their volume under the
surface, draw so much water that they are all but wholly influenced by the under-
current. A large berg will have its bottom as much as six or seven hundred feet
below the surface. The only reason that these bergs continue their journey south-
ward is the action of the cold under-current.

It was my good fortune to be ordered in 1872 to undertake a series of experi-
ments of the currents and under-currents of the Dardanelles and Bosporus, They
proved most interesting.

It was well known that a surface stream is almost continuously passing out of
the Black Sea through the Bosporus into the Sea of Marmara, and again through
the Dardanelles into the Mediterranean. Certain physicists, of whom Dr. W.
Carpenter was one, were, however, of opinion that a return current would be found
under the surface running in the opposite direction, and this I was enabled to
demonstrate.

Though from the imperfection of our apparatus, which we had to devise on the

spot, we were unable to exactly proportionate the quantities of water moving in the
two directions, we found, whenever the surface current was rushing south- westward
through these straits, that for a certain distance, from the bottom upwards, the
water was in rapid motion in the opposite direction. It was an astonishing sight
to behold the buoys which szpported a wooden framework of 36 square feet area,
lowered to depths from 100 to 240 feet, tearing up the straits against a strong surface
current of as much as three and four miles an hour. It was as perfect an ocular
demonstration of a counter under-current as could be wished, and the Turks, who
watched our proceedings with much ae eae were strongly of opinion that the
Devil had a hand in it, and only the exhibition of the Sultan’s firman saved us from
interruption. In the investigation of these currents we found, as usual, that the
wind was the most potent agent. Though the surface water from the Black Sea
is almost fresh, and the bottom water of the heavy Mediterranean density of 1:027,
it was found that when calm had prevailed the surface current slackened, and at
times became nil, whilst the under-current responded by a similar slackening.
’ The ordinary condition of wind in the regions of the Black Sea and Sea of
Marmara is that of a prevalent N.E. wind. This causes a heaping up of the water
on the south-west shores of those seas, precisely where the straits open, and the
surface water therefore rapidly escapes.

These straits no doubt present abnormal characters, but, so far as surface currents
are concerned, the long series of observations then made convinced me of the
inadequacy of differences of specific gravity, which were here at a maximum, to
cause any perceptible horizontal flow of water.

I have said that we were unable to define by direct observation the exact
position of the dividing line between the opposing currents, but the rapid change
in the specific gravity at a certain depth, which varied on different days, gave a
strong indication that the currents changed at this point.

A Russian officer, Captain Makaroff, afterwards made similar experiments in
the Bosporus. but with more perfect appliances, and he found that at the point
where the specific gravity changed the currents also changed.

TJ have been anxious to obtain similar observations at the Straits of Bab-el-
Mandeb, the southern outlet of the Red Sea, where somewhat similar conditions
prevail. Here the winds are governed by the monsoons. For half the year the
wind blows from the north down the whole length of the sea, causing a surface
flow outwards into the Gulf of Aden, and a general lowering of the whole level of
the sea of about two feet. For the other half of the year the wind at the southern
end of the sea is strong from the south-east, causing a surface set into the Red Sea,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 703

over: which the.general level of the water rises, while the northerly wind continues
to blow throughout the northern half.

At either of these times I think it is highly probable that there is an under-
current in the opposite direction to that at the surface, but unfortunately the sea
disturbance is great and observations are very difficult.

Observations were, however, made by Captain W. U. Moore in H.M.S.
‘ Penguin’ in 1890, but at a time when the change of monsoon was taking place.

The result was peculiar, for it appeared that at a depth of about 360 feet
the movement of the water was tidal, while the surface water was moving slowly
in one direction—a result generally similar to that obtained by the Americans in
the West Indies—but the direction of the tidal flow was directly opposite to what
might have been expected, viz., the water ran in while the tide fell, and vice versd.

More observations are, however, needed here before any certain conclusions can
be formed.

The depth of the ocean is the next great feature which demands attention.

On this our knowledge is steadily, though slowly, increasing.

The whole of it has been gained during the last fifty years.

Commenced by Sir James Ross, whose means were very small, but who never-
theless demonstrated that the so-called unfathomable ocean was certainly fathomable
everywhere, the sounding of the ocean has continuously proceeded. The needs of
submarine cables have constantly demanded knowledge in this particular, and the
different cable companies have had a large share in ascertaining the facts.

Expeditions, whose main object has been to obtain soundings, have been sent
out, Great Britain and the United States taking the first place ; but most maritime
nations have aided.

In the immediate past the additions have mainly been from the soundings
which H.M. surveying ships continually take whenever on passage from one
place to another, from the work of our cable companies, and from United States
vessels,

We have, as a result, a very fair general knowledge of the prevailing depths in
the Atlantic, but of the Indian and Pacific Oceans it is very fragmentary. We
have enough to give us a general idea, but our requirements increase as years
roll on. It isa vast task, and, it may be safely said, will never be completed ; for
we shall never be satisfied until we know the variations of level under the water
a3 well as we know those on the dry land.

It is hopeless to do more than to briefly sketch the amount of our knowledge.

First, as to the greatest depths known. It is very remarkable, and from a
geological point of view significant, that the very deepest parts of the ocean are
not in or near their centres, but in all cases are very near land.

One hundred and ten miles outside the Kurile Islands, which stretch from the
northern point of Japan to the north-east, the deepest sounding has been obtained
of 4,655 fathoms, or 27,930 feet. This appears to be in a deep depression, which
runs parallel to the Kurile Islands and Japan; but its extent is unknown, and
may be very large.

Seventy miles north of Porto Rico, in the West Indies, is the next deepest cast
known, viz., 4,561 fathoms, or 27,366 feet ; not far inferior to the Pacific depth, but
here the deep area must be comparatively small, as shallower soundinzs have
been made at distances sixty miles north and east of it.

A similar depression has been sounded during the last few years west of the
great range of the Andes, at a distance of fifty miles from the coast of Peru, where
the greatest depth is 4,175 fathoms.

Other isolated depths of over 4,000 fathoms have been sounded in the Pacific.
One between the Tonga or Friendly Islands of 4,500 fathoms, one of 4,478 fathoms
near the Ladrones, and another of 4,428 fathoms near Pylstaart Island, all in the
Western Pacific. They all require further investigation to determine their extent.

With these few exceptions, the depth of the oceans, so far as yet known, nowhere
comes up to 4,000 fathoms, or four sea miles; but there can be little doubt that
other similar hollows are yet to be found.

The sea with the greatest mean depth appears to be the vast Pacific, which

704 REPORT—1894.

covers 67 millions of the 188 millions of square miles composing the earth’s
surface,

Of these 188 millions, 137 millions are sea, so that the Pacific comprises just
one-half of the water of the globe, and more than one-third of its whole area.

The Northern Pacific has been estimated by Mr. John Murray to have a mean
depth of over 2,500 fathoms, while the Southern Pacific is credited with a little
under 2,400 fathoms. These figures are based on a number of soundings which
cannot be designated otherwise than very sparse.

To give an idea of what remains to be done, I will mention that in the eastern
part of the Central Pacific there is an area of 10,500,000 square miles in which
there are only seven soundings, whilst in a long strip crossing the whole North
Pacific, which has an area of 2,800,000 square miles, there is no sounding at all.
Nevertheless, while the approximate mean depth I am mentioning may be con-
siderably altered as knowledge increases, we know enough to say that the Pacific is
generally deeper than the other oceans. The immensity, both in bulk and area, of
this great mass of water, is difficult to realise; but it may assist us when we realise
that the whole of the land on the globe above water level, if shovelled into the
Pacific, would only fill one-seventh of it.

The Indian Ocean, with an area of 25,000,000 square miles, has a mean depth,
according to Mr. Murray, of a little over 2,000 fathoms. This also is estimated
from a very insufficient number of soundings.

The Atlantic, by far the best sounded ocean, has an area of 31,000,000 square
miles, with a mean depth of about 2,200 fathoms,

The temperature of this huge mass of water is an interesting point.

The temperature of the surface is most important to us, as it is largely on it
that the climates of the different parts of the world depend. Thisiscomparatively
easy to ascertain. We know so much about it that we are not likely to improve
on it for many years. We are quite able to understand why countries in the same
latitude differ so widely in their respective mean temperatures ; why fogs prevail in
certain localities more than others; and how it comes about that others are subject
to tempestuous storms,

On the latter point nothing has come out plainer from recent discussion than
the fact that areas where great differences of surface temperature of the sea
prevail are those in which storms are generated.

It is a matter of observation that in the region south of Nova Scotia and New-
foundland many of the storms which travel over the Atlantic to this country have
their rise.

An examination of surface temperature shows that in this region the variations
are excessive, not only from the juxtaposition of the warm water of the Gulf
Stream and the cold water of the Arctic current flowing southward inside of it,
but in the Gulf Stream itself, which is composed of streaks of warm and colder water,
between which differences of as much as 20° Fahr, exist.

The same conditions exist south of the Cape of Good Hope, another well-known
birthplace of storms. Here the Agulhas current of about 70° Fahr. diverted by
the land pours into the mass of water to the southward, colder by some 25°, and
the meeting-place is well known as most tempestuous.

South-east of the Rio de la Plata is another stormy area, and here we find the
same abnormal variations in surface temperature.

Yet another is found off the north-east coast of Japan with the same conditions.

These differences are brought about by the mingling of water carried either by
the flowing of a powerful current turned by the land into a mass of water of
different temperature, as is the case off the Cape of Good Hope, or by the
uprising of lower strata of cooler water through a shallow surface stream, as
appears to be the case in the Gulf Stream,

A remarkable point recently brought to light by the researches of Mr. John
Murray in Scotch lochs is the effect of wind on the surface temperature. It has
been observed that wind driving off a shore drifts the surface water before it.
This water is replaced by the readiest means, that is to say, by water from below
the surface rising to take its place. As the lower strata are in all cases cooler
than the surface, a lowering of the temperature results, and we find, in fact, that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 705

near all sea-shores off which a steady wind blows the water is cooler than further
to seaward,

This has an important bearing on coral growth, and explains why on all
western coasts of the great continents off which the trade winds blow we find an
almost absolute dearth of coral, while on the eastern coasts, on which warm currents
impinge, reefs abound, the coral animal flourishing only in water above a certain
temperature.

Observations of the temperature of the strata of water between the surface and
bottom have been of late years obtained in many parts. Compared with the area
of the oceans they are but few, but our knowledge steadily increases every year.

The subject of the vertical distribution of temperature has not yet been
thoroughly investigated in the light of the whole of the information which we now
possess, but Dr. Alex. Buchan has been for some time devoting his spare time to
the task, and it is a heavy labour, for the data obtained here and there over the
world by different ships of all maritime nations are very difficult to collect and to
appraise, but I understand that before long we shall have the result, which will
prove very interesting, in the last volume of the ‘ Challenger’ series.

It will readily be understood that observations on temperatures at great depths
require great care. In the first place the thermometers must be most carefully
manufactured. They must be subjected to rigorous tests, and they must be care-
fully handled during the operation. All observations are not of the same value,
and the discussion, therefore, presents considerable difficulty and demands much
discretion.

In the meantime we can state certain known facts.

We have learnt that the depth of the warm surface water is small.

In the equatorial current between Africa and South America, where the surface
is of a temperature of 78°, at 100 fathoms it is only 55°, a difference of 23°, and a
temperature of 40° is reached at 400 fathoms. In this region, so far as knowledge
goes, the fall in temperature as we descend is most rapid, but generally speaking
the same variations prevail everywhere.

In the tropical Pacific the temperature falls 32° from the surface, where it
stands at 82°, to a depth of 200 fathoms, 40° being reached at from 500 to 600
fathoms below the surface.

Below the general depth of from 400 to 600 fathoms, the temperature decreases
very slowly, but there is considerable variation in the absolute amount of it when
we get to great depths in different parts of the ocean.

One of the most interesting facts that has been recognised is that in enclosed
hollows of the ocean the bottom temperature is apparently much less than that
of the stratum of water at a corresponding depth in the waters outside the sub-
marine ridge that forms the enclosing walls, separating them from deeper areas
beyond, and is, in all cases that have been observed, equal to that on the ridge.
From this fact we are enabled to supplement our imperfect knowledge of depths,
because if in a certain part of an ocean we find that the temperature at great
depths is higher than we know exists at similar depths in waters apparently con-
nected, we can feel certain that there is a submarine ridge which cuts off the
bottom waters from moving along, and that the depth on this ridge is that at
which is found the corresponding temperature in the outer waters. As a corollary
we also assume that the movement of water at great depths is confined to an
almost imperceptible movement, for if there was a motion that we could term, in
the ordinary acceptation of the word, a current, it would infallibly surmount a
ridge and pour over the other side, carrying its lower temperature with it.

A notable instance is the bottom temperature of the North Atlantic. This is
nowhere below 35° F., although the depths are very great. But in the South
Atlantic at a depth of only 2,800 fathoms the bottom temperature is but a little
above 32° F., and we are therefore convinced that somewhere between Africa
and South America, though soundings do not yet show it, there must be a ridge
at a depth of about 2,000 fathoms.

We also come to the same conclusion with regard to the eastern and western
of the South Atlantic, where similar differences prevail,

1894. ZZ

706 REPORT—1894.

Again, the few temperatures that have been obtained in the eastern South
Pacific show a considerable difference from those in the South Atlantic, and we
are compelled to assume a ridge from the Falkland Islands to the Antarctic
continent.

It is interesting that the investigation into the translation of the great seismic
wave caused by the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 led to a similar and entirely
independent conclusion. The wave caused by the explosion in the Straits of Sunda
reached Cape Horn, where by good chance a French meteorological expedition had
erected an automatic tide gauge, but instead of one series of waves being marked
on the paper there were two. A little consideration showed that the South Pole
having directly interposed between Sunda Straits and Cape Horn, the waves
diverted by the land about the pole would arrive from both sides.

One wave, however, made its appearance seven hours before the other.

Study showed that the earliest wave coincided in time with a wave travelling
on the Pacific side of the pole, with a velocity due to the known depth, while the
later wave must have been retarded in its journey vid the South Atlantic. The
only possible explanation is that the wave had been impeded by comparatively
shallow water.

The evidence from bottom temperature was then unknown, and thus does one
branch of investigation aid another.

In the Western Pacific the water is colder, a few bottom temperatures of a
little over 83° F. having been found in the deep trough east of the Tonga Islands;
but the North Pacific, though the deeper ocean—of enormous area and volume—
is apparently again cut off by a submarine ridge. The north-western part of the
Indian Ocean is for similar reasons assumed to be divided from the main body, the
shallower water probably running from the Seychelles to the Maldive Islands.

Mr. Buchanan has pointed out why some parts of oceans, deep and vast though
they be, are when cut off from communication with others warmer at the bottom.

‘Water can only sink through lower layers when it is the heavier, and though
a warm surface current becomes from evaporation denser, its heat makes it specili-
cally lighter than the strata below.

It is only when such a current parts gradually with its heat, as in travelling
from tropical to temperate regions, that it sinks and slowly but surely carries
its temperature with it, modifying the extreme natural cold of the bottom layers.

In the North Atlantic and Pacific we have such a condition. The great
currents of the Gulf Stream and Japan current as they flow to the north sink, and
in the course of ages have succeeded in raising the bottom temperature three or
four degrees.

In the Southern Seas this influence is not at work, and, directly connected with
the more open water round the South Pole, there is nothingto carry to the abysmal
depths any heat to raise them from their normal low temperatures, due to the
absence of any heating influence.

The ice masses round the South Pole have probably little or no effect on bottom
temperature, as the fresher, though colder, water will not sink; and, as a matter
of fact, warmer water is found at a few hundred fathoms than at the surface.

The lowest temperature ever obtained was by Sir John Ross in the Arctic
Ocean in Davis Straits at a depth of 680 fathoms, when he recorded a reading of
25° F. This probably requires confirmation, as thermometers of those days were
somewhat imperfect.

Tn the great oceans the greatest cold is found on the western side of the South
Atlantic, where the thermometer stands at 32°-3 F., but temperatures of 29° F. have
been obtained of recent years east of the Feroe Islands, north of the ridge which
cuts off the deeper waters of the Arctic from the Atlantic.

Though scarcely within the limits of my subject, which is the sea itself, I must,
say a few words on the sea floor.

The researches carried on in the ‘ Challenger’ revealed that while for a certain
distance from the continents the bottom is composed of terrestrial detritus, every-
where in deep water it is mainly composed of the skeletons or remains of skeletons
of the minute animals that have lived in the water.

——_

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 707

In comparatively small depths we find remains of many shells, As the depth
increases to 500 fathoms or so we get mainly the calcareous shells of the globi-
gerinze which may be said to form by far the greater part of the oceanic floor.

In deeper water still, where pressure, combined with the action of the carbonic
acid, has dissolved all calcareous matter, we find an impalpable mud with skeletons
of the silicious radiolaria of countless forms of the greatest beauty and complexity.
Deeper still, z.e., in water of—speaking generally—over 3,000 fathoms, we find a
reddish-coloured clayey mud, in which the only traces of recognisable organic
remains are teeth of sharks and cetacea, many belonging to extinct species.

What the depths of these deposits may be is a subject of speculation. It may
be that some day, as mechanical appliances are improved, we shall find means of
boring, but up to the present no such operation has been attempted.

On the specific gravity of the water of the sea I can say but little except that
it varies considerably.

It is not yet known for certainty how far the specific gravities observed at
various points and depths remain appreciably constant.

In localities where evaporation is great, and other influences do not interfere,
it is evident that the specific gravity of the surface will be high—a consideration
which observations confirm ; but there are many complications which require more
observation before they can be resolved.

In some few places repeated observations permit deductions, but taking the sea
as a whole we are yet very ignorant of the facts bearing on this point.

The waves which for ever disturb the surface of the sea demand much
study.

The greatest of these, and the most regular, is the tidal wave. On this many
powerful intellects have been brought to bear, but it still presents many unsolved
anomalies.

Lord Kelvin and Professor Darwin have demonstrated that the tidal movement
is made up of many waves depending upon different functions of the moon and
sun, some being semi-diurnal, some diurnal. The time of transit over the meridian,
the declination of both bodies, create great variations; the changing distance and
position of the moon and the position of her node, also have great ettect, while the
ever-varying direction and force of the winds, and the different pressure of the
atmosphere play their part, and sometimes a very large part, on what is somewhat
loosely known as the meteorological tide.

The amplitude of the oscillation of the water depending upon each of the
astronomical functions varying for every point on the earth, the etfect is that, each
having a different period, the resulting mean movement of the water has most
astonishing variations.

In some places there is but one apparent tide in the day ; in others this pheno-
menon only occurs at particular periods of each lunation, while in the majority of
cases it is the movements of each alternate tide only that appear to have much to
do with one another.

Though after long observation made of the times and ranges of tides at any
one spot they can now be predicted with great accuracy, for that particular place,
by the method of harmonic analysis perfected by Professor G. Darwin, the meteoro-
logical tide excepted, no one can yet say what the tide will be at any spot where
observations haye not been made

Observations all over the world have now shown that there is no part where
the tidal movement is so regular and simple as around the British Islands. This is
more remarkable when it is found that the tides on the other side of the Atlantic
—at Nova Scotia, for instance—are very complicated.

The minor tides, which in most parts of the world, when combined in one
direction, amount to a very considerable fraction of the principal lunar and solar
tides, and consequently greatly increase or diminish their effects, are in Great
Britain so insignificant that their influence is trifling; but why this should be I
have never yet found anyone to explain.

Nevertheless there are many very curious points about our tides which are
plainly caused by interference, or, in other words, by the meeting of two tidal

ZZ2

708 REPORT—1894.

waves arriving from opposite directions, or from the rebound of the tidal waves
from other coasts.

This effect, also, it has been so far found impossible to predict without observa-
tion. On our southern coasts, for instance; in the western part the tide rises about
15 feet, but as it travels eastward the range becomes less and less until, about
Poole, it reaches a minimum of 6 feet. Farther east again it increases to Hastings,
where the range is 24 feet. Yet farther east it again gradually diminishes. This
is due to the reflection from the French coast, which brings another wave which
either superposes itself upon, or reduces the effect of, the main tide advancing up
the English Channel; but the details of such reflection are so complex that no
one could forecast them without more knowledge than we possess.

There can be little doubt that to this cause, reflection, is mainly due the
variations in the amount of mean range of tide which are found on many coasts
at different parts; and as these reflected waves may arrive from great distances,
and be many in number, we may cease to wonder at the extraordinary differences
in range of tide which prevail, though it will be understood that this is wholly
separate from the varying heights of each successive tide, or of the tide at
different parts of each lunation, or at different times of the year, which depend
upon the astronomical influences.

The actual height of the tide in deep water is small, but on passing into shallow
water when approaching a shore, and especially when rolling up a gulf of more er
less funnel shape, it becomes increased by the retardation caused by friction, and
by compression laterally, and hence the height of the tide on a coast affected by
other causes is greater than in the open sea.

The oceanic tide wave is supposed to be from 2 to 3 feet in height, but as this
has been assumed from observations made at small oceanic islands where, although
the magnifying influences mentioned are at a minimum, they still exist, we wait
for. precise information until some means of actually measuring the tide in deep
water is devised.

The waves due to wind, though not so far-reaching in their effects as the
majestic march of the tide wave, are phenomena which are more apparent to the
traveller on the ocean.

The deep sea in a heavy gale presents, perhaps, the most impressive manifesta-
tion of the powers of Nature which man can behold, and doubtless many of us
have experienced feelings that may vary from awe and wonder to sheer delight,
according to the temperament of each individual, at for the first time finding himself
face to face with this magnificent sight, though I rather fear that discomfort is the
prevailing feeling that many carry away.

The height to which storm waves may rise has never been very satisfactorily
determined. Apart from the difficulty of the task and the small number of people
who will address themselves to it when they have the chance, it is but rarely that
any individual sees really abnormal waves, even though he may be at sea all his
life.

Different heights for what are called maximum waves have been recorded, and
they vary from 40 to 90 feet from crest to hollow.

‘All we can say is that the most probable figure is about 50 or 60 feet.

These great storm waves travel very far. In some cases they convey a warning,
as their velocity always far exceeds that at which the storm is travelling. In others
they intimate that a gale of which no more is seen has occurred somewhere—it may
‘be many miles distant.

When they have travelled beyond the limits of the wind which raised them,
they lose the steepness of slope which characterises them when under its influence,
.and become an undulation which is scarcely noticed when ia deep water,

On approaching shallow water, however, they are again apparent, and the
‘ yollers’ that occur unperiodically at various places in latitudes where gales never
occur would seem to be caused by such waves, originating in areas many thousands
of miles distant. Such appears to be the origin of the well-known rollers at
Ascension and St. Helena, where the rocky and exposed nature of the landing has
caused this phenomenon to be especially noticed.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 709

Other rollers are, however, undoubtedly due to earthquakes or voleanie erup-
tions occurring in the bed of the sea.

Many of the great and sudden waves which have caused devastation and great
loss of life on the shores of western South America are referable to this cause.

Observations to enable the focus of such a disturbance to be traced have
generally been lacking, but it is probable that where the wave has been large the
point of origin has not been far distant.

In one notable instance the conditions were reversed. The point of origin was
known, and the distance to which the resulting wave travelled could be fairly
satisfactorily traced.

This was the great eruption in the Straits of Sunda, in August 1883, which
locally resulted in the disappearance of the major part of the island of Krakatoa,
and the loss of nearly 40,000 lives, on the neighbouring shores of Java and Sumatra,
by the huge wave which devastated them.

The records of automatic tide gauges and the observations of individuals
enabled the waves emanating from this disturbance to be followed to great dis-
tances, These waves were of great length, the crests arriving at intervals of about
an hour, and moving with a velocity of about 350 miles an hour, were about that
distance apart.

The waves recorded at Cape Horn were apparently undoubtedly due to the
eruption, and travelled distances of 7,500 miles and 7,800 miles in their course on
either side of the south polar land.

They were only 5 inches in height above mean level of the sea, while the waves
recorded at places on the southern part of Africa, at a distance of about 5,000
miles from the scene of the eruption, were from 1 to 2 feet high, the original long
waves being of an unknown height, but probably did not exceed 10 or 16 feet.

No other such opportunity of testing the distances to which great waves may
travel has ever occurred, and as such a catastrophe as gave rise to them could
scarcely be repeated without similar loss of life, it may be hoped we shall not live
to see another, interesting though the discussion of the numerous phenomena were.

The movement of the particles of water due to the tide wave extends to the
bottom of the deepest water, and doubtless plays an important part in keeping up
a constant motion in the abysses, but the depth to which the action of the surface
waves originating in wind reach is still but little known by observation.

If, however, we study the contour of the bottom off the shores of land exposed to
the full influence of the great oceans, we are struck by the very general rapid
increase of slope after a depth of about 80 to 100 fathoms (500 to 600 feet) has
been reached.

It appears probable that this is connected with the depth to which wave
action may extend, the fine particles brought down by rivers or washed from
the land by the attrition of the breakers being distributed and gradually moved
down the slope.

When we examine banks in the open sea we find, however, that there are a
great many with a general depth of from 30 to 40 fathoms, and the question
arises whether this may vot be the general limit of the power of oceanic waves to
cut down the mass acted upon when it is fairly friable.

The question has an interesting bearing on the subject of the ever-debated
origin of coral atolls, for this is the general depth of many large lagoons; and
granted that the sea can cut down land to this depth, we have at once an
approach to the solution of the problem of the formation of bases of a suitable
depth and material upon which the coral animal can commence operations.

This question also awaits more light, and I merely offer this remark as a
suggestion.

It is, however, somewhat remarkable that in recent cases of voleanic islands piled
up by submarine eruptions, they have all been more or less rapidly washed away,
and are in process of further diminution under the surface.

Observations on the mean level of the sea show that it constantly varies, in
some places more than others.

This subject has not yet been worked out.

710 REPORT—1894.

In some localities it is plainly due to wind, as in the Red Sea, where the
summer level is some two feet below that of winter, owing to the fact that in
summer the wind blows down the whole length of the sea, and drives the
water out.

In many places, as in the great estuary of the Rio de la Plata, the level is
constantly varying with the direction of the winds, and the fluctuation due to this
cause is greatly in excess of the tidal action.

In others the cause is not so clear.

At Sydney, New South Wales, Mr. Russell found that during eleven years the
level was constantly falling at about an inch a year, but by the last accounts
received it was again stationary.

The variations in the pressure of the atmosphere play an important part in
changes of sea level.

A difference of one inch in the barometer has been shown to be followed by a
difference of a foot in the mean level of the sea, and in parts of the world where
the mean height of the barometer varies much with the seasons, and the tidal
range is small, this effect is very marked.

Of any secular change in the level of the sea little is known. This can only
be measured by comparison with the land, and it is a question which is the more
unstable, the land or the water—probably the land, as it has been shown that
the mass of the land is so trifling, compared with that of the ocean, that it would
take a great deal to alter the general mean level of the latter.

All the points connected with the sea that I have had the honour of bringing
before you form part of the daily observation of the marine surveyor when he has
the chance; but I cannot refrain from also mentioning other duties, which are
indeed in the present state of our knowledge and of the practical requirements
of navigation the principal points to which he has to pay attention, as it may
explain why our knowledge on so many interesting details still remains very
imperfect.

Working as we do in the interests of the vast marine of Great Britain, the
paramount necessity of good navigational charts requires that the production of
such charts should be our principal aim.

It is difficult for a landsman and difficult even for a sailor who has never
done such work to realise the time that is necessary to make a really complete
marine survey. ‘The most important part, the ascertainment of the depth,
is done, so to speak, in the dark—that is to say, it is by touch and not by
sight that we have to find the different elevations and depressions of the bottom
of the sea.

In making a map of the land an isolated rock or hill stands up like a beacon
above the surrounding land, and is at once localised and marked, but a similar
object under the sea can only be found by patient and long-continued sounding,
and may very easily be missed.

When it is considered that marine surveying has only been seriously under-
taken for about 100 years, with a very limited number of vessels, we shall, I
think, understand how in the vast area of the waters, taking only those bordering
the shores, many unsuspected dangers are yearly discovered.

Very, very few coasts have been minutely surveyed, and, setting aside for a
moment the great changes that take place off shores where sandbanls prevail,
I should be sorry to say that even on our own coasts charts are perfect.

Yearly around Great Britain previously unknown rocks come to light, and if
this is the case at home, what are we to think of the condition of charts of less
known localities !

Our main efforts, therefore, are directed to the improvement of charts for safe
navigation, and the time that can be spared to the elucidation of purely scientific
problems is limited.

Nevertheless, the daily work of the surveyor is so intimately connected with
these scientific problems that year by year, slowly but surely, we add to the accu-
mulation of our knowledge of the sea.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E£. 711

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Current Polar Exploration. By Col. H. W. Feixpen,!

2. On a Recent Journey in the Valley of the Euphrates.
By D. G. Hocarru.

This journey was undertaken for archeological reasons in order to see whether
remains of Roman frontier works exist on the right bank of the Euphrates in a state
of preservation similar to that of Severus’s road to Melitene, explored by Messrs.
Hogarth and Munro in 1891. Mr. Hogarth’s party consisted of Messrs. V. W.
Yorke and F. W. Green and Lord Encombe.

‘The great river Euphrates’ was seen first at Khalfat. Here and for 300 miles
up it can be crossed only by ferry boats of singularly rude construction; and the
process of crossing with horses in such craft is exciting. The upper course of the
river is rarely navigated and only by skin-rafts and swimmers on skins partly filled
with grain. The depth and precipitousness of its gorge cause the Euphrates to be
a serious barrier, and no road can long follow either bank. From Khalfat to
Samsat the party had to cut off a bend, passing through villages of settled Kurds,
tamed by the possession of agricultural wealth, and imbued through contact with
Arabs and Syrians with orthodox Islam. Above Samsat the gorge soon becomes
impassable, and dangerous rapids begin. The party made straight across Taurus,
meeting great difficulties from narrow paths on precipices and soft snow. Descend-
ing near Malatia they made their way past the junction of the northern and eastern.
forks, about whose names and respective claim to be the main stream there seems
much error in maps. The natives call the northern fork Murad, not Kara Su, and
consider it the main river. The name frat is known, but little used. North of the
junction, where the Kurdish mountains hang over the left bank, the scenery is
very grand indeed. The party continued to follow the river up to Erzingan.

The Kurds here are heretical and wilder than in the south. The Armenians
are less servile than ordinary, but, being alive to the religious, social, and geo-
graphical difficulties in the way of independence, would gladly be left alone by
agitators. There is little evidence of wanton oppression, least for religion’s sake.
Lessis heard in the country than out of it of Kurdish tyranny. Armenians are well
off in many respects, better in some than poor Moslems. Their condition is not
improved, but the reverse, by irresponsible and otiose expressions of sympathy in
Europe. Geographical considerations go far to preclude Armenia from becoming
again a nation. Legionary camps were found at Samosata and Satala, but none at
Melitene. A magnificent Roman bridge exists near Kiakhta and ruins of others,
but no milestones or roadway connecting frontier forts, two of which were dis-
covered. The reported walls along the bank south of Taurus were found to consist
of ruins of an aqueduct. The river itself formed the most impassable of frontiers :
it might well have seemed that the angel's vial must be poured out on the great
river Euphrates, and the waters thereof dried up ere the way of the kings of the
East could be prepared.

3. On Russian Armenia. By Dr. A. MarKorr.?

4. Montenegro. By W. H. Cozens-Harpy.

Montenegro, since the Berlin treaty, has nearly doubled in area. The old
Montenegro, which lies near the sea, is made up of bare limestone mountains en-
closing fertile basins, the average height of the country above the sea being 2,000
to 3,009 feet. The Zeta, flowing into the Lake of Scutari, is the chief river, but
this part of the country is almost destitute of water, and the inhabitants are com-
pelled to store snow for drinking. The small village of Cetinje, which forms the

' Scot. Geog. Mag., 1894, p. 465. ® Ibid. p. 469.

712 REPORT—1 894.

capital, lies in one of the mountain basins. In July 1893 the Montenegrins cele-
brated there the 400th anniversary of the establishment of the earliest Slavonic
printing press, set up not far from Cetinje in 1493.

In the new Montenegro to the north and west the geographical characteristics
are quite distinct. Grassy downs, dense forests, and innumerable mountain streams
are found, and there is excellent pasture for sheep. The two highest mountains
are Kom and Durmitor, which are slightly under 9,000 feet high.

The Montenegrins are divided into clans and communes, and possess an elabo-
rate system of local government. At present Montenegro is emerging from an
Homeric state of society, and its future depends on the ability of its people to
adapt themselves to less warlike pursuits.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Bathymetrical Survey of the French Lakes.
By EH. DELEBECQUE.

As the result of the author’s soundings in most of the French lakes, he has
produced a series of sheets, published in 1892 and 1893 by the Ministére des
Travaux Publics, under the title ‘ Atlas des Lacs Francais.’ The soundings were
in every case made by means of a steel wire mounted on a graduated drum, the
revolutions of which indicated the amount of wire payed out. The form of appa-
ratus at first used was that of the Swiss Bureau Topographique, subsequently that
of Belloc was employed, but finally one designed by the author and only weighing
4 kilogrammes was adopted. The position of each sounding was determined, either
from angular measurements of the graduated mast of the boat taken from the
shore, or by sextant bearings of objects on shore taken from the boat. A number
of lakes have been sounded more roughly than those laid down in the atlas, and
many observations of temperature and of the chemical composition of the water
have been made.

‘The atlas, which will be completed hy the addition of maps of several lakes
in the Jura and the Pyrenees, is only a part of a comprehensive work about to be
peas by the author. The lakes already mapped in the atlas are arranged as
tollows :—

Pl. 1. Lake of Geneva (the Swiss part sounded by M. Hérnliman, of the
Bureau Topographique Fédéral) on the scale 5455.

Pl. 2. Lake of Bourget, scale 35455-

Pl. 3. Lake of Annecy, scale z5455.

Pl. 4. Lake of Aiguebelette (Savoy), scale zy455-

Pl. 5, Lake of Paladru (Isére), scale +5455:

Pl. 6. Lakes of Brenets, St. Point, Romoray, and Malpas (Doubs), scale z5255-

Pl. 7. Lakes of Nantua, Sylans, and Genin (Ain), scale z5455.

Pl. 8. Lakes of Chalain, Dessus, Dessous, Marlay, La Motte, Grand Maclu, and
Petit Maclu (Jura), scale zz455- -

Pl. 9. Lakes of Saffrey and Petit Chat (Isére) and of La Girotte (Savoy),
scale r5455-

Pl. 10, Lakes of Issarlés (Ardéche), Bouchet (Haute-Loire), Pavin, Chauvet,
Godivelle, and Tazanat (Puy-de-Déme), scale +5455:

In all cases the configuration of the lakes is expressed by contour lines at
intervals of 5 or 10 metres, and the position of each sounding is shown by a dot.
It was impossible to add the land contours on the same scale, as the French staff-
maps do not show them with sufficient exactness.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 713

2. On a Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes.
By Hueu Rosert Mitt, D.Se., F.RSL.

Ten of the largest English lakes were sounded by the author, assisted by Mr.
E. Heawood, Mr. Shields, and others, and the final discussion of the work enables
the following tabular statement to be drawn up :—

Breadth, Yards Depth, Feet Area, | Volume,
Name eee ss Square | Million
e Max. | Average| Max. | Average} Miles |CubicFeet

Windermere .| 10°50 1,610 950 219 783 5:69 | 12,250

Ullswater . “ 7°35 1,100 827 205 83 | 344 7,870 »
Wastwater - 3 00 880 650 258 1343 112 4,128
Coniston . ; 5-41 870 600 184 79 1:89 4,000
Crummock ‘ 2°50 1,000 700 144 874 0:97 2,343
Ennerdale E 2°40 1,000 800 148 62 1:12 1,978
Bassenthwaite . 3°83 1,300 950 70 18 2-06 1,023
Derwentwater . 2°87 2,131 1,270 72 18 2°06 1,010
Haweswater . 2°33 600 405 103 394 0-54 589
Buttermere. 1:26 670 620 94 543 0°36 537

There are two main types amongst these lakes, the shallow and the deep. The
former, including only Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, are the broadest of all
the lakes, and they only average 18 feet indepth. The bed of these lakes may be
roughly described as an undulating plain, grooved and ridged into shallow hollows,
and low shoals running parallel to the long axis of the lake.

The second, or deep type, the shallowest of which has an average depth of
40 feet, comprises all the other lakes. Ennerdale combines the characteristics of
both types, conforming to the deep type in its upper, to the shallow in its lower
reach. They are long, narrow, sometimes winding like Uliswater, or slightly
curved in outline like Wastwater and Haweswater. The most characteristic lie in
long narrow valleys with steeply sloping sides, and the slopes are continued under
water with almost equal steepness, in some cases with greater steepness, and termi-
nate in an almost flat floor. The typical form of this class of lake is thus a steep-
sided flat-bottomed trough, diversified along the slopes by the still steeper conical.
mounds of débris thrown down at the mouths of streams.

3. On the Currents of the Faerie-Shetland Channel and the North Sea.'
By H. N. Dickson, £.2.S.L.

The physical observations made by the author on board H.M.S. ‘ Jackal,’ om
behalf of the Fishery Board for Scotland, during August 1893,? were continued in
November 1893, and in February and May 1894. The unusual atmospheric con-
ditions during the year 1893 probably made the differences of temperature observed.
greater than the normal, and those of salinity less, at least during the earlier part
of the work. The discussion of the observations leads to the following provisional
conclusions :—

1. While the Atlantic current flowing over the Wyville-Thomson ridge attains
its maximum velocity in winter, its speed is maintained during summer by the
gieater warmth of the upper layers of water in the Atlantic, and consequent higher
level of the surface of that ocean compared with the Norwegian Sea. Passing
over the ridge, the Atlantic current is cooled by mixture with the cold water of

? The paper is published in the Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, 1894.
2 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1893, p. 835.

714 REPORT—1894,

the Norwegian Sea lying at the bottom of the Faerde-Shetland Channel, and loses
its horizontal motion. The warmer the Atlantic current, the more rapidly does
this mixture take place. Hence in a hot, windless summer a mass of Atlantic
water, extending to a great depth, tends to collect on the northern and north-
western edge of the North Sea bank.

2. At all seasons Atlantic water is drawn from the Faerée-Shetland Channel
and forced into the North Sea by the tides between Orkney and Shetland. The
tidal streams run N.W. and S.E., and an eddy is formed to the north-west of the
Orkneys, into which North Sea water is drawn, and perhaps also water from
below.

3. As the season advances the surface water of the North Sea becomes warmer,
the upper layers probably receive smaller supplies of fresh water, but they become
specifically lighter than the under layers, which they protect from the warming
influences of the atmosphere. The upper layers becoming ultimately warmer
than the Atlantic current, the surface of the North Sea becomes higher, and the
surface water spreads outwards into the Faerée-Shetland Channel, checking the
surface supply of Atlantic water.

Meanwhile, the mass of Atlantic water, collecting at the edge of the North Sea
Bank, seeks entrance into the North Sea. Mixing with the cold bottom water
already there, it increases its salinity, but reduces its specific gravity by warming
it, and, at a certain stage of mixture, the temperatures and salinities of the two
waters combine to form a ridge or axis of maximum specific gravity. This axis,
which probably runs N.E. from Shetland in the end of May or in June, turns
slowly toward a N. to 8. direction, and moves eastward. As it retreats, Atlantic
water is gradually admitted round the north end of the Shetlands, passes down
the east side of the groups, joins the tidal stream at the south end, and, guided by
the axis of heavy water, is distributed along the east coast of Scotland, probably
during July and August. Later in the summer, as the axis retreats still further,
the Atlantic water is probably distributed more towards the eastward, perhaps
until the latter part of September, when the diminishing supply from the Faerée
Channel, and the increasing outflow from the eastern side of the North Sea, bring
about a gradual return to the conditions with which we started.

Obviously the controlling conditions are complex, but it appears that the greater
the winter cold and the spring supply of ice-cold water from the continent, the
more slowly will Atlantic water penetrate into the North Sea below the surface ;
and the warmer the summer, the more will the surface supply be checked. At the
same time, the warmer the summer the larger the quantity of Atlantic water

seeking admission, and the greater its thermal power to drive back the axis of
maximum weight.

4, On Geographical Photography. By JouHn Tomson.

The paper dealt with the difficulties experienced by travellers in the use of
photography as an aid to exploration. The purposes of photography referred to
did not include surveying, but merely the production of pictures showing ethno-
graphic types, characteristic scenery from the geographical rather than the artistic
point of view, and the details of artificial structures.

The necessity of proper training in the principles as well as the practical
methods of photography was insisted on. Practical hints were given for the pre-
servation and use of dry-plates, and for the successful development of negatives in
tropical countries.

A series of travellers’ photographs illustrating the excellences and the defects
of such work was shown by the lantern.

fed 4

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 71

5. A New Light on the Discovery of America.
By H. Youre Oxrpuay, I.A., FRG.

The development of America has had such a vital effect on the British Isles—
removing them from an obscure situation on the outskirts of the known world to
their true geographical position as the centre of the land masses of the globe—that
everything relating to its discovery is of exceptional interest.

It is now well known that Columbus’s famous voyage in a.p, 1492 opened the
way to the settlement of the New World. It is not so well known that it had
been visited before his time.

j A glance at the map of the Atlantic Ocean will show the three easiest points
of access.

(1) North America, by means of the convenient stepping-stones, Iceland and
Greenland.

(2) Central America, with the help of the steady N.E, trade-winds.

(83) Brazil, in South America, which is not only the nearest point to the Old
World, but has the additional advantage of winds and currents tending in its
direction.

There can be little doubt that America was visited by Norsemen about .p. 1000
by the first route. Tradition and the records of some early maps, which show
large land masses as far west of the Azores as they are west of Europe, seem to
indicate that the second route had been possibly utilised early in the fifteenth
century, but the third and easiest was not available till the West African coast as
far as Cape Verde had been discovered.

It was in A.D. 1445 that Cape Verde was for the first time rounded by one of
the exploring expeditions despatched from Portugal by the indefatigable Prince
Henry.

There is good reason to believe that only two years later Brazil was reached.

At that period great activity prevailed in Portugal; a large and increasing
number of ships were yearly despatehed along the West African coast. Nothing
is less improbable than that one of these vessels should have been carried out to
sea and driven to the coast of Brazil; and to show that this actually occurred we
have documentary evidence,

There is at Milan a remarkable manuscript map, dated a.p. 1448, drawn by
Andrea Bianco, of Venice, one of the best known of the map-makers, who worked
in the first half of the fifteenth century. On this map are shown for the first
time the results of the Portuguese discoveries as far as Cape Verde ; but in addition
there is drawn at the edge of the map, south-west from that cape, in the direction
of Brazil, a long stretch of coast line labelled ‘ Authentic Island,’ with a further
inscription to the effect that it stretches ‘1,500 miles westwards.’ Such a name
and inscription are quite exceptional on maps of this kind, and must have been due
to definite information.

Antonio Galvano in ‘The Discoveries of the World,’ published in the middle
of the sixteenth century, says that in a.p. 1447 a Portuguese ship was carried by a
great tempest far westwards until an island was discovered, from which gold was
brought back to Portugal.

As Bianco’s map of A.D. 1448 was made in London, it is likely that it represents
information about this voyage derived in Portugal, where Bianco probably called
on a voyage from Venice to England.

The conclusion to be drawn is that South America was first seen in the very
year in which Columbus is believed to have been born by one of the Portuguese
explorers despatched by Prince Henry the Navigator.

\

6. Hxplorations in the Sierra Madre of Mexico. By Ossurt H. Howarru.

A comparison is made of physical features common to the whole western range
of North America from Oregon to Guatemala, illustrated by slides, and by notes
from other ranges of great extent, e.g., the Great Atlas and the Caucasus.

716 REPORT—1894..

The means and incidents of travel in the Mexican ranges described and com-
pared with those of the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada.

The variations of climate in the Sierra Madre, and their effect upon mountain
dwellers and their habits and industries, including certain of the isolated Indian
tribes and the cave-dwellers of Sonora and Chihuahua, are illustrated by author’s
experiences in crossing the main range in Sonora, Sinaloa, and Michoacan,
compared with similar experiences in Oregon, Colorado, New Mexico, and
California.

The probable source of origin of Sierra Madre races, viz., North American,
South American, and Asiatic, is discussed and illustrated by description of various
antiquities, including villages, tombs, cave fortifications, and gardens, discovered
or visited by author.

Incidents are given showing the gradual fusion of these races into the existing
Mexican nation of to-day, and the extent to which a few families still remain
unabsorbed ; as in the case of the Apaches in Sonora, the Cota Indians in Durango,
and the Zapotecas of the Tehuantepec Isthmus.

Certain peculiarities in the geological structure, vegetable productions, and
fauna of the Sierra Madre are noted, together with legends and traditions amongst
the primitive inhabitants arising out of known facts connected with them.

The extent of mountain country in Western Mexico still practically unexplored
is shown by comparison with modern maps, which are entirely vague and im-
perfect in every instance, excepting where the State authorities have made some
attempt at actual survey, owing to the necessity of defining mining claims,

The watersheds and their discharges are pointed out, with general description
of the great lakes of Chapala, Patzcuaro, and Cuitzeo.

Also some description of the pine forests above the timber-line, the summits
above snow-line (compared with those of North America), and the present seats
of voleanic activity, and their relation to seismic disturbance along the Pacific
coast.

The author’s view is given as to the structural history of the western coast-
line, and the very slight changes which have probably occurred in it since the
Paleozoic period.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On a Visit to British New Guinea. By Miss Frances Baripon.

The author and her brother visited British New Guinea in 1891 as guests of
the Rey. J. Chalmers, the well-known missionary. They reached Port Moresby in
a Queensland Government schooner of sixty-eight tons register on August 15, and
after a short stay continued this journey westward for 150 miles to Motu-motu,.
where the native villages were visited. A canoe voyage was then undertaken to
the inland village of Movi-avi, where the natives were suspicious and dangerous.
After returning to Port Moresby by the same route a visit was paid to Kerepuna,
and Hood Bay was left for Cooktown in Queensland on September 2.

2. Report of the Committee on the Climatology of Africa.
See Reports, p. 348.

3. On a Journey in the Libyan Desert. By H. WELD BuUNDELL.*

1 Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1894, p. 472.

=

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. Th

4, On Bhutan and the Himalayas east of Darjiling.
By Col. H. Gopwin-Austen, F.2.S.

5. On the best Method of Aiming at Uniformity in the Spelling of
Place-names. By G. G. Caisuoim, J.A., B.Sc.

The purpose of this paper is to show in the first place that the indispensable
preliminary requirement with a view to the end stated is to have an adequate
scheme of orthography, not adequate in the sense of providing a separate sign for
all articulate sounds, but through making up for the deficiency of such signs by
clear rules to be followed with respect to the sounds for which signs are lacking.
To leave it to the individual judgment to decide what is the nearest sound repre-
sented in the scheme to one for which no express provision is made is bound to
lead to confusion. The inadequacy of the latest version of the Royal Geographical
Society’s scheme from this point of view is then pointed out, and suggestions of
remedies are made. It is contended that the recognition of customary spellings
under Rules 2 and 7 of that scheme, reasonable and indeed inevitable as such
recognition is, imperatively demands the drawing up of schedules of such recog-
nised spellings as supplements to the scheme. The addition of some subordinate
rules likely to promote the efficiency with which the scheme is carried out is next
recommended. Attention is drawn to special difficulties in connection with
Russian and Greek names, and reasons are given for entertaining the hope that,
with the aid of Oriental scholars, special rules might usefully be framed with re-
gard to the spelling of Chinese and Indo-Chinese names. Finally, it is urged
that, once an adequate scheme adequately expounded is adopted, it would be of
great importance to make special arrangements to secure the co-operation of all
contributors to the ‘ Geographical Journal’ and other geographical periodicals, of
publishers and authors, and, above all, of the newspaper Press, towards getting the
scheme carried out.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.

The following Papers and Reports were read :-—

1. On Researches by the Prince of Monaco in the North Atlantic and
Mediterranean during the Summer of 1894. By J. Y. Bucuanan, /.R.S.}

2. Report of the Committee on Observations in South Georgia or other
Antarctic Island.—See Reports, p. 358.

3. On the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic Expedition.
By A. MONTEFIORE.

4. On the Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution of Marine
Organisms. By Joun Murray, LL.D.

5. Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Hadramout.
See Reports, p. 354.

1 Geographical Journal, 1894, p. 368.

718 REPORT—1894..

6. On the Geography of Lower Nubia. By Somers CuarKe, F.S.A.

The paper was chiefly confined to that part of Lower Nubia which will be
flooded by the proposed Nile reservoir. The difference in size and colour-effect of
the scenery in the valley of the Nile above and below Assuan were noticed. The
Wadi Kenus, the abode of the Beni Kensi tribe, is nearly coincident with the pro-
jected Nile reservoir, and if the proposed scheme is carried out the population to
be displaced numbers about 30,000, inhabiting a cultivated area of some 10,000
square acres (7). Population in the Ptolemaic times must have been greater, as
there are tracts about Korti and Dakkeh, once under cultivation, now abandoned.
In the Dodeka-Schoenus there are a number of temples and remains of antiquity
within the district thus named, a further proof of considerable population; and the
district is protected by a line of forts, some of very high antiquity, some of later
date. The existence of Egyptian civilisation side by side with the ruder customs
of the natives is especially to be observed in the method of burial. The present
inhabitants on the course of the Nile valley from Assuan to Wadi Halfa exhibit
very slight variations in modes of dress, particularly among the women. Men go
to Cairo, women stop in the villages, so that the men adopt ordinary dress of
fellaheen in Egypt.

ThLe manner of building houses from lumps of earth, crude brick, with flat
wooden or vaulted brick roofs constructed in the same way as those used by the
ancient Egyptians was noticed. Reed shelters are also in use.

Not only the unique antiquities but the present people, with all life, animal and
vegetable alike, are affected by the projected reservoir. In view of the contem-
plated destruction it is of the utmost importance to make an exhaustive scientific
investigation of the valley before it is submerged.

7. On a New Representation of the Vertical Relief of the British Isles.
By B. V. DarsisHIRE.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 719

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor C. F. Basrasxe, M.A., F.S.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
The President delivered the. following Address :—

Tue long period that has elapsed since the British Association last met in
Oxford, covering as it does the life of an entire generation remarkable for activity
in all departments of scientific work, would of itself suggest at least some passing
notice of the changes that have taken place, and the progress realised in the sub-
jects assigned to this section.

But some special reasons combine to give increased interest to a comparison
between the position of economic science in 1860 and at the present day. What
is usually known as orthodox political economy had taken its final shape and
reached its highest point of practical influence just at the time when Nassau W.
Senior, one of its most typical expositors, was chosen to preside over Section F. at
its first meeting here. Far better even than J. S. Mill, Senior represented the
strong and weak points of the English school. Clearness of thought, a firm grasp
of elementary principles, and complete freedom from the disturbing influence of
sentiment, are distinguishing marks of the compact treatise in which he set forth
the chief doctrines of Economics, and they are equally shown in his presidential
address. Political economy, he maintains, is a science and nothing else, limited in
its scope to the subject of wealth, and concerned rather with mental than with
physical phenomena. This very precision and rigid limitation naturally tended
to produce some of the less admirable characteristics of the normal ‘ political
economist.’ Undue insistence on the omnipotence of purely material motives, a
somewhat cynical disregard of the moral forces that influence human action in
respect to wealth, and a certain love of paradox, especially in cases where popular
Buggadice was concerned, may be traced in Senior’s writings as in those of most
of his contemporaries, and go far to account for the intense repugnance felt by
moralists and social reformers for a system which confined itself to one, and that
which they deemed the lowest and coarsest side of human life. Sau,

Such as it was, however, with, and in part by reason of, its definiteness and its
narrowness, political economy commanded the respect of a large section of the
public and of its instructors and guides in the Press, who looked on it as supplying
a rational code of industrial and commercial conduct. ‘The recognised principles
of political economy,’ or ‘the immutable laws of supply and demand,’ were phrases
that occurred as readily to a journalist in the sixties as ‘the exploded doctrine of
laisser faire’ does to the leader-writer of to-day. The scientific doctrine of the
economist applied to practice became the guiding rule of the practical man of
business. Its influence on legislation is strikingly shown by two important
triumphs gained in this very year (1860). The first and most enduring was the
full and complete establishment of free trade as the basis of the fiscal policy of
the United Kingdom by the budget measures of the year; the second, though

720 REPORT—1 894.

transient, is even more instructive for our present purpose—viz., the declaration,
in Cardwell’s Irish Land Act, that for the future tenancies should rest ‘on
contract and not on tenure,’ so that the relation between letters and hirers of land
was reduced to a purely commercial one subject to the law of the market, and
released, so far as legislation could secure that result, from all influence of senti-
ment or custom.

In such a condition of apparent prosperity, it was hardly likely that any
apprehensions should be felt as to the future of economic study, and accordingly
no signs of misgiving are to be found in Senior's brief but emphatic statements.
His sole complaint is directed against the unfortunate tendency on the part of
contributors of papers to wander from the region of science into that of art or
practice, to the neglect of their proper subject, which afforded a sufficiently ample
field for fruitful inquiries.

I need not say that this attitude of calm and assured confidence did not long
continue, and it is equally unnecessary to attempt any description of the series of
revolts against both the strict theoretical doctrines and some of the practical con-
clusions of the classical economy. Abundant information as to the leading phases
of the movement and the chief actors therein is supplied in works so well known
that any summary of their contents could be only the merest commonplace.! As
affording a starting-point for further discussion I may, however, remark that
three causes have most effectively operated in bringing about the changed position
of our science—viz. (1) The influence of foreign, and chiefly German, workers in
the same field; (2) the profound though peaceful political revolution by which
power has been transferred to the working classes; and (3) the growth of the
doctrine of evolution, which has been perhaps more potent in its effects on the
social than even on the biological sciences.

As regards the first point, there is no room for doubt or question. With the
exception of Say and Bastiat—who were chiefly valued as popularisers of English
opinions—no foreign economist was at all known in England before the last thirty
years. The mere suggestion that we had anything to learn from Germany,
Holland, or Italy would have appeared ludicrous to Senior or McCulloch, or,
indeed, to the educated public.” The true position of the foreigner was that of the
humble disciple accepting gladly orthodox English teaching. This insularity of
tone undoubtedly retarded progress in all departments of economics, but its evil
effect was greatest in preventing any thorough consideration of the social and
political groundwork on which all systems of economy rest, and to which all
economic theories must, if they are to be enduring, pay adequate attention. The
great and saving merit of German economic investigation lies in its unreserved
acceptance of this fundamental fact, and it was in this very point that our English
predecessors most signally failed. We should have escaped much narrowness and
onesidedness of view if our writers had sought to understand and appreciate the
Continental conception of the political sciences as an organised group of studies.
Nor is it quite clear that this just ground of complaint has been altogether
removed. Admirable efforts have been made by Leslie and others to diffuse a
general knowledge of the labours of the historical school, and our principal text-
books no longer pass over in silence the weighty contributions of foreign writers to
special points of doctrine. Among professed students and teachers of economics
there is a considerable and growing acquaintance with the products of foreign
thought. Yet it seems as if the best lesson that they convey has not been
thoroughly laid to heart, and that most of our attention has been directed to one
particular school which makes the nearest approach to English methods, and is
therefore least likely to help in correcting our peculiar failings. Is it not some-
what curious—might I not say discreditable—that the works of the eminent
Roscher, whose loss every student of economic and political science must deplore,

1 Dr. Ingram’s History of Political Heonomy (1888), pp. 221-235, and Professor
Foxwell’s letter on ‘The Economic Movement in England,’ Quarterly Journal of
Economics, October 1887 (vol. ii. pp. 84-103), may be particularly referred to.

2 «Political economy,’ said Professor Huxley in 1868, ‘is an intensely Anglican
science. —Lay Sermons, p. 48.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 721

hive found no English translator or even effective imitator?? Other instances
newly as glaring might be mentioned, leading to the general result that the
distinctive differences of the English mode of treating economics are not sufficiently
recognised, and further progress is for the time hindered.

Increased political power obtained by the class of manual workers has most
markedly altered the prevalent tone of thought on industrial questions, and, if it
has not caused, has at all events coincided with the adoption of more tolerant
views respecting the effect of labour combinations. Fuller analysis has shown that
the consequences of economic action are far more complex and more affected by
surrounding conditions than upholders of the orthodox doctrines were willing to
admit; but this modification in theory has been guided by the urgent pressure
of non-expert opinion. It needed a very hard struggle to secure due recognition
of the elements of truth in the trade-union position as to the determination of
wages. But the mere substitution of ‘ working class’ for ‘middle class’ dogma
would not indicate any scientific advance. It is rather in the evidence of the close
connection of economic facts with other forms of social activity that the true
importance of the change consists. It is henceforth clear that no interpretation of
industrial or other economic phenomena can claim to be adequate unless it takes
into account the particular forms of social structure and the special political
conditions which have helped to produce them.

More profound and far-reaching, both in its actual effects and in its still greater
promise for the future, was the appearance of the principle of evolution, that
became an active force from 1859. Its immediate influence in one branch of social
study is well shown in the reception given to Maine’s ‘ Ancient Law ;’” and though
the economists did not at once recognise the full import of the method in respect to
their own department of work, they saw its value in some special points, and
thereby gave an opening for its further and more extensive employment.’ The
most obvious of the services that the new conception rendered was in bringing out
the general similarity of the various sciences dealing with man, which again made
examination of the bonds joining economics to the related subjects a more
prominent object. Just as in biology the older inelastic views as to the nature of
species and types gave way before the idea of innumerable gradations and
transitional forms, so rigidity of definition and isolation of the study of wealth
became no longer possible. Economic problems were found to be in contact at
many points with social and political ones, and even within the artificially limited
field of economics maintenance of the sharp lines between ‘capital’ and ‘non-
capital,’ between ‘ rent’ and ‘interest,’ between ‘ currency’ and ‘ credit, presented
difficulties in face of the complexities of real life.®

Thus the disposition to take a broader view of the subject, and to widen the-
general conceptions and the ‘setting’ in which the received economic doctrines
were presented, was encouraged by a series of influences operating in the same
direction, and which, taken together, have left no inconsiderable mark on the
actual condition of the science. The severest critic of the current political
economy cannot, without unfairness, refuse to admit the improvement in tone, the
greater thoroughness in the investigation of economic problems, and the wider-
range undertaken by the latest work of the English school. Much that was
misleading or positively erroneous has been removed, and many valuable additions.
have been made to that part of the older system which has successfully stood the
test of hostile examination. There is, besides, ample opportunity afforded for
carrying on the work of reconstruction ; indeed, it is chiefly because any suggestions,
no matter how crude or imperfectly thought out, are likely to receive fair and candid
consideration that I venture to notice some of the respects in which the revised!

1 The Grundlagen, the least. characteristic and original of Roscher’s works, has
been translated in America, but the other volumes of his ‘ System’ and his remaining
writings are inaccessible to the English student.

2 See J. S. Mill’s Principles, Book II., chap. ii. § 3n, and Cairnes’ Political Essays,
p- 154, for recognition of Maine’s services. But to the end neither seemed to
understand the real bearing of the evolutionary mode of thought.

8 See Marshall’s Principles, Preface, pp. vi—x., on this point.

1894. 3A

722, REPORT—1894.

and amended economic doctrine, as it appears to-day, seems to require further
expansion and readjustment.

In the first place I cannot feel that there is any adequate expression of the
ultimate dependence of economics on that larger subject of study which treats of
society asa whole. It is no doubt true that our leading economists state very
distinctly the great importance of a science of society could it only be brought into
a healthful existence ; but such general confessions lose most of their value when
accompanied by a very pronounced scepticism as to the establishment in the present
or near future of any set of doctrines worthy of the name of sociology. The very
danger of this attitude lies in the fact that in one way it is so undeniably correct.
When some of the more vehement assailants of the old political economy sought
to contrast it to its disadvantage with a supposed social science into which it was
to be absorbed, it was very natural to reply that political economy, however defec-
tive, was a fact, while sociology ‘ was best described as an aspiration.’ There was
no difficulty in showing that the so-called systems of sociology consisted of imper-
fectly collated facts and daring—often most unlucky—guesses as to the course of
future events. The strict economist stood on very safe ground in contending
against the dogmatism of the ‘ Positive Polity. But though the best attempts at a
systematic treatment of social science have hitherto been grossly defective, this
affords no excuse for negleeting a statement and analysis of the fundamental con-
ceptions appropriate to social study and presupposed in all more special inquiries.

Political economy, like jurisprudence or political science proper, requires as its
basis a fairly accurate comprehension of these preliminary parts of sociology. The
questions—‘ What is a society?’ ‘ What are the conditions necessary for its ex-
istence?’ ‘In what manner the chief social structures are produced ? ’—and many
others of the same class should, I believe, be discussed as an introduction to the
narrower economic problems. Moreover, some topics that seem purely economic
have really a far wider significance. ‘ Division of labour,’ ‘Supply and demand,’
and ‘ The population question,’ must be regarded in a broader way than is possible
within the limits that logical symmetry prescribes to the economist. In fact, the
ereater part of the matter to be found in the division of our text-books devoted to
the subject of ‘ Production’ is only introduced to supply the want of a due preparatory
study of the leading features of what I may for the moment call the ‘social
organism.’ That expression has unfortunately some unsatisfactory implications.
It seems to give support to the idea that the social and political sciences may be
regarded as mere appendices to biology, and that by a liberal adoption of the
technical terms of that science we can turn out a complete and definite system
without the trouble of continued effort applied directly to the study of social phe-
nomena, This belief seems to me to be hopelessly mistaken, and I would protest
as strongly as anyone against the ‘manipulation of biological ideas and phrases’ *
as a mode of dealing with either economic or social questions. But the general
conceptions which are needed to realise the broad features of social structure are
not the peculiar property of any single science. Division of labour, eg., was
recognised as a social truth long before its importance for the vital sciences was
appreciated. It is therefore quite possible, without any illegitimate borrowing or
routine imitation of inappropriate methods of exposition, to provide a satisfactory
groundwork of social doctrine on which our economic theories can be securely
based. Such a change in the usual method of treatment would be in harmony with
the development of economics during the last twenty years, and could be attained
without any sacrifice of the valuable material stored up in the standard treatises.
Nor is it merely at the outset that systematic reference to social structures and
conditions is required; all through the course of investigation that the economist
has to pursue he will find that fresh light is thrown on even the minutest details
by continually keeping in mind and striving as far as possible to realise the com-
plete life of the society which exhibits them as one part of its varied activities.

1 See Sidgwick, ‘Scope and Method of Political Economy,’ in Statistical Society's
Journal, vol. xlviii. p. 612; Marshall, Principles, Book I., chap. v. § 1; Nicholson,
Principles, pp. 11-14.

2 Nicholson, Principles, p. 12.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 723

‘Great advances have already been made in this direction. No one can fail to
‘perceive the contrast between the bareness of the manuals of Senior and Fawcett
and—except in some particulars !—of J. 8. Mill's ‘ Principles’ as compared with the
-more elaborate presentation of our best modern text-books. Nefined analysis of
economic motives and critical discussion of abstract theoretical conceptions still
hold a very large place; but the accurate exhibition of the growth of population
and of the forms of industrial organisation, the tracing in their natural order of
development of the ‘ village community,’ the ‘feudal system,’ and of commercial
land tenure,” do much more to promote the effective progress of scientific economics
than the most brilliant efforts at deduction from unduly simplified premises. I
would specially insist on the fact that it is the social basis rather than the slighter
edifice of half-developed theory that gives life and power to our present work.
We are thus led to the conclusion that one important step in the further progress
of economics must be the fuller recognition of its dependence at the outset on, and
its close relation all through its inquiries with, general social science, but that this
reform does not need any extreme change in attitude—it rather involves the logical
carrying out of an already pronounced tendency. No department or section of
economies can escape this revision. Questions of value, money, credit, and foreign
trade—to take topics that are supposed to be particularly amenable to abstract
treatment—are more affected by social conditions than the theoretic economist will
formally admit. Only through study of these influences can the materials needed
for a correct theoretical solution be obtained, and due weight given to the several
-elements involved.

Another reform will be the natural, or rather necessary, consequence of that
already urged. As soon as we get thoroughly accustomed to contemplating
economic conditions in their actual forms as the special products of social life, it is
but a matter of course to notice the remarkable differences and equally remarkable
resemblances that different instances of the same economic institution or function
will present. The banking system—to take a familiar example—is not the same in
England as in France, while in the United States a third variety, or set of varieties,
is to be found. Even within the same country there is no absolute uniformity.
London banking differs from country banking, and Scotch banking, again, is distinct
from either. Differences in environment will supply a partial explanation, A new
country does not require and could not maintain the more complex arrangements
suited to an old centreof industry and commerce. But peculiarities of social structure
and even historical accidents count for much. We must go to history to find the origin
of the Bank of England and the system of which it is the foundation, and to some
peculiarities of the American Constitution for an explanation of the failure of the
two attempts to permanently establish a similar institution in that country.’ Now,
what is true of banking is equally true of the monetary organisation, the economic
features of the transport system—in a word, of every part of the economy of a
nation or people. The attempts of different schools of economists to deal with this
problem of variations must, I think, strike the unprejudiced observer as at best in-
adequate. Senior and McCulloch, representing very fairly the average economic
opinion of their day, admitted the existence of diversities, but escaped their con-
sideration by placing them outside the ring fence that bounded pure economics, or
by regarding them as certain to disappear with the diffusion of sound views on the

1 Mill’s treatment of the earlier and ruder forms of land tenure is much more
realistic and better ‘ nourished with specific facts ;’ but this departure, as he deemed
it, from scientific precision was partly due to his strong interest in the Irish land

_ question, and, as Whewell pointed out, is really an imitation of the method pursued
by R. Jones in his admirable but premature book on Rent (1832).

2 For population see the treatment by Marshall, Principles, Book IV., chaps. iv.
andy. ; for industrial organisation, ib. chaps. viii.—xii.; for the village community
and feudalism, Nicholson, Principles, Book II., chaps. vi. and vii.; and compare with
both the fuller treatment in the new edition of A. Wagner's Grundlagen der Volks-
nirthschaft (1892-3).

8 See the several articles on ‘ Banking’ in the new Dictionary of Political Economy ;
also C. F. Ferraris, Scienza Bancaria.

3A 2

724: REPORT—1894..

subject.! They in this way strove to keep up their favourite science as a real and
positive one, while they shut out a number of troublesome questions. Mill and
Cairnes boldly maintained that political economy merely dealt with tendencies, and
was a hypothetical rather than a positive science ; by throwing aside all the pecu-
liarities and confining attention to the points of agreement certain formally valid
yesults could be reached. To directly apply them to practice or regard them
as a complete interpretation of concrete phenomena was simply an error in logie
for which, when committed by others, the economist could not be held account-
able.?

The English members of the historical school either neglect all but the crudest
empirical classification, or suggest that each historical period must he treated by
the use of special hypotheses suited to its particular condition, and thus succeed in
combining their acceptance of a great deal of the traditional economic doctrine with
«a much more realistic treatment in respect to earlier times. All these methods
seem defective, though in very different degrees. If the political economy of the
middle of this century is to be regarded as a positive science, applicable without
restriction of time or place, we get a ready explanation of the charge of ‘ undue
absoluteness’ so strongly urged by Knies,’ and, it must be allowed, with considerable
justice. There was from this point of view but one correct system in respect to
each economic element. Large farms, free bargaining between independent
labourers and employers, the single standard, and a banking system rigidly con-
forming to that prescribed by the Act of 1844, were some of the features of a well-
organised economic society, any aberrations from which should be rectified at the
first convenient opportunity. So narrow a conception could not long stand the
test of wider experience, and accordingly it made way for the treatment of the
subject as based on a series of hypotheses. By skilfully limiting and qualifying
the leading doctrines it was not dificult to avoid the more obvious contradictions,
and explain away persistently obstinate facts by regarding them as ‘ friction,’ or as
‘minor disturbing causes’ which might be neglected without disadvantage. Used
with reference to a given time and place, and with a wise selection of premises, the
hypothetical deductive method yielded fruit of considerable value, but it utterly
broke down in the attempt to deal with cases outside those included in the selected
type, and even in dealing with them needed constant supplement and correction.
Though the procedure of the economic historian appears specially devised to meet
this defect, as it dwells on the differences found in the economic factors at different
periods of a nation’s history, it is far too narrow and too much complicated by the
mass of details to render the service which is required. Kconomic history will,
in conjunction with observation of existing conditions, ultimately furnish a rich store
of materials out of which scientific results may be extracted, and this latter and
most important part of the work will need systematic classification of the several
types of institutions and conditions. To return to the example already given, it is
necessary not merely to consider the abstract theory of banking under certain sup-

osed conditions and its history in all countries so far as attainable. The principal
object should be to ascertain the different groups into which banking systems can
be scientifically arranged, and the ways in which each is produced by, and in turn
reacts on the other parts of, the social system. Writers on sociology speal:
somewhat pretentiously of the ‘consensus of the social organism,’ but they are
expressing a real and important truth; for we cannot doubt that there are ne-
cessary relations, modifiable, indeed, within limits hard to define, but still present
and not to be ignored by those who seek to interpret the movements of society.
There is here an immense field as yet almost entirely overlooked. One minor
instance may be noticed. We are all familiar with our own Treasury system,
working smoothly and effectively through the agency of the Bank of England. We
hardly realise that quite different arrangements are employed by the United States,

1 Senior, Introductory Lectures in the University of Oxford, 1852, Lecture IV.

2 J. 8. Mill, Lssays on some Unsettled Questions, Essay V.; J. E, Cairnes, Logiezt
Method, Lecture IL, § 3.

3 Politische Ockonomie, 2nd. ed, 1883, III., viii., pp. 401 seg.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 725

and that France and Italy have a third system in force.1 The origin and actual
working of these types of financial administration and their relation to the economic
and commercial institutions of the several countries in which they exist present an
interesting subject of inquiry, and this is but one trifling instance of what is to be
abundantly found in nearly every part of the field of economics. Until such points
are studied in detail and by the comparative method, we cannot expect to obtain a
completed body of economic doctrine resting on careful generalisations gathered from
a sufficiently extensive experience.

To the same defect is due the weakness in certain respects of our economic
literature so far as monographs are concerned. Attention has often been called
to the neglect of the problems connected with transport by English writers. We
possess no recent works on the great subjects of (1) colonisation and (2) commer-
cial crises that can bear comparison with the French and German studies,’ It
would almost seem that the attention of the younger economists is too much
fastened on the passing aspects of the labour and currency questions to allow time
to be devoted to calmer theoretic investigation. Even from the point of view of
immediate personal advantage this is decidedly a mistake. No better advice could
perhaps be given to the serious economic student at the opening of his work than
to steadily avoid ‘burning questions.’ They are sure to be eagerly taken up by
popular and untrained writers. Their scientific features are buried beneath a
weight of prejudice and partisan feeling, and, last but not least, they so quickly
become ‘ burnt out,’ and public attention turns away to some other and equally
temporary subject of debate. Careful examination of a really important question
for the moment a little in the background must in the end prove more serviceable
when the force of events compels practical men to direct their attention to it, and
to consult those who have given time and trouble to its elucidation.

A third point on which some reform is needed concerns the organisation and
teaching of the subject more than the advancement of scientific research, though it
would not be without good results for the latter. It is the relation of economics,
not to the outlines of social science that are its necessary basis, but to the other
divisions dealmg with cognate and similarly special branches of social life. There
has hitherto been an unfortunate disposition to separate economics too sharply
from these kindred studies. When the reformer argues that political science,
jurisprudence, and the scientific principles of administration should be grouped
along with economics he is met by the rejoinder that ‘we should do ons thing
at a time,’ that ‘division of labour’ is imperatively needed in so extensive a field
of work. To so contend is to quite forget that ‘division’ implies ‘combination’
of labour, and that mere subdivision of tasks is not of itself advantageous. The
contention, besides, goes too far for its purpose. Within the special district
assigned to economics there are very different subjects which have to be tem-
porarily kept apart. Nothing would be gained by interpolating a discussion of
the ‘ wages question’ into a treatise on ‘money,’ though no one would deny the
connexion that exists between these two parts of economics. In the same way
politics—in the scientific sense—and jurisprudence gain when taken together with
economics, and repay that advantage by the additional light which they afford.
One of the errors fostered by the stricter economists in this country was the belief
that in political economy there was a peculiar department differing totally from
other social and political sciences both in the rigour of its logic and the certainty
of its conclusions. Such types of precision as geometry and logic were regarded.
as the proper models in the pursuit of this ‘exact’ science, whose cultivators were
justly entitled to regard with condescension those engaged in seemingly less
precise inquiries. The mistake committed was twofold. There was at once an
over-estimation of the solidity of economic doctrines and an undue depreciation of
the results obtained in politics, jurisprudence, and social ethics, with, as a natural
consequence, the severing of subjects that should have been combined to form.

1 Kinley, The Independent Treasury, deals with the United States system; and
Alessio, Za Funzione del Tesoro, attempts a comparison of the several methods.

2 Since Merivale’s Colonisation (1842, 2nd edit. 1861) no English economist has
made any contribution like those of Roscher and Leroy-Beaulieu to that subject.

726 REPORT—1894.

joint parts of a comprehensive whole. Some excuse may of course be made.
Political economy had really some advantages which enabled it to develop more
rapidly ; it dealt with material interest when measurement was often possible,
and its conclusions allowed of readier verification. It was, in fact, the first branch of
social science that came under scientific treatment, and its earlier fruits were
important enough to justify some pride on the part of those responsible for
them. But this relative superiority seems to be steadily diminishing. Other, and
for a time neglected, departments are freeing themselves from the confusion that
surrounded their infancy, while the latest developments of economics tend to
reduce the claim to peculiar rigour made in its behalf. But at any time
the distinction was injurious. By presenting to the public a small and strictly
enclosed section of social life as the sole part that admitted of scientific treatment
it weakened both what it exalted and what it debased. Economics became
henceforth something that had to be tacked on to any other subject or subjects as.
present convenience happened to dictate. Its true place and the various additions
needed to give it consistency were altogether forgotten or ignored, until the study
fell into serious discredit, from which it has only partially recovered. The true
remedy is to be found in the combination of the several social sciences, together
with the exclusion of everything that is extraneous. The extent to which this
course will facilitate the progress of social studies may be in some degree con-
ceived by considering the real unity of the field in which they work, and also the
tastes and dispositions of those who make them a leading pursuit.

The economist, the jurist, and the political philosopher are in the main engaged.
in examining the same phenomena, but from different points of view. A particular
system of land tenure, a peculiar organisation of classes, even currency or banking
regulations, have to be studied on their juristic and political as well as their
economic side. In each case there are special features which demand most atten-
tion, but it is well to be able to appreciate the other and, for the purpose, less im-
portant aspects. Nothing will bring this truth more forcibly home to us than the
ease with which the limits can be passed. When we see that much of Sir H.
Maine’s writing is really economic, that J.S, Mill in parts of his ‘ Principles’ is deal-
ing with juridical questions, we feel the closeness of the connexion and the evil of
separation.!

From this necessity of dealing with a common material arises the disposition
on the part of economists to pass on to politics and jurisprudence. From the
time of Adam Smith to the present day there has been no lack of distinguished
examples. The two Mills, Cairnes, Bagehot, Leslie, Hearn—to give but a few
names—have made contributions to political and jural science little inferior to their
services to economics. In our day have we not Professor Sidgwick’s ‘ Elements of
Politics’ as the natural and appropriate sequel to his ‘ Principles of Political
Economy ?’ So in Germany Roscher closed his academic career with a treatise on
‘Politics, which forms a worthy companion to his great economic System.

In the face of such impressive facts it is idle to maintain that economic science
should be kept in isolation or joined at haphazard with other studies. The educa-
tional treatment of the matter is primarily one for the universities, but this Asso-
ciation can at least set a good example, and it is the better able to do this because
it has always recognised statistics as an equal subject with ‘economic science,’
which in fact came in at a later time (1856). Now, as Senior allows, ‘the science
of statistics is far wider as to its subject-matter, It applies to all phenomena which
can be counted and recorded.’* There is, he thinks, no limit to the objects to be
meluded, provided that neither approval nor censure was expressed. Thusregarded,
statistics 1s the handmaid of all the social sciences, and by releasing its votaries
from this perpetual drudgery and allowing them to ‘thresh out’ a little of what
they have gathered we may at once obtain a right constitution for this section as
engaged in ‘ statistical and social inquiry.’

The reasons in favour of adopting an organisation of wider scope are strengthened

1 See Maine, Village Communities, Lecture VI., and ZLarly Institutions, Lectures
V. and VI.; Mill, Principles, Book II., chap. ii.; Book V., chaps. viii. and ix.

2 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1860, Trans., p. 183.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F., 727

by a reference to the actual position of economic science. After all the sustained
attacks on it from different quarters it seems to have regained some of its lost ground,
both as regards theory and practical influence. This partial recovery can be sustained
and completed only by adjustment to suit the external conditions, and must be of
the nature I have sought to indicate, otherwise the revival will be but temporary,
and followed by more complete collapse.

Other countries are showing significant indications as to the true course of de-
velopment. In the United States, where economics has taken so prominent a position,
eourses in social science are being established, and one university ' has gone so far
as to create a chair-of general sociology, in addition to the special ones assigned to
different branches of economics and politics. Another instance is much more in-
structive. France has long been known as the home of economic ‘ orthodoxy,’
which has the ‘Journal des Economistes ’ as its organ, and yet the last number of
that eminently respectable and conservative journal opens with an excellent article
on ‘ The State and Society ’ belonging altogether to the domain of political science.”
Further on in the same number there is a report of an interesting discussion at
the Political Economy Society of Paris on ‘The Relation between Political
Economy and Sociology, where, though there were differences as to the exact
nature of the relation, there were none as to its existence.* Similar indications are
to be found in the movement of thought amongst economists in other European
nations.

Practical considerations may also be put forward. It is highly desirable that
certain professions—law, journalism, and public administration may be mentioned—
should have economics as part of the training necessary for their exercise. To
accomplish this object its combination with jurisprudence and political and admin-
istrative science in a common group seems by far the best way.* The strictly
professional students would obtain a better and more suitable training, and it might
be reasonably expected that some with genuinely scientific tastes would be led to
take up social science as a regular pursuit, and contribute to its progress,

But it is in dealing with the practical problems that present themselves in ever-
increasing number that this wider mode of treatment is most essential. To take first
cases that are regarded as peculiarly within the domain of the economist—is it not
true that commercial policy must largely depend on political and legal conditions ?
Even in carrying out the thoroughly wise and sound principle of free trade the British
Government finds itself involved in many curious complications. Treaties and ad-
ministrative regulations have to be taken into account. The political forces that guide
the tariff policy of nations have their decided effects, and whether we desire merely
to estimate the actual character of any particular policy, to form a rational forecast
of the course that nations will take in the future, or to give judicious advice as to
what should be done, we cannot limit ourselves to abstract economic theory or
eyen to economic considerations. And this is equally true of the currency
question. The weightiest arguments for and against bimetallism are, I believe,
political rather than economic, while such social influences as habit and custom
powerfully affect the possibilities of action that purely deductive reasoning from
economic premises might appear to suggest.

The case becomes stronger when we turn to more fundamental and far-reaching
problems. The essential character of the socialistic movement that is passing over
Western civilisation cannot be properly judged if we look on it as merely economic.
The ordinary antithesis between socialism and individualism, or, as it is often
conceived, between self-sacrifice and selfishness, seems to me altogether misleading.
The struggle is rather one between two distinct types of social organisation, one

? Columbia. 300

2 «T’Etat et la Société,’ by Maurice Block, Journal des Economistes, June 15, 1894,
pp. 321-343. '

3 Tb. pp. 420-431. The remarks of MM. Worms, Leroy-Beaulieu, and Levasseur
are instructive as to the opinions current among French economists.

4 The rudiments of such a training existed in the case of the selected candidates
for the Indian Civil Service, but the recent changes have practically removed this
valuable part of the system previously in force.

728 REPORT—1894.

resting on the exaltation of the relatively modern institution of the State, the
other deriving its principal force from the oldest and most enduring element of
human society—the family. This aspect of the question will more and more
come into prominence as the conflict proceeds. It is not the ‘man of Nature,’ the
individual released from all restraints, who forms the unit in our modern ‘ indivi-
dualistic’ societies, but the individual with family ties and sentiments, and
profoundly influenced by other than purely self-regarding motives. Collectivist
socialism seeks to substitute for these natural agencies the comparatively artificial
authority of the sovereign State. It aims at transforming private into public law,
and it would make the life-work of the citizen one round of public administrative
duties. The origin of this special system is obviously due to a particular social
condition ; it is the natural product of the factory and the workmen’s club—z.c., of
a mode of living in which the family has unhappily sunk to a minor position, and
in which the main uniting bond is that of ‘comradeship.’ How impossible it would
be to bring all human societies under a form of regulation that presupposes the
close contact of large masses of men, and how hopeless it is to expect its effective
working while the domestic organisation and family affections retain their power,
is a lesson that the study of social science in all its branches will most effectually
teach.

That the time is ripe for this fuller development is, I think, clear from the interest
with which the most speculative works on social development are received. A daring
and suggestive discussion of the problem of social evolution, even if its basis is
highly questionable, is sure of applause and a wide circle of readers. The most
pressing duty on the part of those who desire to promote true knowledge is to
secure that there shall be the proper preliminary training on the part of the writers
and competent criticism of their productions.

Though I have dwelt mainly on the necessity for rearrangement and further
progress, I should be sorry to leave the impression that I undervalue the great
services of the English economists from Adam Smith to Senior and J. 8. Mill. In
its later developments that school was open to criticism. Some of its members
committed serious faults, but they also possessed very redeeming merits. They
may, perhaps—let us concede it—have been narrow-minded ; they may have been
hard-hearted, but in studying their chosen subject they were eminently ‘level-
headed.’ They saw the working of material forces in their true balance, and were
not unduly influenced by passing events. This intellectual sanity and just apprecia-
tion of the comparative weight to be assigned to the different elements operating
on national life is well exemplified in an anecdote respecting Adam Smith himself,
which we have on unexceptionable authority.

‘Towards the close of the American War, when general despondency seemed
to paralyse the nation, Dr. Smith, confident in the resources of the country,
would not allow himself to despair of the commonwealth. On the news of
Burgoyne’s surrender at Saratoga Mr. Sinclair hurried to his friend with intelli-
gence of the disaster, insisting that if affairs went on no better the nation must be
ruined. ‘ Be assured, my young friend,” replied the imperturbable philosopher,
“there is a great deal of ruin in a nation,”’}

This attitude of calm, based on wide historical study and accurate estimate or
the realities of things, is a valuable example which the older economists have left
to their successors. At the present day, when we are always hearing of ‘ submerged
tenths,’ of depression in every branch of industry, of destructive monetary revolu-
tions, and of land abandoned by its cultivators, while we seek to trace the reality
and extent of these evils and to discover their causes, can we give a better reply
to the eager enthusiast or the hasty innovator who insists that, unless his fayourite
nostrum is adopted, ‘the nation must be ruined,’ than to answer, with the calm-
ness that knowledge of the forces that are working for social welfare produces, ‘ Be
assured there is a great deal of ruin in a nation?’

1 Sinclair’s Memoirs, vol. i. p. 37.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 729

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Mathematical Theory of International Trade.
By Professor F. Y. Epcewortn, J/.A.

2. Mechanics of Bimetallism. By Professor Irvine FisHEr.

The bimetallic régime is figured as a system of hydrostatics by substituting for
Jevons’ curves reservoirs of water. Water represents commodity, and the water
level, marginal utility. The system embraces three reservoirs, one for money and
two for gold and silver in the arts respectively. The three being connected, the
water seeks a common level. The method affords a theoretical criterion for dis-
tinguishing when bimetallism is and is not possible. The restoration of the old
French ratio, even if possible, would cause depreciation, though not to the whole
extent of the present difference. As compared with monometallism, bimetallism
reduces fluctuations of value in the ratio of the combined breadths of two reservoirs

to three.

3. On Factors of Production. -By H. Hices, LL.B.

4, On Stock Exchange Taxation. By J. Manvewto, Ph.D.

Theory of taxes in the circulation of wealth. Taxes on capital as contrasted
with taxes on land, &c. The French, Italian, German, and Austrian taxes on
Steck Exchange transactions. What constitutes a good system of Stock Exchange
taxation,

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

The following Papers were read :—
1. The Church Army and the Unemployed. By the Rev. W. H. Hunt.

The problem of the ‘ Unemployed’ will always be a social as well as an
industrial one, and the difficulties of it are probably greater because of unwise
legislation and promiscuous relief. The complexity of it necessitates our rule for
individual treatment and selection. In this country many methods have already
been tried, and we recognise that no ultimate good can result to the nation from
any work based upon a false economic principle. After working upon this rule for
five years we are now able to say the social side of the problem, at least, is
assuredly nearer solution than before. We aim at giving men the chance to earn
and eat their own bread under healthy conditions with Christian environment.
‘A Church, Army, Labour, Home: to these four things we owe everything we
possess.’ The manager and his wife act as ‘father’ and ‘ mother,’ and the workers
are called ‘brothers.’ We make every man feel his responsibility to earn his own
living, and conform his habits to his economic surroundings. Idlers and drunkards
are dismissed. We avoid pauperisation. Our small provincial Labour Homes
being increased in number deter men from coming up to London. Sufficient trade
can easily be secured, and the home is not calculated to disturb existing trade as a
larger establishment might do. In them local influence is combined with a strong
central government. The rules are cast into a simple form of agreement, and,
being signed by each person, become a moral stimulus. Trade and fair rates are
always charged,and paid. Every person is expected to earn six shillings per week

730 REPORT—1894.

for board and lodging, one shilling being then allowed for pocket money. Thrift is
much encouraged. Full pay is allowed for two months, a trifle less the third
month, and less again the fourth. The etfect of this rule disposes of ‘ shiftless
loafers,’ and has been truly helpful to others. Help is allowed, if needed, sixteen
weeks, after which twelve months must elapse before fresh application can be made.
Each man is urged to do his best to obtain permanent work. We aim at decen-
tralisation in finding places for men either at home or abroad. We believe in co-
operation which economises labour and intensifies results, and the sound, unique,
and valuable co-operation between the Poor Law and the Church Army has
abundantly justified the Local Government Board in endorsing many annual
subscriptions of ratepayers’ money to our funds, The Church Army has tried,
proved, and is still demonstrating an experiment with more than 2,000 people per
annum, which, whilst it ensures a genuinely helpful chance to make a good start
in life for at least 50 per cent. of that number, is at the same time a powerful
object-lesson to the Church and the nation.

2. On the Unemployed. By Boiron Smarr.

3. On Prices, Wages, and the Standard of Value.
By Epwarp ATKINSON,

4, On the Report of the Labour Commission. By L. L. Price, A.A.

The Labour Commission has been engaged during the last three years in an
inquiry of a very elaborate nature, and the question may naturally be asked,
‘What has been the outcome of so large an expenditure of time and money? The
answer depends on the expectations that have been formed. It is difficult to detine
the proper functions of a commission. Its temporary ‘effect is undoubtedly the
postponement of legislation, but this result is probably fraught more often with
benefit than injury. A popular cry is frequently caught up and passed on with
undiscriminating enthusiasm, and a commission brings to light the dangers and
difficulties of the schemes which are thus propagated. A small commission of
experts is the ideal form ; but a large commission, representative of various interests,
though it may lead to an inconclusive report, does secure a searching scrutiny of
plausible proposals by hostile critics. The agitation for an eight hours’ day has
been thus treated by the Labour Commission, with the result of bringing into
prominence the doubt attaching to the real meaning of the proposal and the
difficulties attending its application to practice ; and, in view of this uncertainty
and difficulty, the Commission could hardly arrive at any other conclusion than
that actually declared by the majority. ‘They are content to present a summary
of opposing views, and to recommend minor reforms. The minority, looking for-
ward to the collectivist organisation of society, regard the legislative introduction
of an eight hours’ day with approval as a step towards that organisation, and treat
from a similar standpoint the extension of the sphere of public employment. On
various minor reforms majority and minority are substantially agreed. The main
subject, however, of inquiry was the prevention of industrial disputes, and here the
Commission found that so much had been already accomplished by voluntary
experimental effort that little, if any, room was left for new suggestion, A mass
of valuable material has, however, been brought together, and certain conclusions
may be drawn from it. The first is that a number of experiments have been made
in the preservation of industrial peace. The second is that, in spite of a popular
impression to the contrary, and of some failures, those experiments have been
attended by a considerable measure of success. The new unionism is in this
connection less ominous than the ‘demarcation disputes’ which have lately risen

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 731

into prominence. The third conclusion is that the conditions of success are now
ascertained, and consist in organisation. The commissioners express this opinion
in definite language, although they enter a caution against hasty inference from it,
and the secretary’s report of the position in other countries shows that an absence
of conciliatory methods accompanies immaturity of organisation, The fourth and
last conclusion is that little room is left for the intervention of the State, save in
the réle of pacific counsellor. This conclusion is endorsed by the minority, in spite
of their collectivist tendencies, and various difficulties attach to the substitution
of the compulsory legal authority of the State for the moral influence of voluntary
organisation. The report of the Commission may seem petty and impotent when
contrasted with the vastness of the inquiry, but probably it will recommend itself
to sober common-sense.

5. On Women’s Industries. By Miss MAITLAND,

6. On Girl Life in an Industrial Centre.1 By Miss Kenwarb.

Subject of woman’s work too large and complicated to allow of sweeping con-
clusions from an inquiry limited, as the present one, to a particular industrial
centre.

The centre chosen is the district of the non-textile industries at Birmingham.
Principal trades: Brass, steel, iron, tubes, guns, ammunition, jewellery, screws,
nails, steel pens, bedsteads, chandeliers.

The number of registered factories is three thousand, and, roughly, six men
employed to every woman, Result: Girls’ labour market overstocked and com-
petition keen. The trade depression of late years makes this increasingly felt.
This condition is aggravated by growing aversion of girls to domestic service.
Reasons for this aversion are the unbusinesslike relations of the latter; the cry
for liberty, which is greater than the cry for wages. This spirit of independence
of thought and control is fostered by the spread of education. The remedy for
equalising the factory and service markets is to place the two on an equal footing
as regards contract and inspection.

Conditions of service are more desirable than conditions of the factory, because of
the evils produced by competition such as (a) starvation wages, which oblige girls to
eke out a livelihood dishonestly; (6) frauds and deceits practised by women to
obtain and keep work. Suggestions :—

Possibility of labour agencies. Inspection in warehouses unattached to factories,
and in shops and laundries.

Position of centre as regards—

(1) Wages.—For woskilled labour 7s., 8s., 9s. a week, as arule; 10s. a week high.
Girls of fifteen and sixteen earn 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. a week. Centre probably stands
midway as compared with Lancashire, Wales, Ireland.

(II) Health—Lowered vitality rather than actual disease ; phthisis and anemia
common ; epileptic and fainting seizures also prevalent. Specially unhealthy work;
lacquering and enamelling of iron plates. Precautions against lead poisoning and
their disuse.

(III) The Moral Tone of Factory Life.—Effect of married women in factories
bad. Illustrations, betting, drinking, and immorality are due in large measure to their
influence. Effect of ‘ clubs,’ ‘rum teas,’ ‘ free-and-easies’ on a girl’slife. Position
of girl in home as semi-lodger, monotony, and long hours of factory tend in the
same direction, producing a desire for unrestrained licence.

Improvements possible partly through legislation, combination, and partly
through the raising of relations between employer and employed from mere cash
ones,

1 Published in extenso in Women Worker's, September 1894, Birmingham.

Lesh ' REPORT—1894.

Conclusion: That in the mass of unskilled labour in such centres the tendency
is towards a low standard of morality, and the conditions of industrial life for
this class of girls are in greater need of reform than the present conditions of
domestic service.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Statistics of Comparative General and Old-age Pauperism in England
and Wales, 1831 t0 1891. By C. 8. Locu.

1. Material available. Plan of investigation. The method of comparison
adopted.
2. The issues to be settled :—

(4) Is pauperism on the increase (a) in regard to children, (6) in regard to
the able-bodied, (c) in regard to the not able-bodied, including the aged
and infirm ?

(2) Is there less continuous pauperism, but more casual and intermittent
pauperism ?

(8) How far are local habit and race instinct a barrier against pauperism ?

(4) How far is pauperism influenced by administration ?

(5) Does the rule hold good generally that reduction of outdoor relief
reduces pauperism, and that this reduction is accompanied by a slight,
but by no means corresponding, increase in indoor relief ?

(6) Is there reason to believe that the forces now at work, if allowed fair
play, would reduce pauperism and State maintenance to a minimum ?

(7) Can we ascertain what standard of pauperism may fairly be expected to
prevail in any circumstances in the community P

5. The pauperism of the union as shown by an analysis of cases in sone
metropolitan and other unions: its character; how far it is transitory, how far
permanent ; how it is relieved.

4, The pauperism of England and Wales, past and present: in regard to
children, the able-bodied, and the not able-bodied.

5. The pauperism of the union counties considered historically :—

(1) The pauperism of the counties in the year 1831, as shown by financial
statistics.

(2) The pauperism of the counties, recorded and comparative, as shown in
the returns for the Lady Day quarter 1840 to 1846.

(8) The general pauperism of the counties, recorded and comparative, by
January | returns: 1861, 1871, 1881, 1891 (sketch maps of compara-
tive pauperism for 1862-71, 1872-81, and 1882-91 were exhibited).
In these and other statistics in this pauper vagrants and lunatics are
omitted, unless their inclusion is mentioned.

(4) The not able-bodied and old-age pauperism of the counties.

6. The pauperism of the unions of forty-one large towns, including London,
shown on the comparative method, 1861 to 1891. The relation of London and the
large towns to the country generally in regard to pauperism.

7. A comparison of the year 1881, based on Mr. Hollond’s return, with the
year 1892, based on Mr. Ritchie’s return, showing the decrease in the volume of
pauperism in the year.

3. The pauperism due to old age: its true measure and amount.

9. The present restraints on pauperism.

10. The finances of Poor Law administration, On what heads and in what

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 733

counties there has been an increase. ‘The relation of London to the larger towns,
‘of these to the rest of the country in respect of expenditure on poor relief.
11. Conclusions on the issues raised.

2. Proposals for an Agreement on the Terms * Rent’ and ‘ Interest.’
By C. 8. Devas.

Need of agreement in terminology to prevent fruitless discussion.—Changes and
uncertainty from the time of Adam Smith on the classification of incomes briefly
illustrated.—One reason for this is the abstraction that separates land from
capital—Economic authorities for making only two requisities of production,
persons and things, or labour and capital.—Professor Bohm Bawerk’s jive reasons
for separating land from capital answered : First, that land is immovable, capital
mostly movable. Secondly, that land is the gift of Nature, capital the result of
labour (Béhm Bawerk’s definition of capital amended.—Dr. Sidgwick’s wide view
of capital does not affect the present issue).—Thirdly, that land cannot be increased,
while capital can (universal application of the law of diminishing returns).—
Fourthly, that the social and economic position of the landowner is quite different
from that of the capitalist.—Fifthly, that under certain circumstances land-rent
rises while interest falls. Conclusion, that the separation of land from capital is
logically indefensible, historically misleading, and practically inconvenient.—
Classification of incomes into rewards of labour, returns from capital, and a combi-
nation of the two.—Objection on there being no place for the doctrine of rent.—
Professor Marshall on that doctrine—Character of differential gains above those
of the marginal pair in a market.—The so-called rent of land one out of many
such differential gains.—Need of one term for all such gains, and of another term
for all receipts from property—Advantage of using the term rené for all such
receipts, and rentier for their receiver.—Difficulty from the frequent use of economic
rent for differential gains and of interest for receipts from property.—Need of
coming to an agreement.—The strange misunderstanding, for example, that the
economic doctrine of the Fathers, Canonists, and Theologians is socialistic could
never haye arisen had our terms been clear.

3. On the Economic Results of the Black Death in Italy.
By Maxime KovaA.evsky.

The pestilence of 1848-49 produced all over Europe the economical results it had
in England. The depopulation of Europe brought forward the labour question.
For the first time it had to be treated, on a large scale, as a question of almost in—
ternational importance. Without any previous agreement the Governments of
France, Aragon and Castella, as well as the political authorities of independent or
semi-dependent cities of Italy and the German Empire, issued ordinances prohibiting
idleness, enforcing the obligation of farmers to pay rents, and regulating the wages
of labourers and working men. The fall of serfdom, which was almost accomplished
in Italy at the end of the thirteenth century (Piedmont and Frioul excepted),
created here centuries before they are found in France or Germany a large class of
free farmers (Mezzeria di Toscana, i terziafori di Lombardia, &c.) and free working
men. A regulation of wages appears already in the thirteenth century. Pisa,
Mantua, Nice, some Sicilian municipalities, tried to establish a legal standard of
wages. Their example was followed at the end of the pestilence by almost every
city of Middle Italy. Florence, Sienna, Orvieto, Todi, &c., issued orders and
statutes against the enhancement of wages, either according to the labourers and
artisans the right to a supplementary pay, not surpassing the third of the wages
they got before the pestilence, or totally refusing any increase of remuncration.
Venice alone tried to achieve the same end—the lowering of wages—by the way
of liberty. Its example was followed by dependent municipalities, such as Treviso
or Ragusa. All encouraged emigration, according great facilities to new settlers,

734 REPORT—1 894.

admitting them to the crafts, guilds, and to the exercise of commerce. Their en-
deavours were successful. At the end of the century, notwithstanding several new
appearances of the plague, the Republic of St. Mark was repopulated, and the
wages fell.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Inequality of Local Rates: its Extent, Causes, and Consequences.
By Epwin Cannan, J/.A.

The intricacy of the system under which money raised by one local authority
is usually expended by several others, the immense number of different areas
created by the overlapping of the various kinds of districts, and the inadequacy of
the published returns, make it impossible to give any very comprehensive statistics
as to the inequality of rates in England. In the small county of Oxfordshire the
number of districts governed by different combinations of rate-raising authorities
exceeds sixty, and the sum of the rates varies from about 1s. 6d. to about 6s. Gd.,
the highest and the lowest rated districts being within ten miles of each other. In
the whole of England and Wales the lowest rated district pays about 1s., and the
highest over 8s.

The chief causes of inequality of rates may be classified as follows :—

(1) Unequal returns from investments and unequal repayments of debt.

(2) Unequal services performed for self-supporting persons by the local
authorities.

(8) Inequalities of situation and circumstances which cause the same services
to cost unequal amounts.

(4) Unequal endowments.

(5) Unequal voluntary liberality.

(6) Unequal cost of certain charges imposed by law on localities, although
they do not increase the advantages of a locality as a place of business
or residence for self-supporting persons.

(7) Inequalities of competence or honesty on the part of the authorities.

The consequences, considered from the point of view of just distribution, are
good so far as the inequalities are occasioned by causes 1, 2, 3, and 7, bad so far as
they are occasioned by cause 6,and haphazard so far as they are occasioned by
causes 4 and 5. Considered from the point of view of maximum productiveness
of industry, the consequences of the inequalities are good so far as they are occa-
sioned by causes 1, 2, 3, and 7, and bad so far as they are occasioned by causes 4,
5, and 6.

2. A Few Remarks on Fifty Years’ Accounts of the Bank of England.
By A. W. Friox, WA.

The completion of fifty years of the operation of the present Bank Charter,
coinciding as it does with the bicentenary of the Bank, seems a suitable occasion
for the study of the accounts.

The active note-circulation of England and Wales is now, owing to the operation
of the Act of 1844, almost entirely in the hands of the Bank of England. The
Bank of England has fewer notes in circulation than fifteen years ago, and the
total active note-circulation of the country is hardly greater now than when the
Act was passed. The bank-note is, in fact, used in business to a much less extent
than formerly, other means of exchange and remittance, such as cheques, having

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 739

been substituted for it. The annual variation of the quantity of notes in circulation
has, of recent years, been much more uniform than it formerly was. The amount
of the variation is two and a half to three millions in a total of about twenty-five
millions. The year 1869 alone shows a less difference than two millions between
the minimum and maximum. There were very large variations at the time of the
1866 panic, and in the years 1878-9. In the latter case the variation consisted of
a greatly increased circulation in 1878, which did not begin to return to the
normal level till 1879 was far advanced. Taking three millions as the ordinary
variation in a year, the circulation in these years varied in excess of the normal by
2‘6 and 3:8 millions respectively. It seems rather unlikely that such large
increases of the normal variation should be due to the ordinary use of the bank-
note for making cash payments. Probably a considerable proportion of the
registered increase was merely an addition to the till-money held by bankers, and
was never really in active circulation. How much of the ordinary active circula-
tion, so-called, is of the same nature there are no means of telling.

The other deposits have largely increased. Taking the half-century in five
periods of ten years, the average amount of other deposits in each period has been
about eleven, thirteen, eighteen, twenty-four, and twenty-seven and a half millions.
The considerable increase in the month of April, which was so marked during the
-decennium 1844-54 that the maximum of the year was reached in the middle of
that month, has now almost vanished. The annual variation is less in proportion
to the total than formerly, having then been about 20 per cent. on either side the
average, while during the last decade it averaged hardly more than 15 per cent.
What proportion of the increased deposits are bankers’ balances is not known, it
being nearly twenty years since the Bank ceased to supply this useful piece of
information. The fluctuations of other deposits have, during the last ten years,
been less steady than formerly.

The public deposits vary in a manner markedly different from that of fifty years
ago. Then there was a regular quarterly ebb and flow not differing much from
quarter to quarter. The changes in the collection of the taxes have led to the
increase of the March maximum and the progressive decrease of the others. This
makes the maximum of total deposits fall at the end of March, in spite of the
decrease of the importance of the spring variation of other deposits.

Taking next the coin and bullion, we notice that this item shows more frequent
variation than formerly. Its amount has increased by little more than one-half as
compared with half a century ago, and the average of the last ten years is nearly
10 per cent. less than that of the preceding ten years. No information is generally
afforded as to the proportions between the coin and bullion held, or as to the
amount of silver coin in the banking department.

The reserve is the item of the account which attracts greatest attention. The
annual yariation for the last ten years has averaged about 25 per cent. on either
side of the mean, while in the ten years after 1844 it was nearly 30 per cent. The
average reserve during these two decades has been about fifteen and nine millions
respectively. As the total deposits have doubled, while that part of them which
reflects most closely the business of the country, the ‘ other deposits,’ has increased
by 150 per cent., the increase of reserve seems inadequate. For the three years
1891-2-3 the reserve has averaged sixteen millions, while the other deposits haye
averaged nearly thirty-two millions.

3. On the ‘Economic Heresies’ of the London County Cowncil.
By Sipney Wess, LL.B., L.C.C.

The Council has been intelligently criticised, from an economic point of view,
mainly on three grounds: (a) its adoption of a ‘standard’ and ‘moral minimum’
of wages, and consequent refusal to take advantage of the fiercest competition in
reducing the price of labour; (4) its attempt to ensure that all contractors exe-
euting work for the Council should adopt the same policy ; and (c) its supersession

736 REPORT—1 894.

of the contractor, wherever possible, by the direct employment of workmen under
salaried management.

The facts and statistics given in the paper show precisely what has been done
in these respects, together with such economic results as can already be discerned,
It is contended that the Council’s action is warranted by all administrative expe-
rience, and that it has the support of economic science. It is suggested that the
‘economic heresy’ is with the opponents of this policy. The experience of the
National Government, other local authorities, and private customers is adduced in
support of the policy of insisting that contractors should act on a like principle.
The contractor’s tendency, if let alone, is to seek his profits in a diminution, not
necessarily of the cost of production to the community, but of the expenses of pro-
duction to himself. The lesson of economic science is that it is advantageous to the
community that there should be a constant upward shifting of the plane on which
competition works (ef. the Factory, Sanitary, and Adulteration Acts), and espe-
cially that its pressure should be taken off the standard of life, and placed on the
brains of the administrators and directors of industry.

The supersession of the contractor, or entrepreneur, by direct employment under
salaried management is shown to be part of a widespread tendency, common not
only to other governing bodies, but also to large industrial undertakings of every
kind. This ‘ integration of processes’ can be traced in all important undertakings.
So far as the change of policy can be assigned to a particular date, it appears to
have taken place between 1875 and 1885. Economic advantage in this suppression
of the subsidiary entrepreneur, or contractor, is found (a) in saving middleman
profit; (b) in saving expense of incessant checking of the quality of his product;
and (c) in increased convenience of having all parts of work done under direct
control. The London County Council, in doing as much as possible of its own
work, is thus merely conforming to an industrial tendency, strongly marked, not
only in other local governing bodies, but also throughout the industrial world.
The elimination of the contractor may or may not be economic heresy, but the
business history of England during the past twenty years indicates that it is
industrial orthodoxy. Formerly the best business management was held to be
that which managed least; nowadays it is that which can safely and efficiently
administer most.

4. On Co-operation in Agriculture. By Harotp Moore.

It was pointed out that many systems of working land in order to give the
workers the profits earned by them had been tried. These were divided into four
classes, viz., communal farming, being those cases where the co-operators worked
on equal terms for the benefit of the community, as tried at Ratalime in Ireland;
co-operative tenancy, where the co-operators jointly took the position of ordinary
tenants, as at Assington in Suffolk, and elsewhere; profit-sharing, where the
labourers had some share in the management, as tried by Lord Spencer in North-
amptonshire and by Mr. Bolton King in Warwickshire; and profit-sharing as a
voluntary arrangement made by landowners working their own property, as
carried out by Mr. Albert Grey in Northumberland and by others. The reasons
why the first three systems were not likely to be successful were pointed out, and
it was urged that for co-operation in agriculture to succeed it was necessary that
distinct individual interest should be combined with those advantages which
co-operation would give. This it was claimed could be done by the establishment
of the intending co-operators on one farm, giving to each one a particular portion
of the land on perpetual lease or other secure tenure, and securing for their
general benefit agricultural credit banks, farm factories, and other means of co-
operation which would assist in working the land and realising that portion of the
produce which would not be consumed. Instances were then given of this system
of co-operation which is now being introduced with useful results, it being finally
urged that this was the best system by which those agricultural labourers now in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 737

want of regular employment, owing to the existing condition of agriculture, would
be best assisted to secure maintenance for themselves and families,

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on Methods of Economic Training in this
and other Countries.—See Reports, p. 365.

2. Report of the Committee on Teaching of Science in Elementary
P y
Schools. See Reports, p. 359.

3. On the Relation between Wages and the Numbers employed in the
Coal-mining Industry. By R. H. Hooxer, JA.

The influence of wages in attracting labour to an industry is best shown by means
of a diagram, and the industry concerning which we possess the most trustworthy
statistics of wages and of the numbers employed over a series of years is un-
doubtedly coal mining. The data concerning this occupation have accordingly
been plotted on the annexed diagram, in which the upper (continuous) line repre-
sents the course of wages in 1871-91 in the county of Durham (according to the
evidence of Mr. L. Wood before the Labour Commission !), while the lower
(dotted) line shows the number of persons employed in coal mining in the same
county (taken from the annual reports of the mining inspectors). The wages
are expressed in percentages above or below the rate paid in 1871.

Wages. Wages.
Per Cent. Year :— Per Cent.
above or 1871 '2 34 '5 '6 7 '8 9 °80’1 °2’3 '4’5 '6 "7 °8 9°90 1 '2 '3 above or
below 1871 below 1871
60 60
50 50
40 ry) 40
so LIT Beat eapmpeay oie: era
2o | LT poate Sp = [Pe (ee aa FETS
7a o eee Pp ech ea Fri
peerorier eee ee aE resent teri
-10 pease pcreneell | *"—10
Numbers | Numbers
employed ae employed
90,000 90,000
85,000 ao 85,000
80,000 80,000
75,000 we 75,000
70,000 ae f 70,000
65,000 | | BUSPAR
Pe alate Wi toolsde Leda Dhaba cloalaal chal lesley
GE C2 haS BREAST Se ee

The correspondence of the two curves is very apparent, and, judging by the
magnitude of the fluctuations, it would seem that the variations in the number
ot the employés must be attributed almost entirely to the changes in wages.
Especially the very large increase of miners in 1872-74 and 1889-91 can hardly

1 Parl. Paper, C. 6,708, iv.
1894. 3B

738 REPORT—189-..

be ascribed to any other cause than to the attraction of the great rise in wages at
those periods. It must be remembered that the coal-mining industry is in many
respects peculiar, the organisation of the men is very complete, and the principle
of the sliding scale is everywhere in force, even in those districts where a scale
does not actually determine the wages. These latter being then dependent on
prices, employers cannot lower their rate of pay when the supply of labour is un-
usually large, nor can they raise the remuneration unless there is a corresponding
change in the price of coal. It would seem, then, that the numbers depend on the
wages. It does not follow that this condition prevails in every occupation, but it
is probable that, according as the organisation of the men in any industry is more
complete, there is a greater tendency in that industry for the numbers employed
to follow the wages.

4. Popular Attitude towards Economics. By Rev. L. R. Puetps, M.A.

Economics once a rule of conduct, now either contemned or patronised.
History of the change of opinion.
Reasons for the change :—

1. On the part of economists :
Desertion of the @ prior? method.
Attempts to generalise from an existing state of things.
Tendency to be content with an historical explanation of facts.
2. On the part of the public:
Dislike of exercise of reasoning powers.
Tendency to substitute an appeal to sentiment for appeal to reason.
Impatience of slow growths.

Possible remedies :—

1. A narrowing and defining of the field of economics.
2, Education of the public hy experience.

5. On the Relation between Wages, Hours, and Productivity of Labour.
By J. A. Hoxson, JA.

Progressive wages. Operative upon different elements of industrial efficiency.
Economic limits in several kinds of work. (1) The navvy; (2) the agricultural
labourer ; (3) the textile worker. Curves of productivity in relation to rising wages.

Progressive leisure: Two classes of effects: (1) Compression and intensifica-
tion of effort per unit time ; (2) improved quality of labour by utilisation of leisure.
Curves of productivity as affected by (1) objective economic conditions of industry ;
(2) race, class, climatic and other conditions affecting labour. Relativity of the
policy of a short working day.

Combined action of rising wages and reduced hours of labour. Interdependency
of the two. Complex character of the curve expressing the joint action. The
assimilation of fresh increments of wages and leisure.

Progressive wages and leisure dependent upon advancement of industrial arts.
Power of the former to direct and stimulate the latter. Limits to this power.
Comparison of advanced and backward trades in respect to the progressive policy
of wages and hours. Inductive arguments for the Eight Hours’ Day. How far
valid? General summary of relations of wages, hours, and productivity.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 739

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—PYrofessor A. B. W. Kennepy, LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

The Critical Side of Mechanical Training.

WHuize there is no place in the kingdom more suitable for a meeting of the British
Association than Oxford, and certainly no place in which it is more delightful for
the members to meet, it is yet to be admitted that there are few places which
have much less in common with the special work of Section G. Nominally
devoted to ‘Mechanical Science,’ the Section has for many years specially dealt
with those branches of applied mechanicai science which constitute the business of
the engineer—to quote the well-known words of the Royal Charter, ‘the art of
directing the great sources of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man.’
The association of this ancient and learned city with boilers and chimneys, with
the noise and racket of ordinary mechanical work, seems an incongruity. Even
the harmless necessary railway station is kept as far away as possible, and the
very river flows with a quiet dignity which seems to shut out the thought of
anything more mechanical than the most ancient and futile of water-wheels.
Naturally enough these considerations did not tend to make more easy the
choice of a subject for this address, and I have come very near to agreement with
a recent critic in the opinion that presidential addresses are, in fact, almost
immoral in the nature of things and fit only to be abolished. Finally, I decided upon
taking up my present subject, as being one in which the academic rather than the
technical side of our work comes to the front, while at the same time it does not lead
me out of lines in which I have been able, in past years, to work myself. It is now
twenty years since I first took any active part in the scientific training of engineers,
and five since I ceased to do so. I have often wished that I may have been at all
as successful in teaching others at University College as I was, at the same time, in
teaching myself. And since I have ceased to teach I seem to have been spending
my time in finding ovt how much better I could now do it than was possible when
I was actually engaged in it. This may be pure imagination on my part; there
is nothing more easy, as we all know, than to suppose that we know best how to
do the things that other people do, and not the things we have to do ourselves.
Indeed, I understand that this is the recognised attitude of the really superior
critic. If, however, in anything which I have to say, it should seem that I am
finding fault with what is now being done, I may at least point out that most of all
I am finding fault with myself for not having done right when I had the opportu-
nity—an opportunity which can now never recur, Indeed, instead of the decorous
and unobtrusive heading which I have given to this address, [ might have indicated
its general lines almost as truly if I had entitled it ‘The Regrets of an Emeritus
3B2

740 REPORT—1 894.

Professor ’—a name which, on a suitable binding, might even have secured it a sale
at the railway bookstalls.

I know well—too well—that in the present congested state of the engineering
profession there are many of us who do not like to hear the word ‘training’
mentioned at all. It seems to mean merely the preparation of more lads to
struggle for a share of work that is even now insufficient to goround. There is no
doubt much to be said for this point of view. But against it one must remember
that all other professions are equally full, and that, after all, lads must do some-
thing. The fault is surely that there are too many lads! If our population is
really to go on increasing as rapidly as at present—the benefits of which Sections D,
E, and F might have a joint meeting to discuss, if not to discover—it is inevitable
that demands should come for more and more complete professional preparation.
The man of exceptional parts will come to the front under any conditions, training
or no training, in the future asin the past. But for ordinary men—that is, for
99 per cent. of us—it is essential that no advantage should be given to a rival in
the fierce competition of life, and for them therefore it is of an importance hardly
to be exaggerated to obtain the most complete and perfect training possible. At
the same time, and on purely general grounds, it can hardly be denied that to raise
the standard of our profession is indirectly to confer a benefit on the whole com-
munity. I hope, therefore, that in making certain suggestions about the training
of engineers, it will not be thought that I am desirous of increasing their number,
which is really an end as far as possible from my own wishes. Whether the
number increases or stands still or falls off, it is of importance from every point of
view that those who come forward should be as well prepared as possible. And
even the most conservative of us are compelled to recognise that the standard
required in engineers’ offices now is enormously higher than it was thirty years
ago. This may truly be either the cause or the effects of improved training, but in
either case it has made the training itself a necessity.

The particular aspect of mechanical training of which I wish to speak is its
critical side. I do not know how a man should be trained to be an inventor. I
would not tell anyone if I did! To be a creator in mechanical matters—which,
however, is a quite different thing—is a faculty given only to a very few, and with
them it is ‘born, not made.’ Many of us, however, without being either inventors
or creators, have sufficient natural aptitude or inclination towards things mechanical

to form a basis for the trainer or educator to work on, with some hope that he
may be of service. About the sciences which should be taught to such men, or the
methods of teaching them, about the extent and nature of their experience in shops
or on works, I do not intend to speak. I shall confine myself to one aspect of the
training only, an aspect which is perhaps not always sufficiently clearly kept
in view—the aspect which I have just called the critical side of mechanical
training.

An engineer isa man who is continually being called upon to make up his
mind. It may be only as to the size of a bolt ; it may be as to the type of a Forth
Bridge ; it may be as to the method of lighting a city; or only as to the details of
a fire-grate. But, whatever it is, once it is settled it is decided irrevocably—it is
translated into steel and iron and copper, and cannot be revoked by an Act passed
in another session.. The time given him in which to decide may be a day, or a
month, or a year, but in any and every case (so far as my own experience goes)
it is about one-tenth part of the time which he would like to have. It is only in
rare cases that the decision is obvious—most often there are more courses open
than even the most facile politician ever dreamt of. ‘The matters are too complex
to be dealt with mathematically or even physically; even if they were not, there
are few engineers who would have the special capacity to handle them. Moreover,
their solutions are seldom ‘unique’ From this point of view, the whole use of
college training, of workshop practice, of practical experience, is to provide the
engineer later on with the means of critically examining each question as it comes
up, of reviewing systematically the pros and cons of each method of dealing with
it, of coming finally, rapidly, and positively to some defensible decision, which may
then be irrevocably carried out.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 741

In the case of a problem in pure mathematics or physics, where only one right
solution can exist, that solution is arrived at by the help of a thorough knowledge
of the science in question—there is little room for the critical faculty except as to
method—the result is either right or wrong. With our work, on the other hand,
solutions of all problems except the very simplest—in other words, decisions on all
points which present themselves—can be arrived at only by a process of criticism
applied to the problems, to their statement, to their condition, to all their many
possible solutions. The development of the necessary critical faculty should be
one of the chief aims of every teacher and every student.

A scientific training cannot make a man an engineer, Perhaps it is impossible
for anything to make a man an engineer unless he has grown that way from the
beginning! But a scientific training may make him, or at least give him the possi-
bility of making himself, a critic.

In the vigorous attempts which have been made to specialise the education of
engineers very early, 1 am afraid that the idea of teaching sudjects is sometimes
too prominent, to the neglect of matters less obviously useful. It is, of course, one
thing to know a subject trom the examination point of view, and quite another to
be able to think about it, and still another to be able to write about it. In parti-
cular, I have often regretted to find how little attention has been given to a matter
which perhaps may be called literary rather than scientific, but which is all-impor-
tant in criticism, | mean to the power of expression. It is not easy to overrate
the importance to the engineer, as to other folk, of the power of saying clearly
what he means, and of saying just what he means. I do not mean only of doing
this for its own sake, but because if a man cannot say or write clearly what he
means it is improbable that he can think clearly. By the power of expression
I do not mean, of course, the mere power of speaking fluently in public, a thing
which appears physically impossible to some people; [ mean rather the power of
expression in writing, which carries with it clearness and consecutiveness of thought.
Tt is difficult to know how this matter can be taught, but at least it can be in-
sisted upon probably to a much greater extent than is commonly the case. A
man requires to see clearly not only the exact thing which he wants to say, but
the whole environment of that thing as it appears to him. Not only this, but he
must see the whole environment of the same thing as it appears to the persons
for whom he is writing, or to whom he is speaking. He has to see what they
know about the matter, what they think, and what they think they know, and if
he wishes to be really understood has got to do much more than merely write the
thing he means. He has carefully to unwrite, if I may use the expression, the
various things that other people will be certain to think that he means. For after
all the great majority of people are very careless listeners and readers, and it is not
for the small minority who are really exact in these matters that one has to write.
Moreover, it is a great help to clearness of thought and expression to keep before
one always an ideal audience of people who will certainly misunderstand every single
mesenice about which any misunderstanding is in any way possible, and some others
as well,

In attempting to think out or to discuss any question, whether it be technical or
non-technical, in fact, as long only as it is non-political, the first necessity is pro-
bably a knowledge of the question itself, and not only this, but also a proper
understanding of its whole environment. This knowledge must be of such a kind
as to distinguish what parts of it are important, what parts of it are unimportant,
what parts can be described in two sentences, and what others may require as
many paragraphs ; what parts affect the result but little, however large they seem ;
and which ones must be considered vital, although their very existence is difficult
to discover. The faculty which enables a man to handle his knowledge in this
fashion may be summed up in the single expression ‘sense of proportion.’ More-
over, the knowledge, to be of real value, must be as totally free from prejudices
and prepossessions as in the most rigorous branch of pure science, and as thoroughly
imbued with a healthy spirit of scepticism.

One is accustomed to think of engineering work as mainly constructive. But
after all it is quite as much critical. In almost every department of mechanical

742 REPORT—1894.

work there are half a dozen ways of solving any particular problem. In some
fashion or other the engineer must be able to judge between these various methods,
methods which are often very much alike, but each of which may possess certain
particular advantages and certain particular drawbacks. The arithmetical criticism
which merely counts the advantages and the drawbacks, and puts an equal number
of the one against an equal number of the other, is common enough, but obviously
useless. The very first necessity to the critic is that he should have what I have
just called the sense of proportion, a sense which will enable him to distinguish
mere academical objections from serious practical difficulties, which shall enable
him to balance twenty advantages which can be enumerated on paper by one
serious drawback which will exist in fact, which will enable him in fact to place
molehills of experience against mountains of talk. It is perhaps a doubtful point
how far this sense of proportion can be taught at all. No doubt it can only be built
up upon some natural basis. I am sure that in engineering we all know men whose
judgment as to whether it was advisable to take a particular course we would
accept implicitly, because we know that itis based on large general criticism, in spite
ofthe most elaborate and specious arguments against it set down on paper. Any
third-year student—not to go still further back—can criticise perfectly along
certain very narrow lines, just as anyone can Jearn the rules of harmony and can
write something in accordance with them which purports to be music. But after
all the music may be music only in name, and the criticism may not be worth the
paper it is written upon, however formal it may appear to be, unless the writer is
thoroughly imbued with a sense of the proportionate value of the different points
which he makes. To take the commonest possible case, I dare say we have all
of us heard certain methods, mechanical, chemical, or other, stigmatised as totally
wrong and absolutely useless because they contain certain easily provable errors.
I am sure, too, that most of us could give illustrations of cases in which this has
been said with the very greatest dogmatism when the errors of the impugned
method are not one-tenth part as great as the equally unavoidable errors of obser-
vation in the most perfect method.

Probably the best special education in proportion which a man can have is
a course of quantitative experimental work. I say quantitative with emphasis,
as meaning something much more than mere qualitative work. Here, I think,
comes in the usefulness of the engineering laboratory. We require that the
training should be not only in absolute measurement, but in relative measurement,
the latter being quite as important as the former. Many kinds of measurements
stand more or less upon a level asa training of the faculties of observation in
themselves, but no single kind of measurement is sufficient as a training in
proportion. A year spent in calibrating thermometers or galvanometers might
make an exceedingly accurate observer in a particular line, but it would not give
the observer a knowledge of what even constituted accuracy in other directions ;
for accuracy is a relative and not an absolute term. In most engineering matters
the conditions are, unfortunately, of a most complex kind; so complex that our
problems are incapable of any solution sufficiently exact to satisfy the mathe-
matician or physicist. The temptation to treat these problems as the mathe-
matician treats those with which he deals—namely, to alter the assumed
conditions in order to get an exact solution—is a very strong one. I am afraid
it is most strong often in those engineers who are the best mathematicians. It is
a temptation, however, steadily tu be resisted. We must assume our conditions
to be what they actually are, and not what we should like them to be; and if we
cannot obtain an exact solution of our problem with its actual conditions, so much
the worse for us, not so much the worse for the conditions. Our first duty is
generally to find out the conditions; if they are disadvantageous (in fact I mean,
and not merely in the problem), to alter them if they can be altered, but not to
ignore them because they are inconvenient. We have then to find out the extent
to which the known conditions permit any exactness of solution at all, and,
finally, we have to keep this in view as a measurement of the highest accuracy
which is attainable. To work out certain branches of the problem with such
minuteness as to give us apparently very much greater accuracy than this is not

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 743

only useless, but is apt to be positively misleading, as giving an impression of an
accuracy which has no real existence.

The relative value of accuracy in different sets of observations is in itself a
matter in which a sense of proportion is wanted, and often very badly wanted.
Where one has to measure half a dozen things of which two are very easily
measured and the remaining four are only measurable with great difficulty, it is
only human nature that we should spend our energies on getting extremely
accurate results with the first two and roughly do our best with the others. It
is very difficult under such circumstances to remember that the accuracy of the
whole is not the accuracy of the best part of our work, but of the worst.

The extraordinary effect of a want of sense of proportion is nowhere better shown
than in the absurd statements which are constantly made as to technical matters in
public prospectuses, and the still more absurd statements made in those very
numerous documents of a similar kind of which some of us see a great many, but
which do not finally emerge into public view. Fortunes are apparently to be made
by inventions which, although doubtless ingenious, yet only concern one way of
doing a thing which could be done equally well in half a dozen other ways. Every
one is expected to run after a piece of apparatus which is to save 50 per cent. of
something, the total cost of that something, however, being so very small that
nobody cares to save in it at all. I need hardly mention the all too common case
where a contemplated saving of 10 per cent. in the cost of a material works out
yearly to anamount much more than equal to the whole cost of the original article.

I believe that experimental work in an engineering laboratory can educate this
critical sense of proportion very admirably in a number of ways. In the first place,
it directs quantitative work into very varied channels, and not along one particular
line. Secondly, it compels the observer to combine a number of measurements in
such a way that the relative importance of accuracy in each can be seen. In the
case of an engine trial, for instance, the combined results are affected by the
accuracy of measurements of the dimensions of the machine, by the apparatus and
methods used for measuring the water, by the indicator, and by its springs, by the
speed counter, by the thermometers, and so on. An error of 1 per cent. in counting
the revolutions is just as important as an error of 1 per cent. in measuring the
water, or in measuring the mean pressure. I am afraid that one could point to a
good many cases in which this has been more or less forgotten. Then, by making
a series of measurements all in absolute quantities, the relative importance of each
quantity to the desired total result can be seen. Thus it will be found that cuanges
in certain quantities affect the total result to a very small extent, while changes in
others affect it very largely, so that not only is the accuracy with which different
quantities can be determined very different, but also the same degree of accuracy
is of very different importance according to the particular quantity to which it
refers. Once it is found that a final result is exceedingly little affected by a par-
ticular set of changes, it ceases to be of importance to measure or observe those
changes in any extremely minute way, and of course the reverse holds equally good.
Finally, and this perhaps is the most important matter of all, measurements in such
a laboratory are made to a great extent under the complicated conditions under
which the actual final result has to be obtained in practical work. They are not made
under the conditions which insure the greatest individual accuracy of each result.

It will be seen that throughout, but particularly in the two last points which I
have mentioned, the work of an engineering laboratory is in intention and in
essence different from that of a physical laboratory. The aim of the latter is to
make its problems as simple as possible, to eliminate all disturbing elements or
influences, and to obtain finally a result which possesses the highest degree of abso-
lute accuracy. In most physical investigations the result aimed at is one in which
practically absolute accuracy is attainable, although attainable only if infinite pains
be taken to get it. It is the business of the physicist to control and modify his
conditions, and to use only those which permit of the desired degree of accuracy
being reached. In such investigations it sometimes becomes almost immoral to
think of one condition as less important than another. Every disturbing condition
must be either eliminated or completely allowed for. That method of making the

744 REPORT—1894..

experiment is the best which ensures the greatest possible accuracy in every part

of the result. The business of the engineer, on the other hand, is to deal with |
physical problems under conditions which he can only very partially control, and

the conditions are a part of his problem. He does not, for instance, experiment

with a steam engine so made that it can work with a Carnot cycle. It is in the

nature of the case that he must experiment with a much less perfect machine. In

burning fuel he does not use apparatus specially made to absorb the whole heat of
combustion, but in the nature of the case has to investigate the behaviour of appa-

ratus in which a very large part of that heat is unavoidably wasted. So one might

go on through an immense number of instances. Perhaps the whole matter may best

be summed up by saying that in a physical laboratory the conditions of each experi-
ment are under the control of the experimenter, and are subservient to the experi-

ment itself. In an engineering laboratory the conditions form part of the experiment.

However much more difficult or complicated they render it, they still unavoidably

form part of it—an experiment under any other conditions, or with those conditions
removed, would zpso facto be irrelevant.

A critical training in matters mechanical is, however, only too similar to the,
celebrated training of the Mississippi pilot which so nearly broke the heart of
Mr. Mark Twain. Whenever the whole matter seems to be completely mastered
from one point of view, it is only to find, with a little more experience, that from
another point of view everything looks different, and the whole critique has to be
started afresh. Machines cannot be finally criticised—that is to say, they cannot
be pronounced gcod or bad—simply from results measurable in a laboratory. One
wishes to use steam plant, for instance, by which as little coal shall be burnt as
possible. But clearly it would be worth while to waste a certain amount of coal
if a Jess economical machine would allow a larger saving in the cost of repairs. Or
it might be worth while to use a machine in which a certain amount of extra
power was obviously employed, if only by means of such a machine the cost of
attendance could be measurably reduced. In fact, what may be summed up in
the phrase the ‘ worth-whileness’ of economies, is in itself a matter on which a
whole paper might be written. Unfortunately, the latter points which I have
mentioned are just such as cannot easily be measured in laboratory work, or,
indeed, in any other way whatever, except by actually using the apparatus in
question. All that can be said is that a careful training in the critical measure-
ment of comparatively simple points fits a man more than anything else to gauge
accurately the importance of such other matters as I have mentioned. No doubt
there are many men in whom the critical faculty is insufficiently developed to:
allow them ever to be of use in these matters, but to those who are intellectually
capable of the ‘higher criticism’ it must be, I think, of inestimable benefit to
have had a systematic training in the lower.

Is there, then, any general standpoint from which mechanical criticism can be
directed? Certain points are obvious, but probably the whole matter cannot
easily be generalised. A city has to be supplied with water; there are three:
requisites: that the water should be of proper quality, of sufficient quantity, and
that it should be brought in at a reasonable cost. But in such a case the first two
are so enormously more important than the third, that the ideal is comparatively
simple (of course, this is quite a different thing from being simply reached), A
city has to be supplied with electric light: the essential conditions are similar.
But in this case there are so many qualities which are equally proper, and
there are so many different ways of bringing it in in sufficient quantity, that the:
third point—namely, the cost—becomes especially important. A factory has to.
be driven by steam power: the amount of power that is wanted can be produced
by so many different typesof engine and boiler—all capable of approximately equal
economy, and all claiming equal freedom from breakdowns—that the choice is a
peculiarly difficult one from the critical point of view.

It seems almost impossible that a criticism on any one basis could meet all the
three cases which I have supposed, unless that basis were that the thing supplied
should be the absolutely fittest, having regard to all the conditions of each case.
and the relative importance of each condition. Possibly in all cases we could get

-_

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 745

at some generalisation which would show us which was the absolutely fittest, if
only the necessary data were in any way complete, which they very seldom are. ,
Perhaps in one sentence we may say that that scheme, or system, or machine, will
be the absolutely best in any particular case which will the longest survive and
maintain its place in its particular environment. I cannot doubt that this
development of Darwinian ideas in the world of the inorganic is a legitimate one.
Of course the problem would be comparatively easy in each particular case if only
the environment would stand still. It would even be comparatively easy if we
knew how the environment was going to alter, but this we are unable to do. We
only know that it certainly wild change and will go on changing, and that there-
fore the things which we make now have not got to survive in the conditions.
in which we make them, but have got to survive through some new sets.
of conditions of which we know nothing. I do not think the difficulty is in
any way met by the popular method of guessing at what will be wanted fifty
years hence, which generally means simply guessing at something very big. It is
of no use making our ships or our engines of a type which we choose to imagine.
will be that of fifty years hence. If we do they will be of no use to-day, and for
that very reason they will not even be in existence, useful or other, at the end of
the fifty years. Sufficiently sad illustrations of this will occur to everyone in very
different directions. I hope I shall not be considered churlish in saying that I do
not think that the men who have worked on this principle have really been far-
seeing, or have really brought us much forward. They have been men often of
genius, often of great personal fascination, always of immense imagination. But.
they have proceeded by methods essentially opposed to anything like the gradual
evolution which must occur in technical as it does in natural matters, and in too
many cases the results of their labours have not even been giants, but only monsters.

As to what causes one thing to survive rather than another we can only speak
very generally. Mere survival may come about by the accident of a peculiarly
tough constitution. A few engines built in the time of James Watt are still to be
found at work in our own day, but can no more be taken as the fittest type than
some solitary megatherium would be who, having outlived all his contemporaries,
was able in after ages to look down upon his pigmy and short-lived successors.
Mere length of life in such a case may be a mere accident, and is not itself a proof
of fitness. We have it thrown at us every now and then that our engines nowa-
days do not last like the old ones, as if the mere existence of a very old machine
were a proof of its virtues. It is certainly a proof of the excellence of its
construction—or, as one may say, of its constitution—and perhaps also of the very
small amount of work it has done in proportion to its life and its dimensions.

It is sometimes, I am afraid, rather humiliating to have to remember that, to a
very great extent, the question of the fittest, so far as it affects ue, is a financial
one. In manufacturing processes efficiency and economy tend to survival because
they lead to decreased cost of production. In structures or other large permanent
works those types tend to perpetuate themselves which require the least material—
that is, in which the material used is disposed to the best advantage—and in which
the outlay on labour is also smallest, assuming, of course, equal fitness in other
respects. There is, no doubt, at present a tendency to dispute this altogether, and
to treat all reductions in cost of labour as disadvantageous, unless, indeed, the
labour be very highly skilled, in which case its remuneration must necessarily be:
brought down for the sake of equality! I imagine this tendency will last exactly
as Jong as the faithful can get some other people to pay the increased cost, and
will thereafter determine itself somewhat suddenly. It can no more stand in the
way of natural progress in engineering matters than could the somewhat similar
outery against the introduction of machinery into manufactures two generations
ago. It would be as wise to paint a generation of cats green, in the hope of com-
pelling natural selection to work along new lines.

I think we may fairly assume, therefore, that efficiency and economy are both
legitimate criteria as to ultimate fitness, and will remain so. Moreover, they are
both matters in which measurements can be made, and as to which judgment
can be guided by such measurements. But there are other characteristics, not.

746 REPORT—1894.

directly measurable, by which we can in some degree form an opinion as to the
ultimate fitness of things or processes,

One set of considerations which has great critical importance is summed up in
the word simplicity. This does not mean fewness of parts. Reuleaux showed
long ago that with machines there was in every case a practical minimum number
of parts, any reduction below which was accompanied by serious practical draw-
backs. Nor is real simplicity incompatible with considerable apparent complexity.
The purpose of machines is becoming continually more complex, and simplicity
must not be looked at as absolute, but only in its relation to a particular
purpose. There are many very complex-looking pieces of apparatus in existence
which work actually so directly along each of their many branch lines as to be in
reality simple. I believe it almost always happens that the first attempt to carry
out by a machine a new purpose is a very complicated one. It is only by the
closest possible examination of the problem, the getting at its very essence, that
the machine can be simplified, and this is a late and not an early stage of design.
If a mechanical problem is really only soluble by exceedingly complicated appa-
ratus, it generally becomes a question whether the solution is worth having. There
is no impossibility in making a machine that will do anything. But the very
simplest possible form of apparatus which would wash our hands for us in a suit-
able manner is probably so very complicated that for many years to come at least
that operation will be performed by manual labour.

Very closely allied to simplicity is what I may call directness. In nearly all
mechanical processes certain transformations are unavoidable. In many mechanical
processes, as I have recently had occasion to mention, a very large number of trans-
formations is at present practically unavoidable. I myself cannot help thinking
that probably one of the most distinct signs of fitness is a reduced number of
transformations, the bringing of the final and the initial stages as close together as
possible, and cutting out altogether the apparently worthless middle processes.
But any generalisation of this kind must be very cautiously handled; these
apparently useless processes are no doubt in certain cases as indispensable as is the
much abused middle-man in matters economic.

In a critical view of any case where similar results are aimed at by hand work
and by mechanical means, it is important to recognise that the similarity of result
should very seldom become identity. In the first machine to do anything mechani-
cally which has before been done by hand, the error is often made of trying to
imitate the hand-work rigorously. The first sewing machines were, I believe,
made to stitch in the same way as a seamstress. It was not until a form of stitch
suitable for a machine, although unsuitable for hand, was devised that the sewing
machine proved successful asa practical matter. In another but analogous line, too,
you may remember that the first railway carriages were practically stage coaches put
upon trucks, from which the present carriages have only very slowly been evolved.

The critic has also to remember that very often the attainment of some very
unimportant point, or point of which the importance has been greatly exaggerated,
is made the reason mechanically for very great complication. The question of
proportion comes in here again, and it has to be considered in any particular case
whether the academically perfect machine, which is also extremely complicated, is
not inferior to the almost equally good machine which has been constructed in a
practicable shape—it almost always is so.

I have endeavoured in my remarks to indicate what appears to me to be the
attitude of the engineer towards a very large portion of the work which comes
into his hands. In order to deal with the work it is necessary for him first of
all to have a certain definite knowledge of ‘things,’ that is to say, both of the
various subjects which form part of the curricula of all technical schools, and of
the further matters which form as it were his professional alphabet. These last
he learns not from books or lectures as a student, but by example and attempt, as
does an artist. Of this part of his training I have said nothing; it has been
perbaps sufficiently talked about of late years, and there is little to say which I
could have made interesting to a general gathering like this. I cannot leave it
altogether, however, without dealing with one matter. Exceptional men are all-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 74.7 —

round mathematicians or physicists, still more exceptional men are both; but for
ordinary folk the study of one side of mathematics or of a single branch of physics
is the work of a lifetime. The engineer is bound to know his own profession, by
hypothesis, and it is in itself no small matter. Yet in addition he must know
some mathematics, some physics, some chemistry, even also some geology, if he is
to take any high rank in it. It is, therefore, surely in the very nature of things
impossible that he should be a great mathematician or a great physicist, or should
devote as much study to those most fascinating sciences as if they themselves
were the work of his life. Therefore I beseech my friends of Section A to do
what they can to modify their natural attitude of superiority—even of contempt—
towards us, especially when we are students. The young engineer—I speak as a
member of the great majority of the ordinary kind—would probably never have
chosen his profession if he had had special aptitude for mathematical work.
Having chosen it, he has to look at mathematics simply as a tool, a means to an
end, not an end in itself. I cannot myself see that this point of view is one dis-
respectful to the parent of all the sciences, and I am confirmed by tbe knowledge
that one or two of the greatest mathematicians in the country are of the same
opinion and have the courage to act on it—with infinitely beneticial results to the
young men they have to deal with. But I know that to mathematicians in
general—the physicists are not so bad—the very name of engineering student
is odious, indicating only a man who wilfully refuses to make mathematics
his ‘ first subject,’ and who therefore deserves neither consideration nor quarter,
to whom it is privilege sufficient that he should be allowed to pick up
such crumbs as he can digest from a table prepared for his betters. I humbly
protest that we deserve better treatment, It is no doubt a great mis-
fortune to us that we cannot afford to spend our training-time preparing for
examinations, and that we have been compelled to choose for our future a career
in which mathematics plays only a secondary part. It is our further misfortune
that we have to solve twenty real live problems, each demanding a real live
answer, for every single one which otherwise we would have worked out on paper.
Perhaps it is also our misfortune—or it may be only our thickheadedness—to
believe that in consequence of this we are quite able to judge for ourselves what
units it is most convenient for us to work in, what nomenclature satisfies our
requirements, and that we are as capable of getting our ‘g’s’ in their right places
as even some of our distinguished critics. But this is the end of the nineteenth
century: philanthropy fills our breasts. May not our misfortunes call out some
pity and not alone contempt? In spite of solemn warnings which I have lately
received in the Press against the monstrous idea that a presidential address should
contain any individual opinions, I venture to repeat here what I had lately an
opportunity of saying before a Royal Commission, that in cases where a university
or university college takes in hand the preparation of engineers (and I hope that
such cases will grow in number) they should provide for them special training in
mathematics, and probably also in physics, distinct from the general training in
these subjects most suitable for Degrees. I say this with the full knowledge that
I may be accused of wishing to degrade the purity of scientific work, and, at the
same time, with the full knowledge that I have no such wish. On the contrary,
this special training is the only means by which the rank and file of us will ever
know any mathematics at all. And I can say from my own knowledge that, if
only we can be made what I may call mathematically articulate beings, we shall
be able to repay the kindness by placing before the man of pure science problem
after problem of transcendent difficulty, of immense interest, and having no
single drawback whatever except that its solution may really be ‘ useful ;’ and,
after all, this need not be brought too prominently under his notice.

This digression has turned out a long one. I have only further to say that my
main object in this address has been to indicate, as well as I could, the general
attitude which the engineer must of necessity take up towards much of his work—
the point of view from which he must look at it. I shall be extremely glad if any-
thing which I have said should cause this attitude—this point of view—to be more
clearly kept in mind in the period of training than probably has been hitherto the
case.

748 REPORT—1894.

The following Papers were read :—

1, Some Reminiscences of Steam Locomotion on Common Roads.*
By Sir F. J. Bramwe t, Bart., D.C.L., FBS.

2. On Bore-hole Wells for Town Water-supply.
By Henry Davey, MInst.C.£.

At the Cardiff Meeting of this Association the author proposed a new system
of bore-hole wells for town water-supply. Since that time the system has
been carried into effect at several places, and he described one of the most important
examples of executed work, viz., that of the Netherley Pumping Station of the
Widnes Waterworks. The subject was dealt with under two heads :—

lst. The system of bore-holes.

2nd. The application of the pumping power.

I. The System of Bore-holes.—In procuring water for town water-supply it is
the usual and necessary practice to provide duplicate pumping engines, and where
two engines are made to pump from the same well, the well must be very large that
it may accommodate two sets of pumps.

Such wells are usually 12 to 14 feet in diameter.

To sink such a well in the ordinary way is a very long and costly undertaking,
especially if soft strata are met with, where lining becomes necessary. On the
completion of the well it may be necessary to drive adits to increase the water-
supply. A simple bore-hole is made very cheaply and very expeditiously. Four
30-inch bore-holes can be put down in a very small fraction of the time required
to sink a 12-foot well.

Instead of making a large well, the author puts down four bore-holes to ac-
commodate the pumps for duplicate pumping engines—a pair of pumps to each
engine. The bore-holes being completed, the pumps are lowered into them and
coupled-up to the permanent engines. Immediately that is done the water found
in the bore-holes can be pumped and supplied tothe town. Should it be insufficient,
then a small well would be sunk in the dry to the bottom of the bore-hole pumps.
The water being kept down by the pumps, the bore-holes at the level of the pumps
would be connected to the centre well, and adits driven to collect more water.

Should the bore-holes yield sufficient water, it would not be necessary to sink
the well. It would be absurd to advocate any particular system of well-sinking
as being universally applicable; this system, however, of making wells offers
advantages under favourable conditions, but the advisability of its adoption in
any particular case must be a matter of judgment with the engineer planning the
work,

The bore-holes at Netherley, two in number, are sunk in Red Sandstone rock,
and are placed 20 feet apart, each bored to a diameter of 30 inches for a depth of
200 feet, and to a reduced diameter of 18 inches for a further depth of 200 feet and
300 feet respectively, thus making the first hole 400 feet deep, and the second one
500 feet deep. On thecompletion of the boring the water stood 70 to 80 feet from
the surface of the ground, when the quantity pumped by the old engine on the
same site was 14 million gallons per day. The main pumps were then lowered into
the bore-holes, each pump extending to the bottom of the large part of the hole,
200 feet from the ground-level. In that position the pumps were suspended from
a cast-iron bed-plate supported on a concrete foundation formed round the top of
the holes, a block of oak being inserted between the head of the pump and the
bed-plate. In this suspended position the pumps work without the slightest
unsteadiness,

The engines were made for the purpose of pumping 2} million gallons per day,
but it was found that, working up to their full capacity of 23 million gallons, the
full yield of the bore-holes was not reached. On starting the new pumps it was.
found that when pumping 23 million gallons per day the water-level was lowered
to 100 feet from the surface of the ground.

1 Published in the Hngineer, August 17, 1894.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 749

Il. The Application of the Pumping Power.—The motive power consists of a
230 horse-power compound surface-condensing engine, employed to pump from
the bore-holes into a masonry tank by the engine foundations, from which tank the
water is forced by the same engine to a reservoir at an elevation of 260 feet. The
engine is made to work the force-pump by means of a tail rod from the low-pressure
cylinder, the bore-hole pumps being worked by means of rocking levers actuated
by a connecting-rod from the crosshead of the engine. There is no flywheel or
rotary motion, but a very simple expedient is resorted to to enable the engine to
work expansively. This steam distribution is effected by giving a peculiar bell
crank form to the levers which convey motion to the well pumps. The effect of
this mode of coupling the pump piston or plunger to the engine piston is to make
the pump-resistance diagram so nearly approach the shape of “the combined engine
diagram that the weight of the moving parts of the engine is of itself, by its
inertia, sufficient to equate the two diagrams.

Steam Distribution.—The engine is of the receiver type, having separate
expansion valves on both high- and low-pressure cylinders, adjustable by hand
whilst the engine is in motion.

A careful trial of the engine has been made, and as it is provided with a surface-
condenser, it was quite easy to ascertain the exact quantity of steam used by the
engine by measuring the air-pump discharge, and adding that discharged from the
steam-jackets,

The efficiencies are as follow :—

1. Engine efficiency: the proportion which the area of the actual indicator-
diagrams bears to the area of the theoretival diagram for the steam admitted to the
engine = ‘644.

2. Mechanical efficiency, or the portion of the indicated power utilised by the
pumps = 87 per cent.

3. Thermal efficiency, or the portion of the energy due to the fallin temperature
of the steam which has been utilised by the engine = °433.

Units of work per unit of heat =1108.

The steam-cylinders are both steam-jacketed completely—bodies and ends—
with steam at boiler pressure.

The following summary gives the general particulars and cost of the in-
stallation :—

Steam pressure . : : : . 70 1b. per sq. inch.
Diameters of cylinders . i : : 2 : . 982 in. and 60 in.

Length of stroke . - f : 5 . 6 ft. 3 in.
Diameter of force-pump : : : : . 18} in,

Height of lift . : : : c 5 . 260 ft.

Length of stroke . 2 : 0 - 6 ft. 3 in.

Diameter of bore-hole pumps - < - 18} in.
Height of lift . : . . c - . 100 ft.

Length of stroke . - : : - 6 ft. 6 in,
Number of strokes per minute. 2 c - 123
Depth of bore-holes_ . : - : 400 and 500 ft.
Diameter of bore-holes. : . : | 30 in, for 200 ft. ,and then 18 in,
Tube surface of condenser . : 5 : 420 sq. ft.
», feed heater : : - - 140 sq. ft.
Water pumped in 24 hours . : + million gallons.
Duty of engine on an evaporation of 10 Ib. water
per 1lb. coal . : : . 124 millions,
Lbs. of steam per I.H. P. per hour. : : . 156
UE Ee ais, : . . 180

Indicated horse-power . - : : : - 230
Pump horse-power . : : c . . 200
Mechanical efficiency . ° . . : . 87 per cent.
Cost of engine and pumps. 6,000/. = 307. per P.H.P.
Total cost of engine, pumps, "pore-holes, and
bunldings eegerf7 WR oh phan te - 9,7002. = 4830. per P.H.P.

750 REPORT— 1894.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

The following Papers were read :—

1. At a joint meeting with Section A :—

(a) On Planimeters. By Professor O. Henrici, F.2.S.—See
Reports, p. 496.

(6) Note on the Behaviour of a Rotating Cylinder in a Steady
Current. By ARNULPH MALLOCK.

(c) On the Resistance experienced by Solids moving through Fluids.
By Lord Kevin, P.B.S.

(d) A Discussion on Flight. Opened by Mr. Hiram 8, Maxim.

2. On the Strength and Plastic Extensibility of Iron and Steel.
By Professor T. Cuaxton Fivzer, J. Jnst.C.£.

1. For several reasons the stress-strain diagram, as autographically drawn in
connection with the testing cf a ductile material, does not suffice to indicate any
definite relation between tensile stress and plastic strain. The stretching effect of
the load is commonly measured before it is fully developed; the ordinates of the
diagram represent stress per unit of original area, but cannot represent the actual
unit stress, which varies in different parts of the bar; and, lastly, the elongation
measured by the diagram is the elongation of the whole bar, and is the sum of the
component elements of elongation, which yary still more widely in different parts of
the bar.

2. Analysing the total elongation, and plotting as co-ordinates the actual in-
tensity of stress in any short segment or element of the bar, and the actual elonga-
tion in the same element under a long-continued load, the curve takes a very
different form, and is probably already familiar to those who have taken a special
interest in the subject.

3. So far as the author's direct experiments have gone, the curve so traced
appears to be almost identical for all parts of a fairly homogeneous bar, indi-
cating that the plastic extensibility, or the actual extension under any given
stress, is nearly the same in all segments of the bar’s length, even when the ultimate
elongation varies, as it often does, between 12 per cent. and 120 per cent. in the
different sezments.

4. Volumetric measurements of the successive segments indicate that there is
no sensible telescopic shear, or internal flow of material from one segment to another
(except at one point, which need not be here noticed), and justify the general
application of the assumption of unchanging volume.

5. Probably, therefore, the curve may be taken to represent the variable length
ax assumed by each component internal element under the long-continued stress y,
as well as the variable length of any cylindrical segment under the same stress, the
original length of the element or segment being denoted by L.

6. It may at first sight be supposed that a bar of uniform plastic extensibility
ought to draw out uniformly over its whole length; but when the curve is con-
sidered along with the mechanical conditions affecting the question, they seem
sufficient to explain the observed behaviour of the bar. Beyond a certain critical
point a uniform extension is almost impossible, just as the uniform compression of
a long and slender strut is impossible. The formation of a short narrow, neck in
some part of the tie-bar is inevitable—like the buckling of the strut.

7. To illustrate these points and some others the curve, as approximately
determined for a bar of mild steel, was shown in the diagrams exhibited, and its
regularity suggests the existence of a definite law of extension. As the length 7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 751

increases, the resistance of the material increases continuously up to the point of
fracture. Nevertheless, it is shown that, as z increases, the relations between the
stretching force and the resistance pass from a condition of stable, through indif-
ferent, to unstable equilibrium. The law of plastic extension, y = @(.), as defined
by the curve, fixes mathematically the occurrence of the ‘ plastic limit ;’ and it fixes
also the ‘ breaking weight per square inch of original area,’ which can have only one
value, and is easily found by graphic construction, The breaking weight of the tie-
bar as thus defined depends upon the plastic extensibility, in much the same way
that the breaking weight of a strut depends upon the elastic modulus.

8. Examining next the possibilities of deformation in a bar of uniform or
nearly uniform extensibility, it may be seen that, as the plastic limit is approached,
the slightest irregularity in section or in extensibility tends to precipitate the for-
mation of a contracted region, and ensures that beyond that limit the further
extension of the bar and the further contraction of area will be confined to the
same region. For. stresses below the plastic limit the probabilities of deformation
may be examined by considering the relative time-rates of extension at two elements
which may have been unequally stretched, and at first the tendency is theoretically
in favour of preserving the cylindrical form of the bar. But beyond the plastic limit
these conditions are reversed, and the tendencies are all in favour of precipitating
the most rapid contraction of area at the point where any contraction already
exists, and thus to pinch in still further the region where any contraction of form
has begun to show itself.

The observed phenomena agree very well with these deductions, and may be
rationally attributed to the operation of the mechanical conditions named.

9. Going back to the yield-point, the sudden elongation which here takes place
appears to be something different from plastic extension. Examined analytically,
the process is found to take place at somewhat different stresses in the different
segments, while in any one short element or segment it seems to be instantaneous.
If the yield is arrested midway and the bar examined, it is sometimes found that
the elongation has been quite completed in some segments, and not even commenced
in others. ‘This irregularity is greater than anything met with in connection with
plastic extension, and may account for the variations of form observed in auto-
graphic diagrams at this point. When the process has taken place throughout, it
constitutes an elongation which is almost uniform throughout the bar, and after
the yield the segments fall into line and exhibit a nearly identical curve. As
regards the slight curvature below the yield-point, it may be doubtful whether this
indicates the commencement of yield in some short elements, or the commence-
ment of a plastic extension in the course of which the yield occurs as a separate
incident.

10. The author recognises the insufficient nature of his experimental data, and
the need for further study and more refined measurements of the true curve of
plastic extension; but judging from the results obtained, some formule are suggested
as representing the probable law of plastic extension for such a ductile material.

11. In the paper some further experiments are described which were made with
the object of measuring the extensions on a larger scale, and of testing some of
the propositions before referred to.

3. On Tunnel Construction by means of Shield and Compressed Air, with
special Reference to the Tunnel wnder the Thames at Blackwall. By
Maurice Firzmavrice.

Since 1892, when Mr. George F. Deacon read a paper before the British Asso-
ciation on the construction by means of shield and compressed air of the Vyrnwy
Aqueduct Tunnel under the Mersey, other and larger tunnels have been constructed
and are now in course of construction in this country by the same methods.

Three tunnels have been thus completed under the Clyde just below Glasgow,
and tunnels at several points in Glasgow are being made in connection with the
Glasgow District Subway. A tunnel is also being constructed in Edinburgh by

752 REPORT—1894.

‘the same means. In all these tunnels compressed air has been used in conjunction
with shields almost continuously, as the amount of water met with has been large,
and it has been necessary in most cases to avoid all subsidence of the ground above
as much as possible.

The tunnel under the Thames at Blackwall which is being built for the London
County Council under the direction of their chief engineer, Mr. A. R. Binnie, has
now been under construction for more than two years, and although the greatest
difficulties have probably yet to come, still an account of the present state of the
work and the difficulties met with up to date will, it is hoped, not be without
interest.

Before dealing with the Blackwall Tunnel the author made a few remarks on
previous tunnels constructed by one or both of the methods under consideration,

The tunnel under the Thames between Wapping and Rotherhithe, constructed
by Brunel between the years 1825 and 1842, was the first tunnel constructed by
means of a shield, and its history is so well known that it will not be necessary to
refer further to it. It may be noticed, however, that in a patent of Brunel’s taken
out in 1818 he had at that time conceived the idea of a tunnel made of cast iron
with an inside brick lining, and constructed by means of a shield which had a
tail lapping over the completed portion of the tunnel and shoved forward by means
of hydraulic rams.

Cochrane took out a patent for using compressed air in the construction of
shafts and tunnels in 1833, but it was not used for the former until 1839, and was
not used in any tunnel before 1872 or 1873.

The use of compressed air in conjunction with a shield, and the construction of
the tunnel itself with cast-iron rings, although the latter may not be so important
in some cases, may be considered the key to tunnelling in loose or soft ground filled
with water.

The question of settlement, especially in towns, is a very important one.
When pumping has to be done the water is naturally drawn down in the adjacent
strata, and in addition quantities of sand often come with the water, and settle-
ment occurs from the first or from both of these causes. When compressed air is
used no pumping, of course, is necessary, and therefore there can be no settlement
under that head. Probably the most fruitful cause of settlement in ordinary
tunnels is caused by the fact that more ground is taken out than the tunnel actually
fills, and although the utmost care is taken in supporting the ground and packing
all cavities, a certain amount of settlement invariably occurs. With a shield the
excavation is reduced to almost the net section of the tunnel, and therefore no
settlement can take place to any appreciable extent. As regards safety in working,
it is evident that when only the face of the excavation is open, and that, perhaps,
only in small areas, and the water is kept back by compressed air, the maximum
of safety is assured. The great advantages of constructing the tunnel of cast-iron
segments are, that it is much quicker to build than anything else, and that it has
its full strength as soon as it is built ; and this latter is a very important matter in
soft ground, which exerts a heavy pressure on the tunnel.

The Tower Subway, 7 ft. 13 in. in external diameter, constructed by Mr. Peter
Barlow in 1869, is interesting as being the fiist tunnel in which a shield shoved
forward as one structure was used, and for the construction of which cast iron was
adopted. It was driven through London clay, no water had to be dealt with, and
no difficulties were encountered. In 1870 an experimental length of tunnel 8 ft.
in external diameter was driven under Broadway, New York City, by means of a
shield, to demonstrate the practicability of constructing tunnels by this method
without injuring buildings by settlement. Between 1870 and 1874 tunnels of 6 ft.
diameter were driven by the same means under the streets of Cincinnati for drainage
purposes, and for 14 mile under Lake Erie for the supply of water to Cleveland,
Ohio.

The first large tunnel completed by means of shields and compressed air was
the St. Clair Tunnel, finished in 1890. It was constructed with cast-iron segments
of an outside diameter of 21 ft., and compressed air up to a pressure of 32 lb. was
used. This tunnel was principally through soft clay, and the maximum progress
in one month at one face was 382 ft,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 753

About the same time Mr. J. H. Greathead completed the City and South
London Railway in London, It consists of two tunnels, made of cast-iron seg-
ments, 10 ft. 6 in. in diameter each, and 3 miles long. Compressed air was only
necessary for short distances at three points, as it was principally driven through
London clay.

Previous to the construction of the St. Clair Tunnel compressed air had been
used in the Hudson Tunnel, which still remains unfinished owing to financial
difficulties. The greater portion of its length is constructed of cast-iron rings of
19 ft. 8in. diameter.

In 1891 Messrs, Pearson and Son’s tender for the construction of the Blackwall
Tunnel, amounting to 871,000/., was accepted by the Council, and the work was
commenced in 1892. Mr. D. Hay and the author were appointed as resident
engineers under Mr. A. R. Binnie, and Mr. E. W. Moir took charge of the works
for the contractors.

The Blackwall Tunnel is much larger than any tunnel yet constructed by the
methods adopted. The outside diameter of the St. Clair Tunnel, which is the
largest one at present, is 21 ft., while that at Blackwall is 27 ft. in external
diameter.

The followiag are some of the leading dimensions :—

Ft. in,
Length from entrance to entrance . : : . 6,200 0
This total distance is divided as follows :—
Open approaches, flanked by retaining walls. . 1,735 0
Cut-and-cover portion, built of brick and concrete 1,382 0
Cast-iron-lined portion . ; j : H . 38,083 0
The width of roadway is . : F : : : 16 0
And the width of each footpath ° : : : 3 1s

The'tunnel is level under the river, and the gradient on the north side is 1 in
34, and on the south side 1 in 86. There are four vertical shafts, two on each side
of the river, and varying in depth from 75 ft. to 100 ft. below ground level, Each
shaft is a wrought-iron caisson of 58 ft. external diameter at the bottom, and 48 ft.
internal diameter throughout, and lined with brickwork. Each caisson consists of
two wrought-iron skins, 5 ft. apart, braced together, and terminating in a cutting-
edge. ‘Two circular holes, which are temporarily plugged while sinking, are left in
each caisson to give way for the tunnel through the shaft, and provision is made
for an airtight floor above the level of the tunnel when necessary. The space
between the two skins is filled with concrete. Two caissons have been sunk, and
the two others are in course of being sunk.

The tunnel is constructed of cast-iron rings 2 ft. 6 in. long, and each ring
consists of fourteen segments and a key-piece. The thickness of metal is 2 in.
and each segment has flanges 12 in. deep, and both longitudinal and circum-
ferential joints are planed.

The shield used for the construction of the tunnel is 19 ft. 6 in. long, and
is 27 ft. 8 in. in external diameter. The outer shell consists of four $-in.
steel plates. The shield is divided intoa front and back portion by two vertical
diaphragms at right angles to its axis. It is thus possible, when necessary, to
have a higher air pressure in the working face of the shield than in the completed

ortion of the tunnel. The space between these two diaphragms forms an air-lock,

oth diaphragms, of course, being provided with doors, by which access to the
working face is obtained. At the back of this air-lock the shield consists only of
the outer shell, which always laps over and outside at least one completed ring of
the tunnel, and inside of which all the rings are built. The space of 4 in.
left outside the rings when the shield is shoved forward is filled with grout,
forced in by air pressure through screwed holes made in each segment for the
purpose. Everything is, therefore, quite solid at the back of the cast-iron lining.
At the air-lock and in front of it there isan inner shell, connected stiffly to the
outer shell by circular girders and in other ways, and both joining together at the
cutting-edge. The working face is divided into four horizontal floors and twelve
working chambers by vertical and horizontal diaphragms in the line of the axis of

; 3c

754 REPORT—1894.

the shield. A hanging iron screen in each compartment about 6 ft. back from
the cutting-edge forms a safety chamber at its back, where men could stand with
their heads above water in case of a rush of water in the face due to air blowing
out suddenly, or from other causes. Provision is made for using iron poling boards
at the face, shoved forward by jacks, when in ballast, if necessary. The shield, which
weighs about 250 tons, is shoved forward by twenty-eight hydraulic jacks fixed at
the back and butting against the cast-iron lining, and able to exert a total pressure
of over 3,000 tons.

At the present time the portion of the tunnel between shafts No. 4 and No. 3
has been constructed. The shield was started from No. 4 shaft in June 1893,
the first permanent ring being erected on June 9. When first starting the face
was nearly all clay, there being a little ballast at top anda little fine sand at the
bottom. It was therefore decided to go on without compressed air for some time,
and in three months seventy-seven rings, being equivalent to a length of 192 lineal
feet, were erected. This length was done with practically no timbering, except in
the top ballast for a short length, in which a good deal of water was met. A little
previous to this time the cutting-edge at the bottom of the shield got bent by
shoving the shield against a layer of rock which was met in the clay, and it was
found now to have got much worse. It was therefore considered better to drive
a timbered bottom heading in front of the shield, and put in a concrete foundation
on which the shield could be shoved forward to the next shaft. This was done
for the bottom 6 ft. of the shield, all the excavation above this level being done
without timbering. In this way by the middle of December, six months after
starting, 191] rings, equivalent to 477 lineal feet, had been erected.

As the tunnel was going down a gradient of 1 in 36, and the top of the sand
remained nearly level, the latter was now up to the middle of the shield, and was
carrying a great deal of water. On December 16 there was a rush of water and
sand, which filled the heading with sand, and the water rose 15 ft. in the tunnel
at the shield.

As the shield was now close to No. 3 shaft, which was not yet sunk to its full
depth, it was considered safer not to continue the tunnel until the shaft was sunk,
and in the meantime to make preparations for using compressed air when work
was again started. A concrete bulkhead was therefore built across the tunnel, with
air-locks in it, a little back from the shield, and when the shaft had been sunk to
its full depth, work was recommenced in the tunnel on March 23, under air pressure
of about 15 1b. to the square inch.

No further trouble from water was then experienced, and by going on in the
same way as above described with a bottom heading, the shield was got into No. 3
shaft in May. It is now being strengthened and repaired there, preparatory to
starting under the river from No. 3 to No. 2 shaft.

In the deepest portion of the river, where the top of the tunnel comes within
7 ft. of the river bed, which is all gravel at this point, it is proposed to Jay a
bed of clay 10 ft, thick in the bottom of the river, to prevent the compressed air
blowing out; and with this precaution it is hoped that no difficulty will be met
with in this portion of the work which cannot be overcome by the experience
already gained in the portion between shafts No. 3 and No. 4.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Methods that have been adopted for measuring Pressures in the Bores
of Guns. By Sir A. Nosiz, K.C.B., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 523.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 755

2. On the most Economical Temperature for Steam-engine Cylinders ; or,
Hot v. Cold Walls. By Bryan Donkin, Jf. Inst.C.£.

The author calls attention to the important question of the most suitable tem-
perature of cylinder walls to obtain the maximum economy by reducing condensa-
tion in steam cylinders to a minimum. To diminish condensation his experiments
prove that it is essential to reduce the difference of temperature between the
incoming steam and the cylinder walls. In most cases the cylinder walls are much
colder than the steam, and often one-half the weight of steam is condensed during
admission. Many experiments show that the nearer the temperature of the cylinder
wall is to that of the entering steam the greater is the economy. With walls 40°
to 60° Fahr. colder than the steam, as is often the case, the consumption is greatly
increased, owing to the large amount of condensation. On the other hand, the
cylinder metal can be made too hot and heat wasted at exhaust. This has also
been experimentally proved by the author. The best results in steam econom
have been obtained when the temperature of the internal surfaces is a little higher
than that of the entering steam.

Cylinder walls can be heated in various ways. The most usual is to raise their
temperature and that of the covers, by means of boiler steam introduced into the
jacket spaces. Another method, and one used a good deal on the Continent, is to
work with superheated steam. This steam has been employed in some cases with
advantage in the jackets as well asin the cylinders. Smoke jackets have generally
proved a failure. When the jacket is connected to a condenser having a good
vacuum, economy of steam is also obtained, but not so much as with steam in the
jackets. To secure the maximum economy also, it is important not only to
diminish the volume of the clearance spaces, but especially to reduce as much ag
possible the area of the clearance boundary surfaces. In this way the weight of
iron heated and cooled per stroke so many degrees can be materially diminished.
The character of the internal surfaces, whether rough from the sand or turned,
and their position, horizontal or vertical, have also some influence on the trans-
mission of heat and condensation of steam, as verified by recent trials.

Experiments have also shown that the cylinder wall in any working steam
engine is divided thermally into two parts; the outer portion remains at a constant
temperature, and the inner or periodic portion is heated with each steam, and
cooled with each exhaust stroke. The relative proportion of these two parts, or
the depth to which the heat penetrates into the metal, depends largely upon the
speed of the engine, and on the temperature of the cylinder relatively to that of
the entering steam. In a non-javketed engine, with one-inch cylinder walls,
working at thirty-five revolutions per minute, the depth to which the heat pene-
trates and fluctuates per stroke is at least about eight to nine millimetres from the
internal surface. The depth of heat-penetration for the same speed is much less
with hot than with cold walls; a less weight of metal is heated per stroke; and
condensation is found to be much reduced.

The author gives some of the results of eighty experiments on a small ver-
tical engine, with cylinder 6 in. diameter and 8 in. stroke, made expressly for
experimental research. The details are to be published in ‘ Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers.’ The engine was worked with very different
temperatures of walls, and many tests were made, condensing and non-condensing,
jacketed and non-jacketed, single and double acting, at ditlereut expansions, and
with both saturated and superheated steam in the cylinder and jackets. Care was
taken in these experiments only to vary one set of conditions at a time. Results
of two experiments are added, one with hot and the other with cold walls, or
one with steam and the other with air in the jackets. Both tests were made con-
densing, double-acting, with 50 lb. steam pressure, 33; cut-off, and at a speed of
220 revolutions per minute. The walls were some 30° Fahr. hotter with than
without steam in the jackets; the steam consumption per I.H.P. per hour was
reduced from 41+ lb. to 283 lb., or about 31 per cent.; the thermal efficiency was
increased from 5:7 to 8'1 per cent., or 40 per cent., and the rate of initial condensa~
tion was reduced from 460 lb. to 217 lb per square foot per hour, or by more than

3c2

756 REPORT—1894.

one-half. The percentage of steam present in the mixture during expansion was
also increased by about 50 per cent.

Throughout these experiments an increase of economy with the hotter walls
was always verified ; the thermal efficiency was higher, the initial condensation
less, and the percentage of steam present during expansion always increased.

The tests on this engine point to the practical conclusion that the range of
steam temperature in the cylinder per stroke has much less effect on the steam
consumption than the temperature of the walls.

The paper may be shortly summarised thus:—The most uneconomical results.
were always obtained with the cylinder walls colder than the entering steam.
Under these conditions considerable initial condensation was produced, drops of alk
sizes up to 3 mm, diameter being formed and running down the cold surfaces.
The heat also penetrated into the colder walls to a considerable depth, a certain
quantity being given up by the steam at every stroke, to raise the temperature of
the internal surfaces after exposure to the condenser temperature. Both at cut-off
and release there was a great deal of water in the cylinder compared with the
weicht of steam present. On the other hand, the most economical results were
always obtained when the cylinder walls were at about the same temperature as
that of the entering steam. Under these conditions the rate of initial condensa-
tion was very much lower, and the drops of water formed much smaller in size.
The heat penetration into the walls was also much less, a smaller amount of steam
sufficing to heat the internal surfaces after being cooled by the condenser. ‘The
percentage of steam present in the mixture, at cut-off and release, was also very
much increased,

If engineers and others using steam engines wish to work economically and
with smaller boilers, they must arrange to keep their cylinders and covers as hot as
the steam entering the cylinder; otherwise the cylinder becomes unintentionally
an efficient condenser, with a large area of cooling surface.

Properly applied steam jackets are economical, because they raise the tem-
perature of the walls touched by the steam. Those who cannot steam-jacket
the whole cylinder should at least jacket the two covers, which are the most
important surfaces.

Well-arranged jackets with proper-sized pipes for entering steam and exit water,
without places for air to collect, are an excellent investment, and pay a good
interest on the small additional cost.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Signalling through Space. By W.H. Presce, O.B., FBS.

2. On Some Advantages of Alternate Currents.
By Professor Sirvanus P. Tuompson, F.R.S.

3. Continuous-current Distribution of Electricity at High Voltage at Oxford.
By Tuomas Parker, /.RS.L., MInst.C.£., M Inst M£., MaInst.BLE.

The Central Station at Oxford was started in the middle of the year 1892, and
is equipped with high-tension continuous-current dynamos driven by means of belts
from triple-expansion vertical engines; it is placed 1,500 yards away from the area
of lighting. The current is distributed by means of a network, which is fed by
motor generators transforming from 1,000 to 105 volts. These motor gene-
rators are started, stopped, and regulated from a central switch station placed im
tke area. The main feature of the system is the complete control of the motor

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 757

generators from the switch station; and the number connected on to the network
being varied to suit the load, it is possible to always work the transformers at a high
efficiency. A small battery situated at the switch station is used to supply the
small day and night loads, thus enabling the Central Station to be entirely shut
down for a great portion of the twenty-four hours.

The figures for 1893 show that the total efficiency of the system was 61°62 per
cent., and the efficiency of the motor generators was 74:44 per cent., including
losses in mains and resistances. This is not so high as it will be in the future,
when the lamps are more evenly distributed over the area, The battery efficiency
was 50°64 per cent. The actual coal used throughout the year works out to
6°83 lb., or ‘718 penny per unit sold, which is a very good result, as only slightly
over 100,000 Board of Trade units were metered. The oil, waste, water, and
general engine-room stores work out to ‘0657 penny per unit metered. The total
number of lamps installed at the beginning of the year was 4,041, which increased
to 7,012 by the end of the year. As the great proportion of supply is taken up by
colleges, the term-time is the only part of the year when anything like a load can
be obtained, and the load factor is only 6°31 per cent.

The revenue during the year under notice was 10s. 11d. per 85-watt lamp
installed.

4, On a Special Chronograph.
By Henry Lea, MInst.C.£., and Ropert Braces.

In his capacity as electric inspector for the city of Birmingham the duty ot
one of the writers is to test the accuracy of the electric meters used in that city.
The test involves an accurate measurement on tke one hand of the current of
electricity passing through the meter, and on the other hand of the period of time
during which the current of electricity effects a certain number of revolutions of
the meter armature.

For the electrical measurements he selected a Crompton potentiometer, but
as his chronograph was not accurate enough he drew up a specification upon
which the English Watch Company built the chronograph exhibited to the meeting.
The ideal chronograph is one with a perfectly divided dial, an absolute prompt
start, a definite stop at zero, and a continuous or running motion of the hand.

The test-room chronograph under notice is not intended for use as a watch ; it
is purely and simply a micrometer applied to time, and therefore it has only two
pointers—one from the centre, giving seconds and their fractions, the other placed
halfway between the centre and circumference, showing minutes up to sixty. The
dial of aluminium, being engine divided, is mechanically perfect; and being of
large size, 24 inches of sight, the divisions of ten to the second are clearly
defined.

The prompt, absolute start is obtained by dispensing with all intermediate gear-
ing and relying on the main train of wheels impelled by the ordinary mainspring.
The starting lever not only releases the balance-wheel, but at the same time by
the momentary contact of a light spring blade impels the wheel in the required
direction.

The absolute stop at the end of an observation is obtained by the frictional
contact of the aforesaid spring blade with the edge of the balance-wheel.

The absolute stop at zero is obtained by fixing upon the axis of the seconds
wheel a collet carrying a blade. Upon the top of the movement there is a lever,
which, during the period of an observation, is held back; but when the observa-
tion is concluded it is set free by a push of the button, and falls to a point where
it crosses the path of the blade already referred to, and stopping the wheels brings
about the absolute stop we require.

The last thing requisite is for the seconds hand to have a continuous run.
Everything tried up to the present has had a tendency to accelerate its rate, and
is therefore inadmissible. The lever escapement has been adhered to, and by
using hard stone jewellings, and by observing great accuracy in the angles of the
pallets, the makers are enabled to double the ordinary number of beats—36,000

758 REPORT—1894.

instead of 18,000—and although in every beat there are three processes, the whole
follow so smoothly that the progression of the hand is practically continuous.

5. On a Direct Reading Form of Platinum Thermometer.
By G. M. Cuark, B.A.

The author described the pyrometer of Callendar and Griffiths. In this instru-
ment the leads to the platinum coil are so arranged that only a single observation
is necessary to determine its resistance. Further, by constructing the galvano-
meter so that its deflections are independent of the E.M.F. of the battery, the
same increase of resistance of the coil will always give the same deflection on the
scale. A wide range of temperature as well as an open scale is secured by the
galvanometer being brought back to zero every hundred degrees. It is also pointed
out that the ‘ fixed points’ of these thermometers are not liable to variation.

As reliable experiments with the air thermometer above 700° C. have not yet
been carried out, the author suggested the adoption of a platinum thermometer
with fixed coefficients as a standard.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. The Report of the Committee on Dryness of Steam.—See Reports, p. 392.

2. On the Temperature Entropy Diagrams.
By H. F. W. Borsratti, I1.4., A.M Inst.C.£.

The treatment adopted in this paper has been to consider the temperature
entropy diagrams, from the engineer's point of view, and as far as possible graphical
methods are alone employed.

The reason of the great value of the diagrams lies in the fact that an area
represents the heat required to effect the change denoted by the contour of the area ;
and when the actual expansion of the steam is plotted on the heat diagram it is
easy to see by inspection where the losses of heat have occurred.

The ordinates of the curves are the absolute temperature and the entropy or
heat weight.

The curves denoting the heat required to form a given mixture of steam and
water can be drawn once for all; after that very simple arithmetic is all that is
required to trace the expansion curve for any engine on the heat diagram.

The changes in the pressure and dryness of steam confined in a constant volume
are shown by means of a model in space, in which the vertical distances represent
the volume of steam, and the horizontal plane a temperature entropy diagram.
On cutting the surface formed by a plane parallel to the horizontal plane we have
a curve which gives the constant volume curves, and the construction follows at
once from the model.

The paper was illustrated by diagrams from several types of steam engines, both
compound and triple expansion, and the diagram for a gas engine was also shown.

3. On the Hunting of Governed Engines.'
By James Swinpurne, J Jnst.C.£.

Governors are generally considered as complete mechanisms without reference .
to the engines governed. Hunting, however, depends, not only on the governor,

? Published in full in Lngineering, August 17, 1894.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. . 759

but also on the inertia of the fly-wheel and the load on the engine. A Watt
governor acting directly on the throttle or expansion valve does not hunt if designed
for stability, but does not give the same speed at heavy as at light loads. [f made
isochronous it has either a dash-pot or a relay. In either case the action of the
governor is not instantaneous, and a time-lag is introduced. This causes hunting,
especially if the load is light and the fly-wheel heavy or fast-running. If the iso-
chronous governor works a slow-acting relay the hunting may be so serious that
the steam supply alternates between complete cut-off and full supply. The remedy
is to use either an isochronous governor with no relay, so that the engine gets either
full steam or none, or to use a stable governor acting direct with a supplementary
relay gear to secure the same speed at full and light loads. The first method is
not employed in large slow-running engines, as the fly-wheel would have to be
enormous. The second is utilised in the Knowles supplementary governor, but a
second governor is unnecessary, as one can fill both functions.

4. On Engineering Laboratory Instruments and their Calibration. By
Davin S. Capper, J.4., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, King’s
College, London.

The reliance to be placed upon observations made with measuring instruments
evidently depends primarily upon the accuracy with which those instruments
record. Neglect of this fundamental truth often leads to inaccurate and erroneous
deductions from experiments which are themselves of the highest scientitic value ;
not infrequently the whole value of observations may be destroyed by insufficient
care in the calibration of the instruments used. The subject is therefore one of
some importance. The author describes the chief sources of error in some of the
most common engineering investigations, and their probable value, and points out
some of the possible methods of correction where such exist, For example, in
engine trials there are many possible sources of error. Most of these may be reduced
in percentage value by continuing the trial for asufticient period. But thisis not the
case with errors which may occur in the indicators, gauges, or spring balances used
in the determination of power. In these, unless properly calibrated before trial,
very serious errors may be introduced, amounting in some cases to 5 and 6 per
cent. of the total power indicated. It is therefore absurd, even if proper precau-
tions have been taken, to rely upon horse-power measurements to two places of
decimals.

Similarly with regard to tension and compression experiments with standard
10-inch bars. Here calibration of the testing machine is extremely difficult, and
can in general only be carried out over a small portion of the range of the experi-
ments. Deductions have therefore to be made from the less to the greater, with
the result that small errors in the calibration will tend to be magnified, Vertical
testing machines have fewer sources of error, and can be calibrated with more
certainty, than horizontal machines. Extensometers are, however, much more
easily applied to a horizontal bar than a vertical, and variable jockey weights,
which are requisite if the same accuracy is to be maintained at low loads as at
high, are also more readily adapted to horizontal machines.

Extensometers can be made and calibrated well up to the accuracy of the
testing machine. With standard bars and a measuring instrument true to the ten-
thousandth of an inch, the modulus can be relied upon to the second significant
figure. It is doubtful if more can be obtained without very special construction
and calibration of the testing machine.

The difficulty in bending experiments, again, lies in the accurate application of
load. Unless the beams are very short or of unmanageable cross-sections, the
load measurement must be very delicate if readings approaching the accuracy of
those in tension are to be obtained. It is possible that some of the discrepancies
in published beam experiments may be due to this cause.

The paper deals shortly with other cases where calibration is specially needed,
to which the limits of this abstract do not permit a more extensive allusion. f

760 , REPORT—1 894.

5. On Lighthouse Apparatus and Lighthouse Administration in 1894.
By J. Kenwarp, L.S.A., Lighthouse Engineer.

The writer referred to the principles that govern the establishment of modern
lights, and described the chief forms of apparatus now best available for the optical
engineer, e.g., the single flashing or the group-flashing holophotal revolving ; the
fixed and occulting; the lenticular revolving, having refracting centres alone,
extended to high vertical angles; and the quick-flashing lights of recent French
types called fewr-éelazrs. :

He compared the dimensions or ‘ orders’ of various apparatus, and the radiants
of gas, oil, and electricity, and discussed the question of fog in relation to these.

He called attention to the need of good ship-lights on the dioptric system,
having equality of power in the beam.

He suggested certain reforms in lighthouse administration and in lighthouse
statistics.

6. On Spring Spokes for Bicycles. By Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S.

The author described a construction of spring-spoked wheels for bicycles in
which both lateral and rotational yielding are so moderate in amount as to
occasion no inconvenience. Each spoke consists essentially of a small coil spring,
weighing half an ounce, attached to a light spoke wire, the connections of the ends
of the spoke to hub and rim, as well as the connection between spring and wire,
being of the hook-and-eye kind. The attachment to the rim is made, not at the
centre of the rim, but at its edges, semicircular notches being cut, into which the
spokes are hooked, and the spokes attached to either edge of the rim are attached
to the opposite flange of the hub, so as to cross the plane of the wheel. The
spokes of the driving-wheel are not exactly radial, but slope a little backwards
and forwards alternately—an arrangement which materially diminishes rotational
yielding, while the crossing above described diminishes lateral yielding.

It has generally been maintained that, while up-and-down elasticity is useful
for relieving jolts, lateral and rotational yielding are evils to be avoided. The
author differs from this view, and maintains that both lateral and rotational
yielding, of the elastic kind, when kept within proper limits of magnitude, are
beneficial both as regards comfort and speed.

When one of the wheels of a bicycle encounters an obstacle (such as rough
roads abound with), the collision produces an impulsive reaction on the wheel, as
if the obstacle struck the wheel. Sometimes the direction of the blow lies in the
plane of the wheel, but in many cases the wheel is not only checked and lifted, but
at the same time driven to one side. In order to cushion the lateral component of
the blow there must be lateral yielding. Accordingly, in running over patches of
stones, which jerk the ground-point of a wheel from side to side, the usual jarring
of the hands and disturbance of the steering are noticeably absent in bicycles with
spring spokes.

As regards a blow delivered in the plane of the wheel, the impulse may be
resolved into a radial and a tangential component. The radial component is
cushioned by the shortening of the spokes in the neighbourhood of the point of
impact, and the lengthening of the diametrically opposite spokes.

The tangential component is equivalent to an equal and parallel impulse on the
rim in a line passing through the centre, combined with a torque. The torque,
from the symmetry of its action round the axle of the wheel, produces no jar; but
the impulse in a line through the centre tends to drive the rim backwards and
slightly downwards, with respect to the axle. It is cushioned by the elastic
shortening and lengthening of spokes which are nearly horizontal.

The elastic yielding of a pneumatic tyre is mainly in the radial direction, and
is practically nil in the tangential direction. Its lateral yielding is very much less
than that afforded by spring spokes.

Next, as regards rotational yielding of the driving-wheel, the propelling force

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 761

applied by the rider to the pedals is given out at the ground-point of the wheel in
the shape of back-pressure of the wheel against the ground. The more rigid and
unyielding the connection between these two parts of the mechanism is, the greater
will be the tendency to jarring of the feet by inequalities of the ground. Even on
smooth ground there is a jerk at the beginning of each stroke, in the case of an
unyielding wheel, which tends to fatigue the knee. The difference between the
energy given to the springs and the energy which they return is quite trifling in
comparison with the saving of energy which results from the easing-off of concus-
sions. Moreover, the energy stored in the springs is useful in carrying the wheel
past the dead-points, a small pressure unconsciously exerted on the pedals being
sufficient to retain the energy till it is wanted.

An indirect benefit from lateral yielding is the diminution of side-slip. Side-
slip will begin as soon as the lateral force called out between the wheel and the
road at the ground-point exceeds a certain limiting amount. Lateral yielding
eases off the suddenness of lateral impulses, thus keeping down the maximum
amount of lateral force; and this is precisely what is required for preventing
side-slip.

In pad of the driving-wheels which the author has constructed the hub is
allowed to project much farther on the side remote from the driving-chain than on
the side next the chain, in order to permit the combination of a wide hub with a
narrow width between the pedals. Weaker springs are used on the projecting
side than on the other side. This unsymmetrical arrangement is not found to
interfere with the ease of steering.

762 REPORT—1894.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Sir W. H. Frower, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S,

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Ir is not usual for the President of a Section of this Association to think it necessary
to give any explanation of the nature of the subjects brought under its cognisance,
or to emphasise their importance among other branches of study; but so general
is the ignorance, or at all events vagueness of information, among otherwise well-
instructed persons, that I will ask your permission to devote the short time accorded
to me before the actual work of the Section begins to giving some account of the
history and present position of the study of Anthropology in this country, and
especially to indicate what this Association has done in the past, and is still doing,
to promote it,

It is only ten years since the Section in which we are now taking part acquired
a definite and assured position in the organisation of the Association. The
subject, of course, existed long before that time, and was also recognised by
the Association, though with singular vicissitudes of fortune and position. It
first appeared officially in 1846, when the ‘ Ethnological sub-Section of Section D’
(then called ‘Zoology and Botany’) was constituted. This lasted till 1851,
when Geography parted company from Geology, with which it had been previously
-associated in Section C, and became Section EH, under the title of ‘Geography and
Ethnology.’ In 1866 Section D changed its name to ‘ Biology,’ with Physiology
and Anthropology (the first occurrence of this word in our official proceedings) as
separate ‘ Departments ;’ but the latter does not seem to have regained its definite
footing as a branch of Biological Science until three years later (1869), when
Section E, dropping Ethnology from its title, henceforward became Geography
alone. The Department for the first two years (1869 and 1870) was conducted
under the title of Ethnology, but in 1871 it resumed the name of Anthropology,
given it in 1866, and it flourished to such an extent, attracting so many
papers and such large audiences, that it was finally constituted into a distinct
Section, to which the letter H was assigned, and which had its first session at
the memorable meeting at Montreal, exactly ten years ago, under the fitting and
auspicious presidency of Dr. E. B. Tylor.

The history of the gradual recognition of Anthropology as a distinct subject
by this Association is an epitome of the history of its gradual growth, and the
gradual recognition of its position among other sciences in the world at large, a
process still in operation and still far from complete. Although the word Anthro-
pology had certainly existed, but used in a different sense, it was not till well
into the middle of the present century that it, or any other word, had been
thought of to designate collectively the scattered fragments of various kinds of
knowledge bearing upon the natural history of man, which were beginning to be
collected from so many diverse sources. Indeed, as I have once before upon a
similar occasion remarked, one of the great difficulties with regard to making

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 763

Anthropology a special subject of study, and devoting a‘special organisation to its
promotion, is the multifarious nature of the knowledge comprehended under the
title. This very ambition, which endeavours to include such an extensive range
of subjects, ramifying in all directions, illustrating and receiving light from so
many other sciences, appears often to overleap itself, and give a looseness and
indetiniteness to the aims of the individual or the institution proposing to cultivate
it. The old term Ethnology, or the study of peoples or races, has a limited and
definite meaning. It treats of the resemblances and modifications of the different
groups of the human species in their relations to each other, but Anthropology, as
now understood, has a far wider scope. It treats of mankind as a whole. It
investigates his origin and his relations to the rest of the universe. It invokes the
aid of the sciences of zoology, comparative anatomy and physiology, in its attempts
to estimate the distinctions and resemblances between man and his nearest allies,
and in fixing his place in the scale of living beings. In endeavouring to inves-
tigate the origin and antiquity of man, geology must lend its assistance to
determine the comparative ages of the strata in which the evidences of his exist-
ence are found, and researches into his early history soon trench upon totally
different branches of knowledge. In tracing the progress of the race from its
most primitive condition, the characteristics of its physical structure and relations
with the lower animals are soon left behind, and it is upon evidence of a kind
peculiar to the human species, and by which man is so pre-eminently distinguished
from all other living beings, that our conclusions mainly rest. The study of the
works of our earliest known foretathers—‘ prehistoric archeology’ as it is
commonly called—is now almost a science by itself. It investigates the origin of
all human culture, endeavours to trace to their common beginning the sources of
our arts, customs, and history. The difficulty is, what to include and where to
stop; as, though the term prehistoric may roughly indicate an artificial line
between the province of the anthropologist and that which more legitimately
belongs to the archzologist, the antiquary, and the historian, it is perfectly evident
that the studies of the one pass insensibly into those of the others. Knowledge of
the origin and development of particular existing customs throws immense light upon
their real nature and importance ; and conversely, it is often only from a profound
acquaintance with the present or comparatively modern manifestations of culture
that we are able to interpret the slight indications afforded us by the scanty
remains of primitive civilisation.

It is considerations such as these that have caused the gradual introduction of
the term Anthropology as a substitute for Ethnology which I have traced in the
history of this Association, and which is seen in other organisations for the cul-
tivation of our science.

The first general association for the study of man in this country was founded
in 1843, under the name of the ‘Ethnological Society’ (three years, therefore,
before the Ethnological sub-Section of Section D of this Association). It did ex-
cellent work for many years under that title, but partly from personal considerations,
and partly from a desire to undertake a wider and somewhat different field of
research, another and in some senses a rival society, which adopted the name of
‘ Anthropological,’ was founded in 1863. For some years these existed side by side,
each representing in its most active supporters different schools of the science.
This arrangement naturally involved a waste of strength, and it was felt that the
interests of the subject would be promoted by an amalgamation of the two
societies. Many difficulties, chiefly, as is usual in such cases, of a personal nature,
had to be overcome, one of the principal being the selection of a name for the
united society. It was generally felt that ‘Anthropological’ would be most
appropriate, but the members of the old Ethnological Society could not bring them-
selves absolutely to sink the fact of their priority of existence, and all that they
had done for science for so many years, by merging their society into that of their
younger and active rivals; so after much discussion a compromise was effected, and
the new organisation which arose from the coalescence of the two societies adopted
the rather cumbrous title of ‘ Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland.’ This was in 1871, and since that period, the Society, as it is to all

764 REPORT—1894.

intents and purposes both in structure and function, has pursued a peaceful and
useful course of existence, holding meetings at stated periods throughout the session,
at which papers are read and subjects of interest to anthropologists exhibited and
discussed. It has also published a quarterly journal, which has been the principal
means in this country of communicating new information upon such subjects. ‘he
Institute has for twenty-three years performed this duty in a business-like and
unostentatious manner, the only remarkable circumstance connected with its history
being the singular want of interest taken by the outside world in its proceedings,
considering their intrinsic importance to society, especially in an empire like ours,
which more than any other affords a field for the study of man, under almost
every aspect of diversity of race, climate, and culture. At the present time it
numbers only 305 ordinary members, whose subscriptions afford barely sufficient
means to maintain the library and journal in a state of efficiency. The kindred
Geographical and Zoological Societies have respectively 3,775 and 2,935 fellows,
so far greater is the interest taken in the surface of the earth itself, and in the
animals which dwell upon it, than in its human inhabitants !

Societies similar in their object to that the history of which I have just
sketched have sprung up, and are now in a more or less flourishing condition, in
every civilised country of the world. But confining our retrospect to our own
country, we may take a glance at what has been done in recent years to promote
the organised study of Anthropology otherwise than by means of this Association
(to which I shall refer again later) or the Society of which I have just spoken.

One of the most potent means of registering facts, and making them available
for future study and reference, is to be found in actual collections of tangible
objects. To very considerable branches of anthropological science this method of
fixing the evidence upon which our knowledge of the subject is based is particu-
larly applicable. These branches are mainly two, very distinct from each other,
and each representing one of the principal sides in which Anthropology presents
itself.

I. Collections illustrating the physical structure of man, and its variations in
the different races.

IL. Collections showing his characteristic customs and methods of living, his
arts, arms and costumes, as developed under different circumstances and also
modified by different racial conditions.

It is very rarely that these two are combined in one general arrangement, and
‘they are almost always studied apart, the characteristics of mind, the general
education and special training which are required for the successful cultivation of
either being rarely combined in a single individual ; and yet the complete history of
any race of mankind, especially with regard to its relation to other races, must be
based upon a knowledge both of its physical and psychical characteristics, and
‘customs, habits, language, and tradition largely help, when anatomical characters
fail to separate and define.

The anthropological museums of this country, as well as elsewhere, are all of
‘recent growth, and they are making progress everywhere with steadily accelerating
speed. This cannot be better illustrated than in the place where we are at the
present time. Many of those who are now in this room can remember when the
materials for the study of either branch of the subject in Oxford were absolutely
non-existent. I can myself recall the time when the site of the handsome building
which now houses the scientific treasures of the University was a bare field. All
who know the modern history of Oxford must be aware that it was mainly owing
to the enthusiastic zeal and steady perseverance in the cause of scientific education
of one who is happily still among us, the veteran Regius Professor of Medicine,
Sir Henry Acland, that that building was erected. The possession of a well-
selected and representative collection illustrating the anatomical characters of the
human species is chiefly owing to the energetic labours of Professor Rolleston,
one of the brightest and noblest of Oxford's sons, a man of whom I cannot speak
without feelings of the strongest affection and most profound regret for his
untimely loss to the University and the world.

The collection illustrating the arts and customs of primitive people the

od

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 765:

University owes to the ingenuity and munificence of General Pitt-Rivers, who not
only provided the material on which it is based, but also the original and unique
scheme of arrangement, which adds so greatly to its value as a means of education,
and is so admirably calculated to awaken an interest in the subject, even in the
minds of the most superficial visitor. In speaking thus of the method of displaying
the Pitt-Rivers collection, I must not be supposed to imply any disparagement
of others arranged on different plans. Provided there is a definite and consistent
arrangement of some sort, it is well that there should be a diversity in the treat-
ment of different collections, and for such a vast and exhaustive collection as that
under the care of Sir Wollaston Franks, at the British Museum, the geographical,
system whjch has been adopted is certainly the best. In it every specimen of
whatever nature at once finds a place, in which it can at any time be discovered
and recognised.

In referring to our great national collection, I cannot refrain from saying that
there seemed till lately to be only one element wanting to make it all that could
be desired, and that was space, not only for the proper preservation and exhibition
of what it already contains, but also for its inevitable future expansion. The pro-
vision in this respect was totally inadequate to do justice to the importance of the
subject. Happily this consideration will be no longer a bar to the development of
the collection. The provident action of the authorities of the Museum, aided by
the liberality of the Duke of Bedford and the wisdom of Her Majesty’s Government,
has secured for many years to come the necessary room for the expansion of the
grandest of our national institutions.

More modern even than museums has been the introduction of any systematic
teaching of Anthropology into this country. This is certainly most remarkable,
considering that there is no nation to which the subject is of such great importance.
Its importance to those who have to rule—and there are few of us now who are
not called upon to bear our share of the responsibilities of government—can
scarcely be overestimated in an empire like this, the population of which, as I
have just said, is composed of examples of almost every diversity under which the
human body and mind can manifest itself. The physical characteristics of race, so
strongly marked in many cases, are probably always associated with equally or more
diverse characteristics of temper and intellect. In fact, even when the physical
divergences are weakly shown, as in the different races which contribute to make
up the home portion of the Empire, the mental and moral characteristics are still
most strongly marked. As the wise physician will not only study the par-
ticular kind of disease under which his patient is suffering before administering
the approved remedies for such disease, but will also take into careful account the
peculiar idiosyncrasy and inherited tendencies of the individual, which so greatly
modify both the course of the disease and the action of remedies, so it is absolutely
necessary for the statesman who would govern successfully, not to look upon
human nature in the abstract and endeavour to apply universal rules, but to con-
sider the special moral, intellectual, and social capabilities, wants, and aspirations
of each particular race with which he has to deal. A form of government under
which one race would live happily and prosperously may to another be the cause
of unendurable misery. All these questions, then, should be carefully studied by
those who have any share in the government of people belonging to races alien to
themselves. A knowledge of their special characters and relations to one another
has a more practical object than the mere satisfaction of scientific curiosity ; it is a
knowledge upon which the happiness and prosperity or the reverse of millions of
our fellow-creatures may depend. The ignorance often shown upon these subjects,
even in so select an assembly as the House of Commons, would be ludicrous if
it were not liable to lead to disastrous results.

Now let us consider what, amid all the complex, diverse, and costly machinery
of education in this country, is being done to satisfy the demands for such know-
ledge. We may say at once, as regards all institutions for primary and secondary
education, absolutely nothing. The inhabitants of the various regions of our own
earth are treated with no more consideration and interest in all such institutions
than if they lived on the moon or the planets. We must turn straight to the

766 REPORT—1894.

higher intellectual centres in the hope of finding any anthropological teaching.
Here, at Oxford, if anywhere, we may expect to find it, and here, first among the
British Universities, have we seen, since the year 1883, among the list of the sub-
jects taught the word ‘ Anthropology ;’ but the teacher, though one of the most
learned of men in the subject the country has produced, still only bears the modest
title of ‘Reader.’ A professorship of Anthropology does not exist at present in the
British Isles, and even here the subject, though recoguised asa ‘special,’ offers little
field for distinction in the examinations for degrees, and has therefore never been
taken up in a thorough manner by students. Dr. Tylor’s lectures must, however,
have done much to have spread an intelligent interest in some branches of Anthro-
pology, and have proved a valuable complement to the Pitt-Rivers collection, as
have also the courses which have been given by Mr. Henry Balfour upon the arts
of mankind and their evolution, one of which I am glad to see is announced among
the advantages offered to the University Extension students at present with us.
Physical Anthropology has also been taken up by Professor A. Thomson, who,
I understand, gives instructive lectures upon it, open to the members of his class of
human anatomy. At the opposite end almost of the subject must be mentioned
the extension and organisation of the Ashmolean Museum under the care of Mr.
Arthur J. Evans, which has a bearing upon some branches of Anthropology, and
the foundation of the Indian Institute under the auspices of Sir Monier Monier-
Williams, which must give an impetus to the study of the characteristics of the
races of our great Empire in the East. Last, but by no means least in its bearing
upon the origin, divisions, and diffusion of races, is the world-famous linguistic
work of Professor Max Miller and Professor Sayce, both of whom have presided
over this Section at former meetings of the Association.

Of the sister University I wrote thus in 1884: ‘In Cambridge there are many
hopeful signs. The recently appointed Professor of Anatomy, Dr. Macalister, is
known to have paid much attention to Anatomical Anthropology, and has already
intimated that he proposes to give instruction in it during the summer term. An
Ethnological and Archeological Museum is also in progress of formation, which, if
not destined to rival that of Oxford, already contains many objects of great value,
and a guarantee of its good preservation and arrangement may be looked for in the
appointment of Baron Anatole von Hiigel as its first curator.’

Ten years have passed, and it is satisfactory to know that the teaching of
Anthropology has not only heen fairly established, but the subject has also found a
place in the scheme of University examination. The learned Professor of Human
Anatomy continues to take a wide view of his functions, giving a course during
the Haster term on the methods of Physical Anthropology, and also museum
demonstrations on craniometry and osteometry, by the aid of a greatly increased
and continually augmenting collection of specimens. ‘Those students who take
anatomy as their subject for the second part of the Natural Science Tripos have
both paper work and practical examination in Anthropology, each man having a
skull placed in his hands of which he is expected to make a complete diagnostic
description. For the first part of the tripos each candidate has one or more questions
on the broad general principles of the subject. Professor Macalister informs me that
he has always at least six men who go through a very thorough practical course
with their own hands. There has also lately been established a course of lectures
on the Natural History of the Races of Man, delivered during the Michaelmas and
Lent terms by Dr. Hickson, of Downing College, and Baron von Hiigel gives a
course of museum demonstrations on the weapons, ornaments, and other objects in
the Ethnological Museum, which is open to all students, and of which many take
advantage,

In London, owing to the chaotic condition of all forms of higher instruction,
which has been brought so prominently into notice by the universal demand for a

teaching University (an aspiration which the labours of the late Gresham Com- |

mission certainly seem to have brought nearer to realisation than ever appeared
possible before), all systematic anthropological teaching has been entirely neglected.
The great collections to which I have already alluded, that of arts and customs at
the British Museum, and that of osteological specimens at the Royal College of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 767

‘Surgeons, have by their steady augmentation done valuable service in preserving
a vast quantity of material for future investigation and instruction, and students
have at present all reasonable facilities for pursuing their own researches in
them. Lectures have never formed any part of the official programme of the
British Museum, but at the College of Surgeons it is otherwise, and though the
contents of the collections are specially indicated as the subject on which they
should be delivered, for the last ten years at least, Anthropology, notwithstanding
the magnificent material at hand for its illustration, has had no place in the annual
syllabus. It is also entirely ignored in the examination scheme of the University
of London, an institution which prides itself as being on a level with modern educa-
tional requirements; and the managers of the new Imperial Institute, casting about
in all directions for some worthy object to occupy their energies and their spacious
buildings, do not appear to have taken into serious consideration the value to the
world and the appropriateness to their original design of a great central school of
Anthropology, from which might emanate a full and satisfying knowledge of the
characteristics of all the various races of which the Empire is composed.

In Scotland the recent Universities Commission has recognised Physical
Anthropology as a branch of human anatomy in their scheme for graduation in
pure science, the examination on this subject embracing a knowledge of race
characters as found in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, in the skin, eyes,
hair, features, and the external configuration of the body generally; the methods
of anthropometrical measurement, both of the living body and the skeleton; the

ossible influence of use and of external surroundings in producing modifications
in the physical characters of man, and an acquaintance with the ‘types’ of man-
kind and the structural relations of man to the higher mammals. These regula-
tions came into operation in the University of Edinburgh in 1892, and in accordance
with them Professor Sir William Turner delivers a special course of twenty-five
lectures on Physical Anthropology, and in addition ten practical demonstrations on
osteometry. The museum under his charge has greatly increased of late in number
and value of the specimens. But ‘Human Anatomy, including Anthropology,’ being
only one of a series of nine subjects in any three or more of which a final science
examination on a higher standard has to be passed, there is not at present any
considerable number of students who take it up, and the other Scotch Universities
have not yet thought it necessary to establish distinct courses of Physical Anthro-
pology, although it is becoming more and more a regular part of the anatomical
teaching to advanced students.

For the following account of what is being done to further the knowledge of
our subject in the sister isle Iam indebted to Professor D. J. Cunningham. The
only place in Ireland where anthropological work is done is Trinity College. For
many years those in charge of the museum have been collecting skulls, and they
were fortunate in obtaining the greater part of Sir William Wilde’s collection.
To these great additions have been recently made, principally in the form of Irish
crania from different districts. All the anthropological specimens are lodged in
one large room, which is also used as an anthropometric laboratory. Though there
has never been any systematic teaching of Anthropology in Trinity College, Dr.
C. R. Browne (Professor Cunningham’s able assistant), who takes charge of the
laboratory, attends for two hours on three days a week, and gives demonstrations
in anthropological methods to any students who are interested in the subject.
The laboratory was opened in June 1891, the instruments being provided by a
grant from the Royal Irish Academy, and about 5U0 individuals have already been
measured, the greater number of them students of the College. This is, however,
only part of the work carried out by the laboratory. Every year the instruments
are taken to some selected district in Ireland, and a systematic study of the
inhabitants is made. The Aran Islands, and also the islands of Inishboffin and
Inishshark, have been already worked out, and this year excursions are organised
to Kerry, to a district in Wicklow, and to another in the West of Ireland. The
Academy makes yearly grants to the Committee for carrying on this work, the
results of which have been published in admirable memoirs by Professor A. C.
Haddon and Dr. C. R. Browne. ‘The Science end Art Museum in Dublin, under

768 REPORT—1894.

the direction of Dr. V. Ball, contains a small collection, arranged with a view to

general instruction, showing by means of skulls and casts the physical character-

istics of the different races of man, those of each race being explained by a short
rinted label, and its range shown on a map.

Though the development of anthropological science has thus not been greatly
advanced, in this country at least, by means of endowments, or by aid of the
State or, till very recently, by our great scholastic institutions, but has been mainly
left to the unorganised efforts of amateurs of the subject, its progress in recent

ears has been undeniably great. I will give an instance of the strides that have
ieee made in one of its most important branches.

Physical or Anatomical Anthropology, or the study of the modifications of the
human body under its various aspects, the modifications dependent upon sex and
age, the modifications dependent upon race, and those dependent upon individual
variability, studied not many years ago in a vague and loose manner, has gradually
submitted to a rigorous and, therefore, strictly scientific method of treatment.
The generalities which were formerly used to express the differences that were
recognised between the various subjects compared with each other have been
replaced by terms conveyed in almost mathematical precision. No one acquainted
with the history of the development of this branch of Anthropology can fail to
recognise how much it was accelerated by the genius of Broca, and the school
which he established in France, although all cultivated nations are now vying
with each other in the practice of exactitude in anthropological research, and the
time seems rapidly approaching when a common agreement will be arrived at, by
which all the observations which may be made, under whatever diverse circum-
stances, and by whatever different individuals, will be available for comparison one
with another.

This branch of our science has received the name of ‘ Anthropometry.”
Although, as the name implies, measurement is one of its principal features, it
includes such other methods of comparison as can be reduced to a definite
standard, or to which definite tests can be applied, such ‘as the colour of the
hair, eyes, and complexion, the form of the ear and nose. The great desiderata
that have been sought for, and gradually attained, in measuring either the
skeleton or the living person have been two in number: 1. Exact definition of
the points between which the measurements should be taken. 2, Exact methods
and instruments of measurement. In both these cases the object looked for has
been not only that the measurements taken by the same observer at different
times and under different circumstances should coincide, but also that those
taken by different observers should be comparable. These requirements seem so
simple and natural at first sight that the majority of persons whom I am
addressing will wonder that I should allude to them. Only those who are
seriously occupied, or perhaps I should rather say, only those who were seriously
occupied a few years ago, with the endeavour to solve these problems can have
any idea of their difficulty. The amount of time and labour that has been spent upon
them is enormous, but the result has, I think, been quite commensurate with it.

We have attained at last to methods of measurement and standards of com-
parison which, in the hands of persons of ordinary intelligence, and with a
moderate amount of training, will give data which may be absolutely depended
upon. From these we hope to be able to formulate accurate information as to
the physical conformation of all the groups into which mankind is divided, and
so gradually to arrive at a natural classification of those groups, and a knowledge
of their affinities one to another.

But the exact methods of modern Anthropometry are not only important on
account of the aid they give in studying the race characteristics of man. As has
so often happened when scientific observation has been primarily carried out for
its own sake, it ultimately leads to practical applications undreamt of by its earlier
cultivators. The application of Anthropometry not to the comparison of races,
but to elucidate various social problems—as the laws of growth, of heredity, of
ccmparative capacities of individuals within a community, and the effects of
different kinds of education and occupation, as worked out first by Quetelet in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 769

Belgium, and subsequently by Francis Galton, Roberts, and others in this
~ country—and its still more concrete application as an aid in administering justice
by methods perfected by Bertillon in France, are striking illustrations of the
practical utility of labours originally undertaken under the influence of devotion to
science pure and simple.

The importance of being able to determine the identity of an individual under
whatever circumstances of disguise he may be presented for examination has, of
course, long been apparent to all who have had anything tv do with the adminis-
tration of the criminal law, and rough and ready methods of recognition, de-
pending mainly upon the more or less acute faculty of perception and recollection
of differences and resemblances, possessed by the persons upon whom the duty of
identification has devolved, have long been in operation. The general conforma-
tion, height, form of features, and colour of complexion, hair, and eyes, have also
been noted. Much additional assistance has been obtained by the registration of
definite physical characteristics, the results either of natural conformation, or of
injury, such as mutilations, tattoo-marks, and scars, inflicted by accident or design.
The application of one of the most important scientific discoveries of the age,
photography, was eagerly seized upon as a remedy for the difficulties hitherto
met with in tracing personal identity, and enormous numbers of photographs
were taken of persons, the peculiarities of whose career led them to fall into the
hands of the police, and who were likely to be wanted again on some future
occasion. No doubt much help has been derived from this source, but also much
embarrassment. Even among photographic portraits of one’s own personal
friends, taken under most fayourable circumstances, and with no intention of
deception, we cannot often help exclaiming how unlike they are to the person
represented. With portraits of criminals, the varying expression of the face,
changes in the mode of wearing the hair and beard, differences of costume, the
effects of a long lapse of time, years perhaps passed in degradation and misery,
may make such alterations that recognition becomes a matter at least of un-
certainty. That photographs are extremely valuable as aids to identification,
when their true position in the process is recognised, cannot be doubted; but as a
primary method they have been found to be quite inapplicable, owing partly to
the causes just indicated, but mainly to the difficulty, if not impossibility, of
classifying them. The enormous expenditure of time and trouble that must be
consumed in making the comparison between any suspected person and the
various portraits of the stock which accumulates in prison bureaus may be judged
of from the fact that, in Paris alone, upwards of 100,000 such portraits of persons
interesting to the police have been taken in a period of ten years.

The primary desideratum in a system of identification is a ready means of
classifying the data upon which it is based. To accomplish this is the aim of the
Bertillon system. Exact measurements are taken between certain well-known
and fixed points of the bony framework of the body, which are known not to
change under different conditions of life. The length and breadth of the head,
the length of the middle finger, the length of the foot, and the length of the
forearm, are considered the best, though others are added for greater certainty,
as the height, span of arms, length of ear, colour of eyes, &c. All these par-
ticulars of every individual examined are recorded upon a card, and by dividing
each measurement into three classes, long, medium, and short, and by classifying
the various combinations thus obtained, the whole mass of cards, kept arranged
in drawers in the central bureau, is divided up into groups, each containing a
comparatively small number, and therefore quite easily dealt with. When the
card of a new prisoner is brought in, a few minutes suffice to eliminate the
necessity of comparison with any but one small batch, which presents the special
combination. Then photographs and other means of recognition, as distinctive
marks and form of features, are brought into play, and identification becomes a
matter of certainty. On the other hand, if the combination of measurements upon
a new card does not coincide with any in the classed collection in the bureau, it is
known with absolute certainty that the individual being dealt with has never been
measured before,

1894, 3D

770 REPORT—1894.

One of the most striking results of the introduction of this system into France

has been that, since it has been brought fully into operation, a large proportion of
old offenders, knowing that concealment is hopeless, admit their identity at once,
and save a world of trouble and expense to the police by ceasing to endeavour to
conceal themselves under false names.
' Various representations upon this subject’ have been addressed to the Home
Secretary of our own Government during the last few years, and among others one
from the Council of this Association, which originated in a resolution of this
Section, adopted by the General Committee at the meeting at Edinburgh in 1892,
to this effect:

‘That the Council be requested to draw the attention of Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment to the Anthropometric Method for the measurement of criminals, which is
successfully in operation in France, Austria, and other Continental countries, and
which has been found effective in the identification of habitual criminals, and con-
sequently in the prevention and repression of crime.’

In consequence of these representations a Committee was appointed, on Oct. 21,
1893, by Mr. Asquith, consisting of Mr. C. E. Troup, of the Home Office,
Major Arthur Griffiths, Inspector of Prisons, and Mr. Melville Leslie Macnaghten,
Chief Constable in the Metropolitan Police Force, with Mr. H. B. Simpson, of the
Home Office, as secretary, ‘to inquire (a) into the method of registering and
identifying habitual criminals now in use in England; (6) into the “ Anthropo-
metric” system of classified registration and identification in use in France and
other countries; (c) into the suggested system of identification by means of a
record of finger marks: to report whether the anthropometric system or the
finger-mark system can with advantage be adopted in England either in sub-
stitution for or to supplement the existing methods ; and, if so, what arrangements
should be adopted for putting them into practice, and what rules should be made
under Section 8 of the Penal Servitude Act, 1891, for the photographing and
measuring of prisoners.’

The Report of this Committee, with minutes of evidence and appendices, was
issued as a Parliamentary Blue-book in March last, and not only contains a lucid
and concise description of the methods of identification already in use in this
country, but also most striking testimony from impartial but well-qualified
persons to the value of a more scientific mode of dealing with the subject. No
pains seem to haye been spared to obtain, both by personal observation and by the
examination of competent witnesses, a thorough knowledge of the advantages of
the Bertillon system as practised in France, and the result has been the recom-
mendation of that system, with certain modifications, for adoption in this country,
with the addition of the remarkably simple, ingenious, and certain method of
personal identification first used in India by Sir William Herschel, but fully
elaborated in this country by Mr. Francis Galton, that called the ‘ finger-mark
system,’ about which I shall have a few more words to say presently.

With the concluding words of the Committee’s Report I most fully concur :
‘We may confidently anticipate that, if fairly tried, it will show very satisfactory
results within a few years in the metropolis; but the success of its application in
the country generally will depend on the voluntary co-operation of the independent
county and borough police forces. This, we feel sure, will not be withheld. When
the principles of the system are understood and its usefulness appreciated we
believe it will not only save much time and labour to the police in the performance
of an important duty, but will give them material assistance in tracing and detecting
the antecedents of the guilty, and will afford, so far as its scope extends, an
absolute safeguard to the innocent.’

It is very satisfactory to be able to add that in the House of Commons on
June 26, in answer to a question from Colonel Howard Vincent, the Home Secre-
tary announced that the recommendations of the Committee had been adopted ;
and that, in order to facilitate research into the judicial antecedents of international
criminals, the registers of measurements would be kept on the same plan as that
adopted with such success in France, and also in other Continental countries.

I have just mentioned the ‘finger-mark system,’ and of all the various

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 771

developments of Anthropology in recent times none appears to me more interesting
than the work done by Mr. Galton upon this subject; for though, as indicated
above, he is not quite the first who has looked into the question or shown its
practical application in personal identification, he has carried his work upon it far
beyond that of any of his predecessors, both in its practical application and into
regions of speculation unthought of by anyone else. Simple and insignificant as
in the eyes of all the world are the little ridges and furrows which mark the skin
of the under-surface of our fingers, existing in every man, woman, and child born
into the world, they have been practically unnoticed by everyone until Mr. Galton
has shown, by a detailed and persevering study of their peculiarities, that they are
full of significance, and amply repay the pains and time spent upon their study. It
is not to be supposed that all the knowledge that may be obtained from a minute
examination of them is yet by any means exhausted, but they have already given
important data for the study of such subjects as variation unaffected by natural. or
any other known form of selection, and the difficult problems of heredity, in
addition to their being one of the most valuable means hitherto discovered of
fixing personal identity.

As an example of the importance of some ready method to prove identity, apart
from its application to the detection, punishment, and prevention of crime, to which
I have already referred, I may recall to your recollection that remarkable trial
which agitated the length and breadth of the land rather more than twenty years
ago; a trial which occupied so many months of the precious time of our most
eminent judges and counsel, and cost the country, as well as several innocent
persons—I am afraid to say how many—thousands of pounds, all upon an issue
which might have been settled in two minutes if Roger Tichborne, before starting
on his voyage, had but taken the trouble to imprint his thumb upon a piece of
blackened paper. It is wonderful to me, on reading again the reports of the trial,
to see how comparatively little attention was paid by counsel, judge, or jury, to the
extremely different physical characteristics of the two persons claimed to be
identical, but which were so strongly marked that they ought to have disposed of
the claim, without any hesitation, at the very opening of the case. It was not
until the 102nd day of the first trial that the attention of the jury was pointedly
called to the fact that it was known that Sir Roger Tichborne had been tattooed on
the left arm with a cross, anchor, and a heart, and that the Claimant exhibited no
such marks. When this was clearly brought out and proved, the case broke down
at once. The second trial for perjury occupied the court 188 days, the Lord
Chief Justice’s charge alone lasting eight days. The issues were, however, more
complex than in the first trial, as it was not only necessary to prove that the
Claimant was not Tichborne, but also to show that he was someone else. I feel
convinced that at the present time the greater confidence that is reposed in the
methods of Anthropometry or close observance of physical characters, and in the
persistence of such characters through life, would have greatly simplified the whole
case ; and I would strongly recommend all who have nothing about their lives they
think it expedient to conceal to place themselves under the hands of Mr. Galton,
or one of his now numerous disciples, and get an accurate and unimpeachable
register of all those characteristics which will make loss of identity at any future
period a sheer impossibility.

Partly with this object in view the Association has, for several years past,
during each of its meetings, opened, under the superintendence of Dr. Garson, an
Anthropometric Laboratory, on the plan of the admirable institution of the same
name which has been carried on in the South Kensington Museum since the
beginning of the year 1888, under the direction and at the sole cost of Mr. Francis
Galton, in which up to the present time more than 7,000 complete sets of measure-
ments have been made and recorded. The results obtained at the British Associa-
tion meetings have been published in the Annual Reports of the Association,
and, though on a smaller scale than Mr. Galton’s, the operations of the laboratory
have been most useful in diffusing a knowledge of the value of anthropometric
work, and of the methods by which it is carried on.

For many years an ‘Anthropometric’ Committee of the Association, in which

3D2

772 REPORT—1894,

the late Dr. W. Farr, Mr. F. Galton, Mr. C. Roberts, Dr. Beddoe, Sir Rawson
Rawson, and others, took an active part, was engaged in collecting statistical
information relating to the physical characters, including stature, weight, chest-
girth, colour of eyes and hair, strength of arms, &c., of the inhabitants of the
British Isles ; and their reports, illustrated by maps and diagrams, were published
in the annual volume issued by the Association. This Committee terminated its
labours in 1883, although, as was fully acknowledged in the concluding report, the
subject was by no means completely exhausted.

A great and important work which the Association has now in hand, in some
sense a continuation of that of the Anthropometric Committee, though with a
more extended scope of operation, is the organisation of a complete ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom based upon scientific principles. In this work
the Association has the co-operation of the Society of Antiquaries of London,
the Folk-lore Society, the Dialect Society, and the Anthropological Institute.
Representatives of these different bodies have been formed into a Committee, of
which Mr, E. W. Brabrook is now chairman. It is proposed to record in a
systematic and uniform character for certain typical villages and the neighbouring
districts—(1) the Physical Types of the Inhabitants, (2) their current Traditions
and Beliefs, (3) Peculiarities of Dialect, (4) Monumental and other Remains of
Ancient Culture, and (5) Historical Evidence as to Continuity of Race. The
numerous Corresponding Societies of the Association scattered over various parts
of the country have been invited to co-operate, and the greater number of them
haye cordially responded, and special local committees have been formed in many
places to carry out the work.

The result of a preliminary inquiry as to the places in the United Kingdom
which appeared especially to deserve ethnographic study, mainly on account of the
stationary nature of the population for many generations back, was given in
the first Report of the Committee presented at the Nottingham meeting of the
Association last year, in which it was shown that in the British Isles there are
more than 250 places which, in the opinion of competent authorities, would be
suitable for ethnographic survey, and in which, notwithstanding the rapid changes
which have taken place during the last fifty years in all parts of the country,
much valuable material remains for the Committee to work upon. Without
doubt, as interest in the subject is aroused, this number will be greatly increased.

A most important step in securing the essential condition that the information
obtained should be of the nature really required for the purpose, and that the
records of different observers should be as far as possible of equal value and
comparable one with another, has been the compilation of a very elaborate
and carefully prepared schedule of questions and directions for distribution among
those who have signified their willingness to assist, and as a guarantee that the
answers obtained to the questions in the schedules will be utilised to the fullest
extent, certain members of the Committee specially qualified for each branch of the
work have undertaken to examine and digest the reports when received.

It may be remarked in passing that the Anthropological Society of Paris has
within the past year formed a Commission of its members to collect in a systematic
manner the scattered data which, when united and digested, shall form ‘ une
anthropologie véritablement nationale de la France,’ and has issued a circular
with schedules of the required observations. These are, however, at present
limited to the physical characters of the population.

Among the many services rendered to the science of Anthropology by the
British Association, not the least has been the aid it has afforded in the publication
of that most useful little manual entitled ‘Notes and Queries on Anthropology,’
of which the first edition was brought out exactly twenty years ago (1874), under
the supervision and partly at the expense of General Pitt-Rivers. Since that time
the subject has made such great advances that a second edition, brought up to the
requirements of the present time, was urgently called for. A Committee of
the British Association, appointed to consider and report upon the best means
of doing this, recommended that the work should be placed in the hands of the
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. This recommendation

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 713

was approved by the Association, and grants amounting to 70/. were made to
assist in defraying the cost of publication, The Council of the Anthropological
Institute appointed a Committee of its members to undertake the revision of the
different subjects, with Dr. J.G. Garson and Mr. C. H. Read as editors respectively
of the two parts into which it is divided. The work was published at the end of
the year 1892, and is invaluable to the traveller or investigator in pointing out the
most important subjects of inquiry, and in directing the observations he may have
the means of making into a methodical and systematic channel.

Besides those I have already mentioned, the Association has aided many other
anthropological investigations by the appointment of Committees to carry them
oui, and in some cases by the more substantial method of giving grants from its
funds, and by defraying the cost of publication of the results in its journal.
Among these I may specially mention the series of very valuable Reports upon the
Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada, drawn up by Mr. Horatio Hale, Dr.
F’. Boas, and others, the importance of which has been recognised by the Canadian
Government in the form of a grant in aid of the expenses.

Another very interesting investigation into the Habits, Customs, Physical
Characteristics, and Religion of the Natives of Northern India, initiated by Mr.
H. H. Risley, and carried on under his supervision by the Indian Government,
though it has received little more than moral support from the Association, may
be mentioned here on account of the illustration it affords of the value of exact
anthropometric methods in distinguishing groups of men. Although a practised eye
can frequently tell at a glance the tribe or caste of a man brought before it for
the first time, the special characters upon which the opinion is based have only
lately been reduced to any definite and easily comparable method of description.
In Mr. Risley’s examination, the nose, for instance (which I have always held to be
one of the most: important of features for classificatory purposes), instead of being
vaguely described as broad or narrow, is accurately measured, and the proportion
of the greatest width to the length (from above downwards), or the ‘ nasal index,’
as it is termed (though it must not be confounded with the nasal index as defined
by Broca upon the skull), gives a figure by which the main elements of the com-
position of this feature in any individual may be accurately described. The average
or mean nasal indices of a large number of individuals of any race, tribe, or caste offer
means of comparison which bring out most interesting results. By this character
alone the Dravidian tribes of India are easily separated from the Aryan. ‘Even
more striking is the curiously close correspondence between the gradations of racial
type indicated by the nasal index and certain of the social data ascertained by
independent inquiry. If we take a series of castes in Bengal, Behar, or the North-
Western Provinces, and arrange them in the order of the average nasal index, so
that the caste with the finest nose shall be at the top, and that with the coarsest
at the bottom of the list, it will be found that this order substantially corresponds
with the accepted order of social precedence. The casteless tribes—Kols, Korwas,
Mundas, and the like—who have not yet entered the Brahmanical system, occupy
the lowest place in both series. Then come the vermin-eating Musuhars and the
leather-dressing Chamiars. The fisher castes of Bauri, Bind, and Kewat are a
trifle higher in the scale; the pastoral Goala, the cultivating Kurmi, and a group
of cognate castes—from whose hands a Brahman may take water—follow in due
order ; and from them we pass to the trading Khatris, the landholding Babhans,
and the upper crust of Hindu society. Thus, it is scarcely a paradox to lay down
as a law of the caste organisation in Kastern India that a man’s social status varies
in inverse ratio to the width of his nose.’ The results already obtained by this
method of observation have been so important and interesting that it is greatly to
be hoped that the inquiry may be extended throughout the remainder of our Indian
Empire.

But for want of time I might here refer to the valuable work done in relation
to the natives of the Andaman Islands, a race mm many respects of most excep-
tional interest, first by Mr. E. H. Man, and more recently by Mr. M. V. Portman,
and for the same reason can scarcely glance at the great progress that is being

774 REPORT—1894..

made in anthropological research in other countries than our own, The numerous
workers on this subject in the United States of America are, with great assistance
from the Government, very properly devoting themselves to exploring, collecting,
and publishing, in a systematic and exhaustive manner, every fact that can still be
discovered relating to the history, language, and characters of the aboriginal
population of their own land. They have in this a clear duty set before them,
and they are doing it in splendid style. I wish we could say that the same has
been done with all the native populations in various parts of the world which have
been, to use a current phrase, ‘ disestablished and disendowed’ by our own country-
men. We are, however, now, as I have shown, not altogether unmindful of what
is our duty to posterity in this respect ; a duty, perhaps, more urgent than that
of any other branch of scientific investigation, as it will not wait. It must be
done, if ever, before the rapid spread of civilised man all over the world, one of the
most remarkable characteristics of the age in which we live, has obliterated what
still remains of the original customs, arts, and beliefs of primitive races; if, indeed,
it has not sueceeded—as it too often does—in obliterating the races themselves.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1, The Report of the Anthropometric Laboratory Committee.
See Reports, p. 444.

2. The Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee.
See Reports, p. 419.

3. The Report of the Committee on Anthropometry in Schools.
See Reports, p. 439.

4, On the Diffusion of Mythical Beliefs as Evidence in the History of
Culture. By Epwarp B, Tyxor, D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.

The purpose of this communication was to illustrate and systematise the use of
correspondence in culture as means of tracing lines of connection and intercourse
between ancient and remote peoples. Mythical beliefs are especially referred to as
furnishing good evidence of this class, notwithstanding their want of objective
value, The conception of weighing in a spiritual balance in the judgment of the
dead, which makes its earliest appearance in the Egyptian religion, was traced
thence into a series of variants, serving to draw lines of intercourse through the
Vedic and Zoroastrian religions, extending from Eastern Buddhism to Western
Christendom. The associated doctrine of the Bridge of the Dead, which separates
the good, who pass over, from the wicked, who fall into the abyss, appears first in
ancient Persian religion, reaching in like manner to the extremities of Asia and
Europe. By these mythical beliefs historical ties are practically constituted, con-
necting the great religions of the world, and serving as lines along which their
interdependence is to be followed out. Evidence of the some kind was brought
forward in support of the theory, not sufficiently recognised by writers on culture
history, of the Asiatic influences under which the pre-Columbian culture of
America took shape. In the religion of old Mexico four great scenes in the
journey of the soul in the land of the dead are mentioned by early Spanish writers
after the conquest, and are depicted in a group in the Aztec picture-writing known
as the Vatican Codex. The four scenes are, first, the crossing of the river; second,
the fearful passage of the soul between the two mountains which clash together;
third, the soul’s climbing up the mountain set with sharp obsidian Imives; fourth,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. Kid

the dangers of the wind carrying such knives on its blast. The Mexican pictures
of these four scenes were compared with more or less closely corresponding pictures
representing scenes from the Buddhist hells or purgatories as depicted on Japanese
temple scrolls. Here, first, the river of death is shown, where the souls wade
across; second, the souls have to pass between two huge iron mountains, which
are pushed together by two demons; third, the guilty souls climb the mountain of
knives, whose blades cut their hands and feet; fourth, fierce blasts of wind drive
against their lacerated forms, the blades of knives flying through the air. It was
argued that the appearance of analogues so close and complex of Buddhist ideas in
Mexico constituted a correspondence of so high an order as to preclude any expla-
nation except direct transmission from one religion to another. The writer,
referring also to Humboldt’s argument from the calendars and mythic catastrophes
in Mexico and Asia, and to the correspondence in Bronze Age work and in games
in both regions, expressed the opinion that on these cumulative proofs anthro-
pologists might well feel justified in treating the nations of America as having
reached their level of culture under Asiatic influence.

5. On Complexional Differences between Natives of Ireland with In-
digenous and Exotic Surnames respectively. By JoHN BEDDOE,
WD, LL. D., F.R.S.

Taking his data chiefly from the military reports, the author shows that while
the former class of Irishmen are largely characterised by the prevalence of light
eyes and dark hair, in the latter dark hair is much less frequent. He suggests
that a simple mixture of Englishmen, Scotchmen, &c., with the natives should
have also decidedly increased the proportion of dark eyes, which has not been the
case to any considerable extent ; and that the influence of climate, which, if operative
at all, should tell in favour of the blonde complexion, may have had some effect
upon an unstable cross-breed.

Byes’) se Light Dark

Eisir’ . |Red| Fair | Brown! Dark |Black |Totl | Red | Fair Brown| Dark Black | Totl.

ss ie hea RO eRe a WS A a Lela i
ied bigs 20°6 | 264 |19°3 | 4:5 ‘apie 2:9 7-9 |10°2 | 3-1 | 25:4

Exotic : ¥ : : ‘ 79.4] 1- ; : : ss
ence ee 22°9 | 29-1 |16:2 | 2°8 tae 34 | 10:2 | 8-7 (27 26°4

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. The Report of the Committee on Prehistoric and Ancient Remains
in Glamorganshire.—See Reports, p. 418.

2. The Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Elbolton Cave.
See Reports, p. 270.

3, The Report of the Committee on the Explorations at Oldbury Hill.

776 REPORT—1894.,
4, On the Evolution of Stone Implements, By H. Storss,

The author defined an ‘Implement’ to be any stone used to facilitate man’s
actions, not necessarily made, but used; use being determined by wear. By
‘Evolution’ he meant a series of improvements in flint implements, the result of
mental processes and widening experience, though points are reached in all de-
velopments, beyond which advance on the same lines stops.

The earliest tools were any chance natural stones used for breaking, bruising,
or hammering. Traces of use are not perceived on these unless they were fre-
quently used, when they became worn or polished. The next step was the selec-
tion of stones suitable for given purposes, and convenient to be held in the
hand, The only signs these show of being implements are also marks of wear.
The author showed many such specimens, and referred to the collection of
Mr, Harrison, of Ightham. Natural stones were next gradually trimmed for use
by a few strokes. These also were illustrated by a series of what the author
termed ‘transitional’ forms, as they are intermediate between the selected and used,
and the worked and used, or Paleolithic implements, The transitional stones are
frequently large and rough, generally left-handed, and with thick patination.
The terms Palzolithic and Neolithic have become indefinite. Many of the
Paleoliths are evidently meant for handles, and some of them are of finer work
than the Neoliths. Specimens were shown from many localities, but chiefly from
the upper-level gravels of Kent, from 80 feet to 300 feet above the O.D., in-
cluding anvils, hammers, anchors, net-weights, single- and double-pointed drills or
borers, gyrators, axes, spokeshaves, fabricators and arrow-heads; and their parallels
were shown from each period. These are the types of many of the steel tools of
to-day. A set of sharp-pointed axes having a spiral twist were shown to be deve-
loped into the peculiar gyrators of the rock-shelter men, found also amongst the
gravels of Swanscomb. Specially instructive are the natural but used stones.
Fully half of these show no bulb of percussion. These invaluable records are fast
disappearing from free use for concrete and road metal. The importance of pre-
serving worked stones for the use of future students, and the value to the critic of
being able to compare a large series together, in order to form just conclusions,
were pointed out.

5. A Joint Discussion with Section C on the Plateau Flint Implements of
North Kent was held, for which see p. 651.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. The Report of the Committee on the Mental and Physical Condition of
Children.—See Reports, p. 434.

2. On a New System of Hieroglyphics and a Pre-Phenician Script
Srom Crete and the Peloponnese. By Antuur J. Evans, JA.

The author said that the Mycenzan civilisation was in many respects the
equal contemporary of those of Egypt and Babylonia, and they might well ask
themselves, Was this civilisation wholly dumb? Homer, at least, contained a
hint that some form of written symbols was in use.

During a journey to Greece in the preceding year Mr. Evans had obtained a
clue to the existence of a peculiar kind of seal-stones—the chief find-spot of which
seemed to be Crete—presenting symbols of a hieroglyphic nature. This spring he
had been able to follow up his inquiries by the exploration of the ancient sites of
Central and Eastern Crete, and the result of his researches had been to bring to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 777

light a series of stones presenting pictographic symbols of the same nature, so
that he was now able to put together over seventy symbols belonging to an inde~
pendent hieroglyphic system. More than this, he had discovered, partly on stones
of similar form, partly engraved on prehistoric vases and other materials, a series
of linear characters, a certain proportion of which seemed to grow out of the
pictorial forms. Both these systems of writing were represented as the diagrams
exhibited. It would be seen that, as in the case of the Egyptian and Hittite
symbols, the Cretan hieroglyphs fell into certain distinct classes, such as parts of
the human body, arms and implements, animal and vegetable forms, objects re-
lating to maritime life, astronomical and geometrical symbols. Some of them,
such as the two crossed arms with expanded palms, belonged to that interesting
class of pictographs which is rooted in primitive gesture language. The symbols
occurred in groups, and there were traces of a boustrophedon arrangement in the
several lines. The comparisons instituted showed some interesting aflinities to
Hittite forms. Among the tools represented, Mr. Evans was able to recognise
the ‘template’ or ‘templet’ of a decorative artist, and, with the assistance of a
model of this symbol taken in connection with a design supplied by a Mycenzean
gem found in Crete, he was able to reconstruct a Mycenzan painted ceiling
analogous to those of Orchomenos and the eighteenth-dynasty Egyptian tombs of
Thebes (circa 1600 B.c.).

The linear and more alphabetic series of symbols was shown to fit on to
certain signs engraved on the walls of what was apparently a Mycenzan palace
at Knésos, and again to two groups of signs on vase-handles from Mycene, It
was thus possible to reconstruct a Mycenzan script of some twenty-four characters,
each probably having a syllabic value. It further appeared that a large proportion
of these were practically identical with the syllabic signs that survived among the
Greeks of Cyprus to a comparatively late date. The Cypriote system threw a
light on the phonetic value of the Mycenzean.

Resuming the results arrived at, Mr. Evans said that they had now before
them two systems of primitive script—one pictographic, the other linear—both, as
was shown by the collateral archeological evidence, belonging to the second
millennium before our era, and to the days before the Phcenician alphabet had
been introduced among the Greeks. Some pictorial forms, however, of the one
series clearly appeared in a linear form in the other; the double axe, for instance,
being seen in two stages of linearisation—the simpler form identical with the
Cypriote character. On the whole, the pictographic or hieroglyphic series seemed
more peculiarly indigenous to Crete, and the linear forms to be Mycenzean in the
widest sense. The Eteocretans, or indigenous stock of the island, who preserved
their language and nationality in the east of the island to the borders of the
historic period, certainly used these hieroglyphs. Mr. Evans gave reasons, based
on his recent archeological discoveries in Eastern Crete, for believing—what had
long been suspected on historic and linguistic grounds—that the Philistines who,
according to unanimous Hebrew traditions, came from the Mediterranean islands,
and who are often actually called Kretht in the Bible, represented in fact this
old indigenous Cretan stock; and that they had here the relics and the writing of
‘the Philistines at home.’ On Egyptian monuments a people, who came from
‘the islands of the sea,’ are seen bearing tributary vases of forms, some of which
- recur on a whole series of engraved gems seen or collected by Mr. Iivans in
Eastern and Central Crete. Their dress, their peaked shoes, their long hair
falling under their arms, all recurred on Cretan designs, representing the in-
habitants of the island in Mycenzan times.

3. Exhibition of Prehistoric Objects collected during a Journey and Explora-
tions in Central and Eastern Crete. By Artuur J. Evans, 1.4.

778 REPORT—1894.

4. The Heredity of Acquired Characters.
By Professor A. Macauister, ID., F.RS.

5. Notes on Skin, Hair, and Pigment.
By Professor ArrHur Tuomson, JA.

6. On the Anthropological Significance of Ticklishness.
By Louis Rosrnson, J.D.

The ticklishness which is so marked in children, and which is associated with
laughter, appears to be different from the ticklishness of the surface of the skin.

Its universal distribution indicates that it was at one time of importance,
although at present it appears to fill no place in the animal economy.

It is found that in young apes, puppies, and other like animals, the most
ticklish regions correspond to the most vulnerable spots in a fight. In the mock
fights of immaturity, skill in defending these spots is attained.

In children, and in anthropoid apes which fight with their canine teeth, the
most ticklish regions are practically identical. Young orangs and chimpanzees
grin, and behave otherwise much like children when tickled.

It seems probable, therefore, that in the ticklishness of children we have a
vestige of a state of racial development when the canine teeth were habitually used
by our ancestors in war for mates or food.

7. On the Bow as a Musical Instrument. By H. Baurour, M.A.

The bow has been for a long while commonly accepted as the prototype of a
large series of stringed musical instruments. Witness the Greek legend which
attributed the first appreciation of the musical potentialities of a tense string to
Apollo, who observed them in the twang of the bowstring. In India legend refers
the invention of stringed instruments to Siva, who used a bow for musical pur-
poses. In Japan the origin of the six-stringed koto is, in the legend of Amaterasu,
traced to an extemporised instrument composed of six bows lashed together. So,
too, modern writers have for the most part regarded the bow as a parent form of
many of the instruments even of the highest types. Stages in the probable
phylogenetic development of stringed instruments may be studied in the survivals
of primitive forms still existing in various countries. Simplest of all is the mono-
chord of the Damaras (Herero), extemporised from the’ ordinary shooting bow of
the country by the addition of a string bracing the bowstring to the bow, and
thus tightening it and dividing it into two parts, whose notes are elicited by tap-
ping upon the string with a small stick. To increase the resonance the bow is held
to the mouth of the performer. Stage 2 is represented in many parts of Africa
by musical bows, still simple bows, very slightly modified for musical purposes
only. These are either held in the teeth or to the mouth, or rested upon resonant
bodies (gourds, &c.) to increase resonance, Stage 3 is that in which a resonator is
attached to the bow, usually a gourd, as in the Zulu ‘gubo.’ Musical bows in these *
three stages occur from the Niger down the west of Africa to the Cape, and along
the more easterly regions as far north as the Dohr or Bongo tribes. This dis-
tribution is nearly continuous. In Asia we meet at the present day with musical
bows in forms corresponding with stage 2, as in the Pinaka of North India, a lightly
made bow strung with fine string. Also the musical bow of the Bhuiyars (abori-
ginal) of Mirzapur, though this is an aberrant form. It seems likely that a musical
bow almost identical with the bow and gourd resonator of South Africa exists in
India, this observation being partly based upon a small figure of a man with such
a bow in the Pitt-Rivers collection, and partly upon a study of forms which seem
to have passed through such a stage. In the Malay regions we find musical bows.
used with or without resonators in the ‘ busoi’ of Borneo, and in a simple form in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 779

Timor. Eastwards a variety occurs in the ‘ pangolo’ of New Britain, a bow with
two strings, one of which is braced to the bow with a string, as in South African
examples. In the Solomon Islands miniature bows are played upon with the
fingers ; at least three varieties are known there, one of which has two strings
(‘kalove’ of Florida Island). In the Marquesas group a musical bow exists; and
in the Sandwich Islands an instrument is found which, though it can hardly be
called a ‘ bow,’ is evidently closely allied to the two-stringed ‘ kalove’ of Florida
Island. In the New World a pretty wide range is seen for the musical bow, but
as it is here evidently of African origin, and owes its transmission to the immi-
eration of African labour, the instrument in this region calls for no special
remark,

In Africa one may still trace stages in the development of the primitive forms
of harps from the musical bow, while the more elaborate harps of the ancient
Egyptians and Greeks show unmistakable signs of this original derivation, as does
the modern harp of Burma, and that of the Ossetes of the Caucasus, as also several
harp-like forms of medieval times in Western Europe. These all agree in the
absence of a supporting front pillar, and the many obvious inconveniences of these
forms justify one in saying that these instruments would never have come into
existence except as a gradual development from primitive bow-like forms, the
awkwardness of whose structure persisted through a somewhat blind adherence to
traditional form. In India there is evidence that the ‘ vina’ owes its origin to the
bow, there still surviving various intermediate types which can reasonably be
regarded as survivals of various stages in the phylogeny of the group.

8. The Relations between Body and Mind, as expressed in Early Languages,
Customs, and Myths. By Rev. G. Hartwext Jonss, J/.A.

The conditions in which early races lived precluded the possibility of arriving
at anything like anatomy or psychology. Yet some crude notions appear in
ancient literatures, customs, and myths, and these become more intelligible when
viewed in the light of similar superstitions which have prevailed at all times
among unprogressive tribes of savages. Naturally, the study of the physical frame
and mental constitution received but little attention before the rise of science in the
East and Asia Minor.

That the Indo-European Urvolk must have had some knowledge of (i.) the
body is proved by their common inheritance of descriptive words for parts of the
human frame. Even where the roots of vocables relating to the body are not akin,
there is a resemblance in the conceptions prevalent in widely distant parts of Europe,
and, indeed, of the globe. Among their common possessions are (1) words, some
describing the creation of the body, others the shape, others the substance. Again,
(2) the similarity of the conceptions is noteworthy. When analysed, these exhibit
a growth of meaning, transition of thought, and gradual gain in distinctness of
idea. At first, however, there is constant confusion. Thus the bodily sense is
confused with its organ, and a connection was supposed to exist between defects of
the body and mental weakness. The habit also of employing one member to repre-
sent the whole is frequently found in early stages of language, and particularly in
poetry. And if the ideas concerning the body and its parts were indistinct, as was
to be expected in the earlier stages of human development, still more vague was
the knowledge of (ii.) the mind and its phenomena. Especially common among primi-
tive and backward races is the notion that life, mind, and soul are air, vapour, or
shade; for example, in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Teutonic languages. Their
general idea, too, of the mental faculties was hazy. Even as late as Homer's age
the body was regarded as the source of all actions, but by the poet’s time know-
ledge had progressed far enough to discriminate the intellectual and emotional
faculties, the power of reflection, memory, and imagination. In this connection
several interesting points arise: (a) in the growth of language and thought the
physical and concrete precede the psychical and abstract; for instance, in Greek,
Latin, Persian, Sanskrit, and Chinese. (8) There was until a very late period still

780 REPORT—1894.,

some confusion between the functions of the different parts of the body, or between
the functions of the blood in relation to those of body and mind. Equally loose
are the notions respecting (ili.) bodily and mental disease. At first the diseased
were put to death, and when tbe heeling art originated, diseases were attributed
to divine or demoniacal agency. Such was the case even with the Assyrians,
Babylonians, and Greeks. This being the case, supernatural remedies were sought,
and although by Homer’s day human methods were employed, yet traces of the
Divine influence are distinctly discernible. This is seen in the propitiation of evil
spirits, such as Nosos, Febris, Apollo, Artemis; in the superstitious reverence
with which epilepsy and madness were regarded, together with many other super-
stitions of which glimpses appear as late as Plato. Especially instructive is the
worship of Asculapius, the patron of medicine, whose history, stripped of the
legendary lore that has gathered around him, reveals an historical personage. His
traditional descent from the Sun-God, his initiation by the Thessalian Centaur, the
combination of incantations and prayers, with human aids, like embrocations,
salves, potions, and the knife, the peculiar custom of xarakoiwaoGa, and the im-
portant part played by the serpent and the cock in his worship, exhibit a
strange mixture of the natural and supernatural, and well illustrate the early
evolution of the art of medicine.

An examination of the growth of knowledge of the body and mind, and their
treatment, therefore affords further proof that (1) the primitive condition of the
pioneers of civilisation was no higher than that of savages; (2) the parallels
presented by words and ideas in countries widely separated from one another
cannot be satisfactorily explained by coincidence; (8) the civilisation of Western
Europe, viewed as a whole, began in contact with the East.

9. On the Alleged Presence of Negritoes in Borneo.
By H. Line Ror.

The circumstantial evidence collected by the late Mr. Earl that a people of a
negroid character existed in Borneo, and the discovery by M. Hamy of a negrito
skull from that island, has led to the established belief that negritoes exist there.
The skull in question undoubtedly came from Borneo, and it is undoubtedly a
negrito skull; but there is no proof that it originated in Borneo. We know that
Andaman Islanders (negritoes) have been kidnapped by Malay and Ianum pirates
and carried to India and other parts, so that for the present, in spite of the
strong circumstantial evidence, we must withhold our judgment as to whether
negritoes exist in Borneo.

10. On the Possibility of a Common Language between Man and other
Animals. By Miss Acnes G. WELD.

The authoress pointed out that the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans believed that
at one time man and animals could understand each other’s languages, whilst at
the present day an Irish peasant will tell you that the cock, on Easter morning,
crows in good Erse the tidings that the Lord is risen. In these old and popular
legends most stress is laid on the acquisition of human speech by animals, whereas
modern scientific effort is tending in the reverse direction. She believes that, with
the exception of the parrot and one or two other birds, the creatures below us in
the scale of existence are unable to pronounce the full gamut of sounds we can
utter, some making use of vowels alone, others merely of consonants, so that it is
far easier for us to speak in their language than for them to talk in ours. Miss
‘Weld proceeded to exemplify this by telling of a daily conversation she used to
hold with a wild nightingale, and then narrated the remarkable effect produced by
her upon a savage retriever that had set upon a collie. Miss Weld described how,
~when she had growled out certain deep notes of dog language, an awestruck
expression came into the retriever’s eyes; and how, instantly letting go his hold of

Lo

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 78h

the collie, he answered the deep notes by a whispered growl, backing as he did so
into a corner, where he remained, in the most abject terror, not venturing to stir
till Miss Weld was out of sight.

11. On Mythical Pygmy Races.
By Professor BertRAM WINDLE, D.Sc., M.D.

In this communication it was shown that the idea of mythical pygmy peoples,
fairies, or elves, was diffused throughout the world; that whilst general teatures
of resemblance were present, there were many points of distinction, and notably
with regard to the nature of their supposed dwelling-places, an account of which
was given.

An attempt was made to show that no single explanation is adequate to
account for these legendary races, but that a number of elements enter into the
composition of the myth.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Pygmies in Europe. By Professor J. Kotimann, ID.

Near Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, a prehistoric settlement was described by the
author which had been used successively in Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Metallic
times. Each period was distinctly separated from the other by a differently
coloured stratum. The Paleolithic stratum contained a large number of the broken
bones of reindeer, also those of horse, ice-fox, bear, and other animals in less
number. No human bones were found in it, only worked flakes. It was covered
over by a layer of breccia, 80 cm. thick, which contained no traces of man.

Over this came the Neolithic stratum, of an average thickness of 40 cm., which
contained potsherds and large quantities of ashes, giving itagrey tinge. The animal
remains found in it were those of stag, roe, black bear, ox, &c.; the reindeer had
entirely disappeared. The uppermost stratum is a layer of humus 40 to 50 cm.
thick. During its formation man had ceased to settle there for any length of time
under the shelter of the overhanging rocks. A few implements were found in it,
but they were of an inferior kind, so that this layer of the so-called Metallic period
calls for no further comment. Not so with the Neolithic stratum, in which were
more than twenty human interments, both of adults and children. Eleven of the
latter varied in age from the new-born child up to that of seven years, and some of
them were buried with particular care. The adult interments consisted of the
skeletal remains of (a) full-grown European types, and (4) small-sized people, which
must be considered as pygmies of the Neolithic period of Europe. These two
races were found interred side by side under precisely similar conditions ; from which
it may be concluded that they lived peacefully together, notwithstanding their great
racial difference. The remains of four of these pygmies, and probably of a fifth, were
found. Their stature, estimated according to Manouvrier’s method, from the femur,
is as follows:—No. 2, 1,416 mm.; No. 12, 1,355 mm., and No. 14, 1,500 mm.,
giving an average of 1,424 mm. ‘This may be compared with the average stature
of the Veddas of Ceylon, which is 1,576 mm., according to Sarasin, and with the
skeleton of an Andaman Islander measured by the author, in which the femur
measured 424 mm., the stature of the skeleton being 1,500 mm., while the femora
= the Swiss Neolithic pygmies are: No. 2,369 mm.; No. 12, 355 mm., and No, 14,
393 mm.

There were seven interments of the taller race, of which the femur of No. 5
measured 454 mm., giving a stature of 1,662 mm., which Rollet found to be the
average height of adult Frenchmen. The remains of the other individuals of this
race could not ke satisfactorily measured.

782 REPORT—1894..

The author stated, on the authority of Professor Virchow, that the bones of the
small race are not those of a pathologically degenerated people, but of normal
structure. In connection with this find it is important to note that Sergi and
Mantia have discovered some living pygmies in Sicily and Sardinia, mostly under
1,506 mm. in height in Sicily. In appearance they look like miniature Europeans.
In the author’s opinion these small types must be regarded, not as diminutive
examples of normal races, but as a distinct species of mankind which occurs in
several types dispersed over the globe; and he is led to believe that they have been
the precursors of the larger types of man.

2. On some Stone Implements of Australian Type from Tasmania.
By E. B. Tyxor, D.C.L., FBS.

The ordinary stone implements used by the Tasmanians were remarkable for
their rudeness. They come generally under the definition of substantial flakes,
trimmed and edged by chipping on one side only, not ground even at the edge, and
grasped in the hand without any kind of handle. The Paleolithic level of these
implements, notwithstanding their often recent date, had been pointed out by the
writer.! In illustration of this comparison, Tasmanian implements were now
exhibited side by side with flint implements from the cavern of Le Moustier, in
Dordogne. But an important point of exception as to this comparison, mentioned
in the paper referred to, demands reconsideration in view of the new evidence now
brought forward. In the investigation as to native stone implementsconducted about
twenty years ago by the Royal Society of Tasmania, some exceptional statements
were made as to stone axes or ‘tomahawks’ being ground to an edge, and fixed in
handles, and these were explained as due to the Australian natives who have
passed into Tasmania since the European settlement. What was meant by these
statements now appears more clearly from three ground implements of distinctly
Australian character, well authenticated as brought from Tasmania, and now
exhibited by the courtesy of the Municipality of Brighton, to whose museum they
belong. The largest has a label showing that it was obtained through Dr. Joseph
Milligan, probably from G. A. Robinson, the first protector of the aborigines after
the native war; and that it was grasped in the hand for notching trees in climb-
ing. The other two specimens are merely marked ‘ Tasmanian,’ with the initials
“G. A.R.’ The coexistence of two such different types as the chipped and ground
forms in Tasmania requires, however, further explanation. This may probably be
found in the immigration of Australians either after or before the English colonisa-
tion, but it would be desirable that anthropologists in Tasmania should make
further inquiry into the question on the spot, so as fully to clear up the interesting
position of the Tasmanian Stone Age.

3. On Tasmanian Stone Implements. By H. Line Roru.

4. The Troglodytes of the Bruniquel, a Grotto of Ironworks on the
Borders of Aveyron. By Dr. Em1Le CarTaILHac.

The collection of which M. Emile Cartailhac showed photographs has been
formed by the Viscomte de Lastie. It is the complement of the beautiful series
acquired some time ago by the British Museum.

‘The engravings upon bone and the sculptures representing animals are very
remarkable, and throw a bright light on the art of the Reindeer Age. Amongst the
most interesting objects are the straight beams of reindeer horn, sculptured at one
extremity in the form of a horse as seen from the front, head lowered against the
breast, feet joined. There are several pieces of this kind, almost similar. Lartet
found similar specimens, but broken and unrecognisable, in the layers of the

‘ <On the Tasmanians as Representatives of Paleolithic Man’ in Journ. Anthrop.
Tnst., vol. xxiii. 1893, p. 141. .

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 783

Dordogne. Others have been described in the rock shelters of the Pyrenees and
in Switzerland. M. Cartailhac laid stress on the conclusions which can be deduced
from the presence of similar pieces in layers so remote. Of all the sculptured
objects of the same epoch this is the only one which to any extent had a look of
repetition.

' M. Emile Cartailhac then entered into an exposition of the facts which led him
to consider that neither the reindeer nor the horse was domesticated or bridled
during the Reindeer Age.

5. A New Statuette of the Reindeer Age representing a Woman, Sculptured
in Ivory, By Dr. Emme Carrainuac.

The rock shelters of Brassempouy, on the waste land north of the little village
of Orthes, includes one of the richest layers of the Quaternary epoch. The mam-
moth and its contemporaneous fauna are largely represented ; with flints, recalling
to mind in some instances the types of Langerie Haute and of Solutré, lay a certain
number of the worked bones and also remarkable pieces of sculpture, some of which
have been described in ‘ Matérieux ’ and elsewhere ; others are still unpublished.

Amongst the latter is a broken ivory statuette, collected by M. Dubalen,
Conservateur of the Museum of Mont de Marsan, a portion of which M. Emile
Cartailhac has reconstructed. The loss of the upper part of the bust in this
specimen is very unfortunate, since, if one may judge by the rest of the body, it
was carved with great regard to truth and exactitude. ‘This human representation
is the best made one which is known of the reindeer period. It proves once more
the value of the artistic sentiment of these distant ages.

These engravings and prehistoric sculptures have frequently been compared to
those of the primitive populations of North America and Asia, but the more these
works multiply, the more they affirm the incomparable superiority of the troglo-
dytes, our ancestors.

M. Emile Cartailhac exhibited the original specimen,

6. The End of the Stone Age on the Borders of the Mediterranean Basin.
By Dr, Emme CartaiLuac.

The author explained the analogies and identities proved to exist at the two
extremities of the Mediterranean—in Egypt, at Troy, in Greece, and at Santorin at
the one end, and in Spain at the other end.

The civilisation, which corresponds to the end of the Stone Age, appears to have
special characters and a remarkable uniformity. It does not only influence the
same objects, but especially the manners and customs, as shown by exhumed monu-
ments, houses, small market towns, fortifications, and tombs.

Between the East and the Iberian Peninsula, transition is shown by the
numerous discoveries in Italy, France, Algeria, Tunis, and the Islands. The con-
nections of this primitive civilisation with the Stone Age of the rest of Europe are
remarkable, and illustrate best the diversity of their origins,

7. On the Present State of Prehistoric Studies in Belgium.
By Count GoBLeT D’ALVIELLA,

The author reviewed briefly the various investigations which have been made
in Belgium regarding the early history of man in that country, beginning with
the exploration of the caves, which have in recent years, as well as in earlier
times, yielded Such interesting results as to their occupation as far back as the
period of the mammoth and the reindeer, and also in Neolithic times. He then
proceeded to give an account of Quaternary finds in the plains, consisting of
flint implements in all stages of manufacture, both of Paleolithic and Neolithic

784 REPORT—1894.

times. The manufacture of flint implements appeared to have been an important
industry, extending all over Belgium.

The sites of Neolithic occupation are situated near streams, on the tops of hills,
and promontories of high ground. Villages have been found consisting of
symmetrically grouped huts excavated in the soil. They contain no trace of
metals, only tools of polished flint and fragments of baked pottery made on the
wheel, and with linear ornamentation.

Recent researches have shown the existence of Dolmen monuments, which
was till lately denied. The existence of a real Bronze Age in Belgium has also
been disputed, but finds of bronze articles in tumuli associated with incineration
and burials are becoming more numerous,

The beginning of the Iron Age is undoubtedly represented in Belgium in
various burial-grounds and tumuli, which have recently yielded new and fruitful

researches.

8. Observations on the Antiquity of Man in? Belgium.
By Professor Max Longest.

9. Exploration of British Camps and a Long Barrow near Rushmore.
By General Pirt-Rivers, /.2.S.

10. On a New Craniometer. By General Pirt-Rivers, F.R.S.

11. On the Long Barrow Skeletons from Rushmore.
By J. G. Garson, M.D.

12. Report of the Committee on the Glastonbury Exploration.
See Reports, p. 431.

13. On Ancient Bone Skates. By Ropert Munro, V.D.

The author commenced by observing that the contradictory opinions enun-
ciated by archeologists in regard to the period when bone skates were used
justified this attempt to define their position in early European civilisation with
greater precision than had hitherto been done. Bone skates had been found in
large numbers in the 7 erp-mounds of Holland, and among the débris of the
ancient town of Birka, on the island of Bjérké, in Lake Malar. Sporadic examples
“were to be seen in various museums throughout Northern Europe, said to have
been found in grave-mounds, lake-dwellings, canal-diggings, &c. The late
Dr. Lindenschmit promulgated the opinion that these objects belonged to the
Stone Age, and this opinion had been subsequently adopted by various arche-
ologists. In this paper Dr. Munro has collected and criticised the details of all
the hitherto-recorded discoveries, and comes to the conclusion that there is no
trustworthy evidence in support of the theory that bone skates were ever used
in prehistoric times in Europe. According to the author, they would appear to
have been invented by the early Teutonic races who inhabited the shores of the
Baltic, and to have been introduced into Britain by the early immigrants, who
hailed probably from among the superfluous inhabitants of the Terpen. This
opinion is supported by their geographical distribution, which embraced Holland,
Denmark, the lower portions of Scandinavia, North Germany, and a small district

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 785

in England extending along its eastern shore, including York, Lincoln, and
London.

14. On the People of Western Ireland and their Mode of Life.
By Professor A. C. Happon.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On three Neolithic Settlements in North Kent. By Mrs. Stopes.

Mrs. Stopes treated the topographical relations of the localities in which she
has found the traces of Neolithic settlements in the neighbourhood of Swans-
combe. They all face east. Is there any possible meaning in this? The shapes
of the tools and flakes are very similar, though there must have been long intervals
at least between two of them, as one tribe used the pebbles of the Woolwich and
Reading beds, the other fresh chalk flints of a fine quality. Mrs. Stopes also
noted the information to be gained regarding the chief settlement from the places
in which the different types of worked flints are found. The flakes and chips
show where the flint-workers worked; the warlike weapons mark the line of
defence, &c.

2. On the Native Tribes between the Zambexi and Uganda.
By Lionet DECLE.

After explaining the origin of the name of Mashona—an English corruption of
the nickname of Amashuina (baboons) given by the Matabele to the Makalanga—
Mr. Decle gave a sketch of the various tribes found between the Zambezi and
Uganda, and criticised the classification of the native races according to their
language. He explained how, for instance, some tribes classified as Bantu differed
physically from others included under the same name. An account was given of
the customs prevailing amongst the people between the Zambezi and Uganda.
Mr. Decle showed a living specimen from the country he had visited—a young
boy, whom he had brought back with him—and gave his history. The boy, who
came from the west shore of Tanganyika, had been sold by his own brother to a
coast man for two yards of calico. On the way to the coast he got sore-footed,
and was sold to a Wahha chief for three goats. When Mr. Decle was in the
Wabha country he was attacked every night, and at last, in order to put a stop to
it, he one day caught a chief and threatened to hang him if his goods were not
returned. After much talking Mr. Decle agreed to take as a ransom the child and
ten goats. The boy, although he refused to return to the Wabha or to his own
people, was for a long time afraid that Mr. Decle would eat him up.

3. On the Lex Barbarorum of the Daghestan.
By Professor Maxime KovaLevsky.

The author insisted on the necessity of more trustworthy information as to old
customs and usages being obtained by travellers, and expressed a hope that English
ethnographers in India would search for old collections of sentences pronounced by
judges As an instance, he mentioned the existence of such a treatise in the
Daghestan. It is preserved in Derbent, on the shores of the Caspian, and is known

1 This paper will appear in extenso in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland, 1893-94,
1894, 3E

786 : REPORT—1894.

by the name of the Roustem Code. Olearius, a well-known traveller at the
beginning of the seventeenth century, mentions his visit to Roustem, who was a kind
of elected judge or arbitrator, called an ‘ outzmi.’ His subjects were Tartars of the
Kaitag, who had no writing of their own. The treatise is written in Arabic. It
contains many very old customs and usages, and admits the vengeance of blood,
which extends from the first to the last relatives inward to all the members of the
tribe, called ‘Touchoum.’ Compositions are paid in rough linen called mab-
zaldick. "Whoever wished to escape the obligations of mutual responsibility was
obliged to declare solemnly that all ties were broken between him and the members
of his tribe, and a nail was placed in the wall of the mosque in commemoration of
it. The treatise of Roustem inflicts a high amercement on those who use it with-
out the permission of the ‘outzmi.’ ‘ Who keeps his mouth will not lose his
head, is the common saying placed at the top of each sentence. It shows that the
mediators in Daghestan, just like the Brehons of Ireland, kept their knowledge for
themselves and their pupils.

4. On the Natives of the Hadramout. By J. Tueopore BeEnv.

After referring to the ancient inhabitants and the archeology of this district,
the country from which the ancient world obtained its frankincense and myrrh,
Mr. Bent went on to describe the present inhabitants of the country and the
extreme difficulties in the way of pursuing anthropological research in it. He
divided the inhabitants as follows, into four divisions, and gave an account of each.

Firstly, the Bedouins, an obviously aboriginal race, with a religion of their
own and mysticism at variance with the orthodox religion of the land. He con-
sidered them to be more like the Gallas in physique; and when proper measure-
ments can be taken, in all probability an affinity will be established between these
two races on either side of the Indian Ocean.

Secondly, the Arabs proper, who came from Yemen and conquered the country
three centuries ago, He gave a description of their women and their customs and
fanaticism, of the men who go to India in search of a livelihood, and of the Sultans
of the Al Kaiti family.

Thirdiy, the Sayyids, a sort of hierarchical nobility who fan the fanatical
tendencies of the race and rule everything, both in religion and law; and to them
is due the fact that the Hadramout has continued so long to be shut off from
exploration and the rest of the world.

Fourthly, the slave element, which in this country is considerable. Mr. Bent
described them as living a very happy life and subject to very few social dis-
abilities.

5. On the Shells used in the Domestic Economy of the Indonesians.
By Dr. J. D. C. ScumeE tz, of Leiden.

The author submitted a systematic list of no fewer than 154 shells used by the
aborigines of Indonesia and Oceana in their domestic economy, and a table showing
the geographical distribution of their use for different purposes. The author gave
an account of the different modes of using shells. Some are much preferred to
others, for a great variety of purposes. Shells are also used in connection with
religious ceremonies. He concluded with some observations on the manner of
making implements, ornaments, &c., from shells.

6. On the Pantheon of the Fijians. By Basit H. THomson.

The author described the Fijian Olympus, the mountain of Nakauvadra, The
tutelar deities of Fijians are the spirits of their dead ancestors. The growth of
this idea may be traced in the development of the complete tribe from a single
family, and the process may be tested by an examination of the bond of tawvw.
Tribes that are tawvw (2.e., sprung from the same root) worship the same gods. ,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 787

The author described the legends of the arrival of the Fijians from the west-
ward and the peopling of Nakauvadra; the story of Turukawa and the scattering
of the tribes. ‘These fragments of mythology are of historical value.

The recent discovery of the ‘path of the spirits,’ the legends that cling to it,
showing the influence of physical geography on the mythology of the Fijian bogies
and apparitions, were briefly described.

The author described the Nanga cults, the earliest example of missionary
enterprise in the Pacific; the arcana of the Nanga and their meaning.

In conclusion he referred to the recent recrudescence of heathen practices and
its political danger.

7. The Distribution of the Picts in Britain, as indicated by Place-Names.
By J. Gray, B.Se.

The Pict of North Britain, and the Pictones or Pictavi of South Gaul, are
both mentioned by Roman writers. The evidence of place-names shows that
probably the whole intervening country was at an earlier date occupied by the
same race. Two roots are employed to determine the relative densities of the
Picts in Britain—viz. Pict and its variants, and AZ. The language of the Picts
was Basque. The name Pict is derived from a Basque word, pikatu, to cut.
Aquitania is probably a Goidelized form of Paquitania, or Pakitani, and meant in
the Pictish language, the country of the Picts. Pakat is deduced as the earliest
form of the name Pict. The different phonetic changes which pakat can undergo
are indicated, and some of these are verified by historical evidence. Place-names
in the British Isles involving all forms of the root Pakat have been classified
under counties and their densities calculated. Goidelic forms where the initial p
is dropped have been calculated as percentages of the total. Some of the con-
clusions arrived at are—that the density of the Picts was greatest in the south
and midlands of England and in the east of Scotland, and least on the east coast
of England, and in Wales. In Ireland the density was only about one-third that
in England. The Goidels, who followed the Picts, spread along the valleys of the
Thames and Severn to the Mersey, where a part probably crossed to Meath and
spread in two streams to the west coast of Ireland; the other part moved
northward through Lancashire, Yorkshire, Northumberland, and advanced into
Scotland almost to the Forth. A second incursion entered Scotland by Argyll
and spread along the west counties to the extreme north. The pre-Pictish in-
habitants were probably Iberians, and prevailed mostly in Ireland, South Wales,
Cumberland, and South Scotland. The oldest name of Britain, Albion, is de-
rived from 4/, the name of an Eastern god worshipped by the Picts, and Bath,
a decayed form of the name Pict.

8. On the Ceremonies observed by the Kandyans in Paddy Cultivation.
Sy B. P. Ke aupaNnNata.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 15.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Brain of a Young Fuegian.
By Professor L. ManouvrigEr.

Professor Manouvrier described the brain of a Fuegian child, and compared
several of its characters with those of the ordinary European brain. He pointed
out that it is interesting anatomically, physiologically, and psychclogically to find
that the external morphology of the Fuegian brain is nearly equal in its develop-

ment to that of the European, though some traces of inferiority exist in the
352

788 REPORT—1 894.

former—as, for example, in the third frontal convolution, or the convolution of
Broca. The author insisted on the physiological signification of the morphological
development of the brain. He believes that the approximate equality of the
Fuegian brain to the average European brain does not raise doubts as to the
physiological value of cerebral morphology, but rather on the accuracy of the
opinion usually held as to the intellectual inferiority of savage people. This
inferiority, as that of the ancient Gauls in comparison to the Romans, may result
much more from obvious defects in the external conditions which produce civilisa-
tion than from true physiological inferiority conjoined with anatomical inferiority.
What makes the physiological value of the morphological development of the
brain an unknown quantity is that other anatomical, physiological, or external
conditions form with it very variable combinations in which the influence of each
factor may be masked or counterbalanced by that of others.

2. On the Valuation of Proportional Dimensions in the Description of the
Brain. By Professor L. MAnouvRiEr.

3. On the Classificatory System of Relationship. By Rev. Lorimer Fison.

In this paper the author showed the arrangement of the classificatory system
of relationship, and the key to it, by an examination of the descendants of two
brothers and their two sisters to the third generation.

The Fijian terms of relationship were taken as an example of the system.
These divide the sexes in any one generation into groups of non-marriageable
persons and other groups of marriageable persons.

The same relatives and their descendants were traced in an Australian tribe,
and it was shown that precisely the same groups appear as the result of the
division of a community into two exogamous intermarrying divisions, such as are
found in Australia.

The inference deduced by the author was that wherever the classificatory
terms appear those divisions of the community exist, or have existed in the past.

4, On some of the Natives of British New Guinea.
By H. Betrysz Bartpon, I.A., /RSZ.

The materials for this paper were obtained during a visit to British New Guinea
in 1891, the incidents of which had been detailed by the author's sister in the
Geographical Section. The author acknowledged his indebtedness to Mr. and
Mrs. Chalmers for corrections and additional information.

The observations extended over the group of villages at Port Moresby, those
in the Elema district about Motu-motu; the dangerous inhabitants of Movi-avi;
and, again, further east, the people of Kerepuna and Hula.

The natives of Port Moresby consist of two very distinct tribes—the Motuans
and the Koitapuans—located in three villages, the principal of which, Hanuabada
(the Big Village), is built on the foreshore of the bay. Of the other two, one is
on the mainland and the other on the beautiful island of Elevala. The juxta-
position of these two tribes is an instance of that curious intertribal commensalism
or economic co-operation often found in New Guinea.

The Motwans (who must not be confused with the inhabitants of Motu-motu,
a very different people) live chiefly by fishing and the manufacture of pottery,
while the Koitapuans live mainly by hunting. Much traffic goes on between
these two tribes, who supplement each other’s requirements, so that commerce
here, as in civilised communities, makes chiefly for peace. The Motu pottery is
also made for purposes of trading with the Motu-motuans and other western tribes,
with whom the Motuans exchange it for sago.

The people of the Elema country and the fertile land of sago about Motu-mota
differ in many respects from the Motuans, They seem to be a wilder, more high-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 789

spirited and unruly tribe than the more industrial Motuans, who have been called
the ‘British’ of New Guinea, while the others have been likened to the Irish.
Nor is the comparison in the latter case without titness also; for not only in their
excitability and impatience of control, but also in their light-hearted gaiety and
wit, the resemblances are not far to seek.

The social arrangements here are different from those at Port Moresby, where
the people live en famille in their cottages; for in Motu-motu the men congregate
in large club-houses or dubus, while the women and children live in smaller
houses. Even married men live in these clubs, and, although they may visit their
families, they must always return to the dubu before daybreak, otherwise they
commit a serious breach of Papuan etiquette. These dubuws are curious structures
built on platforms 14 to 16 feet from the ground, and shaped like the open mouth
of a shark. Under the great projecting upper jaw or gable the men lounge and smoke
in the daytime, and have their food brought to them here by the women, who are
strictly forbidden to enter the interior, which is hedaga, sacred, or tapu to the men.
In each village there are several dubus, occupied by different clans or families, At
a certain age the boys of the clan are taken into the dudu to undergo initiation,
have their heads shaved, and remain in seclusion till their hair is fully grown.

The remainder of the paper dealt in a similar way with inhabitants of Movi-avi
and Kerepuna.

5. On the Tobas of Gran Chaco, South America, By J. GRAHAM Kerr.

The author gave a short account of the manners and customs of the Natokoi or
Tobas of the Gran Chaco. This region is inhabited by very numerous nations of
American Indians, differing markedly in language, customs, and in minor physical
characters. The Tobas are exclusively nomadic in their habits, living entirely on
the products of the chase. They usually go about in small hunting parties, larger
tribal encampments being only formed occasionally, e.g., at particular seasons. In
regard to their mental characters, it was pointed out that they appeared to believe
only in the existence of numerous minor evil spirits, who were the causes of disease,
accidents, defeats in battle, and other misfortunes; and that their arithmetical
powers were very limited, the limit of counting being usually about five,

6. On the Maya Indians of Chichén Itzd, Yucatan.
Sy AuFReD P. Maups.ay.

In this paper the author gave an account of some excavations of a burial-mound
in the Vera Paz of Guatemala, and the discovery of little jars containing the bones
of the little fingers probably deposited by mourners.

The earliest notices of the great Maya ruins at Chichén Itza, in Yucatan, were
discussed, and extracts given from a document lately found by Dr. Marimon in
Seville, describing the ceremonies still performed by the Mayas at the great
Cenote at Chichén at the time of the Spanish conquest, although the town was
already abandoned and the buildings in ruins,

A description was given of the great tennis-court, and a model of it exhibited.
The paper concluded by calling attention to some photographs of a hitherto
unknown Maya monument at Ixkum, in which the supporters of the Maya figures
are captives bound with cords, who are altogether unlike the Mayas in appearance,
and probably belong to another race.

7. On the Loochooan Language. By Professor Bastn HALL CHAMBERLAIN.

Hitherto only two languages have been generally recognised as spoken in the
Japanese Empire—viz. Japanese proper, and Aino or Ainu, the language of the
hairy aborigines of the north. Professor Chamberlain’s paper contains a prelimi-
nary sketch of his analysis of a third language—Loochooan—known hitherto, or
one might better say suspected, only from a short and exceedingly imperfect
vocabulary by the late Lieutenant Clitford, R.N., appended to Captain Basil Hall’s

790 REPORT—1894.,

‘Voyage of Discovery to the Great Loochoo Island,’ published in the year 1818.
Mr. Chamberlain has now ascertained that Loochooan stands to Japanese in about
the same relation that Spanish does to French. The importance of this discovery will
be best appreciated when it is remembered that the Japanese language had hitherto
stood in a position of complete isolation, without kindred of any sort. With this
new key it will be possible to solve many difficult questions of Japanese philology,
and in the paper the author discusses the formation of the negative conjugation
of Japanese verbs from this new point of view. Mr. Chamberlain also establishes
the fact that Japanese, as we now have it, is the language of the invaders of the
Archipelago, not that of the previous inhabitants, by whom the invaders might be
supposed to have been absorbed.

8. Report of the Conmittee on the North-western Tribes of Canada.
See Reports, p. 453.

9. On the Significance of Objects with Holes.
By Miss A. W. Buckuanp.

This paper treats of what appears to be a world-wide superstition, belonging to
ail races and to all time, in which holes are credited with healing and protective
powers.

The superstition exists among us at present in the shape of lucky money and
lucky stones, but can be traced back to Neolithic times, in the great holed stones
and dolmens which are found in Great Britain and Ireland as well as in many
countries of Europe, in North Africa, India, Syria, Circassia, and also in America.
The chief of British holed stones, the Men-an-tol, is still known locally as the Crick-
stone, and through it people creep for the cure of rheumatism.

In Siberia wooden figures bored with holes are carried about as a cure for
various diseases, according to the part in which the hole is bored; and figures of
great age have been found in Peru and among the Eskimo, which seem from the
holes in them to have been intended for the same purpose. Engraved shells also
similarly bored have been found in ancient Chaldea and in the American mounds.

The same superstition appears to be traceable in the trephined skulls of Neolithic
times found in many countries, and from which amulets have been cut, probably
for the cure of epilepsy, the disease for which the operation was undoubtedly
undertaken, since it was thus employed up to quite recent times; and the bones of
the human skull were always recommended, either grated as a potion, or worn as
an amulet, for the cure of epileptic disease.

Miss Buckland believes the healing property thus attached to holes to be of
necromantic origin. She regards the hole as the symbol of the underworld, the abode
of the Creator in some cosmogonies, and always of the spirits of dead ancestors.
Hence they are summoned by the medicine-men to assist them in their healing
ceremonies and magic incantations; and thus the hole, through which they are
drawn by sorcery, became to the savage the source of healing, and in this form,
modified by time, it has descended to us.

The underworld also was the reputed source of wealth ; hence the symbolical hole
in money caused it to be regarded as lucky money, and this probably explains the
use of ring money among the ancients. These symbolical holes are also found in
ceremonial weapons in West Africa and in the South Sea Islands, as they were also
probably in Ancient Egypt and other countries; the idea suggested being that the
bearer of the weapon assumed the power of sending offenders to Hades. Holes exist
also in magic wands and in staves, especially in the South Sea Islands, where the
holes certainly represent deceased ancestors.

The magic wands and the South Sea staves or idols resemble so strongly the
holed implements of reindeer horn found in caves of Paleolithic times, that
Miss Buckland believes these staves also to have been used by the medicine-men of
that remote period as symbols of the world of spirits over which they assumed
control, and that thus we can trace the superstitions connected with holes to the
earliest of the human race,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 791

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SuCTION—Professor E, A. ScHArer, F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 9.
[The President’s Address was delivered on Friday, August 10.—See p. 795. ]

Tue following Papers were read :—

1. The Response of Animals to Changes of Temperature.
By M.S. Pemsrey, J/.A., J.B.

The simplest method of investigating the response of animals to changes of
temperature is to determine the amounts of carbonic acid which they discharge.
The carbonic acid is a measure, it may be not an exact one, of the heat produced.
From this point of view a series of experiments have been made upon the power
which warm-blooded animals possess of varying their production and loss of heat
in such a way that their mean temperature is constant.

A mouse is a very suitable animal for such experiments, because on account of
its large cutaneous surface compared with its small bulk the reaction to a change
of temperature is very rapid. Within two minutes of a fall in external temperature
from 30° to 18° the mouse increases its output of carbonic acid by 74 per cent. ;
within one minute of a change from 33°25 to 17°5 the increase is 60 per cent.
The response to a rise in temperature is not so rapid : within two minutes of a rise
from 18° to 34°:5 the decrease in carbonic acid is 18 per cent.; within one minute
of a change from 17° to 32° the decrease is 5 per cent. With cold surroundings the
mouse is very active, whereas with a warm temperature it becomes quiet and goes
to sleep. The relationship between muscular activity and the production of heat
is well shown.!

Experiments were next made upon the developing chick. It is a warm-blooded
animal, but during its development it was probable that it passed through a stage
in which it would haye responded to changes of temperature in a similar way
to that seen in cold-blooded animals; that in cold surroundings it would have pro-
duced less carbonic acid, but that with a rise in temperature it would have increased
its output of carbonic acid. The experiments show that during the greater part of
the period of incubation the developing chick responds to changes of temperature in
a similar manner to that of a cold-blooded animal ; that towards the end of incuba-
tion, about the 20th or 21st day, there is an apparently neutral stage in which no
marked response is seen; that this neutral condition is succeeded, when the chick
is hatched, by a warm-blooded stage. The intermediate stage may be the resultant
of two opposite tendencies—on the one hand the cold-blooded condition, on the
other the imperfectly developed power of regulating the production of heat. When

1 <Qn the Reaction-time of Mammals to Changes in the Temperature of their
Surroundings,’ Jowrnal of Physiology, xv. 1893, p. 401.

792 ape renee

the developing chick is exposed to shock by the prolonged action of cold, this
neutral condition may be replaced by a return to the cold-blooded stage.

The reaction of the recently-hatched chick is rapid; a fall of 20° in tempera-
ture will within fifteen minutes raise the carbonic acid to double its previous
amount,

It would appear that this power of regulation depends upon the integrity and
full development of the nervous control of muscular action. The chick directly it
is hatched possesses great control over its muscles; it is able to run about, feed
itself, and perform other complicated movements, At the same time it is able to
regulate its production of heat.

It was probable that animals born blind and in a very helpless condition would
not possess this power of regulation; that in their case a fall in external tempera-
ture would be accompanied by a decrease in carbonic acid, and that with a rise of
temperature the output of carbonic acid would be increased. This has been proved
to be true in the case of the pigeon. A young pigeon was examined, when it was
one day old, and it was found that a fall of 14° in external temperature caused the
carbonic acid to diminish to one-third its former value within thirty minutes of the
change in temperature. When two days old a similar change of temperature pro-
duced almost as great a fall in the output of carbonic acid; raising the temperature
to its former level did not cause the carbonic acid to increase with the same rapidity
with which it had fallen.

Thus a young pigeon resembles to a certain extent a cold-blooded animal.
There is, however, one great difference. The young pigeon responds very rapidly,
the frog responds extremely slowly.

To study still further the influence of the nervo-muscular system upon the
regulation of temperature by the production of heat, experiments have been made
upon mice after section of the spinal cord and during anesthesia. Both these
procedures tend to make the mouse respond in a somewhat similar way to that
observed in the cold-blooded animal.

The writer has to thank Messrs, Gordon and Warren for much assistance in
some of the experiments.

2, On some Experiments to determine the Time-relations of the Voluntary
Tetanus in Man.' By Davip Fraser Harris, B.Sc. Lond., MB,

1. Ina large number of experiments the following apparatus was used :—

A metallic case, made air-tight at each end, was fitted over the forearm from
below the elbow to near the wrist. This instrument, practically an air-plethysmo-
graph (for it could register the pulse-beats), had a circular aperture cut in the upper
surface, and over this space was fastened a membrane of gold-beater’s skin, to which
was fastened a disc of platinum. There was no tension exerted on the membrane,
which the slightest increase of pressure caused to move, but which, on the cessa-
tion of the agitation, came immediately to rest.

Touching the platinum disc was a fine metallic point—the end of a screw sup-
ported by an upright soldered to the metallic case. A wire was led to a battery,
thence the current traversed an electro-magnetic writer (or ‘signal’), and the cir-
cuit was completed to the screw-point. The vibrations of the muscles of the fore-
arm thrown into voluntary tetanus (vd the air under the membrane) agitated the
membrane, and so made and broke the current, these interruptions in turn synchro-
nously affecting the writing style of the electro-magnet, which traced on a
revolving drum a myogram of ‘incomplete’ tetanus. The rhythm of this as com-
puted from nine different parts of a tracing varied thus: 10, 12, 23°3, 10, 10, 20, 20,
20, 26°6 vibrations per second, or on an average 16°8, The average of a very
large number of computations was 13:3.

2, The method employed by Schifer® gave exactly similar results—viz. an
average of 10, 8 to 13 being the minimum and maximum rates respectively.

» The paper is published in the Journal of Physivlogy, October 1894.
2 Journal of Physiology, vol. vii.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 793

3. This method was modified as follows :—

A steel spring, strongly clamped at one end, was arranged so that its free end
could be bent back to touch a hinged upright connected with a tambour; the record-
ing tambour was in connection as in method 2. By pulling on the spring by the
index-finger (the corresponding thumb being at the fixed point of resistance) the
vibratory movements of tetanic muscles are communicated through the spring to
the air, and so to the recording tambour. The graphic representation of this is very
similar to that in 2.

The figures in a typical set of tracings were 9, 6:6, 10,11°5, 14, 17, 15, 11-7,
18. The average of a large number of experiments was 12°56 vibrations per second.

4, In this, the apparatus was as in 3, except that the myogram was taken on a
rotating cylinder, which also oscillated transversely seventeen times per second.
The tracing was in places identical with that obtained when one combines two
wave-systems whose periods are as 1; 2; in other places there was a perfectly
simple wave-form.

It is contrary to all we know to suppose that the tetanus had twice the rate of
the cylinder—viz. 34; the contrary must be true.

Tf, then, the tetanus had at times a rhythm of 8-5 per second, and at times rose
to 17, the mean is 12°75.

5. By a method employing a carbon resistance pile (upon which the muscle was
pressed) in the primary circuit of the inductorium, a capillary electrometer in the
secondary, and viewing the electrometer through a stroboscopic card, a rate of 12
per second was estimated,

6. By experiments with the microphone, on which the muscle was laid, the rest
of the connections being as in 5, the rate was fixed at 12-15.

7. By the microphone laid over the contracting biceps, and a frog’s gastro-
cnemius stimulated by secondary shocks (the microphone being in the primary
circuit of inductorium), a rate of 8-15 was estimated, or an average of 11:5 vibra-
tions per second.

The average of these and very many other experiments is 12°5 per second.

3. On Mirror Writing. By Professor F. J. ALLEN.

4, On a Model of the Cochlea. By Joun G. M‘Kenprick, JD., FBS.,
Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow.

Professor M‘Kendrick exhibited a working moded intended to illustrate the
mechanism of the cochlea, devised by himself, with the aid of valuable suggestions
by Professor Crum Brown. It consisted of a water-tight glass tank divided into
two compartments by a horizontal glass diaphragm. At the end of each compart-
ment a round hole was cut and covered with an india-rubber membrane. The upper
hole represented the fenestra ovalis, and the lower the fenestra rotunda. The
horizontal glass plate had two holes cut, each of which was supplied with an india-
rubber membrane, and on each membrane there was a steel watch-spring tuned
to vibrate at a certain rate. The vibrations of the two springs were as 2:1. An
arrangement was used for imitating the movements of the stapes, consisting of a
rod caused to oscillate horizontally by an eccentric wheel. In this way pendular
vibrations were transmitted by the fenestra ovalis, and it was shown that when
the number of pushes made by the base of the stapes corresponded to the period of
spring A, spring A began to vibrate; if the number of pushes was increased A ceased
to move; and when the pushes reached the period of 8B, the latter began to move.
Finally, by an appropriate harmonic motion, the wave form of two vibrations of
2:1 was transmitted to the fenestra ovalis, and both springs vibrated when the
period of A was reached, thus showing that the apparatus analysed the compound
waye-form, The model generally supported the Helmholtz-Hensen theory of the.

794. REPORT—1894.

cochlea. Professor M‘Kendrick stated that the Royal Society had enabled him to
continue the investigation, and that a more refined apparatus was in course of
construction.

5, On some, Physiological Applications of the Phonograph. By Joun G.
M‘Kenprick, I.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the University
of Glasgow.

Professor M‘Kendrick exhibited one of the newest forms of the phonographs of
the Edison-Bell Corporation, and by the aid of a large resonator adapted to it by
himself he was able to cause the instrument to speak so loudly as to be distinctly
heard throughout the large room in which the Section met. He explained the
mechanism of the instrument, and showed how it might be adapted for recording
the voices of two persons at one time, and for transmission of speech to a distance,
by using along with it a microphone in a telephonic circuit. He also described
attempts he had made to register the voice curves by means of a small and licht
lever running along the grooves and recording on a small smoked cylinder travelling
at a slow rate, and he exhibited curves obtained in this way. His method was
quite different from that employed by Professor Hermann, of Koénigsberg. These
curves showed long undulations, at periods of about one second, with the speech
curves superposed on these. He also explained methods by which the phonograph
might be used for recording respiratory and cardiac sounds, and he stated that,
whilst he had been as yet unable to record cardiac sounds, he had obtained several
respiratory curves, and also the sound of the ticking of a watch. He announced
his intention of continuing the investigation with more delicate apparatus.

6. On Trophic Changes in the Nervous System.
By Justus Gave, Professor of Physiology, University of Ziirich.

The author has been able by experiments upon the inferior cervical ganglion of
the sympathetic to bring about changes in different organs, especially in the biceps
and psoas muscles. As the result of further research, he is able to follow out the
trophic effect from the spot where the operation is performed up to the organ
which subsequently undergoes change. ‘The pathway of this trophic effect passes
through the spinal cord ; the author in previous communications had already pointed
this out as the probable pathway, and now this supposition has been confirmed by
microscopical examination. It has been found that the path is marked out by
‘changes of a trophic nature in the nervous system, passing trom the point of section
to the organ which undergoes change. It was necessary in order to remove any
doubt to perform the experiment in such a way that the injury caused by the
operation could have little or no part in bringing about the changes in the nervous
system.

At last it was found that the trophic changes took place throughout the whole
length down to the biceps or psoas muscles when a special nerve scarcely visible
to the naked eye was cut away with scissors from its ganglion. This nerve joins
the ganglion near the spot where one of the accelerator nerves arises. When the
‘operation is performed in this way the injury is so slight that if the section does
not involve the right part of the nerve there are practically no after-effects to be
observed in the animal. We must therefore attribute to a special trophic influence
those changes which can be observed after the section of the nerve has been
properly performed. The changes can be classified according to the different
parts of the trophic path in which they lie:—

Those of (1) the sympathetic ganclion; (2) the rami communicantes ; (8) the
spinal ganglia and posterior roots; (4) the spinal cord; (5) the anterior roots and
nerve-trunks; (6) the smaller divisions of the nerves in muscle; (7) the nerve-
endings in muscle ; (8) and lastly those of the muscle itself.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 795

The changes in each of these parts are of so special a nature that it is impos-
sible to give a short general description of them. In general the changes are of
such a kind as if the operation caused some substance to be formed or to soak into
the ganglion, and then spread along its nervous connections, bringing about changes
in the chemical conditions of the cells of the tissues until the cells are more or less
completely destroyed. The alteration spreads along the natural pathways only as
long as they are intact ; every experiment therefore which destroys the connection
produces no trophic effect. It appears that a spread of this injurious substance is
possible both in the special ganglia and in the grey substance of the spinal cord,
for the number of altered cells is far greater in the case of the spinal ganglion than
in that of the sympathetic ganglion. In the grey substance of the spinal cord the
change is seen to spread, not only from the posterior to the anterior horns, but also
in the direction from above downwards. In those places where the change has
reached the anterior horns it spreads through the anterior nerve-roots. and thus
arrives at the muscles. At least one finds in the fibres of the nerves which supply
the biceps muscle characteristic changes throughout the whole course of the nerves
down the brachial plexus to the muscle.

7. On the Development of Kidney. By Joun Berry Haycrart, J.D.,
Professor of Physiology, University College, Cardiff.

The epithelium of the kidney tubules is originally derived from that of the
ureter and Wolffian duct, as taught by Kolliker. In the rabbit the ureter branches
in the kidney blastema into six or eight tubules, ending in peripheral dilatations,
the primitive renal vesicles. These vesicles divide again and again as the kidney
grows, keeping to the extreme cortex, and their stalks forming the collecting
tubules, All the primary branches of the ureter and many of the above-named
collecting tubules become evaginated to form the pelvis. I*rom the primary renal
vesicles the rest of the tubules grow out as solid and then hollow processes
and the Bowman’s capsule is moulded on a bend of its own tubule, and is not
invaginated by a glomerulus. After birth the primary renal vesicles shrink down
to the size of an ordinary tubule, but at birth they may be seen as dilatations of
the collecting tube when it reaches the extreme cortex and turns round into the
region of the convoluted tubules.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 10.

The President, Professor E. A. Scudrur, F.R.S., delivered the following
address :—

Brrore beginning the subject-matter of my address I had conceived it to he
necessary, appearing before you as we do as a new Section, to offer some sort of
apology for our presence. But, on looking up the history of the Association,
I find that my task is somewhat different. If I have any apology to offer at all
it is that the Section of Physiology has ceased to appear for many years.

The British Association was founded at York in 1831; and at the subsequent
meeting, which was held in this very city of Oxford, amongst other Sections which
were established, was one for Anatomy and Physiology. Now, when we consult
the records of this Section we are struck with the fact that Medicine early shows a
marked preponderance. Thus, in 1833 a physician, Dr. Haviland, is selected as
President for the Section; and the secretaries are Dr. H. J. H. Bond, who was
Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge from 1851 to 1872;
and Mr, (afterwards Sir) G. E. Paget, who succeeded Dr. Bond in the Regius
Professorship. This preponderance soon came to be recognised in the designation
of the Section, for in 1835 we find it entitled Section E, Anatomy and Medicine.

796 REPORT—1894.,

As time went on the interests of medical men became gradually more absorbed
in the rapidly growing British Medical Association; and in 1841 the medical title »
was dropped, and the Section came to be called simply Physiology, which title it
retained until 1847, Under that designation the Section has now been revived.

The fact that Physiology as a separate Section in this Association was
allowed to lapse for so long a period is not remarkable when we remember that
during the first half of this period Physiology as a science was practically non-
existent in this country. The teachers of Physiology were, almost without ex-
ception, practising physicians and surgeons, and even when a professor was
expected to devote his time to the teaching of Physiology he was not expected
to devote part of that time to the prosecution of physiological research. During
all these years, from 18:33 to 1847, we do not find amongst the officers of the Section
any actual working physiologists. Most of the officers were distinguished medical
men, with an anatomist here and there amongst them. Far be it from me to say
that there was no actual work being done in Physiology at this time; for Charles
Bell and Marshall Hall were engaged in elucidating the functions of the nervous
system; whilst Bowman, Wharton Jones, and others were producing good and
permanent work in various other departments of Physiology. Their labours, how-
ever, were isolated, and formed but oases in the Sahara of neglect into which the
pursuit of Physiology had fallen in this country ; and this during a period when it
was being pursued with signal success and activity both in Germany and France.

After 1847 a revival of Physiology began to manifest itself even here; and this
was followed by the establishment, from time to time, of a sub-section to Section D,
which was devoted to Physiology, and had a special President. Whether, however,
owing to their subordinate character, or from some other reason, these sub-sections
had not usually any great measure of success, and for the last twelve years they
have been wholly dropped. During that period Physiology has only twice been
represented in the Chair of Section D, and has usually had no secretarial repre-
sentation. This decadence of Physiology in the British Association during the last
eleven or twelve years is the more remarkable because it is obviously not due to
any want of outside activity in regard to the subject; for during this period we
find an extraordinary revival of interest in physiological research, a revival which
in its most active stage dates from about twenty-five years ago, but still some
twenty or thirty years later than the corresponding revival in France and Germany.
I have taken the trouble to prepare a list of prominent physiological workers who
flourished during the thirty years prior to 1870. My list comprises, in all, thirty.
Of these, four are English, five French, and twenty-one German or Dutch. Of the
four English working physiologists not one is a teacher of Physiology. Of the five
French and twenty-one German all are recognised teachers. It was not, in fact,
until it came to be understood that teaching and work in Physiology, as in all
branches of science, ought in the main, to be successful, to go hand in hand, that
the science had any possibility of revival.

Let us glance for a moment at the history of the revival of Physiology in this
country as compared with its revival in Germany. In each country the re-
vival may be said to have been largely due to the influence of one teacher.
In Germany the teacher was Johannes Miiller; in this country, William Sharpey.
Both of these remarkable men were pupils of Rudolphi, who was Professor of
Anatomy and Physiology in Berlin until 1833, It is stated regarding Rudolphi
that ‘he was an enemy to subjective speculation in biological science: he looked
on the so-called philosophy as mistaken and futile in its application to the
phenomena of the animal economy, and based his physiology chiefly, and perhaps
rather exclusively, on the study of the animal structure.’ The influence of
Rudolphi is apparent in both Miiller and Sharpey.

Miller was born in 1801, Sharpey in 1802; they were therefore of about the
same age. But Miiller’s scientific and intellectual development was more rapid
than that of his contemporary. Thus we find that already in 1826, when he was
but twenty-five years old, Miller attained so great a reputation as to be made
Professor Extraordinary in the University of Bonn; and before very long he was
promoted to the grade of Ordinary Professor there. In 1833, whilst still a —

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 797

oung man, he was called to the chair of Anatomy and Physiology at Berlin, which

ad just become vacant by the death of his master and friend, Rudolphi. Sharpey,
on the other hand, occupied himself until 1829 with perfecting both his general
and his special anatomical education. It was not until 1830 that he published his
first essay in anatomical and physiological research entitled ‘On a Peculiar Motion
excited in Fluids by the Surfaces of Certain Animals ’—observations which were
preliminary to the discovery of the existence of cilia in vertebrates, And it was
not until 1836 that he was called to the newly instituted professorship of Anatomy
and Physiology in University College, London, which he filled for so many years
with such signal success. Both of these distinguished men owed, there is no doubt,
their success as teachers of Physiology to their early anatomical training. Thegeneral
anatomical bent of Johannes Miiller is evidenced by the fact of his scientific work
being turned so much in the direction of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. And
Sharpey, although great, and deservedly great, as a teacher of Physiology, remained
to his dying day, above all, an anatomist. Physiologists of this school are rare at
the present day ; but itis probable that in some respects the progress of Physiology
may suffer thereby. Helmholtz began his public career as professor of Anatomy ; but
it would be unfair to attach too much weight to this particular incident in the case
of so many-sided a man as the great Berlin Professor of Physics. Nevertheless, the
necessity of a close and careful training in Avatomy for those who are afterwards
to work at or to teach Physiology is so important that I do not hesitate to say that
the younger physiologists who neglect the study of Anatomy will find that before
very long they must abandon the pursuit of many byways of Physiology which
might otherwise be followed up with manifest advantage.

The influence of Johannes Miiller upon the revival of the pursuit of Scientific
Physiology in Germany, and indeed generally, cannot be overestimated. We
have only to look at the names and eminence of his pupils in order to recognise
the immense influence which his teaching has exerted upon the progress of Physio-
logy ever since his time. Some of these pupils are still amongst us, others have
joined the majority. But the pupils of these men, again, are now great names in
many departments of our science, and through them we cannot fail to recognise the
influence which was exerted by this truly great man.

We may say the same in almost identical words of William Sharpey. The
practical pursuit of Physiology in this country has mainly radiated from the centre
where Sharpey taught. Michael Foster was his pupil. The physiological investiga-
tions of Burdon-Sanderson were assisted and encouraged by him. From Sharpey,
therefore, we may trace the rise of the great school of Physiology at Cambridge,
and we have only to look at the magnificent laboratory which has been erected
here to observe a monument of the influence of the same teacher. And there have
emanated either directly from the physiological school established by Sharpey at
University College, or indirectly from those at Cambridge and Oxford, many of the
most active teachers and workers in Physiology in the kingdom.

In these respects there is much in common between the revival of Physiology
in Germany and in this country. In other respects, however, the two cases have
been entirely under different conditions, There its revival, in common with
that of science generally, has been assisted and stimulated by the active and
beneficent co-operation of every German State. Here, also in common with
science generally, it has had to make its way against every conceivable obstacle ;
and almost without assistance, either moral or material, from the Government or
from public bodies. But not only has it not met with assistance, there have been
actual obstacles placed in the way of teaching and work in Physiology. Some have
been unintentional, others intentional. As an instance of the unintentional may
be mentioned the practice which has obtained in medical schools and on examining
boards—a practice which, Iam happy to say, is gradually being discarded—of
appointing as teachers and examiners in Physiology men who may have a good
general knowledge of the science, yet with whom it is not the business of their lives,
and who cannot, therefore, be expected to be as familiar with its details, and as
absorbed in its interests, as those who devote their entire time and attention to its
pursuit. ;

798 REPORT—1894.

The more virulent opposition, in some measure, to science generally, but in the
greatest measure to Physiology, appeared almost simultaneously with the active
revival of the subject. This opposition, which has come to be known as the Anti-
vivisection Movement, but which might equally well be called the Anti-scientific
Agitation, has hitherto met with no measure of success, except that it has toa
certain extent hampered the full development of the science by diverting to its
defence some of the energy which might be devoted to its pursuit. Indeed, the
actual results of this unreasoning agitation furnish an illustration of the old-esta-
blished principle that persecution of a good cause will in the long run tend
towards its development and propagation. And in this case the chief results have
been the following :—

1. The most immediate effect of the anti-vivisectionist attack was the establish-
ment of the Physiological Society, which in the first instance was only a small
gathering of working physiologists, who met to discuss measures of defence
in a drawing-room in Queen Anne Street. This society, which had such a small
beginning, is now large and important. Its doors are besieged by applicants for
admission, although it is a necessity for such admission that the applicant be either
a teacher of Physiology or a worker at Physiology, or both. Its numerical strength
has grown from ten or fifteen to more than 150; and its numbers are every year
increasing. And, besides the work which it has done in this country in promoting the
interests of Physiology, and co-operation between English physiologists, it has suc-
ceeded in establishing a succession of Triennial International Congresses of Physio-
logy, which are amongst the most successful of such gatherings, and which have
been the means of bringing us into communication with the most prominent
physiological workers and teachers on the Continent.

2. A second result of the agitation was the passing of the so-called Cruelty
to Animals Act. This Act, which was intended to restrict the performance
of experiments upon animals, was in no sense called for, since it had been found
by a Royal Commission that there was no evidence to show that there had been
unnecessary experimentation upon animals, or any desire on the part of physio-
logists to neglect the use of anzsthetics. On the other hand, it is of inestimable
advantage in that it gives the public a definite guarantee that the excesses
of which physiologists used to be freely accused are not possible. Such excesses
never did actually occur ; although, to believe all the publications which have been
issued by Anti-vivisection Societies, one would come to the conclusion that a
physiologist is a being who spends his whole time in torturing sensitive creatures,
careless of the suffering which he may cause, or even of the scientific results which
he may obtain. The fanatical supporters of the agitation would have you to
believe that we are all neither more nor less than ‘fiends;’ they cry with Ferdinand
that ‘hell is empty and all the devils are here.’

I am told there was even a feeling of this sort in this University at the time
when it was proposed to establish the Wayneflete Professorship of Physiology, and
that an agitation was set on foot having for its object, first, the prevention of
the establishment cf such professorship ; and secondly, that being impossible, the
prevention of the professor’s practising Physiology. The common-sense of the
University stifled this agitation, and the more intimate acquaintance with physio-
logists which has resulted from the establishment of the school has been sufficient,
I believe, to smother the little fire which was still left smouldering.

3. A third result of the Anti-vivisection Agitation was the establishment
of the Association for the Advancement of Medicine by Research. This imme-
diately followed a unanimous resolution of the International Medical Congress
of 1881, affirming the necessity of experiments upon animals. To the ignorant
accusation that physiological experiments had been and were of no use or influence
in the advancement of medicine, the leaders of the profession unanimously affirmed
that it is upon Physiology that Medicine and Surgery are based, and that there can
be no real progress in those sciences without a corresponding progress in Experi-
mental Physiology aud Pathology. The Association for the Advancement of
Medicine by Research has been of the greatest possible value and assistance to
Physiology in this country. It has shown physiologists that they have the great

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 799

medical profession at their back, and it has acted as an impartial and independent
medium of communication between physiologists and the successive Secretaries of
State, whose business it has been to administer the Act.

4. A fourth result of the attacks of the anti-vivisectionists has been, I may
perhaps be permitted to believe, the re-establishment of this Section of Phy-
siology of the British Association. Those who were present at the meeting of the
Association in Nottingham may have remarked that the gutters of that town were
strewn with papers which had been forced upon the members of the Association
by the anti-vivisectors of the place. This literature, which in « double sense may
be termed ‘utter literature, teemed with flagrant misstatements, and with vicious
calumnies, directed against physiologists, and especially called forth, I presume, by
the fact that for the tirst time in the history of the British Association a physiologist
was called upon to occupy the presidential chair. We may look upon the esta-
blishment of this Section as the reply of the Association to the false witness which
was borne against us at Nottingham.

But although a special section for Physiology has been re-established, it may
not be advantageous that there should be one at every meeting of the Association.
Physiology is above all things a practical science. It requires laboratories and
means of demonstration. Physiologists are rarely satisfied with the opportunity
of hearing and reading papers, but require that, as much as possible, the actual
methods of research employed should be capable of demonstration. By this I am
not to be supposed to advocate the demonstration of experiments upon animals,
for there are very many subjects in Physiology which can be both worked at and
illustrated in a manner involving in no sense whatever the word vivisection. But in
order that the methods should be shown, it is important to have the appliances
of a laboratory at hand, and the Association frequently meets in towns which
are not university towns, and have no laboratories, in which, therefore, it would be
difficult or impossible to arrange for demonstrations of the sort that I am alluding
to. On this account we may well imitate the practice of the British Medical
Association, which establishes a Section of Physiology only when its meetings are
held in such a centre as is likely by the appliances which are to be found in that.
centre to render the Section useful and efficient, Hence, in recommending the
establishment of a Physiological Section, it is expressly reserved that the Section
shall be held only at such future meetings as may seem to the Council to be
desirable.

I will now invite you to consider with me one or two of the more obscure
subjects in the range of Physiology, subjects which are, however, creating a great,
almost an absorbing, interest at the present moment. The first of these sub-
jects relates to the structure and function of every cell in the body. Ail are
aware that the body of every animal and of every plant is made up of minute
corpuscles which are formed of protoplasm, and which contain in every case at
least one nucleus. The protoplasm and the nucleus form the living substance of
the cell. Other substances may be present, but they are, in a sense, outside the
nucleus and protoplasm, not incorporated with their substance. Apart from a
few details relating to the structure of the nucleus, this was, until quite lately,
practically all that we knew regarding the parts composing either the animal or
the vegetable cell. There appears, however, to be yet another something which,
although in point of size it is of very insignificant dimensions, yet in point of
function may perhaps be looked upon as transcending in importance, in some
respects, both the protoplasm and the nucleus. Not many years ago it was
noticed by various observers that in certain specialised animal cells the proto-
plasm showed a tendency to radiate from or converge towards a particular point,
and on further investigation it was found that at this point there was a minute
particle. This observation, which began, as we have seen, upon specialised cells,
was, after a little while, found to hold good for other and yet other cells, until, at
the present time, we believe that in every cell of the animal or plant body such a
particle exists. Now, it may well be asked, why after all should so great importance
be attached to this observation? To this it may be replied that, in the first place,
it is of importance, because it shows conclusively that the whole cell is not of a

800 REPORT—1894.

uniform nature, since there is this one point within the cell that exerts a special
attraction upon the rest of the cell-substance; and, indeed, on this account the
particle has come to be termed the ‘attraction particle.’ And in the second place,
because of the apparent universality of the occurrence of such a particle. And,
thirdly, because of the fact that one of the most important phenomena exhibited
by the cell hinges upon the behaviour of this particle ; for it is found that before a
cell or its nucleus divides this minute attraction particle begins by itself dividing,
and is, in fact, more commonly met with double than single. Nor is it until the two
particles thus produced have evolved, either from themselves or from the substance
of the protoplasm or nucleus, a system of communicating fibres, the so-called achro-
matic spindle, that those changes in the nucleus and protoplasm take place which
produce the division and multiplication of the cell. This attraction particle, which
is also called the central particle or centrosome, has absorbed so great an interest
that, short as is its history, many papers have already been devoted mainly to it, the
latest of these being an elaborate treatise of some 300 pages by Martin Heidenhain.
I shall not here attempt to follow out the details of all these researches, but will be
satisfied with putting before you the conclusion which Heidenhain has come to re-
garding this particle, viz.,‘that it is morphologically, physiologically,
and chemically a structure sui generis; not merely a separate
portion of nucleus or of protoplasm, but an organ of the cell
with definite functions, and having a definite existence of its
own.’ Nevertheless, it is almost as minute an object as it is possible to con-
ceive. In a cell which is magnified a thousand diameters the central particle
appears merely the size of a pin-point. Yet this almost infinitely small object
exerts an extraordinary influence over the whole cell, however large (and the
cell may be many thousand times its size), for it initiates and directs those
processes which result in the multiplication of the cell, and indirectly, therefore, it
is concerned in directing the general growth of the individual, and ultimately the
propagation of the species.

A former President of the Association took as the subject of his presidential
address what he was pleased to call the ‘ Next to Nothings’ In considering this
central particle, of the actual structure of which, and of its chemical constitution,
we know at present hardly anything, we may surely regard it as a striking instance
of the supreme importance of the ‘ next to nothing’ in Physiology.

The other subjects to which I desire to draw your especial attention relate to
the physiology of certain organs the functions of which have always been extremely
obscure, and which, although they differ greatly from one another in almost every
point of structure, and presumably also in function, it has been usual to group
together under the name of ductless glands. The name ‘gland’ is given to such
organs of the body as take materials from the blood, and convey those materials
in an altered or unaltered form, by a tube or duct, to a surface either internal or
external. Such material is termed the secretion of the gland, and has for its object
either the performing some function which is useful to the organism or the getting
rid of material which would be detrimental if retained. In the case of the ductless
glands there is no such possibility of pouring out material produced by the gland
upon a surface, because these organs do not communicate with any surface by a
duct; and whatever material they may furnish must therefore, if it is to reach the
body generally, pass into the blood; that is to say, the blood on the one hand
must furnish the materials for the secretion of the gland, and on the other hand
it must take up those materials after they have been manufactured into something
else, and carry them away to other parts of the body. Now, in the case of a
certain number of the ductless glands there has not appeared to be any very great
obscurity as to their function ; for some of them seem very obviously to be devoted
to the formation of corpuscles which are found within the blood itself. But with
regard to others of these bodies it has not hitherto been possible to find any special
material in the blood which they have furnished to it, and our knowledge of
them is derived almost entirely from experiments. I will take the case of two
of these to illustrate the vast influence which small and almost disregarded
organs may exert upon the whole economy, But in the first place I may be per-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 801

mitted to point out what is indeed a self-evident statement, that there is no part
of the body which does not exert some influence upon the rest. Every single
portion of the body is continually taking materials from the blood, and furnishing
to the blood other materials which are formed within it, whether we call that
portion which performs such functions a gland or not; and it is quite certain that
the removal of any. portion of the body would be followed by some permanent
alteration in the blood were it not that other similar parts may by increased
activity compensate for the alterations which the blood would otherwise undergo
from the loss of any one such part. Take the case of a limb. The changes which
the blood undergoes in circulating through it affect the body generally through
that fluid, for the composition of the blood becomes modified in traversing the
limb. And not only is the body affected thus through the medium of the blood,
but, by means of the nerves which pass to and from the limbs, the central nervous
system is itself affected by the movements and alterations of various kinds which
are proceeding in the muscles and other parts, and through the nervous system the
whole organism must constantly be influenced from the limb. There is, however,
no evidence that the removal of a limb or part of a limb permanently modifies
either the condition of the blood or of the nervous system. Nor is such a result to
be expected, for in this case there are other parts of the body possessing similar
organs and performing similar functions, the increased activity of which may easily
compensate for the loss which is sustained through removal of such a part.

But if we deal with an organ which is not multiple, but unique, and com-
pletely remove this from the body, it is easy to see that the case may be very
different. This organ, like every other organ of the body, is continually taking
from the blood some materials and giving up to it certain other materials. Now
it is clear that its removal must make a permanent difference in the blood, and,
since the whole organism is remarkably sensitive to even slight changes in the
composition of the circulating fluid, very marked results may well follow the
removal of such organ. And this is in fact found experimentally to be the case.

It has long been known that extensive disease of the thyroid gland, a small
reddish organ, weighing about one or two ounces, found at the front of the throat,
is followed by extensive alterations in the nutrition of the body generally. The
patient becomes swollen from the overloading of the connective tissues with a
mucinous exudation; the nervous and muscular systems are seriously affected ;
the power of generating heat is greatly modified; and the final result is, in the
first instance, the production of a condition of semi-idiocy, ultimately followed, if
the disease be extensive, by death. Precisely similar results have been found in
animals, and in fact in man as well, to follow the complete removal of this body.
Yet the weight of this organ is not more than one sixteen-hundredth part of the
whole weight of the body; and even this figure does not represent the enormous
influence which a relatively small organ can exert upon the general nutrition of
the body; for it is found that even if a minute part of the thyroid gland be left
whilst the greater part is removed, the symptoms above enumerated do not super-
yene. Indeed, certain contradictory results which have been gct by some observers:
after removal of the thyroid are explained by the fact that in some individuals
there are minute detached particles of thyroid gland lying apart from the main
organ ; and that after the latter has been removed these detached particles may
sufficiently carry on the function of the organ in relation to the blood and the:
nervous system to prevent the supervention of the deleterious symptoms which
usually occur after its removal. Here is, then, a notable instance of the enormous
influence exerted by a ‘next to nothing’ upon the general organism.

Another illustration may be given from these ductless glands, It was noticed
in 1849 by a celebrated physician, Dr. Addison, of Guy’s Hospital, that certain
cases, accompanied by extreme debility, occurring in the human subject were
associated with the appearance of peculiar bronzed patches on parts of the skin
and mucous membranes; and on post-mortem examination of these cases, which
always sooner or later have a fatal termination—and indeed sooner rather than
later—he found the symptoms in question to be accompanied by disease and destruc-
tion of the supra-renal capsules—small bodies which are placed close to the kidneys,

1894. 3F

802 REPORT—1894..

but which, so far as we know, have no physiological connection with them. Now,
when experiments came to be directed upon these bodies in order to elucidate their
functions, and especially to observe whether their injury or removal was accom-
panied in animals also by symptoms similar to those occurring in man as the result
of disease, it was found by Brown-Séquard that when these bodies are totally
removed in any animal the removal is speedily followed by a fatal result. These
experiments of Brown-Séquard’s were made in 1858, and at the time attracted some
attention. They were repeated by other experimenters with similar effects. But some
of those who removed the supra-renal capsules obtained contrary results, and for
many years the matter remained in an undecided condition. It was even supposed
that the fatal results which were got by Brown-Séquard might be due to the shock
of the operation or to the fact that the removal necessarily involves certain parts of
the sympathetic nervous system, and were not necessarily due to the removal of the
supra-renals. Recently, however, attention has been again directed to the subject,
and the experiment of Brown-Séquard has been repeated by Tizzoni (1889) and
by Abelous and Langlois (1891 to 1894) in various animals—viz. frogs, guinea-
pigs, rabbits, and dogs. I have myself performed confirmatory experiments in
monkeys. ‘The result of all these recent observations is to show that the complete
removal of the supra-renal capsules is not compatible with prolonged existence of
life; and Abelous and Langlois have shown that it is accompanied by an alteration
in the blood, which renders that fluid poisonous to other animals. The contrary
results which have been obtained by some investigators are apparently due to the
fact that in certain cases there are, as with the thyroid body, small isolated por-
tions of supra-renal substance (‘ accessory capsules,’ as they are sometimes called)
which have not been noticed and removed at the time of the operation, and that
these small portions of supra-renal substance have served to maintain that proper
relation between the blood and the gland which is sufficient to prevent the super-
vention of the symptoms in question.

Now the weight of both supra-renal capsules taken together is not more than
three drachms, and their weight, as compared with that of the whole body, is only
as 1 to 6,000 or less. The accessory supra-renal capsules which may be left after
the removal of the main bodies probably do not originally weigh more than one-
twentieth of the whole structure, and yet this minute proportion of material (a
material, so far as we know, unique in the organism) is nevertheless sufficient to
maintain the composition of the blood and the nutritive equilibrium of the body,
and thus to prevent the necessarily fatal result of complete removal.

Now it has been found in the case of the thyroid gland that patients in which
this structure has been so diseased that its function is seriously interfered with, and
animals in which it has been removed entirely, may be greatly benefited, if not indeed
cured, by the inception, either subcutaneously or with food, of the thyroid glands
of animals, or of the juice of such glands. Even where no affection of the thyroid can
actually be detected, the exhibition of thyroid juice is frequently beneticial in certain
conditions of the system ; and it was noticed by Dr. Oliver, of Harrogate, that this
is especially the case where there is a too-marked constriction of the blood-vessels,
the juice of this body tending in such cases to reduce the extreme tone of the vascular
walls, which is the cause of this condition. Encouraged by this result, Dr. Oliver
was led to examine the effects of other animal extracts, and among them that of
extract of supra-renal capsule. The effect of this was precisely the reverse of that
which he had got with the thyroid body, for he obtained evidence tending to show
that in certain cases in man extract of supra-renal capsule can produce an increase
of vascular tone and a diminution in the size of the arteries. Beyond this point,
however, Dr. Oliver was unable to proceed by clinical experiment, and he accord-
ingly came to my laboratory with the object of determining the precise physiolo-
gical effect of the active substance of the capsules. The results which were obtained
show that there is present in both alcoholic and watery extracts of the gland a
most potent physiological substance which when injected into the body of an
animal produces, even in minute doses, a remarkable effect upon certain parts of
the nervous system, upon the muscular system, upon the heart, and upon the
blood-vessels. If only as much as a grain by weight of supra-renal capsule be ex-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 803

tracted with alcohol, and if this alcoholic extract be allowed to dry, and then be
redissolved in a little water or salt solution and injected into the blood of a dog,
the results which are obtained, considering the minute amount of substance added
to the blood, are certainly most extraordinary. The nervous centre which regulates
the action of the heart is powerfully affected, so that the heart either beats very
slowly and weakly, or the auricles may even for a time stop beating altogether.
If, however, these inhibitory influences be cut off by division of the vagi nerves, the
effect of the poison upon the heart is of an opposite character. There is great accele-
ration of the rate of the beat and a great increase of force. This is accompanied by
a strongly marked influence upon the blood-vessels, and especially upon the arte-
rioles. ‘The walls of these are chiefly muscular, and the drug exerts so powerful
an action upon this muscular tissue as to cause the calibre of the vessels to be
almost obliterated. The heart being thus increased in force and accelerated, and
the calibre of the vessels almost obliterated, the result is to raise the pressure of
the blood within the arterial system to an enormous extent, so that from a blcod-
pressure which would be sufficient to balance a column of some four inches of
mercury the pressure may rise so high as to be equal to a column of mercury of
twelve or more inches.

This result is obtained, as we have seen, by a very minute dose. We have to
do here with a substance which is as potent, although in a different direction, as
strychnia, Whether it is a useful substance formed by the supra-renals from
materials furnished by the blood, and subsequently gradually used in the economy
for the virtue of its action upon the circulatory system, or whether it is to be
regarded as a poison, formed by the tissues during their activity and carried by
the blood to the supra-renals, there to be rendered innocuous, we do not as yet
certainly know. These are important points which must form the subject of
further investigation. But, however this may be, it is clear that in this gland
also we again meet with an instance of the physiological importance of what Sir
Frederick Bramwell called the ‘next to nothing.’

I will give one more instance, taken this time from a gland which is provided
with a duct. Until quite recently it might have been thought that there was
nothing very obscure regarding the functions of the pancreas. The pancreaa is a
digestive gland which lies below and behind the stomach: it has a duct which
carries its secretion into the beginning of the intestine, and that secretion acts
powerfully upon all constituents of the food, digesting starch, meat, and fat. It
was not supposed that the pancreas had any other function to perform. Animals
can live without this secretion, and to a large extent can continue to digest and
absorb their food much as before; for it has been possible to divert the secretion
from the intestine and to collect it at the surface of the body; and it is found
under these circumstances that, although the food is not quite so readily digested,
nevertheless the animal does not materially suffer from the lack of the secretion.
It was discovered, however, a few years ago (by v. Mering and Minkowski)
that if, instead of merely diverting its secretion, the pancreas is bodily removed,
the metabolic processes of the organism, and especially the metabolism of carbo-
hydrates, are entirely deranged, the result being the production of permanent
diabetes. But if even a very small part of the gland is left within the body, the
carbohydrate metabolism remains unaltered, and there is no diabetes. The small
portion of the organ which has been allowed to remain (and which need not even
be left in its proper place, but may be transplanted under the skin or elsewhere)
is sufficient, by the exchanges which go on between it and the blood generally, to
prevent those serious consequences to the composition of the blood and the general
constitution of the body which result from the complete removal of this organ.
Now, some years ago it was noticed by Kiihne and Sheridan Lea that, besides its
proper secreting structure composed of tubular alveoli, lined by eranule-containing
cells, there are highly vascular patches of peculiar epithelium-like cells scattered
here and there in the substance of the pancreas, which are wholly unconnected
with the ducts and, so far as one can judge, with the secretion of the gland. We
do not know anything whatever about the function of these patches, although
from their vascularity it is extremely probable that they are not without impor-

3F 2

804 REPORT—1894.

tance physiologically, and it is tempting to conjecture that it is these cells which
are specially concerned in effecting that influence upon the metabolism of carbo-
hydrates which experiment has shown to be peculiar to the pancreas.

The lesson to be drawn from these results is clear. There is no organ of the
body, however small, however seemingly unimportant, which we can presume to
neglect ; for it may be, as with the supra-renal capsules, the thyroid gland, and
the pancreas, that the balance of assimilation and nutrition, upon the proper main-
tenance of which the health of the whole organism immediately depends, hinges
upon the integrity of such obscure structures; and it is the maintenance of this
balance which constitutes health—its disturbance, disease. Nor, on the other
hand, dare we, as the investigation of the attraction-particle has shown, afford to
disregard the most minute detail of structure of the body.

* All is concenter’d in a life intense,
Where not a beam, nor air, nor leaf is lost,
But hath a part of being.’

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Absorption of Poisons. By Professor P. Hecer, Brussels.

2. On a New Theory of Hearing. By C. H. Hurst, PAD.

3. On the Fats of the Liver. (A preliminary Communication.)
By D. Nort Patron.

It is pointed out that while the liver has been demonstrated to play an impor-
tant part in the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteids, its possible connection
with the metabolism of fats has not been investigated.

In the present series of observations an attempt is made to elucidate—

A. The Source of Liver Fats.

I. Are they directly stored from the fat in the food ?

a. Do they accumulate in the liver after a meal containing fats ?
6. Does the quantity of fats in the liver bear any proportion to the quantity
of glycogen P

II. Are they formed from the fats in the adipose tissue of the body ?

a. Consideration of phosphorus poisoning.
b, Relative amount of fats in liver and adipose tissue during starvation.

III. Are they formed during the katabolism of the protoplasm of liver cells ?

B. Fate of Liver Fats.

Before investigating these points certain preliminary observations were
necessary.

1, What is the best method of extracting the fats? Soxhlet’s method was
adopted.

2. How much of the ether extract is composed of true ‘fats?’ For saponifi-
cation and estimation of the ‘fatty acids’ the method given by Hoppe Seyler,
the method of Lebedeff, and the method of Késsel and Obermiiller were tested.
‘The last was found most satisfactory.

A large series of observations shows that the fatty acid in the ether
extract varies much—from 40 to 70 per cent.—averaging about 65 per cent.

3. Is the proportion of fatty acids the same in the liver as in the ordi-
nary fats of the body? Lebedett’s method was used. The solid acids (palmitic
and stearic) are to oleic acid on an average as 1 to 1-5; in fishes, 1 to 3°5. This
agrees with one or two previous estimations, In the fats of the body Lebedeff
found in a lipoma 1 to 2°37, and in subcutaneous fat 1 to 5:11.

=

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 805

as Is the distribution of fats uniform throughout the liver? It is found
to be so.

5. In animals in the same condition is the percentage amount of fat in the
liver nearly the same? Ten observations show that the variation is usually
under 5 per cent., while the difference in the amount of fatty acids is even
smaller.

A. The Source of Liver Fats.

I. Are they directly stored from the fat in the food ?

a. The amount of fats in the liver at different periods after food was estimated,
and, with the exception of a somewhat doubtful increase between twenty-four and
thirty hours after the meal, no change in the amount of fat could be determined.
Further experiments on this subject are being carried on.

6. Does the amount of fat bear any relationship to the amount of glycogen ?
As a result of a large number of estimations it is concluded that the fats bear
no relationship to the amount of glycogen.

Il. Are they formed from the fats of the adipose tissue ?

a. Much of the work already published on phosphorus poisoning tends to
indicate that they are so formed.

6. During starvation the amount of fats in the body falls to a much greater
extent than the liver fats, which undergo a comparatively small reduction.

III. Are they formed during the katabolism of liver protoplasm ?

In the post-mortem liver kept for several hours at 40° U. no change in the
amount of fats has so far been determined. Further experiments on this point
are required.

B. The fate of the liver fats has not so far been sufficiently investigated
to justify any conclusions,

4. On the Measurement of Simple Reaction Time for Sight, Hearing, and
Touch. By Professor W. RuruerrorD, W.D., F.L.S.

Reaction time is the interval that elapses between the stimulation of a sense
organ and a motor response. ‘The physiological process involved consists of
(a) an afferent factor—the stimulation of a sensory terminal and transmission
of an impulse along sensory nerve-fibres to the brain; (b) a psychical factor
involving an act of sensory perception and the voluntary production of a motor
impulse ; (c) an efferent factor—the transmission of an impulse along motor nerve-
fibres, and muscular contraction. To render the reaction ‘simple,’ discrimination
is eliminated from the act of perception by repeating the same sensation again
and again without variation in its character; and choice is eliminated from the
voluntary act by giving the same motor response again and again. In the
author's experiments motor response was given by the right foretinger closing
an electrical key. The stimulus for sight was the movement of a flag attached
to a lever; that for hearing was a click given by transmitting an induction shock
through a telephone; that for touch was an induction shock or a mechanical
tap. The reaction time was ascertained by recording the moments of stimulation
and of response on a revolving cylinder and also on a pendulum myograph, and
measuring the interval by a tuning-fork. The pendulum myograph has not
hitherto been employed in such experiments. It is very advantageous in experi-
menting on hearing and touch. Successive curves are superimposed, so that
variations in the time of successive reactions are visible at a glance, and can be
readily measured. By photography the record can be readily printed or thrown
on a screen for lecture demonstrations. The reaction times, as measured by the
author’s methods, differ considerably from those of some German observers. In
observations made on eight intelligent healthy men, varying in age from nineteen
to sixty-two, the reaction time for sight varied from 0°1662 second to 0:2202 second,

‘and was mostly between 0:20 second and 0°22 second. The reaction time for

hearing varied from 0°1448 second to 0:1930 second, and was mostly between
0°15 second and 0:16 second. The reaction time for touch varied from 0:1416

806° REPORT—1 894.

second to 0:1906 second in the different cases. The shortest touch reaction time
is that following stimulation of the cheek: it varied from 0141 second to 0:157
second. When the skin of a finger was stimulated the reaction time varied from
0:142 second to 0:190 second, but was mostly from 0°15 second to 0:18 second in
the different cases; there was no evident relation between age and length of reac-
tion time in the cases under observation. In a limb the reaction time is generally
longer the greater the length of sensory nerve traversed by the impulse; but there
may be considerable variations in the reaction times for different districts in the
field of touch not explicable by difference in the length of sensory nerve traversed,
but probably due to difference in the closeness of relation between centres for tactile
sense in the brain and the motor centre for the hand. It may therefore happen
that a response is given sooner by the hand when its skin is stimulated than
when the mucous membrane of the tongue is stimulated, although in the latter
case the impulse has a much shorter tract of sensory nerve to traverse. When the
right hand gives the response the shortest reaction times for hearing and touch are
obtained by stimulating the right ear and right side of cheek. In the experiments
on sight both eyes were used at the same time. The influence of fatigue on
reaction time and the remarkable restorative effect of tea were demonstrated in the
photographs.

5. On the Microscopic Appearance of Striped Muscle in Rest and in
Contraction. By Professor W. Rutuerrorp, M/.D., F.R.S.

6. On Effects of Suprarenal Extract.
By Professor E. A. Scuirer, /.2.S.

7. On Epithelial Changes produced by Irritation. By D’Arcy Power, J.A.,
M.B. Oxon., F.R.C.S., Lecturer on Histology at the Royal Veterinary
College.

Mr. Power showed a series of preparations of the conjunctival and vaginal
mucous membranes taken from rabbits and guinea-pigs which had been subjected
to mechanical and chemical irritation. Many of the epithelial cells presented
appearances which were identical with those described as being parasitic when
they were met with in cancer. The changes in the epithelium were summarised ~
as a general vacuolation of cells; various forms of intracellular cedema; epithelial
‘pearls,’ collections of leucocytes, and the spaces left after these leucocytes had
migrated. These changes he had already described and figured in the ‘ British
Medical Journal’ for 1893. The series of preparations shown on the present
occasion indicated that many squamous epithelial cells had the power of phago-
cytosis, for in no other way could the remarkable intracellular appearances be
explained, and he showed cells containing a leucocyte, and others containing a
microcyte. Partial necrosis of the cell also took place asa result of irritation,
and there was an invasion of large eosinophile cells into the conjunctival epi-
thelium.

The full text of the paper, with illustrations, is published in the ‘Journal of
Pathology and Bacteriology ’ for October 1894.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 11.

The following Papers were read :-—

1. On Vowel and Consonant Sounds. By D. L. Hermann, Professor of
Physiology in the University of Kénigsberg.

‘

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 807

2. On an Aerotonometer and a Gas-burette.'
By Professor Lion FrepEricq, Liege.

The air which enters the lung is rich in oxygen (20°9 per cent.) and poor in
carbonic acid (0-03 per cent.). On leaving the lung it is relatively poor in oxygen
(18 per cent. in dogs) and rich in carbonic acid (2 to.3 per cent. in dogs). 1t has
given up oxygen to the blood and received from it carbonic acid.

What is the cause of this gaseous exchange between the blood and the air of
the pulmonary alveoli? Pfliiger believed that he had succeeded in explaining
this exchange by the simple laws of gaseous diffusion—laws in virtue of which
-each gas passes from a medium in which its tension is high towards a medium in
which its tension is low. The determinations of carbonic acid tension made by
Pfliiger’s pupils simultaneously in the blood by means of the aerotonometer and in
the air of the pulmonary alveoli were in complete harmony with this explanation.

Christian Bohr has come to a different conclusion on this subject. According
to him, gaseous diffusion alone does not explain the exchange of gases between
the blood and the air of the lung. Bohr has found in several of his experiments
the air of the alveoli richer in oxygen and poorer in carbonic acid than in the
arterial blood leaving the lung. According to Bohr, the tissue of the lung plays
an active part in respiration: the pulmonary epithelium excretes carbonic acid by
a true secretion process, and passes oxygen into the blood, not in accordance with
-the laws of diffusion, but against these laws.

I have recently taken up this subject again, and in doing so have made use
of the aerotonometer exhibited to the Section, which is a modification of the
instrument of Piliiger. The apparatus consists essentially of a sufficiently long
vertical tube, connected above with the carotid of a living animal (an anesthetised
dog), and below with a vein. The arterial blood (which has previously been
rendered incoagulable by the injection of propeptone) flows continuously over the
inner surface of the tube of the aerotonometer, which is kept at a temperature of
38° C. If the experiment lasts sufficient time for the attainment of equality of
tension of the gases of the blood and those enclosed in the aerotonometer, an
analysis of the latter gases will indicate the tension of the gases of the blood.
Bohr believed that equality of tension could be reached in a few minutes, and
thus obtained erroneous results. I have found that nearly two hours are necessary
before equality of tension is reached. One finds then that the air of the aerotono-
meter contains 2 to 3 per cent. of carbonic acid and 12 to 14 per cent. of oxygen,
representing the tension of these gases in the blood in accordance with the
diffusion theory. I have also found that if one lets the animal breathe pure or
nearly pure oxygen, the tension of this gas in the arterial blood may exceed
60 per cent. of an atmosphere. The animal, nevertheless, shows only a slight
tendency to apnoea; it continues to breathe. Apnoea is thus not a necessary
result of a very high oxygen tension in arterial blood. ‘This is a fact which seems
to me very important in connection with the theory of apnoea.

The gas analyses were made with a gas-burette, shown to the Section, which
is simply a modification of that of Hempel. The burette is drawn out at the level
where the readings are made, so as to permit of reading easily to ‘02 or ‘01 cc.
The confining liquid is water (and not mercury), which gives rise to scarcely any
error, diffusion of gases into liquids being so slow. The carbonic acid is absorbed
by potash solution, the oxygen by phosphorus.

3. On Local Immunity. (A Preliminary Communication.)*
By Louis Consett, I.A., W_B., Y.R.C.S., and W.S. Metsome, .A., ID.

_ If it be true, as there seems reason to believe, that recovery from an infectious
disease is due to certain changes in the body, which make it more resistant to the
micro-organisms which cause that disease, and that the same changes are also the

1 For further details see Centralblatt fiir Physiologie, 1893, vii. p. 26; 1894, viii. p. 34.
-? A full report is published in the Jowrnal of Pathology, 1894.

808 REPORT—1894.

cause of subsequent immunity, the well-known fact that in erysipelas the parts first
attacked may be recovering while the disease is spreading elsewhere would lead
us to suspect that these parts have learnt to resist the streptococcus while the rest
of the body is still susceptible.

To inquire whether erysipelas confers any such local immunity was the object
of the following experiments :—

Fourteen rabbits which had recently suffered from erysipelas in the right ears
were again inoculated with the streptococcus, this time in both ears. In each case
a control animal, inoculated at the same time, suffered from typical erysipelas.
The results were as follows: Left ears.—In four, only a little redness about the
seat of inoculation. In four, erysipelas commenced, but aborted on the third or
fourth day. Insix, typical erysipelas. Right ears.—Inflammation rapidly appeared,
affected the whole part, and subsided in twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Culture
experiments, which invariably revealed the presence of streptococci in the early
stages of true erysipelas, showed that micro-organisms were absent from the
inflamed right ears. Thus all the right ears showed themselves to be immune,
while nearly one half the left ears proved as susceptible as those of the control
animals, Hence we conclude that the first attack of erysipelas had conferred a
very complete local immunity. That erysipelas confers some degree of general
immunity is already well known from the work of Fehleisen, Roger, and others.

Further experiments showed that this local immunity lasted only so long as
any thickening remained in the ears after erysipelas. Its duration depended, there-
fore, on the severity of the first attack.

The inflammation which resulted from inoculations of ears previously affected
we thought to be a reaction against the poisons actually introduced, and not due to
the vital activity of the cocci, because we could obtain no evidence that these had
multiplied and invaded the ear. This opinion was put to the test by injecting into
both ears of animals, which had recently suffered from erysipelas in one ear, small
quantities of concentrated filtered cultures, and in one case the streptococci them-
selves destroyed by heat. In these experiments a somewhat violent inflammation,
of short duration (two to three days), resulted in the right ears, and a less severe
but more prolonged inflammation in the left. An important difference was in the
time of onset of this inflammation, which in the previously affected ears appeared
many hours earlier than in the others; a difference similar to that which had
already been observed to result from the inoculation of living cocci under the same
conditions. Thus it appears that parts which have recently suflered from erysipelas
become more quickly and intensely inflamed when subjected to the action of the
products of the streptococcus than do other parts of the same animal, And when
we remember that this tendency to inflammation goes hand in hand with a notably
greater resistance to the living microbe, we are led to regard it as beneficial in its
action, and an important factor of local immunity ; an opinion in harmony with
that already expressed by Metchnikolf and others—viz. that inflammation is a
protective process.

4. A Form of Experimentally-produced Immunity.
By J. Lorrain Suita, IA., M_D., and E. Treviruicx, MB.

The occurrence of fibroid changes in the lungs when these are due to the
irritant effect of inhaled dust is, according to clinical authorities, associated with
increased liability of the lungs to infection by the tubercle bacillus. On the other
hand, there is much clinical as well as experimental evidence to show that the
condition of inflammation in the tissues is in general accompanied by an increased
power of resisting the invasion of microbes. _

The following experiments are brought forward to show that, in its early
stages, the inflammation due to irritating dust in the pleural cavity increases the
difficulty of infecting the animal in this locality with the bacillus pyocyaneus.
The experiments were made on guinea-pigs and rabbits.

The dust (pounded glass) was placed in a bottle containing a quantity of

water. This was sterilised, and before injection the dust was stirred up and mixed _

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 809

with the water. About 1°5c.c. of this mixture was drawn into the injecting
cannula. The cannula consisted of a piece of glass tubing drawn to a sharp
point, with a lateral opening a short distance behind the point. This opening was
made of a size just sufficient to allow the dust to pass easily through. No force
was needed in the injection, the negative pressure due to the inspiratory act being
sufficient to suck the moisture into the cavity.

The effects due to the simple dust were observed in several animals of both
kinds. These consisted in hypermmia of the lung with exudation of fluid and red
cells into the alveolar spaces. There was also exudation of fluid into the pleural
cavity in several instances, and it contained usually a considerable number of red
cells also. To some extent the epithelium covering, the pleural surface of the lung,
was thrown off into the fluid.

The dust was rapidly absorbed into the lymphatic vessels, and could be seen,
even after twelve hours, as small round yellowish patches in the pleural membrane.
These when examined microscopically were found to contain large numbers of
glass particles.

The injection of the bacillus pyocyaneus followed after atime, varying from one
to twenty-six days.

In the following table we have a summary of the observations.

Guinea-pigs.—Six animals, with controls: —
Two recovered completely.
Three survived the control animals for a period.
One was a contradictory instance, for this died sooner than the control
animal.
Rabbits —Seven animals, with controls :—
Two recovered, the controls dying on the second day after infection.
Three survived the controls in two cases one day, and in one case
eight days.
Two cases in which the bacillus was injected into the opposite pleural
cavity. One died with the control, the other earlier.

The conclusion which is derived from these experiments is that the early stages
of inflammation confer a certain amount of immunity on the pleural cavity in
which the inflammation has been set up. It does not seem to vary in its protective
power during the first montk or so after the inflammation has been set up. In
those instances where there was not complete recovery it was usually found that
bacilli occurred to a much greater extent in the pleural exudation of the control
animals than in that of those infected with glass dust.

The death of the last two rabbits points to the fact that probably the protection
conferred is strictly localised in the inflamed tissues.

5. On the Changes in Nerve Cells due to Functional Activity.
By Gustav Mann, ILD.

6. On the Effect of Gravity on the Circulation. By Dr. L. Hut.

7. Experimental Inquiry upon the Different Tracts of the Central Nervous
System. By F. W. Nutt, ILD.

The origin and termination of the fibres of the fillet were investigated by noting
the degeneration resulting from unilateral separation of the nuclei of Goll and
Burdach from the arciform fibres issuing therefrom. The degenerated arciform
fibres were traced by Marchi’s method into the opposite interolivary layer, and
thence into the fillet. The degenerated tibres of the fillet were followed most

810 REPORT—1894,

distinctly into the optic thalamus, passing through the striz medullares, They
could not be traced beyond this to the cortex.

The author also gave a preliminary account of some experiments relating to the
antero-lateral tract of Gowers. He considers his researches so far show that it is a
crossed tract, consisting in the main of fibres proceeding to the middle lobe of the
cerebellum, but also containing a few scattered fibres proceeding from the posterior
roots, and apparently ending in the corpora quadrigemina.

MONDAY, AUGUST 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Mechanical Theory of Lymph Formation. By Dr. Staruinc.

2. On Lymph Formation. By Waursr 8. Lazarus-Bartow, ID.

During the course of experiments performed in the Pathological Laboratory,
University of Cambridge, for the investigation of the pathology of the oedema
which accompanies passive congestion the author was led to examine certain of
the conditions that modify the flow of lymph in the normal animal.

He introduced a cannula into one of the lymphatics of the hind limb of a dog,
and, as far as possible, ligatured all remaining lymphatics. The limb was then
emptied as completely as possible of lymph by rapid and firm squeezing from the
paw upwards, and an observation was immediately commenced upon the amount
of lymph formed in the limb during one hour. The animal was under A.C.E.
mixture and was kept absolutely at rest, excepting that coagulation of the lymph
in the cannula was prevented by occasional gentle squeezing of the limb. Imme-
diately before the expiry of the hour the limb was again emptied of lymph as
completely as possibly by firm squeezing. The lymph was collected in carefully
graduated tubes, and the amount thus obtained was regarded as the normal for
the individual.

An elastic ligature previously arranged round the limb was then tightened to
such an extent as, it was known from other experiments, would raise the pressure
in the femoral vein from the normal 4-65 mm. of mercury to 25-35 mm. Exactly
the same processes were carried out during the collection of lymph under these
modified conditions as were described for the normal conditions. ‘The duration of
increased pressure was one hour. Lastly, the elastic ligature was removed, and
the amount of lymph formed in an hour under normal conditions was again
estimated.

The limb was therefore as free as possible from lymph immediately before
beginning and immediately before ending each of the three portions of the
investigation.

The author found that the amounts collected in the three periods were either
absolutely identical, or that the amount collected during the period of high
venous pressure was less than that collected when the pressure was normal. On
no occasion did he find that an increase of venous pressure was accompanied by an
increase in the amount of lymph-flow.

The amount of lymph-flow, however, being the product of two factors—viz. the
amount of fluid poured out by the blood-vessels and any modifications in that
amount introduced during the sojourn of the lymph in the tissues—it was necessary
before concluding that an increase of lymph-formation does not accompany an
increase in venous pressure to determine whether an excessive amount of fluid had
accumulated in the tissues in the form of cedema, since it was possible that the
increased venous pressure might have caused an increased outflow of fluid from
the capillaries and venules, and that that increased outflow. might not have shown

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 811

itself in an increased flow from the lymphatics, because it was in part stored up in
the tissues as cedema fluid. ‘To determine this point observations of the specific
pravities of arterial blood and blood-plasma, venous blood and blood-plasma, of
muscle and of skin were taken before ard after the pressure in the femoral vein
was raised. It was found that these underwent no changes whatever, either in
the affected limb or in other parts of the body (with the exception of a rise in
the specific gravity of the venous blood and blood-plasma in the affected limb)
during venous obstruction, which caused a rise of pressure in the femoral vein,
varying in individual cases from 48-75 mm. of mercury. The modification of
specific gravity of the venous blood and blood-plasma in the affected limb manifestly
depends upon its lengthened sojourn in the limb.

The author concludes, therefore, that increase of venous pressure in a limb for
one hour not only does not cause an increase of lymph-flow from the lymphatics,
it does not, even cause an increased passage of fluid through the blood-vessel walls.

Independently, however, of the venous pressure, the amount of lymph-flow is
increased when the tissues have been starved for some time or are overstocked
with their own katabolic products.

The following conditions were investigated :—

1. Before and after prolonged complete anzemia (three hours), produced by an
Esmarch’s bandage.

2. Before and after hemostasis, or complete cutting off of the limb, with what-
ever blood and lymph it might contain, from the rest of the body by means of a
tight elastic bandage for one hour.

3. Before and after stimulation of the sciatic nerve, while the limb was com-
pletely anzemic and persistence im situ of the katabolic products, the whole lasting
one hour.

All these conditions are followed by arterial dilatation in the part; and,
inasmuch as arterial dilatation subsequent to section of the sciatic nerve was found
by the author to be unaccompanied by any modification in the amount of lymph-
flow, he concludes that the increase occurring under the conditions given above is
immediately conditioned by the excessive needs of the tissues,

Under extreme conditions, such as those just given, the effect of an increase of
venous pressure is markedly different from what it is when such conditions have
not been introduced, for now an increase of venous pressure 7s accompanied by an
increase in the lymph-flow, while the lymph-flow diminishes when the venous
pressure is again allowed to return to normal. In other words, the lymph-flow
now varies directly—the author cannot say whether it be proportionately—with
the venous pressure. It now, therefore, bears some resemblance to mechanical
filtration. Inasmuch, however, as an obstruction to the outflow of blood from the
venous side itself intensifies the necessity of the tissues by damming up in them
the waste products they are so anxious to get rid of, this resemblance to mechanical
filtration may, after all, be only apparent. ;

The author concludes, therefore, that lymph-formation does not depend upon
purely mechanical conditions of the circulation, but he regards it as dependent
upon the needs of the tissues: those needs are, in some as yet unrecognised way,
made known to the circulatory apparatus, and lead to variations in the amount of
blood-flow through the part, in extreme cases active arterial dilatation of the most
marked kind being induced. In such extreme cases, further, the lymph-flow
varies directly with the venous pressure, and there is a resemblance to mechanical
filtration; but there are reasons for supposing that this resemblance is an apparent
and not a real one.

3. On the Innervation of the Portal Vein.
By W. M. Bayuiss and Dr. STaR.ine.

4. On some Vaso-dilator Reflexes. By W.M. Bay.iss.

812 REPORT—1894..

5. On the Production of Heat in Hibernating Animals.
By Rapuart Dusots, Professor of Physiology in the University of Lyons.

For several years the author has investigated the production of heat in the
marmot in order to find out what part of the nervous system is essential for the
rapid production of ‘heat which takes place when the animal wakes up from its
winter sleep.

Section of the spinal cord at the level of the fourth cervical vertebra prevents
the animal from raising its temperature. Destruction of the grey substance of the
brain produces a similar effect. If the section of the spinal cord be made at the
level of the seventh cervical vertebra the animal grows warm slowly and incom-
pletely ; but if the operation be performed between the fourth and fifth dorsal
vertebrae, then the curve of the rise of temperature presents the normal form.
There is therefore a limited portion of the cord, between the fourth cervical and
the first dorsal vertebre, through which pass the centripetal or centrifugal, or both,
impulses, placing the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres in communication with the
rest of the organism. ‘he pathway is through the grey substance of the spinal
cord, for section of the antero-lateral or of the posterior columns does not prevent
the animal from producing heat, whereas destruction of the grey matter in this
limited portion of the cord produces the same effect as total section. This opera-
tion produces immediate loss of the power of movement and conscious sensibility
in the greater part of the body; but the absence of the capacity to produce heat
must not be attributed to this sensory and motor paralysis, for section a little
lower, at the fourth dorsal vertebra, does not change the normal curve of tempera-
ture.

The section of the cord at the fourth cervical vertebra abolishes, on the one
hand, the contractions of the thoracic muscles, the activity of which is very great
during the rewarming and insignificant during the torpor; on the other hand, it
cuts off the very important connections of the sympathetic system with the higher
centres. If the cervical sympathetic be cut on both sides above the inferior
cervical ganglion there is no very marked delay in the production of heat, whereas
the rise of temperature is very slow and incomplete when the inferior cervical and
the first thoracic ganglia are removed on both sides. These ganglia, however, are
only connecting links, for the same result is obtained by section of the two
splanchnic nerves or of the branches which pass directly from the abdominal
sympathetics to the semilunar ganglia. Extirpation of the semilunar ganglia
produces the same result as removal of the inferior cervical and first thoracic

anglia.

- Experiments show that it is by acting upon the portal system that the sympa-
thetic shares in the general process of heat production. It regulates the quantity
and pressure of the blood which flows to the liver, and in this manner the produc-
tion of heat in the liver and the transformation of glycogen into sugar, to be
utilised for combustion when the animal awakes. The thoracic muscles become
exceedingly active when the animal awakes, and thus require more glycogen or
other combustible material for their contraction.

A full account of this research will shortly be published in ‘Les Annales de
VUniversité de Lyon.’ ;

6. On ‘ Pigeons’ Milk.’ By E. Waymoutn Re, Professor of Physiology
in University College, Dundee.

hirer «

John Hunter (1786) discovered the fact that pigeons feed their young for some
days after hatching upon a substance resembling the curd of milk, and formed in
the lateral pouches of the crop of both cock and hen, This method of feeding is —
as yet only known in this tribe of birds.

Claude Bernard (1859) studied the nature of the substance, and found that

a7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. $13.

microscopically it consisted of masses of the epithelial scales of the crop mucosa.
loaded with fat globules. An analysis made for Bernard by Leconte gave—

‘Casein’ and salts F , p F A ; er BIB:
Fat : : A Z A A : - : F . 10°47
Water. : f . i - : ‘ : . 66°30

No sugar was present—a fact noted also by Hunter.

Hasse (1865) and more recently Max Teichmann (1889) have also written om
the subject from the histological point of view.

The lateral pouches of the crop of the non-breeding pigeon are not glandular ;
the epithelium is stratified and free from fat, the submucosa provided with small
vascular papillee.

The change in the crop membrane necessary for the formation of the ‘milk’
commences during the incubation of the eggs, and though not visible to the naked
eye till two or three days before hatching, makes itself evident by the appearance
of fat-droplets in the cells ten days before this event. The main change consists
in a great thickening of the epithelium, accompanied by rugose folding with reticu-
lation, while at the same time the structure becomes enormously vascular and
capillaries penetrate the epithelial layers (Hasse and Teichmann).

Small pellets of curd-like matter form in the pits of the reticulated surface, and
as soon as the young are hatched these are transferred by the parents to the crops
of the ‘ squabs,’ often to the extent of 40 per cent. of the weight of the bodies of the

oung.
: Tn its histological features the process of formation of the ‘ milk’ resembles more
closely that of the formation of sebum than of milk, for whole masses of fat-holding
cells are cast off from the walls of the pits in the membrane; yet, unlike the
sebaceous process, the nuclei of the cells persist.

Interpapillary involutions, then, of the thickened stratified epithelium of the
crop act as sebaceous glands during the period of formation of the ‘ milk.’

This period lasts for from seven to nine days after hatching, and the maximum
of activity is reached about the second day after hatching.

The young are fed almost exclusively on this substance for the first three days,
though a few crushed grains are also supplied by the parents. The parents appear
to crush the grains at first, though later they are supplied whole. This fact is
accounted for by the condition of the gizzard membrane of the early ‘ squab,’ for
the horny secretion of the tubular glands of the mucosa takes some days to con-
solidate. No digestive ferments are supplied by the parents along with the ‘ milk,”
and the proventriculus of the young ‘ squab’ pigeon, even at twelve hours, is rick
in proteolytic ferment, its glycerine extract digesting fibrin with ease. The crops
of neither adult (breeding or non-breeding) nor young birds form any amylolytic
or proteolytic ferment; in both cases, however, multitudes of bacteria and cocci
are present, and the acidity of the contents (reaction of Uffelmann, but no reaction
with phloroglucin and vanillin) is probably due to lactic fermentation. The
pancreas of the ‘squab’ is capable of digesting starch at the time of hatching.

In the ‘ squab’ the cell bodies of the ‘milk’ are dissolved off by the secretion
of the proventriculus, and the fat set free in the gut is found iu the cells of the villi,
and also in the leucocytes of the blood. The feces of the ‘squab’ are fat-free,
though at an early stage they contain considerable proteid.

Though sugar is undoubtedly absent from the ‘milk,’ a young ‘ squab’ pigeon
before it has received any food contains sugar. In one case a triple alcoholic ex-
tract of a minced and finally pulverised ‘squab’ yielded over ‘2 per cent. of its
body weight of reducing sugar, while a subsequent triple aqueous extract gave ‘16:
per cent. of the body weight of an amylose yielding sugar on boiling with dilute
sulphuric acid. This amylose struck no colour with iodine, and attempts to demon-
strate glycogen in the bodies of unfed ‘squab’ pigeons have failed, though the
pectoral muscles of adult birds are very rich in this substance.

As regards the proteids of the ‘ milk,’ extracts with ‘normal saline solution”
by trituration and digestion with thymol at 40°C. show absence of albumins,
proteoses, and peptones; presence of globulin and of caseinogen (clot with rennet,

814 REPORT—1894.

with and without calcic chloride). The chief proteid, however, appears to be of the
nature of nucleo-albumin (Halliburton’s sodic-chloride method). Mucin is present
in variable amount, and originates from the glands of the gullet below the crop.
These glands enlarge and become more active during the feeding of the young.

The young pigeon is, then, fed at first upon a highly nutritious food, whose
solids consist in the main of nucleo-albumin and fat. The explanation of this
oe process lies in all probability in the fact that since pigeons rear so many

roods in a season the young must be brought forward faster than could result

from mere grain feeding, and hence a magnificently nutrient diet is supplied.
When a cock or hen ‘ in milk’ is separated from the young the involution of the
crop changes occurs with great rapidity, for within twenty-four hours the temporary
‘sebaceous glands’ are loosened and cast off, the hypertrophied papille which lie
between them being subsequently reduced. Such birds swallow their own ‘ milk; ’
their villi contain more fat than normal birds, and fatty leucocytes are seen in
abundance in the blood.

Some days, however, after separation, though the gross changes in the crop
membrane have disappeared, fatty cells are found in the epithelium.

The ‘ milk’ in the crops of such separated birds is also in finer particles than
normal and poorer in solid constituents,

A few quantitative analyses, kindly made for me by my colleague Mr. F. J.
Hambly, are appended :—

A. B. C. dD,
From crop of 2 | From crop of a | From crop of a | From crop of hen
4-hour ‘squab’ | 12-hour ‘squab’ | 51-hour‘squab’ | feeding 4 ‘squabs’

=) pigeon pigeon pigeon for 63 hours with-
out aid of cock

% Milk | % Solids} % Milk | % Solids} % Milk | % Solids} % Milk | % Solids
Water. . .| 79°33 -— TT91 —_— 73°98 — 84°51 —
abit here 774 | 37-4 815 | 36:9 9°32 | 358 3°99 | 25°8

Resto eks:: shat heal 111] 50 | 106] 41 91] 59 |
Proteids a 12°83] 58:1 15°64 | 60-1 10°59 | 68:3
we 100-00 | 100:00 | 100:00 | 100-0 | 100-00 100°0 | 100-00 | 100°0
otal -sélids’ = | 2067, 4|-..-—,.}) 22°09. |... —.=.) . 26°02, | > ——0) eo | ee

7. On the Structure of Striped Muscle. By Professor J. B. Haycrarr.

The cross-striping of muscle is due to the form of the fibril and not to its
internal structure. The fibril is like a beaded rod, and the striping is the optical
expression of this. The proof of this is obtained by stamping moist collodion
with a piece of muscle. The collodion stamp preserves the form of the fibrils,
and shows identically the same cross-striping to the minutest detail. The stamps
and their photographs were demonstrated. In one a fibril had been stamped in
which one part alone was in the condition of contraction, and every detail of the
striping, both in the relaxed and contracted conditions, was identically reproduced.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 14.

J. A joint meeting with Section A was held to discuss the following Papers
by Professor Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.

A,—Experiments illustrating Clerk Maawell’s Theory of Light.
B.—An Electrical Theory of Vision.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 815

The following Papers were read :—

2. On a Modification of Golgi’s Methods. By Oxtver 8. Strona, of
Columbia College, New York.

Golgi’s methods may be divided into two principal heads: (1) The sublimate
method, consisting essentially of hardening in bichromate of potash followed by
immersion in bichloride of mercury. This method need not be further noted here.

(2) The silver methods, consisting of (a) the long, or slow, method, consisting
of hardening for about twenty to thirty days in potassium bichromate followed by
immersion in a solution of silver nitrate. (6) The rapid method, where the har-
dening is done in a mixture of bichromate and osmic acid. This is the method,
slightly modified, which is so extensively used, and is the method used by
Ramon y Cajal. (c) What may be designated the mixed method, or combined
method, and consists in hardening first for a few days or a week or so in potassium
bichromate, then a day or two in the osmium-bichromate mixture, and finally the
immersion in the silver bath.

The rapid method is the best yet discovered for work on the peripheral ter-
minations of nerves and for the embryonic central nervous system. For adult
brains it is not so well adapted owing to the poor penetration of the osmic acid,
and consequent liability to overharden the periphery while the central portions ot
even small pieces remain untouched. Moreover, adult brains are not well adapted
for the study of the nervous or axis cylinder prolongations of the cells, owing
probably to their sheath, so that on such material study by these methods would
be chiefly directed to the cell bodies and their protoplasmic expansions. For
such purposes the long Golgi method is eminently adapted.

While the long Golgi method avoids the disadvantages, including the expense
—no small consideration where such quantities are used—of osmic acid, it has the
disadvantage of requiring about a month, besides the uncertainty common to all
these methods.

In order to reduce this period of time, and yet to avoid the use of osmic acid, the
new method here proposed for the study of adult brains is the use of bichromate of
lithium instead of the bichromate of potassium, with the same percentages. I haye
found that tissues (small pieces) placed in the former reach the favourable stage of
hardening for the silver impregnation in the course of one to two days, instead of
twenty to thirty days. It passes through this favourable period quite rapidly, but
the whole process is reduced to such a short time that it is rendered much less
tedious. The pictures yielded by this process, judging from the few made thus
far, are certainly fully equal to those prepared by the other methods.

The subsequent treatment is as in the other methods, #.c., the piece of tissue
is rinsed in strong alcohol, cut free hand or gummed on a block without any
imbedding, and cut with a microtome. The sections are washed in several
changes of strong alcohol, cleared in oleum origanum Cretici, washed briefly in
xylo!, and mounted in dammar or Canada balsam, thinned with xylol, without a
cover slip.

It would be interesting to ascertain how well adapted this new hardening
reagent would be for preparing the central nervous system for other methods of
staining, e.g., the Weigert method.

3. On an Attempt to supply Motor Power to the Muscles of the Larynx from
a New Source. By Veterinary-Captain F. Smiru, /.2.C.V.S., FIC,
Army Veterinary Department, Aldershot.

The subject used in these observations was the horse, the inquiry having in
view the possible relief of the respiratory distress so common in this animal as the
result. of laryngeal paralysis.

The new source of nerve supply was sought for in the spinal accessory. The

816 REPORT—1894.

recurrent and spinal accessory were exposed and divided, and the proximal end
of the accessory was sutured to the distal end of the recurrent.

The only convenient test which could be employed to ascertain what progress
the animal was making after the operation was that afforded by galloping it.

In one case, a few months after the above nerves had been united, there was
only a slight harshness in the breathing during inspiration, even when the horse
was severely ‘pressed ;’ whereas, unless nerve impulses were passing down the
accessory and through the recurrent to the larynx, the animal should have suffered
from intense dyspnoea, as the whole of the dilator muscles of one side of the larynx
would have been paralysed.

In a second case, the recurrent, before suture to the accessory, was known to
have been degenerated for at least two years. This animal continued to have
noisy breathing up to the time it was destroyed (twelve months after the operation),
but it was unaccompanied by distress.

In the first case only an ordinary post-mortem examination was made to
ascertain whether the nerves were united; in the second horse the nerves were
stimulated electrically immediately after death, and a careful microscopical
examination of the parts made. j

On stimulating that portion of the recurrent in connection with the larynx
the muscles actively responded; on stimulating the accessory well above the
nodule uniting it with the recurrent, the muscles of the larynx again actively
responded,

These observations were repeated several times by Professor Delépine, of
Manchester (who kindly associated himself with me as an independent observer
in the post-mortem examination), and the results are beyond doubt.

The muscles of the larynx of the above case, supplied by the accessory-
recurrent nerve, were smaller and decidedly paler in colour than the healthy ones
on the opposite side; on directly stimulating the muscles every portion of them
actively responded to a weak current.

Professor Delépine examined the united nerves microscopically, and found in
the recurrent between the point of union and the larynx small bundles of medul-
lated nerve fibres and an amount of epi- and peri-neurium larger than normal. The
place occupied by the old funiculi was quite distinct, but the nerve fibres occupied
only a portion of the spaces thus indicated. The nerve fibres were all of smaller
diameter than normal; most of them had a very thin myelin sheath which stained
well with osmic acid. Professor Delépine was of opinion from this and the other
observations that partial regeneration had certainly taken place, and that regenera-
tion was progressing at the time of death.

By the tests employed it was not possible to say whether co-ordination of the
laryngeal muscles occurred, but it is proposed in future observations to examine
closely into this subject, and employ the laryngoscope to ascertain whether the
impulses to the larynx are sent at the right moment.

At present it would almost appear to be possible to educate a nerve centre to
perform a duty it was never intended for.

4, On the Causes and Prevention of Suffocation in Mines. By J. 8.
Haxpane, J.A., M.D., Lecturer on Physiology, University of Oxford.

Evidence was brought forward by the author that most of the deaths caused
by colliery explosions and fires in the workings are due to suffocation, so that a
thorough investigation of the subject is of great practical importance.

He concluded that poisoning by carbonic acid is never the cause of death in
cases of suffocation by choke-damp, black-damp, or after-damp; that deprivation
of oxygen is always the cause in the cases of choke-damp or black-damp, and
usually the cause in the case of after-damp, although after-damp, even when
much diluted, is sometimes poisonous from the presence in it of products of in-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 817

eomplete combustion, such as carbonic oxide or sulphuretted hydrogen. He also
discussed the effects of white-damp, and drew attention to the exceedingly poisonous
character of the gases from the explosion of blasting powder.

In conclusion he described and exhibited a portable apparatus for enabling
miners to escape through an atmosphere of after-damp to the fresh air in the
neighbourhood of the shafts, and for rescue purposes,

5. Observations on the Effects of After-damp.
By J. SHaw Lyte, JD.

The writer gave a detailed account of the symptoms presented by those who
were found alive after the recent explosion at the Albion Steam Colliery,

6. Experiments on Memory. By W. G. Suita, M.A., Ph.D.

If we examine any case of ready and accurate recollection taken from our daily
experience, we find it difficult, if not impossible, to say how much of this accuracy
is due to such factors as the interest which the experience aroused, the attention
which we paid to it, the amount of effort and time spent during the experience.
The following experiments were carried out with the view of trying to isolate
experimentally the process of attention, and showing what changes in recollection
occur when various kinds of distraction of attention are introduced, The experi-
ments were begun in the Institute for Experimental Psychology in Leipzig, and
have been carried on in the Physiological Laboratory in Oxford.

After a considerable number of preliminary experiments had been made, the
following method was adopted. Twelve letters of the alphabet, arranged in such
a manner that intelligible words or interesting ideas should not readily be sug-
gested, were written upon a card, so as to form three lines. The card was shown
to the reagent, who then tried to learn what was written on it. In each new
experiment a new combination of letters was employed. By making a sufficiently
large number of observations with different persons, one can eliminate to a con-
siderable extent the fallacies arising from varying difficulty or familiarity of the
combinations employed. ‘The card was shown in every case for ten seconds, and
the reagent was required, either immediately after he ceased to see the card or after
an interval of about two seconds, to reproduce as much as he could remember of
what he had seen.

A distinct and at the same time fairly simple form of distraction was secured
by making the reagent repeat the series 2, 4, 6,8... , or more rarely 3,6,9...,
while he was learning the letters on the card. In order that the person in charge
of the experiments might have an effective control over the activity of the reagent,
the series had to be repeated aloud, and each step in the addition was made to
coincide with the stroke of a metronome going at the rate of sixty to seventy beats
per minute. In order to compare the results of this form of distraction with those
gained where the vocal organ was employed, but the mental effort involved was
very small, the reagent was next required while memorising to repeat aloud with
each beat of the metronome an unintelligible syllable, eg., ‘la.’ This form of
distraction was further compared with that caused by activity of another set of
muscles, viz., those employed in tapping the table with the forefinger, each tap
coinciding with a beat of the metronome. Lastly, experiments were carried out
to show the effect of memorising without any distraction save that due to the fact
that the metronome continued to beat. These four variations were given in varying
order one after the other, and were so arranged that 8, 12, 16, or 20 experiments
were made in one hour.

In calculating the value of the results two methods were applied. The first
resembles that.employed by Miinsterberg (‘ Beitriige zur experimentellen Psycho-
logie’), and consists in summing up the errors committed in reproducing the
letters written on the card, The errors were classified as follows :—(1) Omission
of a letter; (2) insertion of a wrong letter; (3) displacement of a letter or repro-

1894. 3a

818 REPORT—1894.

duction in wrorg order. According to the second method, which resembles that
commonly employed in estimating the value of answers to examination papers, a
greater value is assigned to letters according as they correspond more exactly to
what was written on the card. <A letter which was given in a wrong position or
without any hint as to its position had the value | attached to it. When a certain
imperfect knowledge of its position was present, as when it was located in the right
line or in the right order in a group of letters whose correct position was unknown,
the value 2 was given. Each letter counted 3 when everything was correct.
Letters wrongly inserted were disregarded. From an analysis of the results given
by the first method it appeared that the number of insertions does not vary very
much, and only in a few cases has an important influence on the results.

All the results of over five hundred experiments made with nine observers have
been analysed according to the two methods, and the results agree except in a few
cases.

The general conclusion is that the memory is worst when the reagent performs
the simple sum in addition (1); it is better when the distraction is caused by
exercise of the vocal organ (2); that caused by movement of the forefinger (3)
does not make the recollection much worse than it is when the observer is not
distracted at all (4). This statement holds good with only a few exceptions for
every reagent, and is confirmed by the subjective observations given in reply to the
questions which were frequently asked. The average of the results given by the
nine persons who assisted in the experiments is as follows: the upper line gives
the values according to the first method, the lower the values according to the
second method of calculation—

Q) (2) (3) (4)
97 87 7-95 74
12-9 16°3 18°5 21:2

An analysis of the errors shows that the curve of errors of omission follows
closely that of the total number of errors: the other two kinds of error are much
less numerous, and do not show any very important variation. A detailed analysis
of the results, together with a discussion of their meaning and value, will be given
in a future number of Mind.

7. On Typhoid Bacilli in Water. By Dr. L. Orrvier.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 15.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On some Physiological Effects of the Passage of Rapidly-alternating
Currents of great Intensity through Nerve. By Professor OLIVER
Lopes, /.2.S., and Professor F. Gotcu, /.2.S.

2. On a New Spring Kymograph and Polyrheotome.
By Professor T. W. W. ENGELMANN.

3. On the Production with the Capillary Electrometer of Photographic
Records of Currents produced by Speaking into a Telephone. By
G. J. Burcu. ;

4, Report of the Committee on the Structure and Function of the
Mammalian Heart.—See Reports, p, 464.

INDEX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper

ahere the paper is published in extenso.

BJECTS and rules of the Association, | ABERCROMBY (Hon. R.) on meteorological

Xxix.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers, from commencement, xxxix,
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, xlix.
List of evening lectures, Ixvii.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixx.
Officers of Sections present at Oxford,
xxi.
Officers and Council for 1894_95, Ixxiii.
Treasurer’s account, 1xxiv.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, Ixxvi.
Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Oxford, Ixxviii.

Committees appointed by the General
Committee at Oxford : (1) receiving
grants of money, Ixxxi.; (2) not receiv-
ing grants of money, Ixxxvi. Papers
ordered to be printed in extenso, 1Xxxix.
Resolutions relating to the constitu-
tion and titles of sections, xc. Resolu-
tions referred to the Council for con-
sideration, and action if desirable, 7b.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, xci.

Places of meeting in 1895 and 1896, xcii.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, xciii.

General meetings, cviii.

Address by the President, Lord Salisbury,
K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of the
University of Oxford, 3.

ABEL (Sir F.) on the best method of estab-
lishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 237.

Abelian system of differential equations,
amethod of determining all the rational
and integral algebraic integrals of the,
by W. R. Westropp Roberts, 557.

observations on Ben Nevis, 108.

ABNEY (Capt. W. de W.) on the best
methods of recording the direct inten-
sity of solar radiation, 106.

on the action of light upon dyed

colours, 238.

on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 248.

ADAMS (Prof. W.G.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 117.

Addition theorem, Prof. Mittag-Leffler
on the, 561.

Aerotonometer and gas-burette, Prof. L.
Fredericq on an, 807.

Africa, tropical, the climatological and
hydrographical conditions of, third
report on, 348.

After-damp, Dr. J. Shaw Lyttle on the
effects of, 817.

Agriculture, co-operationin, Harold Moore
on, 736.

Air, experiments to find if subtraction of
water from, electrifies it, Lord Kelvin,
M. Maclean, and A. Galt on, 554.

*___. a new gaseous constituent of,
Lord Rayleigh and Prof. W. Ramsay
on, 614.

Aleyonium, the development of, Dr. S. J.
Hickson on, 345.

Aldehyde, phosphorus, and sulphur, the
rate of oxidation of, Dr. T. Ewan on,
609.

Algz, some chalk-forming and chalk-
destroying, by Prof. T. Johnson, 683.
——,, two Irish brown, by Prof. T. John-

son, 683.

*____. an exhibition of, by A. Church,
684.

ALLEN (E. J.) on the later stages in the
development of decapod Crustacea, 345.

- (Prof. F. J.) on mirror writing,
793.

3qQ@2

820

ALLEN (J. Romilly) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 419.

Alps, iodine value of sunlight in the, Dr.
8. Rideal on the, 612.

*Alternate currents, Prof. S. P. Thompson
on some advantages of, 756.

Amentiferz, phylogenetic position of the
Chalazogamic, Miss M. Benson on the,
687.

America, a new light on the discovery of,
by H. Y. Oldham, 715.

Amides, the constitution of the acid, Dr.
J. B. Cohen on, 625.

Amphiorus, the species of, J. W. Kirkaldy
on, 685.

*Amphisile, the vertebre of the, W. E.
Collinge on, 683.

Anallagmatic displacements of the regu-
lar bodies in m-dimensional space, the
order of the groups related to the,
Prof. P. H. Schoute on, 562.

Analysis of iron and steel, sixth report
on the best method of establishing an
international standard for the, 237.

Ancient and prehistoric remains of Gla-
morganshire, second report on the, 418.

ANDERSON (Dr. Joseph) on an ethnogra-
phical survey of the United Kingdom,
419.

(Dr. Tempest) on the collection,
preservation, and systematic registra-

_ tion of photographs of geological in-
terest in the United Kingdom, 27t.

on the correction of optical instru-
ments for individual eyes, 586.

——- on certain volcanic subsidences in
the north of Iceland, 650.

Aniline, the specific heat of, the influence
of temperature upon, E. H. Griffiths on,
568.

Animal life, the homes and migrations of
the earliest forms of, as indicated by
recent researches, Dr. H. Hicks on, 657.

Antaretie geographical, meteorological,
and natural history observations, report
of the Committee for making, 358.

Anthropological Section, Address by Sir
W. H. Flower to the, 762.

Anthropometric laboratory at the Not-
tingham meeting, report on the work of
the, 444.

work in schools, report on, 439.
Appendia :

I. Circular sent to Schools, 440.
II. Suggestions for Anthropometric
Observations in Schools, 441.

*Antiquity of man in Belgium, Prof. M.
Lohest on the, 784.

APPLEYARD (G.) and Dr. J. B. CoHEN,
popular method for the estimation of
carbon dioxide in the air, 619.

Archzopteryx, the wing of, viewed in the
light of that of some modern birds,
W_ P. Pycraft on, 693.

INDEX.

*Arctic expedition, the Jackson-Harms-
worth, A. Montefiore on the, 717.

tArmenia, Russian, Dr. A. Markoff on,
711.

ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the investi-
gation of isomeric napthalene deriva-
tives, 268.

on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 359.

Aromatic diazo-compounds, the formation
of indazol derivatives from, Prof. E.
Noelting on, 622.

—— series, ortho-dinitroso derivatives of
the, Prof. E. Noelting on, 620.

Arrhenius’ law of dissociation, the deter-
mination of, Dr. Meyer Wildermann on,
616,

tArsenic, Schuller’s yellow modification
of, Prof. H. McLeod on, 615

Astronomical theory of ice ages and
general ages, the inadequacy of the,
E. P. Culverwell on, 660.

*ATKINSON (Edward) on prices, wages,
and the standard of value, 730.

——(R. W.) on the prehistoric and
ancient remains of Glamorganshire,
418.

Atmosphere of a rotating planet, the law
of molecular distribution in the, @. H.
Bryan on, 100.

Atomic weight of carbon, Prof. J. A.
Wanklyn on the, 619.

AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 117.

Babinet's principle and Fresnel’s diffrac-
tion theory, a lecture-room experiment
to illustrate, by Prof. A. Cornu, 480.

*Bacillus, a Thames, Prof. Marshall Ward
on, 698

Bacterium in milk, the chemical action
of a new, A. Bernstein on, 608.

BAILDON (Miss F.} on a visit to British
New Guinea, 716.

(H. Bellyse) on some of the natives
of British New Guinea, 788.

BAILY (F.G.) on hysteresis in iron and
steel in a rotating magnetic fiela, 576.

BAKER (H. Brereton) on the electrifica-
tion of molecules and chemical change,
493.

BALFOUR (Henry) onthe bowas a musical
instrument, 778.

(Prof. I. Bayley), Address to the
Biological Section by, 667.

BALL (Sir Robert) on a general theorem
in dynamics, 561.

(Dr. V.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 274.

Bank of England, fifty years’ accounts of
the, A. W. Flux on, 734. ‘

INDEX.

Banks of small channels in tidal estu-
aries, the shape of the, Prof. H. Hen-
nessy on, 664.

BABLOW (W.), a new explanation of the
wave-movements of a stretched string,
593.

BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 348.

*Barrow, a long, near Rushmore, ex-
ploration of, by General Pitt-Rivers,
784.

, ——, the skeletons from, Dr. J. G.
Garson on, 784.

BASTABLE (Prof. C. F.), Address to the
Section of Economic Science and Sta-
tistics, 719.

Bathymetrical survey of the English
lakes, Dr. H. R. Mill on a, 713.

of the French lakes, E. Delebecque
on the, 712.

BAUERMAN (H.) on the proximate chemi-
cal constituents of coal, 246.

—— on the volcanic phenomena of Vesu-
vius and its neighbourhood, 315.

*BAYLISS (W. M.) on some vasodilator
reflexes, 811.

* and Dr. STARLING on the in-
nervation of the portal vein, 811.

BEARE (Prof. T. Hudson) on methods of
determining the dryness of steam, 392.

Beat-tones, the production of, from two
vibrating bodies whose frequencies are
so high as to be separately inaudible,
A. M. Mayer on, 573.

BEDDOE (Dr. John) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 419.

on complexional differences between
natives of Ireland with indigenous
and exotic surnames respectively, 775.

BEDFORD (J. E.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 274.

BEDSON (Prof. P. P.) on the proximate
chemical constituents of coal, 246.

*Belgium, the antiquity of man in, Prof.
Max Lohest on, 784.

——, the present state of prehistoric
studies in, Count Goblet d’Alviella on,
783.

BELL (A. Montgomerie) on the Pleisto-
cene gravel at Wolvercote, near Ox-
ford, 663.

—— (Dugald) on the character of the
high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, and other localities,
307.

— (Sir I. Lowthian) on the proximate
chemical constituents of coal, 246.

(J.) on the prehistoric and ancient
remains of Glamorganshire, 418

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,

. report on, 108.

821

*BENEDEN (Prof. E. van) on the rela-
tions of protoplasm, 684.

* on the origin and morphological
signification of the notochord, 684.

BENHAM (Dr. W. B.) on the blood of
Magelona, 696.

, Suggestions for a new classification
of the Polycheta, 696.

BENSON (Miss M.) on the phylogenetic
position of the Chalagzogamic Amen+
tiferze, 687.

BENT (J. Theodore) on the exploration
of Hadramout, in Southern Arabia,
354,

on the natives of the Hadramout
786.

BERNSTEIN (A.), the chemical action of
a new bacterium in milk, 608.

Bessemer flame spectra, Prof. W. N.
Hartley on, 610.

*Bhutan and the Himalayas east of
Darjiling, Col. H. Godwin-Austen on,
TOU

Bibliography of solution, eighth (interim)
report on the, 246.

of spectroscopy, sixth report on the,
161.

Bicycles, spring spokes for, Prof. J. D.
Everett on, 760.

Bimetallism, the mechanics of, Prof.
Irving Fisher on, 729.

Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 345.

On the development of Aleyonium, by
Dr. S. J. Hickson, 345

On the later stages in the development of

decapod Crustacea, by Edgar J. Allen,

345.

Section, Address by Prof. I. Bayley
Balfour to the, 667.

Birds’ eggs, wild, the legislative protection
of, report on, 347.

Birds, the migration of, interim report of
the Committee for making a digest of
the observations on the, 348.

, the wing of Archzopteryx viewed
in the light of that of some modern,
W. P. Pycraft on, 693.

BIRTWHIsTLE (A.) on the Calf Hole Cave,
272.

Black death in Italy, the economic results
of the, M. Kovalevsky on, 733.

BLAKE (Kev. J. F.) on sporadic glacia-
tion in the Harlech Mountains, 659.
-—- on the mechanics of an ice-sheet,

661.

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the present
state of vur knowledge of the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 343. "

Blastocyst of the mammalia, the dider-
mic, Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht on, 681.

Blood of the Magelona, Dr. W. B. Ben-

ham on the, 696.

822

BuLoxaM (G. W.) on the exploration of
Hadramout, in Southern Arabia, 354.
on an ethnographical survey of the

United Kingdom, 419.

on the physical and mental devia-

tions from the normal among children

in schools, 434.

on anthropometric work in schools,

439.

on the work of the anthropometric

laboratory at the Nottingham meeting,

444,

on the North-Western tribes of the
Dominion of Canada, 453.

{BLUNDELL (H. W.) on a journey in the
Libyan desert, 716.

Boas (Dr. F.) on the Indian tribes of the
Lower Fraser River, 454.

Body and mind, the relations between,
as expressed in early languages, cus-
toms, and myths, Rev. G. Hartwell
Jones on, 779.

BOLTZMANN (Prof. L.) on the application
of the determinantal relation to the
kinetic theory of polyatomic gases,
102.

—— on Maxwell’s method of deriving
the equations of hydrodynamics from
the kinetic theory of gases, 579.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 19.

on the collection, preservation, and
registration of photographs of geological
interest in the United Kingdom, 274.

—-—, a comparison of the pebbles in the
Trias of Budleigh Salterton and of
Cannock Chase, 655.

—— on the probable temperature of the
glacial epoch, 660.

Borneo, the alleged presence of negritoes
in, H. Ling Roth on, 780.

*Botanical diagrams exhibited by Prof.
Kny, 689; by Prof. L. Errera, 696.

Botany and zoology of the West India
Islands, seventh report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 344.

BottroMLEy (Dr. J. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 117.

BouRNE (G. C.) on investigations made
at the Marine Biological Association
laboratory at Plymouth, 345.

(Stephen) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 359.

Bow as a musical instrument, H. Bal-
four on the, 778.

Bower (Prof. F. O.) on sterilization and
a theory of the strobilus, 695.

BRABROOK (E. W.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 419.

on the physical and mental devia-
tions from the normal among children
in schools, 434,

— on anthropometric work in schools,
439.

INDEX.

BRAGGE (Robert) and Henry LEA ona
special chronograph, 757.

*Brain, the valuation of proportional
dimensions in the description of the,
Prof. L. Manouvrier on, 788.

—— of a young Fuegian, Prof. L.
Manouvrier on the, 787.

BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on earth tremors,
145.

on methods af determining the dry-
ness of steam in boiler trials, 392.

+——.some reminiscences of steam loco-
motion on common roads, 748.

*British camps and a long barrow near
Rushmore, exploration of, by Gen.
Pitt-Rivers, 784.

fa Isles, a new representation of the
vertical relief of the, B. V. Darbishire
on, 718.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 108.

— (M. Walton) on earth tremors, 145.

BROWNE (Montagu) on some vertebrate
remains from the Rhetic strata of
Britain, 657.

*BRUHL (Prof. W. J.) investigations on
tautomerism, 620.

BRYAN (G.H.) report on the present state
of our knowledge of thermo-dynamics.
Part If.: the laws of distribution of
energy and their limitations, 64.

BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 108.

BucHANAN (J. Y.) on making gqeo-
graphical, meteorological, and natural
history observations in South Georgia
or other Antarctic island, 358.

tT , researches by the Prince of
Monaco in the North Atlantic and
Mediterranean during the summer of
1894, 717.

BUCKLAND (Miss A. W.) on the signifi-
cance of objects with holes, 790.

BULLEID (A.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 431.

*BuURCH (G. J.) on the production with
the capillary electrometer of photo-
graphic records of currents produced
by speaking with a telephone, 818.

BURKE (J.) on the luminosity observed
when a vacuum bulb is broken, 585,

BURSTALL (H. F. W.) on the tempera-
ture entropy diagrams, 758.

Bute (Lord) on the prehistoric and
ancient remains of Glamorganshire,
418.

Calf Hole Cave, near Skipton, report on
the exploration of the, 272.

Calibration of engineering laboratory-
instruments, Prof. D. S. Capper on
the, 759. ;

CAMPBELL (Prof. D. H.) on the origin

INDEX.

_of the sexual organs of the Pteri-
dophytes, 695.

CAMPBELL (Prof. D. H.) on the germina-
tion of the spores of the Ophioglossez,
695.

*Camphene, some derivatives of, J. E.
Marsh and J. A. Gardner on, 629.

Canada, North-Western tribes of the Do-
minion of, ninth report on the, 453.

CANNAN (Edwin) on inequality in local
rates: its extent, causes, and conse-
quences, 734.

Capper (Prof. David §.) on engineering
laboratory instruments and their cali-
bration, 759.

Carbon, the atomic weight of, Prof. J. A.
Wanklyn on, 619.

dioxide in the air, popular method
for the estimation of, by Dr. J. B.
Cohen and G. Appleyard, 619.

Carbonic acid in air, the proportions of,
which are extinctive to flame, and
which are irrespirable, Prof. F. Clowes
on, 605. é

Carboniferous limestone, Triassic sand-
stone, and salt-bearing marls of the
north of the Isle of Man, Prof. W. Boyd

_ Dawkins on the, 662.

*Caro (Dr. H.) on some new colouring
matters, 623.

Carpus, the, of the Greenland right-
whale compared with those of fin-
whales, Prof. J. Struthers on, 684.

CARRUTHERS (W.) on the present state of
our hnonledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, 344.

CARTAILHAC (Dr. Emile), the troglodytes
of the Bruniquel, a grotto of ironworks
on the borders of Aveyron, 782.

——, a new statuette of the Reindeer
age, representing a woman, sculptured
in ivory, 783.

, the end of the Stone age on the
borders of the Mediterranean basin,783.

Catenary, a property of the, Prof. H.
Hennessy on, 578.

*Cathode rays, the velocity of the, Prof.
J.J. Thomson on, 582.

Cave, the Calf Hole, near Skipton, report
on the exploration of, 272.

Chalazogamic Amentifere, the phylo-
genetic position of the, Miss M. Benson
on, 687.

Chalk-forming and chalk- destroying
alge, some, Prof. T. Johnson on, 683.
CHAMBERLAIN (Prof. Basil Hall) on the

_ Loochooan language, 789.

Chapethall clay, report on the, by D.
Robertson, 313.

Chemical change and the electrification of
molecules, H. Brereton Baker on, 493.

change, experiments on the rate of
progress of, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on

- some, 616.

823

Chemical combination and the discharge
of electricity through gases, the connec-
tion between, Prof. J. J. Thomson on,
482.

Section, Address by Prof. H. B.
Dixon to the, 594.

Chess, end games at, Lieut.-Col. Allan
Cunningham on, 564.

Children in schools, the physical and
mental deviations from the normal
among, report on, 434.

Appendix :

I. Certificate as to a child requiring
special educational training, 437.

II. Statistical report concerning 50,000
children, 437.

Ill. Distribution of the cases as to
standards, 438.

CHISHOLM (G. G.) on the best method
of aiming at uniformity in the spelling
of place-names, 717.

*Chlorine and iodine, the diffusion of
very dilute solutions of, A. P. Laurie
on, 620.

*Chlorophyll in animals, Prof. E. Ray
Lankester on, 684.

*Chordata, the ancestry of the, W. Gar-
stang on, 683.

CHREE (C.) on the best methods of re-
cording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 106.

*Chromosomes, the periodic variation in
the number of, Prof. E. Strasburger on,
684.

Chronograph, a special, Henry Lea and
Robert Bragge on, 757.

CuHRYSTAL (Lrof. G.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 117.

*CHURCH (A.), an exhibition of algz, 684.

Church Army and the unemployed, Rev.
W. H. Hunt on the, 729.

*Circulation, the effect of gravity on the,
Dr. L. Hill on, 809.

CLARK (G. M.) on a direct reading form
of platinum thermometer, 758.

—.- (G. T.) on the prehistoric and ancient
remains of Glamorganshire, 418.

(Dr. James) on the influence of
previous fertilisation of the female on
her subsequent offspring, and the effect
of maternal impressions during preq-
nancy on the offspring, 346.

*___. on the hybridisation of orchids,
687.

CLARKE (S.) on the geography of Lower
Nubia, 718.

(W. E.) on making a digest of the
observations on the migration of birds,
348.

Clava, Chapelhall, and other localities,
second report on the character of the
high-level shell-bearing deposits at, 307.

Appendix, on the Chapelhall oe by
David Robertson, 313.

824.

CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 143.

CLELAND (Prof. J.) on anthropometric
work tn schools, 439.

Climatological and hydrographical con-
ditions of Tropical Africa, third report
on the, 348.

CLowss (Prof. F.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 160.
on the proportions of carbonic acid
in the air which are extinctive of flame,

and which are irrespirable, 605.

Coal formation, the chemistry of, J. W.
Thomas on, 611.

——., the proximate chemical constituents
of, report on, 246.

Coal-measures under the newer rocks of
Oxfordshire and the adjoining counties,
the probable range of the, Prof. W.
Boyd Dawkins on, 646.

Coal-mining industry, the relation be-
tween wages and thenumbers employed
in the, R. H. Hooker on, 737.

CoBBETT (Louis) and Dr. W. S. MEL-
SOME on local immunity, 807.

Cochlea, Prof. J. G. McKendrick on a
model of, 793.

COHEN (Dr. J. B.) on the constitution of
the acid amides, 625.

and G. APPLEYARD, popular method
for the estimation of carbon dioxide in
the air, 619.

CoLEMAN (J. B.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 160.
*COLLINGE(W. E.) on thestructure of the

integument of Polyodon, 683.

“ on the vertebrae of Amphisile, 683.

2 on the relations of the cranial
nerves to the sensory canal system of
fishes, 698.

*Colouring matters, some new, Dr. H.
Caro on, 623.

Complexional differences between natives
of Ireland with indigenous and exotic
surnames respectively, Dr. John Bed-
doe on, 775.

Compounds and mixtures, the distinction
between, P. J. Hartog on, 618.

Conic, to find a, with respect to which
two given conics shall be reciprocal
polars, a complete solution of the
problem, by J. W. Russell, 578.

*Consonant and vowel sounds, Prof. D.
L. Hermann on, 806.

Co-operation in agriculture,
Moore on, 736.

Coot (A. H.) and Prof. W. R. HoDGKIN-
SON on fluorene diacetate, 629.

COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 108

on earth tremors, 145 ; on the bifilar

pendulum at the Royal arr a

Edinburgh, 158.

Harold

INDEX.

*Coral reef, interim report on the inves-
tigation of a, 665.

CORDEAUX (J.) on the legislative protec-
tion of wild birds’ eggs, 347.

on making a digest of the observations
on the migration of birds, 348.

Cornu (Prof. A.), a lecture-room experi-
ment to illustrate Fresnel’s diffraction
theory and Babinet’s principle, 480.

Corona of April 1893, some photometric
measures of the, Prof. H. H. Turner
on, 568.

Corresponding Societies Committee :—
Report, 19.

Conference at Nottingham, 20.
Conference at Ouford, 28.

List of corresponding societies, 42.
Papers published by local societies, 45. «

CozENS-HARDY (W. H.) on Montenegro,
CW

*Craniometer, a new, Gen. Pitt-Rivers
on, 784.

*Crete, Central and Eastern, exhibition
of prehistoric objects collected during
a journey and explorations in, by
Arthur J. Evans, 777.

and the Peloponnese, a new system
of hieroglyphics and a pre-Phoenician
script from, Arthur J. Evans on, 776.

Crustacea, decapod, the later stages in the
development of, E. J. Allen on, 345.

Crystals, a new method of measuring,
and its application to the measure-
ment of the octahedron angle of potash
alum and ammonia alum, H. A. Miers
on, 654.

Culture, history of, the diffusion of my-
thical beliefs as evidence in the, Dr. E.
B. Tylor on, 774.

CULVERWELL (E. P.) on the inadequacy:
of the astronomical theory of ice ages
and genial ages, 660.

CUNNINGHAM (Lieut.-Col.
Mersenne’s numbers, 563.

, end games at chess, 564.

—— (Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 419.

— on the cthnographical survey of
Treland, 429.

(Prof. W.) on the methods of economic
training in this and other countries, 365.

*Cycads, the geological history of, A. C.
Seward on, 698.

*Cystocarp in Polisiphonia nigrescens, the
development of the, H. Phillips on, 684. °

Allan) on

Daghestan, the Lea Barbarorum of the,
Prof. Maxime Kovalevsky on, 785.

*DARBISHIRE (B, V.) on a new repre-
sentation of the vertical relief of the
British Isles, 718.

DARWIN (Prof. G. H.) on earth tremors,
145.

—— (Horace) on earth tremors, 145;

ENDEX.

825

’ report on the bifilar pendulum designed | Discussions :

by, 145.

*Darwinism, some difficulties of, Prof.
D’Arcy Thompson on, 689.

DAVEY (H.) on bore-hole wells for town
water-supply, 748.

DAVISON (C.) on earth tremors, 145.

DAwktns (Prof. W. Boyd) on the Calf
Hole Cave, 272.

— on the collection, preservation, and
systematic registration of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 274.

on an ethnographical survey of the

United Kingdom, 419.

,on the lake village at Glastonbury,
431.

——, the probable range of the Coal
Measures under the newer rocks of
Oxfordshire and the adjoining counties,
646.

—— on the deposit of iron ore in the
boring at Shakespeare Cliff, Dover, 648.

on the Permian strata of the north
of the Isle of Man, 662.

—, the Carboniferous limestone,
Triassic sandstone, and salt-bearing
marls of the north of the Isle of Man, 662.

Dawson (Dr.G.M.)on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 453.

DEACON (G. F.) on underground tempera-
ture, 107.

DECLE (Lionel) on the native tribes be-
tween the Zambezi and Uganda, 785.
DELEBECQUE (E.) on the bathymetrical

survey of the French lakes, 712.

Dr RANCE (C. E.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 283.

Devas (C. §.), proposals for an agreement
on the terms ‘rent’ and ‘interest,’ 733.

Dewar (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 248.

DICKINSON (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 107.

Dickson (H. N.) on the currents of the
Faer6e-Shetland Channeland the North
Sea, 713.

Differential equations, the Abelian system
of, a method of determining all the
rationaland integral algebraic integrals
of the, by W. R. Westropp Roberts, 557.

Diffraction theory, Fresnel’s, and Babi-
net’s principle, a lecture-room experi-
ment to illustrate, by Prof. A. Cornu,
480.

Discussions :

*On Planimeters, &c., 557, 750;

Report on planimeters, by Prof. O.
Henrici, 496.

*On flight, 557, 750.

*On Prof. O. J. Lodge’s experiments
illustrating Clerk Maxwell’s theory
of light, 582, 814.

*On Prof. 0. J. Lodge’s electric theory
of vision, 582, 815.

*On the behaviour of gases with regard
to their electrification and the influ-
ence of moisture on their combina-
tion, 609 ;

On the connection between chemical
combination and the discharge of
electricity through gases, by Prof.
J. J. Thomson, 482.

On the electrification of molecules
and chemical change, by H. Brere-
ton Baker, 493. .

*On the plateau gravels, &c., north of
Kent, 651, 776;

(a) On the geology of the platear
implements in Kent, by Prof. T.
Rupert Jones, 651.

(0) On the age of the plateau beds,
by W. Whitaker, 652.

Dixpy (Dr. F. A.) on the relation of
mimetic characters to the original form,
692.

—— on the epidermis of the plantar sur-
face and the question of use-inherit-
ance, 698.

Dixon (Prof. H. B.), Address to the
Chemical Section by, 594.

DONKIN (Bryan) on the most economical
temperature for steam-engine cylin-
ders; or, hot v. cold walls, 755. :

DRESSER (H. E.) on the legislative pro-
tection of wild birds’ eggs, 347.

Dryness of steam in boiler trials, report
on methods of determining, 392.

Dvusois (Prof. Raphael) on the produc-
tion of heat in hibernating animals,
812.

Dyed colours, the action of light upony
report on, 238. ‘

Dynamics, a general theorem in, Sir R.
Ball on, 561.

Earth, the displacements of the rotational
axis of the, Prof. W. Forster on, 476.
—— tremors, report on, 145; Mr. H.

Darwin's bifilar pendulum, ib.; the

Greek earthquake pulsations of April,

1894, 146.

Appendia :

I. Account of observations made with
the horizontal pendulum at Nicolaien,
by Prof. S. Kortazzi, 155.

II. On the bifilar pendulum at the
Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, by
Prof. R. Copeland, 158.

Earthquake pulsations, the Greek, of

April 1894, 146.

Earthquakes, the cause of, Prof. J. Logan

Lobley on, 649.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to the Section of, by Prof. C. F. Bas-

table, 719.

826

Economic training, the methods of, in this
and other countries, report on, 365.
Appendix :

I. On the methods of economic training
adopted in foreign countries, by Prof.
E. C. EK. Gonner, 366.

II. On economic studies in France, by
H. Higgs, 384.

III. On the condition of economic studies
in the United Kingdom, by Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, 387.

Economics, the popular attitude towards,
Rey. L. R. Phelps on, 738.

EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on the methods
of economic training in this and other
countries, 365.

, the asymmetric probability curve,
562.

*____ on the mathematical theory of in-
ternational trade, 729.

£995 of wild birds, the legislative protec-
tion of, report on, 347.

Elasticity, the modulus of, the variation
of, with change of temperature as deter-
mined by the transverse vibration of
bars at various temperatures, A. M.
Mayer on, 573.

Elbolion, the cave at, report of the Com-
mittee appointed to investigate, in order
to ascertain whether the remains of
Paleolithic man occur in the loner cave
earth, 270.

*Electrical conductivity of copper, the
specific, J. Teichmiiller on, 592.

conductivity of soap-films, the

effects of gases on, H. Stansfield on,

569.

Congress at Chicago, 1893, report of
the American delegates at the, 119.

—-- measurements, experiments for im-
proving the construction of practical
standards for, report on, 117.
Appendiz :

I. Report of the action of the Interna-
tional Electrical Congress held in
Chicago, August 1893, in the matter
of units of electrical measure,
119.

_ IL. On a determination of the Interna-
tional Ohm in absolute measure, by
Prof. J. V. Jones, 123.

Ill. Comparison of the standard coils
used by Professor Jones with the
standards of the Association, by R. T.
Glazebrook, 128.

IV. Comparison of certain Ohm-stan-
dards of the Board of Trade, by J.
Rennie, 130.

V. Table shoning values of five standard
coils B.A, units belonging to the
Indian Government as compared with
Dr. Muirhead’s standard at his la-
boratory, by BE. O. Walker, 131.

VI. On the specific resistance of copper

INDEX.

and of silver, by Rev. T. C. Fitz-
patrick, 131.

VII. Final report of the Electrical
Standards Committee of the Board
of Trade, 136.

Order in Council, 137.
Specifications :
A.—The silver voltameter, 138.
B.— On the preparation of the Clark
cell, by R. T. Glazebrook, 141

*Electrical resistance, low, Prof. J. V.
Jones on standards of, 592.

standard coils used by Prof. V. Jones,

comparison of the, nith those of the As-

sociation, by R. T. Glazebrook, 128.

Standards Committee of the Board
of Trade, final report of the, and Order
in Council, 136.

* theory of vision, Prof. O. J. Lodge
on an, 582.

Electricity, the discharge of, through gases,
the connection between chemical combi-
nation and, Prof. J. J. Thomson on,
482.

at high voltage, continuous current
distribution of, at Oxford, Thomas
Parker on, 756.

Electrification of air, experiments to find
if subtraction of water produces, Lord
Kelvin, M. Maclean, and A. Galt on,
554.

of molecules, and chemical change,
Hi. Brereton Baker on the, 493.

*Electrolysis of glass, Prof. W.C. Roberts-
Austen on the, 615.

The velocity of the hydrogen ion
through solutions of acetates, W. C. D.
Whetham on, 569.

Electrolytic methods of quantitative ana-
lysis, report on the, 160.

ELLiort (Prof. E. B.), formule for linear
substitution, 581.

*ENGELMANN (Prof. T. W. W.) on a new
spring kymograph and polyrheotome,
818.

Engineering laboratory instruments and
their calibration, Prof. D. 8. Capper on,
759.

Engines, the ‘hunting’ of governed,
James Swinburne on, 758.

Epidermis of the plantar surface, and
the question of use-inheritance, Dr. F.
A. Dixey on the, 698.

Epithelial changes produced by irrita-
tion, D’Arcy Power on, 806.

* Erratic blocks, report on, 659.

*ERRERA (Prof. L.), exhibition of botani-
cal diagrams, 696.

Ethnographical survey of the United
Kingdom, second report on an, 419.
Appendix: I. Form of schedule, 426.
Il. Directions for measurement, 428.
IIL. The ethnographical survey of Ire-

land, 429.

INDEX.

Euphrates, the valley of the, D. G.
Hogarth on a recent journey in, 71 1.
Burypterid-bearing deposits of the Pent-
land Hills, second report on the, 302.
EvANs (Arthur J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 419.
—— ona new system of hieroglyphics
and a pre-Phcenician script from Crete

and the Peloponnese, 776.

*____, exhibition of prehistoric objects
collected during a journey and explora-
tions in Central and Eastern Crete,
T77.

(F. G.) on the prehistoric and ancient

remains of Glamorganshire, 418.

(Sir John) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 19.

— on earth tremors, 145.

—— on the cave at Elbolton, 270.

——-on the lake village at Glastonbury,
431.

Evaporation of salt solutions, certain
phenomena occurring during the, Dr.
W. Meyerhoffer on, 628.

EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on wnderground
temperature, 107.

on practical electrical standards,

117.

on a linkage for the automatic
description of regular polygons, 559.

—— on spring spokes for bicycles, 760.

Evolution, the réle of sex in, Prof. J. B.
Haycraft on, 691.

and social insects, Prof. C. V. Riley
on, 689.

—— of stone implements, H. Stopes on
the, 776.

EWAN (Dr. T.) on the rate of oxidation
of phosphorus, sulphur, and aldehyde,
609.

Ewanrt (Prof. J. Cossar) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Napies, 335.

Ewine (Dr. A. R.) and Dr. G. G. HEN-
DERSON on the tartrarsenites, 624.

(Prof. J. A.) on earth tremors, 145.

*___ on an apparatus for measuring
small strains, 574.

Eyesight. Correction of optical instru-
ments for individual eyes, Dr. Tempest
Anderson on the, 586.

Faerée-Shetland Channel and the North
Sea, the currents of the, H. N. Dickson
on, 713.

Fats of the liver, D. Noel Paton on the,
804.

fF EILDEN (Col. H. W.) on current polar
exploration, 711.

Fertilisation of the female, influence of
previous, on her subsequent offspring,
and the effect of maternal impressions
during pregnancy on the offspring,
interim report on the, 346.

827

FIDLER (Prof. T. C.) on the strength and
plastic extensibility of iron and steel,
750.

Fijians, the pantheon of the, Basil H.
Thomson on, 786.

Fish-hatching, marine, and the Dunbar
establishment of the Fishery Board
for Scotland, Prof. W. C. McIntosh on,
688.

FisHmr (Prof. I.), mechanics of bimetal-
lism, 729.

Fishery Board for Scotland, the Dunbar
establishment of the, Prof. W. C.
McIntosh on marine fish-hatching and
the, 688.

Fishes, cartilaginous, the ‘ reduction
division’ in the, J. E. S. Moore on, 338.

= , the relations of the cranial nerves
to the sensory canal system of, W. E.
Collinge on, 698.

Fison (Rev. Lorimer) on the classifica-
tory system of relationship, 788.

FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on practical
electrical standards, 117.

FITZMAURICE (M.) on tunnel construc-
tion by means of shield and compressed
air, with special reference to the tun-
nel under the Thames at Blackwall,
751.

FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 117.

on the specific resistance of copper
and of silver, 131.

FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 117.

FLETCHER (A. E.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 160.
(L.), Address to the Geological

Section by, 631.

*Flight, discussion on, 557.

FLOWER (Sir W. H.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierwm ani-
malium, 347.

on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Nottingham meeting,
444.

——, Address to the Anthropological
Section by, 762.

*Flowers, the interiors of, a method of
taking casts of, Miss N. F. Layard on,
696.

*Fluids, the resistance experienced by
solids moving through, Lord Kelvin
on, 557.

Fluorene diacetate, Prof. W. R. Hodg-
kinson and A. H. Coote on, 629.

Fiux (A. W.), a few remarks on fifty.
years’ accounts of the Bank of England,
734,

Foote (R. B.) on prehistoric man in the
old alluvium of the Sabarmati River in
Gujarat, Western India, 664.

FORBES (G.) on practical electrical.
standards, 117.

828

FORBES (H. 0.) on making geographical,
meteorological, and natural history
observations in South Georgia or other
Antarctic island, 358.

‘Force,’ how the misuse of the word in
attractions, electricity, and magnetism
may be avoided without much de-
parture from existing practice, by Dr.
G. J. Stoney, 586.

FORSTER (Prof. W.) on the displacements
of the rotational axis of the earth, 476.

FOSTER (Dr. C. Le Neve) on underground
temperature, 107.

—— (Prof. G. C.) on practical electrical
standards, 117.

—— (Prof: M.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
335.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Association laboratory at
Plymouth, 345.

Fox (Howard) on a soda felspar rock at
Dinas Head, north coast of Cornwall,
655.

FOXWELL (Prof. H. 8.) on the methods of
economic training in this and other
countries, 365.

France, economic studies in, H. Higgs
on, 384. E

FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy) on the electro-
lytic methods of quantitative analysis,
160.

FRASER (James) on the character of the
high-level shell-bearing deposits at Clava,
Chapethall, and other localities, 307.

FREDERICQ (Prof. Léon) on an aerotono-
meter and a gas-burette, 807.

Freezing-point of aqueous solutions which
freeze at temperatures just below 0°
C., Dr. M. Wildemann on P. B. Lewis’
method for accurately determining
the, 567.

Fresnel’s diffraction theory and Babinet’s
principle, a lecture-room experiment to
illustrate, by Prof. A. Cornu, 480.

Fuchsian functions, Prof. Mittag-Leffler
on, 577.

Fuegian, a young, the brain of, Prof. L.
Manouvrier on, 787.

GALLOWAY (W.) on underground tem-
perature, 107.

GALT (A.) and Lord KELVIN, preliminary
experiments for comparing the dis-
charge of a Leyden jar through differ-
ent branches of a divided channel, 555

, Lord KELVIN, and M. MACLEAN,
preliminary experiments to find if sub-
traction of water from air electrifies
it, 554.

GALTON (Francis) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 19.

—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 419. .

INDEX.

GALTON (Sir Douglas) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 19.
on the circulation of underground

waters, 283.

on the physical deviations from the
normal among children in schools, 434.

Galvanometers, delicate, Prof. A. Schuster
on the construction of, 572.

*GARDNER (J. A.) and J. E. MARSH on
some derivatives of camphene, 629.

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 19.

— on the cave at Elbolton, 270.

on the exploration of Hadramout;

in Southern Arabia, 354.

on. the prehistoric and ancient

remains in Glamorganshire, 418.

on an ethnographical survey of the

United Kingdom, 419.

on the physical deviations from the

normal among children in schools, 434.

on anthropometric work in schools,
439.

—— on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Nottingham meeting,
444,

* on the long barrow skeletons from
Rushmore, 784.

*GARSTANG (W.) on the ancestry of the
Chordata, 683.

GARWOOD (E. J.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 274.

Gas-burette and an aerotonometer, Prof.
Léon Fredericq on a, 807.

Gases, polyatomic, the application of the
determinantal relation to the kinetic
theory of, Prof. L. Boltzmann on,
102.

GAULE (Prof, Justus) on trophic changes-
in the nervous system, 794.

GEIKIE (Sir A.) on underground tem-
perature, 107.

—— on the traces of two rivers belong-
ing to Tertiary time in the Inner
Hebrides, 652.

(Prof. J.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration-
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 274.

Geographical, meteorological, and natural
history observations in South Georgia
or other Antarctic island, report of the
Committee for making, 358.

photography, John Thomson on, 714.

—— Section, Address by Capt. W. J. L.
Wharton to the, 699.

Geography of Lower Nubia, 8. Clarke on
the, 718.

*Geological classification and nomencla-
ture, the current method of, with pro-
posals for its revision, Sir H. Howorth
on, 663.

INDEX,

Geological Section, Address by L.Fletcher
to the, 631.

Geology of the neighbourhood of Oxford,
some points of special interest in the,
Prof. A. H. Green on, 644.

—— of the plateau implements in Kent,
Prof. T. Rupert Jones on the, 651.

Géométrie non-euclidienne de Riemann,
les principes fondamentaux de la, Prof.
P. Mansion sur, 579.

Gisss (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 248.

Ginson (Prof. G.) on the nephridial
duct of Owenia, 693.

Girl life in an industrial centre, Miss
Kenward on, 731.

Glacial epoch, the inadequacy of the
astronomical theory of the, E. P. Cul-
verwell on, 660.

epoch, the probable temperature of

the, Prof. T. G. Bonney on, 660.

period in Middlesex, lacustrine de-
posits of the, Dr. H. Hicks on some,
659.

Glaciation, sporadic, in the Harlech
Mountains, Rev. J. F. Blake on, 659.
GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of

science in elementary schools, 359.

(Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science

in elementary schools, 359.

, some experiments on the rate of
progress of chemical change, 616.

GLAISHER (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 107.

on earth tremors, 145.

—— on the circulation of underground
waters, 283.

Glamorganshire, the prehistoric and an-
cient remains of, second report on, 418.

*Glass, the electrolysis of, Prof. W. C.
Roberts-Austen on, 615.

Glastonbury, the lake village at, report
on, 431.

GLAZEBROOK (R. T.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 117.

, comparison of the electrical stan-

dard cvils used by Prof. V. Jones with

the standards of the Association, 128.

on the preparation of the Clark cell,
139.

GOBLET D’ALVIELLA (Count) on the
present state of prehistoric studies in
Belgium, 783.

GODMAN (F. Du C.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 344.

*GODWIN-AUSTEN (Col. H.) on Bhutan
and the Himalayas east of Darjiling,
717.

Golgi’s methods, Oliver S. Strong on a
modification of, 815.

Goniometer, a new, for measuring crys-

tals, H. A. Miers on, 654.

829

’ GONNER (Prof. E. C. K.) on the methods

of economic training in this and other

countries, 365.

on the methods of economic training

adopted in foreign countries, 366.

on the condition af economic studies
in the United Kingdom, 387.

GOODCHILD (J. G.) on the collection,
preservation, and systematic registra-
tion of photographs of geological in-
terest in the United Kingdom, 274.

*GOODRICH (EH. 8.) on museum prepara-
tions, 697.

*“GotoH (Prof. F.) and Prof. Oliver J.
LODGE on some physiological effects
of the passage of rapidly alternating
currents of great intensity through
nerve, 818.

Graphical transformer for replotting
curves, A. P. Trotter on a, 558.

GRAY (J.), the distribution of the Picts
in Britain, as indicated by place-
names, 787.

—— (T.) on earth tremors, 145.

-—— (W.) on the collection, preservation,
and systematic registration of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 274.

Greek carthquake pulsations of April
1894, the, 146,

GREEN (Prof. A. H.) on the Stonesjield
slate, 304.

, some points of special interest in

the geology of the neighbourhood of

Oxford, 644.

(Prof. J. R.) on the influence of
light upon diastase, 698.

GRIFFITHS (H. H.), the influence of tem-
perature upon the specific heat of
aniline, 568.

Guns, pressures in the bores uf, methods
that have been adopted for measuring,
Sir Andrew Noble on, 523.

GUNTHER (Dr. A. C. L. G.) on the present
state of our knowledge of the zoology
and botany of the West India Islands,
344,

HAvDDON (Prof. A. ©.) on the marine
zoology of the Trish Sea, 318.

—— onan ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 419; on the ethno-
graphical survey of Ireland, 429.

on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Nottingham meeting,
444.

*____ on the people of Western Ireland
and their mode of life, 785.

Hadramout, in Southern Arabia, report
on the exploration of, 354.

——, the natives of the, J. T. Bent on,
786.

*Hair, skin, and pigment, notes on, by
Prof. A. Thomson, 778.

830

HALDANE (Dr. J. 8.) on the cause and
prevention of suffocation in mines,
816.

HALE (H.) on the North-Western tribes
of the Dominion of Canada, 453.

HALIBURTON (R. G.) on the North-
Western tribes of the Dominion of
Canada, 453.

*Haloids, the formation of, from pure
materials, interim report on, 614.

Harcourt (A. Vernon) on a ten-candle
lamp for use in photometry, 582.

HARRIS (D. Fraser) on some experiments
to determine the time-relations of the
voluntary tetanus in man, 792.

HARRISON (J. Park) on lunar curves of
mean temperature at Greenwich, and
the heat of the moon, 593.

HARTLAND (HE. Sidney) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
419.

HARTLEY (Prof. W. N.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 248.

on new methods of spectrum ana-
lysis, and on Bessemer flame spectra,
610.

Hartoe (P. J.) on the distinction be-
tween mixtures and compounds, 618.
HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-

tion of birds, 348.

HAUGHTON (Dr. 8.) on the ethnographical
survey of Ireland, 429.

HaycraFt (Prof. J. Berry) on the réle of
sex in evolution, 691.

—— on the development of kidney, 795.

—— on the structure of striped muscle,
814.

HEAD (Jeremiah) on methods of deter-
mining the dryness of steam, 392.

Hearing, sight, and touch, the measure-
ment of simple reaction time for, Prof.
W. Rutherford on, 805.

*___, a new theory of, C. H. Hurst on,
804.

Heart, the mammalian, the structure and
Function of the, report on, 464.

Heat in hibernating animals, the pro-
duction of, Prof. Raphael Dubois on,
812.

—— the specific, of aniline, influence of
temperature upon, HE. H. Griffiths on
the, 568.

Heats, specific, of certain gases, a new
determination of the ratio of the, O.
Lummer and E. Pringsheim on, 565.

Hebrides, two rivers in the Inner, belong-
ing to Tertiary time, Sir A. Geikie on
the traces of, 652.

*HEGER (Prof. P.) on the absorption of
poisons, 804.

HENDERSON (Dr. G. G.) and Dr. A. R.
EWING on the tartrarsenites, 624.

INDEX.

HENNESSY (Prof. H.) on Ronayne’s
cubes, 578.

—— on a property of the catenary, 578.

—— on the shape of the banks of small
channels in tidal estuaries, 664.

HENRICI (Prof. O.), report on planimeters,
496.

HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the marine
zoology of the Irish Sea, 318.

*Heredity of acquired characters, Prof.
A. Macalister on the, 778.

*HERMANN (Prof. D. L.) on vowel and
consonant sounds, 806.

HERSCHEL (Prof. A. 8.) on underground
temperature, 107.

HEYWOOD (James) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 359.

Hibernating animals, the production of
heat in, Prof. Raphael Dubois on, 812.

Hicks (Dr. Henry) on the homes and
migrations of the earliest forms of
animal life, as indicated by recent re-
searches, 657.

—— on some lacustrine deposits of the
glacial period in Middlesex, 659.

HICKSON (Dr. S. J.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandrich Islands, 343.

—— on the development of Alcyonium,
345.

on the influence of previous fertili-
sation of the female on her subsequent
offspring, and the effect of maternal
impressions during pregnancy on the
offspring, 346.

Hieroglyphics, a new system of, and a-
pree-Pheenician script from Crete and
the Peloponnese, Arthur J. Evans on,
776.

HiGes (Henry) on the methods of economic
training in this and other countries, 365.

on economic studies in France, 384.

*____ on factors of production, 729.

*HILL (Dr. L.) on the effect of gravity on
the circulation, 809.

Hopson (J. A.) on the relation between
wages, hours, and productivity of
labour, 738.

HopGkKINsoNn (Prof. W. R.) and A. H.
CooTE on fluorene diacetate, 629.

HOGARTH (D. G.) on a recent journey in
the Valley of the Euphrates, 711.

Holes, the significance of objects with,
Miss A. W. Buckland on, 790.

HouMEs (T. V.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 19.

HOOKER (R. H.) on the relation between
wages and the numbers employed in
the coal-mining industry, 737.

HOPKINSON (Dr. J.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 117.

(J.) on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 19.

—— on the application of photography

INDEX,

to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 143.

HORNE (J.) on the character of the high-
level shell-bearing deposits at Clava,
Chapelhall, and other locatities, 307.

HowarrtxH (O. H.), explorations in the
Sierra Madre of Mexico, 715.

Howss (Prof. G. B.) on the marine zoo-
logy of the Irish Sea, 318.

HowortH (Sir Henry) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
419.

*_____ on the current method of geological
classification and nomenclature, with
proposals for its revision, 663.

HOYLE (W. E.) on the marine zoology of
the Irish Sea, 318.

HusrecutT (Prof. A. A. W.) on the
didermic blastocyst of the Mammalia,
681.

Hupson (W. H.) on the legislative pro-
tection of wild birds’ eggs, 347.

Hv. (Prof. EH.) on underground tempera-
ture, 107.

—— on earth tremors, 145.

—— on the proximate chemical consti-
tuents of coal, 246.

—— on the circulation of underground
waters, 283.

HUMMEL (Prof. J. J.) on the action of
light wpon dyed colours, 238.

Hunt (Rev. W. H.), the Church Army
and the unemployed, 729.

‘Hunting’ of governed engines, James
Swinburne on the, 758.

*Hurst (C. H.) on a new theory of
hearing, 804.

Hydrodynamics, the equations of, Max-
well’s method of deriving, from the
kinetic theory of gases, Prof. L. Boltz-
mann on, 579.

Hydrogen ion, the velocity of the, through
solutions of acetates, W. C. D. Whet-
ham on, 569.

Hydrographical and climatological condi-
tions of Tropical Africa, third report
on the, 348.

Hydroxylamine, free, some experiments
with, Dr. C. A. Lobry de Bruyn on, 606.

Hysteresis in iron and steel in a rotating
magnetic field, F. G. Baily on, 576.

Iceland, the north of, certain volcanic
subsidences in, Dr. Tempest Anderson
on, 650.

Ice-sheet, the mechanics of an, Rev. J. F.
Blake on, 661.

Immunity, a form of, experimentally
produced, Dr. J. L. Smith and E.
Trevithick on, 808.

—— local, L. Cobbett and Dr, W. §,
Melsome on, 807.

Indazol derivates, the formation of, from

831

aromatic diazo-compounds, Prof. E.
Noelting on, 622.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
report on the compilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 347.

Indian tribes of the Loner Fraser River,
Dr. F. Boas on the, 454.

Indonesians, the shells used in the do-
mestic economy of the, Dr. J. D. C.
Schmeltz on, 786.

Infra-red spectrum, recent researches in
the, Dr. S. P. Langley on, 465.

Inheritance, the question of use-, and the
epidermis of the plantar surface, Dr.
F. A. Dixey on, 698.

Insects, social, and evolution, Prof. C. V.
Riley on, 689.

‘Interest’ and ‘rent,’ proposal for an
agreement on the terms, by C. S.
Devas, 733.

*Jodine and chlorine, the diffusion of
very dilute solutions of, A. P. Laurie
on, 620,

Ireland, complexional differences be-
tween natives of, with indigenous and
exotic surnames respectively, Dr. J.
Beddoe on, 775.

*___., Western, the people of, and their
mode of life, Prof. A. C. Haddon on,
785.

Trish Sea, the marine zoology of the, second
report on, 318.

Iron and steel, the best method of estab-
lishing an international standard for
the analysis of, siath report on, 237.

—— and steel, the strength and plastic
extensibility of, Prof. T. C. Fidler on,
750.

ore in the boring at Shakespeare
Cliff, Dover, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins
on the deposit of, 648.

Isle of Man, the north of, the Permian
strata of, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on,
662.

——, ——, the Carboniferous limestone,
Triassic sandstone and _salt-bearing
marls of, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on,
662.

Isomeric naphthalene derivatives, eighth
report un the investigation of, 268.

Italy, economic results of the black death
in, M. Kovalevsky on the, 733.

*Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic Expedition,
A. Montefiore on the, 717.

JAMIESON (T. F.) on the character of
the high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, and other localities,
307.

JEFFs (O. W.) on the collection, preser-
vation, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 274.

$32

JEFFS (O. W.) on some forms of saurian
footprints from the Cheshire Trias, 658.

JOHNSON (Prof. T.), two Irish brown
algz, 683.

, some chalk-forming and chalk-de-
stroying alge, 683.

JOHNSTON-LAVIS (Prof. H. J.) on the
volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, 315.

JONES (Rev. EH.) on the cave at Elbolton,
270.

on the Calf Hole Cave, 272.

--— (Rev. G. Hartwell), the relations
between body and mind, as expressed
in early languages, customs, and myths,
779.

(Prof. J. Viriamu) on practical elec-

trical standards, 117.

on @ determination of the inter-
national ohm in absolute measure, 123.

*____ on standards of low electrical re-
sistance, 592.

——, the electrical standard coils used by,
compared with those of the Association,
by &. T. Glazebrook, 128.

—— (Prof. T. Rupert) on the fossil Phyl-
lopoda of the Paleozoic rocks, 271.

on the eurypterid- bearing deposits of

the Pentland Hills, 302.

on the geology of the plateau im-
plements in Kent, 651.

JUDD (Prof. J. W.) on earth tremors, 145.

*Kandyans, the ceremonies observed by
the, in paddy cultivation, B. P. Kehl-
pannala on, 787.

*KEHLPANNALA(B. P.) on the ceremonies
observed by the Kandyans in paddy
cultivation, 787.

KELVIN (Lord) on underground tem-
perature, 107.

on practical electrical standards,
Leis

*____ on the resistance experienced by
solids moving through fluids, 557.

—~—, M. MACLEAN, and A, GALT, pre-
liminary experiments to find if sub-
traction of water from air electrifies
it, 554.

and A. GALT, preliminary experi-
ments for comparing the discharge of
a leyden jar through different branches
of a divided channel, 555.

KENDALL (P. F.) on the Calf Hole Cave,
272.

on the circulation af underground
naters, 283.

—— on the character of the high-level
shell-bearing deposits at Clava, Chapel-
hall, and other localities, 307.

KENNEDY (Prof. A. B. W.) on methods of
determining the dryness of steam, 392.

——, Address to the Mechanical Section,
739,

INDEX.

’ Kent (A. F. S.) on the structure and

Function of the mammalian heart, 464.

Kent, North, three Neolithic settlements
in, Mrs. Stopes on,.785.

KENWARD (J.) on lighthouse apparatus
and lighthouse administration in 1894,
760.

— (Miss) on girl life in an industrial
centre, 731.

KERR (J. Graham) on the Tobas of Gran
Chaco, South America, 789.

Keuper sandstone cemented by barium
sulphate, from the Peakstones Rock,
Alton, Staffordshire, W. W. Watts on
a, 665.

Kidney, the development of, Prof. J. B.
Haycraft on, 795.

KIDSTON (R.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 274.

Kinetic theory of polyatomic gases, the
application of the determinantal rela-
tion to the, Professor L. Boltzmann on,
102

KIRKALDY (J. W.) on the species of
Amphioxus, 685.

Knorr (Prof. C. G.) on earth tremors, 145.

, the volume changes which accom-
pany magnetisation in metal tubes,
576.

KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 348.

*Kwy (Prof. L.) on the correlation be-
tween root and shoot, 688.

* , exhibition of diagrams, 689,
KouHn (Dr. C. A.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 160
KOLLMANN (Prof. J.), pygmies in Europe,
781. ‘
KortTAzzi (Prof. §.), aecount of observa-
tions made with the horizontal pen-

dulum at Nicolaienw, 145.

KOVALEVSKY (Maxime) on the economic
results of the black death in Italy,
733.

—— on the Lex Barbarorum of the
Daghestan, 785.

*Kymograph, a new spring, and poly-
rheotome, Prof. T. W. W. Engelmann
on, 818.

*Labiates, hygroscopic dispersal of fruits
in certain, Miss D, Pertz on the, 687.
Labour Commission, L. L. Price on the

report of the, 730.

, the productivity of, the relation
between wages, hours, and, J. A, Hob-
son on, 738.

Lake village at Glastonbury, report on
the, 431.

Lakes, a bathymetrical survey of English,
Dr. H. R. Mill on, 713,

EE

——

“Lakes,

INDEX,

the bathymetrical survey of
French, E. Delebecque on, 712.

‘Lamp, a ten-candle, for use in pho-

tometry, A. Vernon Harcourt on, 582.

‘Lane tny (Dr. J. N.) on the influence of

previous fertilisation of the female on
her subsequent offspring, and the effect
of maternal impressions during preg-
nancy on the offspring, 346.

—— (Prof. J. W.) on the best method of
establishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 237.

— (Dr. 8. P.) on recent researches in
the infra-red spectrum, 465.

Language, a common, between man and
other animals, Miss A. G. Weld on the
possibility of, 780.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the oceupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 335.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth, 345.

*_____ on chlorophyll in animals, 684.

Larynx, an attempt to supply motor
power from a new source to the
muscles of the, Vet.-Capt. F. Smith
on, 815.

LATHAM (Baldwin) on the climatological
and hydrographical conditions of Tropi-
cal Africa, 348.

*LAURIE (A. P.) on the diffusion of very
dilute solutions of chlorine and iodine,
620.

(Malcolm) on the eurypterid-bearing
deposits of the Pentland Hills, 302.

*LAYARD (Miss N. F.) on a method of
taking casts of the interiors of flowers,
696.

LAZARUS-BARLOW (Dr. W. 8.) on lymph
formation, 810.

LEA (Henry) and Robert BRAGGE on a
special chronograph, 757.

LEBouR (Prof. G. A.) on underground
temperature, 107.

—— on earth tremors, 145.

— on the circulation of underground
waters, 283.

LEewWEs (Prof. Vivian B.) on the proximate
chemical constituents of coal, 246.

LEwis (P. B.) and Dr. M. WILDERMANN
on a method for accurately determining
the freezing-point of aqueous solutions
which freeze at temperatures just below
0° C., 567.

Lex Barbarorum of the Daghestan, Prof.
Maxime Kovalevsky on the, 785.

Leyden-jar, the discharge of a, through
different branches of a divided current,
preliminary experiments forcomparing,
by Lord Kelvin and A. Galt, 555.

Libyan desert, a journey in the, H. W.
Blundell on, 716.

Light, the action of, upon dyed colours,

«report on, 238.

1894.

‘833

*Light, Clerk Maxwell's theory of, Prof.
O. J. Lodge on experiments illustrating,
582, 814.

Lighthouse apparatus and lighthouse
administration in 1894, J. Kenward
on, 760.

Linear substitution, formule for, by Prof.
E. B. Elliott, 581.

Linkage for the automatic description of
regular polygons, Prof. J. D. Everett
on a, 559.

Liquids, the viscosity of, and their
chemical nature, Dr. T. E. Thorpe and
J. W. Rodger on the relations between,
615.

LIVEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 248.

Liver, the fats of the, D. Noel Paton on,
804.

LoBLEY (Prof. J. Logan) on the cause of
earthquakes, 649

LoBRY DE BRUYN (Dr. C. A.) on some
experiments with free hydroxylamine,
606.

Locu (C. §.), statistics of comparative
general and old-age pauperism in
England and Wales, 1831 to 1891,
732.

LOcKYER (J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 248.

LODGE (Dr. Oliver J.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 117.

* on photo-electric leakage, 556.
*—__ on experiments illustrating Clerk
Maxwell’s theory of light, 582, 814.

* on an electrical theory of vision,
582, 815.
+z and Prof. F. GotcH on some

physiological effects of the passage of
rapidly alternating currents of great
intensity through nerve, 818.

*LouEsT (Prof. Max) on the antiquity
of man in Belgium, 784.

London County Council, the ‘economic
heresies’ of the, Sidney Webb on, 735.

Loochooan language, Prof. Basil Hall
Chamberlain on the, 789.

LUBBOCK (Sir J.) on the legislative pro-
tection of wild birds’ eggs, 347. ‘

on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 359.

Luminosity observed when a vacuum
bulb is broken, J. Burke on the, 585.
LUMMER (0O.) and E. PRINGSHEIM, a

new determination of the ratio of the
specific heats of certain gases, 565.
Lymph formation, Dr. W. S. Lazarus-
Barlow on, 810. :
*—— formation, the mechanical theory
of, Dr. Starling on, 810.
LyTTLE (Dr. J. Shaw) on the effects of
after-damp, $17. ;
34H

834

Maas (Dr. Otto) on temperature as a
factor in the distribution of marine
animals, 687.

MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on anthropo-
metric nork in schools, 439.

* —_._ the heredity of acquired characters,
778.

McIntTosH (Prof. W. C.) on marine
fish-hatching and the Dunbar esta-
blishment of the Fishery Board for
Scotland, 688.

McKEnpDRICK (Prof. J. G.) on a model of
the Cochlea, 793.

—— on some physiological applications
of the phonograph, 794.

McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 108.

MACLEAN (M.), Lord KELVIN, and A.
GALT, preliminary experiments to find
if subtraction of water from air elec-
trifies it, 554.

McLEoD (Prof. H.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 106.

on the bibliography of spectroscopy,

161.

on the bibliography of solution, 246.

t on Schuller’s yellow modification
of arsenic, 615.

*MACMAHON (Major P. A.) on the in-
variant ground-forms of the binary
quantic of unlimited order, 579.

MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 161.

Magelona, the blood of, Dr. W. B. Ben-
ham on, 696.

Magnetic force on the surface of the
earth, the results of a new analytical
representation of, the distribution of
the, Ad. Schmidt on, 570.

Magnetisation in nickel tubes, the volume
changes which accompany, Prof. C. G.
Knott on, 576.

Magnetism, mirrors of, Prof. 8. P. Thomp-
son on, 574.

——,, terrestrial, a suggested explanation
of the secular variation of, by Prof. A.
Schuster, 571.

MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 359.

*MAITLAND (Miss) on women’s indus-
tries, 731.

*MALLOCK (A.) on the behaviour of a

rotating cylinder in a steady current, |

557.

Mammalia, the didermic blastocyst of
the, Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht on, 681.

Mammalian heart, the structure and func-
tion of the, report on, 464.

*Man, the antiquity of, in Belgium, Prof.
Max Lohest on, 784.

MANDELLO (Dr. J.) on Stock Exchange
taxation, 729,

*MANN (Dr. Gustav) on the changes: in

INDEX,

nerve-cells due to functional activity
809.

MANOUVRIER (Prof. L.) on the brain of
a young Fuegian, 787.

*____ on the valuation of proportional
differences in the description of the
brain, 788.

MANSION (Prof. P.) sur les principes
fondamentaux de la géométrie non-
euclidienne de Riemann, 579.

Marine animals, temperature as a factor
in the distribution of, Dr. Otto Maas
on, 687.

*_____ organisms, the geographical and
bathymetrical distribution of, Dr. J.
Murray on, 717.

zoology of the Irish Sea, second re-
port on the, 318.

MARKHAM (Clements R.) on making geo-
graphical, meteorological, and natural
history observations in South Georgia
or other Antarctic island, 358.

{+ MARKOFF (Dr. A.) on Russian Armenia,
(lle

*MARSH (J. E.) and J. A. GARDNER on
some derivatives of camphene, 629.

MARSHALL (Dr. Hugh) on the electrolytie
methods of quantitative analysis, 160.

(Prof. A. Milnes) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 335.

MARTEN (E. B.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 283.

MASKELYNE (Prof. N. Story) on the
teaching of science in elementary schools,
359.

Maternal impressions during pregnancy,
the effect of, on the offspring, and the
influence of previous fertilisation of the
Semale on her subsequent offspring, in-
terim report on, 346.

Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Prof. A. W. Riicker to the,
543.

*_____ theory of international trade, Prof.
F. Y. Edgeworth on the, 729.

Maups.ay (Alfred P.) on the Maya In-
dians of Chichén Itza, Yucatan, 789.

*MAXIM (H. 8.) on flight, 557.

Mazanell’s law of partition of energy, G.
H, Bryan on, 98.

ou theory of light, experiments illus-
trating, Prof. O. J. Lodge on, 582.

—— method of deriving the equations of
hydrodynamics from the kinetic theory
of gases, Prof. L. Boltzmann on, 579.

Maya Indians of Chichén Itza, Yucatan,
Alfred P. Maudslay on the, 789.

MAYER (Prof. Alfred M.) on the produc-
tion of beat-tones from two vibrating
bodies whose frequencies are so great
as to be separately inaudible, 573.

on the variation of the modulus of

elasticity with change of temperature

‘

INDEX.

as determined by the transverse vibra-
tion of bars at various temperatures,
573.

Measures, systematic, a nomenclature for
very much facilitating the use of, Dr.
G. J. Stoney on, 587.

Mechanical Science, Address by Prof. A.
B. W. Kennedy to the Section of, 739.

{Mediterranean and North Atlantic, re-
searches in the, by the Prince of Mo-
naco, during the summer of 1894, J. Y.
Buchanan on, 717.

MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the mork of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
19.

—— on the application of photography to
the elucidation of meteorological phe-
nomena, 143.

on earth tremors, 145.

on the action of light upon dyed

colours, 238.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 419.

MELSOME (Dr. W. S.) and Louis CoB-
BETT on local immunity, 807.

Memory, experiments on, by Dr. W. G.
Smith, 817.

Mersenne’s numbers, Lt.-Col. Allan Cun-
ningham on, 563.

Meteorological, geographical, and natural
history observations in South Georgia
or other Antarctic island, report of the
Committee for making, 358.

observations on Ben Nevis, report on,
108.

—— phenomena, the application of photo-
graphy to the elucidation of, fourth
report on, 143.

Mexico, the Sierra Madre of, explorations
in, O. H. Howarth on, 715.

MEYERHOFFER (Dr. W.) on certain phe-
nomena occurring during the evapora-

. tion of salt solutions, 628.

MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the Calf Hole
Cave, 272.

MreERs (H. A.) on a new method of mea-
suring crystals, and its application to
the measurement of the octahedron
angles of potash alum and ammonia
alum, 654. :

Migration of birds, interim report of the
Committce for making a digest of the
observations on the, 348.

Milk, the chemical action of a new bac-

_ terium in, A. Bernstein on, 608.

MILL (Dr. H. RB.) on the climatological
and hydrographical conditions of Tro-
pical Africa, 348

— on making geographical, meteorologi-

_ eal,and natural history observations in
South Georgia or other Antarctic island,
358.

on a bathymetrical survey of the
English lakes, 713.

835

Mimetic characters, the relation of, to the
original form, Dr. F. A. Dixey on, 612.

Mind and body, the relations between,
as expressed in early languages, cus-
toms, and myths, by Rev. G. Hartwell
Jones, 779.

Mines, suffocation in, the causes and pre-
vention of, Dr. J. 8. Haldane on, 816.
*Mirror writing, Prof. F. J. Allen on, 793.
Mirrors of magnetism, Prof. 8. P. Thomp-

son on, 574.

MiITTAG-LEFFLER (Prof.) on the addi-
tion theorem, 561.

on Fuchsian functions, 577.

Mixtures and compounds, the distinction
between, P. J. Hartog on, 618.

Molecular distribution in the atmosphere
of a rotating planet, the law of, G. H.
Bryan on, 100.

Molecules, the electrification of, and che-
mical change, H. Brereton Baker on,
493.

{Monaco (the Prince of), researches by,
in the North Atlantic and Mediter-
ranean during the summer of 1894, J.
Y. Buchanan on, 717.

Monp (Ludwig) on the proximate chemi-
cal constituents of coal, 246.

*MONTEFIORE (A.) on the Jackson-
Harmsworth Arctic expedition, 717.

Montenegro, W. H. Cozens-Hardy on, 711.

Moon, the heat of the, J. Park Harrison
on, and on lunar curves of mean tem-
perature at Greenwich, 593.

Moork (Harold) on co-operation in agri-
culture, 736.

—- (J. E. 8.) on the ‘reduction di-
vision’ im the cartilaginous fishes,.
338.

Morton (G. H.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 283.

MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 117.

Munro (Dr. Robert) on the lake village
at Glastonbury, 431.

—— on ancient bone skates, 784.

Murray (George) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, 344.

» on Pachytheca, 698.

(Dr. John) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 108.

*_____ , the geographical and bathymetri-
cal distribution of marine organisms,
717.

*Muscle, striped microscopic appearance
of, in rest and in contraction, Prof. W.
Rutherford on the, 806.

striped, Prof. J. B. Haycraft on the
structure of, 814.

*Museum preparations, E. 8. Goodrich on,
697.

Musical instrument, the bow as a, H,
Balfour on, 778.

3H2

836

Mythical beliefs, the diffusion of, as evi-
dence in the history of culture, Dr. E.
B. Tylor, 774.

—— pygmy races, Prof. B. Windle on,
781,

NAGEL (D. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 161.

on the electrolytic methods of quan-
titative analysis, 160.

Naphthalene derivatives, eighth report on
the investigation of isomeric, 268.

Native tribes between the Zambezi and
Uganda, Lionel Decle on the, 785.

Natural history, geographical, and me-
teorological observations in South Geor-
gia or other Antarctic island, report of
the Committee for making, 358.

Nebulz, spiral and elliptic, photographs
of, Dr. I. Roberts on, 569.

Negritoes, the alleged presence of, in
Borneo, H. Ling Roth on, 780.

Neolithic settlements, three, in North
Kent, Mrs. Stopes on, 785.

Nephridial duct of Owenia, Prof. G.
Gilson on the, 693.

*Nerve cells, the changes in, due to func-
tional activity, Dr. Gustav Mann on,
809.

, physiological effects of the passage
of rapidly alternating currents of great
intensity through, Profs. O. J. Lodge
and F. Gotch on some, 818.

Nervous system, experimental inquiry
upon the different tracts of the central,
Dr. F. W. Nutt on an, 809.

system, some trophic changes in the,
Prof. J. Gaule on, 794.

New Guinea, British, some of the natives
of, H. Bellyse Baildon on, 788.

——, British, a visit to, Miss F. Baildon
on, 716.

NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the present state
of our knonledge of the zoology of the
Sandnich Islands, 343.

on our knowledge of the zoology and

botany of the West India Islands, 344.

on the legislative protection of wild
birds’ eggs, 347.

— on making a digest of the observa-
tions on the migration of birds, 348.

NICHOLSON (Prof. J. Shield) on the me-
thods of economic training in this and
other countries, 365.

Nickel tubes, volume changes which ac-
company magnetisation in, Prof. C. G.
Knott on the, 576.

NIcou (Dr. W. W. J.) on the bibliography
of solution, 246.

Nicolaiew, observations made with the
horizontal pendulum at, Prof. S. Kor-

- tazri on, 145.

OBLE (Sir Andrew) on methods that

INDEX.

have been adopted for measuring pres-
sures in the bores of guns, 523.

NOELTING (Prof. E.) on ortho-dinitroso
derivatives of the aromatic series, 620.

on the formation of indazol deri-
vatives from aromatic diazo-com-
pounds, 622.

Nomenclature for very much facilitating
the use of systematic measures, Dr. G.
J. Stoney on a, 587.

tNorth Atlantic and Mediterranean, re-
searches in the, by the Prince of
Monaco during the summer of 1894,
J. Y. Buchanan on, 717.

North Sea and the Faerde-Shetland
Channel, the currents of the, H. N.
Dickson on, 713.

North-Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada, ninth report on the, 453.

*Notochord, the origin and morphological
signification of the, Prof. E. van Bene-
den on, 684.

Nubia, Lower, 8. Clarke on the geo-
graphy of, 718.

*Nucleus, the function of, Prof. E. Zach-
arias on, 696.

Nutt (Dr. F. W.), experimental inquiry
upon the different tracts of the central
nervous system, 809.

Ohm, the international, a determination
of, in absolute measure, Prof. J. Viriamu
Jones on, 123.

standards of the Board of Trade,
comparison of certain, by J. Rennie,
130.

—— standard coils, belonging to the In-
dian Government, the values of, E. O.

Walker on, 131.

Old Red Sandstone of Elginshire, a new
fossil fish from the, Dr. R. H. Traquair
on, 656.

*Oldbury Hill, explorations at, report on
the, 775.

OLDHAM (H. Y.), a new light on the dis-
covery of America, 715.

*OLIVIER (Dr. L.) on typhoid bacilli in
water, 818.

Ophioglossez, the germination of the
spores of the, Prof. D. H. Campbell on,
695.

Optical instruments, the correction of,
for individual eyes, Dr. Tempest An-
derson on, 586.

*Orchids, the hybridisation of, Dr. J.
Clark on, 687.

Ortbo-dinitroso derivatives of the aro-
matic series, Prof. E. Noelting on, 620.

*OsBORN (Prof. H. F.) on certain prin-
ciples of progressively adaptive varia-
tion observed in fossil series, 693.

Ostwald’s law of dilution, the determi-
nation of, Dr. Meyer Wildermann on,
616 ‘

INDEX.

Owenia, the nephridial duct of, Prof. G.
Gilson on, 693.

Oxford, the geology of the neighbourhood
of, some points of special interest in,
Prof. A. H. Green on, 644.

Oxfordshire, North, the terraced hill
slopes of, E. A. Walford on, 645.

Oxidation, the rate of, of phosphorus,
sulphur, and aidehyde, Dr. T, Ewan on,
609.

*Pachytheca, G. Murray on, 698.

*Paddy cultivation, the ceremonies ob-
served by the Kandyans in, B. P. Kehl-
pannala on, 787.

Pantheon of the Fijians, Basil Thomson
on the, 786.

PARKER (Thomas), continuovs current
distribution of electricity at high
voltage at Oxford, 756.

Paton (D. Noel) on the fats of the liver,
804.

Pauperism, comparative general and old-
age, in England and Wales, 1831-1891,
statistics of, C. 8. Loch on, 732.

Pebbles in the Trias of Budleigh Salter-
ton and of Cannock Chase, a comparison
of the, by Prof. T. G. Bonney, 655.

PEEK (Cuthbert E.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
19.

PEMBREY (M. 8.), the response of animals
to changes of temperature, 791.

Pendulum, bifilar, Mr. H. Darwin's, C.
Davison on, 145.

, at the Royal Observatory,
Edinburgh, Prof. R. Copeland on, 158.

PENGELLY (W.) on the cave at Elbolton,
270.

Pentland Hills, the eurypterid-bearing
deposits of the, second report on, 302.
PERKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light

awpon dyed colours, 238.

Permian strata of the north of the Isle of
Man, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on the,
662. -

PERRY (Prof. John) on practical electrical
standards, 117.

*PERTZ (Miss D.) on the hygroscopic dis-
persal of fruits in certain labiates, 687.

*PFEFFER (Prof. W.) on the sensitive-
ness of the root-tip, 689.

PHELPS (Rey. L. R.), popular attitude
towards economics, 738.

*PHILLIPS (H.) on the development of
the cystocarp in Polisiphonia nigrescens,
684.

Phonograph, some physiological applica-
tions of the, Prof. J. G. McKendrick
on, 794.

Phosphorus, sulphur, and aldehyde, the
rate of oxidation of, Dr. T. Ewan on,
609.

‘J

837

*Photo-electric leakage, Prof. O. J. Lodge
on, 556.

Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, fifth report on the
collection, preservation, and systematic
registration of, 274.

of spiral and elliptic nebule, Dr. I.
Roberts on, 569.

Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, fourth report on, 143.

, geographical, John Thomson on,
714.

Photometric measures of the corona of
April 1893, Prof. H. H. Turner on some,
568.

Photometry, a ten-candle lamp for use
in, A. Vernon Harcourt on, 582.

Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic rocks, eleventh
report on, 271.

Physical and Mathematical Section, Ad-
dress by Prof. A. W. Riicker to the,
543.

— and mental deviations from the
normal among children in schools, 7e-
port on the, 434.

Appendix :—

l. Certificate as to a child requir-
ing special educational training,
437.

Il. Statistical report
50,000 children, 437.

III. Distribution of the cases seen as
to standards, 438.

Physiological Section, Address by Prof.
KE. A. Schafer to the, 795.

PICKERING (8S. U.) on the bibliography
of solution, 246.

Picts, the distribution of, in Britain, as
indicated by place-names, G. G. Chis-
holm on, 787.

‘Pigeons’ milk,’ Prof. E. Waymouth
Reid on, 812.

*Pigment, skin, and hair, notes on, by
Prof. A. Thomson, 778.

*PITT-RIVERS (Gen.), on an ethnogra-
phical survey of the United Kingdom,
419,

—— on the lake village at Glastonbury,
431.

concerning

*____ exploration of British camps and
a long barrow near Rushmore, 784.
= on a new craniometer, 784.

Place-names, the best method of aiming
at uniformity in the spelling of, G. G.
Chisholm on, 717.

the distribution of the Picts in
Britain as indicated by, J. Gray on,
787.

Planet, atmosphere of a rotating, the law
of molecular distribution, G. H. Bryan
on, 100. :

Planimeters, report on, by Prof. O. Hen-
rici, 496.

838

Plantar surface, the epidermis of the,
and the question of use-inheritance,
Dr. F. A. Dixey on, 698.

*Plants, the structure of fossil, in its
bearing on modern botanical questions,
Dr. D. H. Scott on, 698.

Plateau beds, the age of the, W. Whit-
aker on, 652.

implements in Kent, the geology of
the, Prof. T. Rupert Jones on, 651.

Pleistocene gravel at Wolvercote, near
Oxford, A. M. Bell on the, 663.

*Poisons, the absorption of, Prof. P.
Heger on, 804.

fPolar exploration, current, Ccl. H. W.
Feilden on, 711.

*Polisiphonia nigrescens, the develop-
ment of the cystocarp in, H. Phillips
on, 684.

*Pollard (H. B.) on some models of the
crania of siluroids, 698.

Polycheta, suggestions for a new classi-
fication of the, by Dr. W. B. Benham,
696.

Polygons, regular, a linkage for the auto-
matic description of, Prof. J. D. Everett
on, 559.

*Polyodon, the structure of the integu-
ment of, W. E. Collinge on, 683.

*Polyrheotome, a new spring kymograph
and, Prof. T. W. W. Engelmann on,
818.

*Portal vein, the innervation of the,
E. M. Bayliss and Dr. Starling on, 811.

PouLToN (Prof. E. B.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
19.

POWER (D’Arcy), epithelial changes pro-
duced by irritation, 806.

PoyntTING (Prof. J. H.) on earth tremors,
145.

PREECE (W. H.) on practical electrical

standards, 117.

* on signalling through space, 756.

Prehistoric and ancient remains of Gla-
morganshire, second report on the, 418.

—— man in the old alluvium of the
Sabarmati River in Gujarat, Western
India, R. B. Foote on, 664.

objects collected during a journey

and explorations in Central and Eastern

Crete, exhibition of, by Arthur J.

Evans, 777.

studies in Belgium, the present
state of, Count Goblet d’Alviella on,
783.

Pressures in the bores of guns, methods
that have been adopted for measuring,
Sir A. Noble on, 523.

PRESTWICH (Prof. J.) on underground
temperature, 107.

— on earth tremors, 145.

— on the circulation of underground
naters, 283.

*

INDEX.

PRICE (L. L.) on the methods of economic
training in this and other countries,
365.

—— on the report of the Labour Com-
mission, 730.

*Prices, wages, and the standard of value,
Edward Atkinson on, 730.

PRINGSHEIM (H.) and O. LUMMER, a new
determination of the ratio of the spe-
cific heats of certain gases, 565.

Probability curve, the asymmetric, Prof.
F. Y. Edgeworth on, 562.

*Production, factors of, H. Higgs on, 729.

*Protoplasm, the relations of, Prof. E.
van Beneden on, 684.

Pteridophytes, the origin of the sexual
organs of the, Prof. D. H. Campbell
on, 695.

Publication of papers and rules of
priority, T. R. R. Stebbing on the, 697.

PYCRAFT (W. P.), the wing of Archzo-
pteryx viewed in the light of that of
some modern birds, 693.

Pygmies in Europe, Professor J. Koll-
mann on, 781.

Pygmy races, mythical, Prof. B. Windle
on, 781.

*Quantic, the binary, of unlimited order,
the invariant ground-forms of, Major
P. A. MacMahon on, 579.

Quantitative analysis, the electrolytic
methods of, report on, 160.

QUINCKE (Prof. G.) on the formation of
soap-bubbles by the contact of alkaline
oleates with water, 475.

RAMSAY (Prof. W.) on the bibliography
of solution, 246.

* and Lord RAYLEIGH on a new
gaseous constituent of air, 614.

RANDALL (Dr. W. W.) on the effect of
dilution upon the colours of salt solu-
tions and the measurement of this
effect, 618.

Rates, the inequality of local; its ex-
tent, causes, and consequences, Edwin
Cannan on, 734.

RAVENSTEIN (E. G.) on the climatological
and hydrographical conditions of Tropi-
cal Africa, 348.

on the exploration of Hadramout, in

Southern Arabia, 354.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 419.

RAWSON (Sir R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 19.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 117.

on the minimum current audible

in the telephone, 572.

,anattempt at a quantitative theory

of the telephone, 573.

INDEX.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on the amplitude of
sonorous waves which are but just audi-
ble, 573.

*_____ and _ Prof. W. RAMSAY on a new

‘gaseous constituent of air, 614.

Reaction time, simple, for sight, hearing,
and touch, Prof. W. Rutherford on the
measurement of, 805.

* Reduction division’ in the cartilaginous
Jishes, J. E. 8S. Moore on the, 338.

ReErp (A. 8S.) on the collection, preser-
vation, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 274.

—— (Prof. E. Waymouth) on ‘ pigeons’
milk,’ 812.

Reindeer age, a new statuette of the,
representing a woman, sculptured in
ivory, Dr. E. Cartailhac on, 783.

Relationship, the classificatory system
of, Rev. Lorimer Fison on, 788.

*Relief of the British Isles, B. V. Darbi-
shire on a new representation of the
vertical, 718.

RENNIE (J.), comparison of certain ohm
standards of the Board of Trade, 130.
*Rent’ and ‘interest,’ proposal for an
agreement on the terms, by C. 8.

Devas, 733.

Resistance of copper and of silver, Rev.
1. C. Fitzpatrick on the specific, 131.
*___ experienced by solids moving

through fluids, Lord Kelvin on the, 557.

Response of animals to changes of tem-
perature, M. 8. Pembrey on the, 791.

REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on the
electrolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 160.

(Prof. Osborne) on methods of de-
termining the dryness of steam, 392.
*___, experiments showing the boiling

of water in an open tube, 564.

Rhetic strata of Britain, vertebrate
remains from the, Montagu Browne
on some, 657.

RIDEAL (Dr. S.) on the iodine value of
sunlight in the High Alps, 612.

Riemann, la géométrie non-euclidienne
de, les principes fondamentaux de,
Prof. P. Mansion sur, 579.

Rivey (Prof. C. V.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 343.

—— on social insects and evolution, 689.

—— (E.) on the best method of establishing
an international standard for the
analysis of iron and steel, 237.

RoBeERts (Dr. I.) on earth tremors, 145.

on the circulation of underground
maters, 283.

—— on photographs of spiral and elliptic
nebulz, 569.

(W. R. Westropp), a method of de-

termining all the rational and integral

839

algebraic integrals of the Abelian sys-
tem of differential equations, 557.

Ropurts-AUSTEN (Prof, W. C.) on the
bibliography of spectroscopy, 161.

on the best method of establishing an
international standard for the analysis
of iron and steel, 237.

* on the electrolysis of glass, 615.

ROBERTSON (David) on the character of
the high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Clava, Chapethall, and other localities,
307; on the Chapelhall clay, 313.

Rosinson (Dr. Louis) on the anthropo-
logical significance of ticklishness, 778.

RopGeER (J. W.) and Dr. T. E. THORPE
on the relations between the viscosity
of liquids and their chemical nature,
615.

RoMANES (Dr. G. J.) on the influence of
previous fertilisation of the female on
her subsequent offspring, and the effect
of maternal impressions during preg-
nancy on the offspring, 346.

Ronayne’s cubes, Prof. H. Hennessy on,
578.

*Root and shoot, the correlation between,
Prof. L. Kny on, 688.

*Root-tip, the sensitiveness of the, Prof.
W. Pfeffer on, 689.

Roscox (Sir H. HE.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 106.

on wave-length tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 248.

on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 359.

Rotary energy in non-colliding rigid
bodies, the possible laws of partition of,
G. H. Bryan on, 98.

*Rotating cylinder, the behaviour of a,
in a steady current, A. Mallock on,
557.

Rotational axis of the earth, the displace-
ment of the, Prof. W. Forster on, 476.

Roru (H. Ling) on the alleged presence
of negritoes in Borneo, 780.

*___on Tasmanian stone implements,
782,

Ricker (Prof. A. W.), Address to the
Mathematical and Physical Section by,
543.

RUDLER (F. W.) on the voleanic phe-
nomena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 315.

RUMLEY (Mair) on methods of determin-
ing the dryness of steam, 392.

RUSSELL (J. W.), a complete solution of
the problem ‘To find a conic with
respect to which two given conics shall
be reciprocal polars,’ 578.

the impossibility of trigraphic fields
of spaces, 578.

-—— (Dr. W. J.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 238.

840

RUTHERFORD (Prof. W.) on the measure-
ment of simple reaction time for sight,
_ hearing, and touch, 805.
x on the microscopic appearance of
striped muscle in rest and in con-
traction, 806.

SALISBURY (Lord), Presidential Address
at Oxford, 3.

SALVIN (O.) on the present stale of our
knowledge of the zoology of the Sand-
mich Islands, 343.

Salt-bearing marls, Carboniferous lime-
stone, and Triassic sandstone of the
north of the Isle of Man, Prof. W.
Boyd Dawkins on the, 662.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the, fourth
report on the present state of owr know-
ledge of, 343.

SAUNDERS (Howard) on the legislative
protection of wild birds’ eggs, 347.

Saurian footsteps, some forms of, from
the Cheshire Trias, O. W. Jeffs on, 658.

ScHAFER (Prof. E. A.) on the influence
of previous fertilisation of the female
on her subsequent offspring, and the
effect of maternal impressions during
pregnancy on the offspring, 346.

—— on the structure and function of the
mammalian heart, 464.

,Address to the Physiological Section
by, 795.

*___ on effects of supra-renal extract,
806.

SCHMELTZ (Dr. J. D. C.) on the shells
used in the domestic economy of the
Indonesians, 786.

SCHMIDT (Ad.) on the results of a new
analytical representation of the dis-
tribution of magnetic force on the
surface of the earth, 570.

ScHOUTE (Prof. P. H.) on the order of
the groups related to the anallagmatic
displacements of the regular bodies in
n-dimensional space, 562.

tSchuller’s yellow modification of arsenic,
Prof. H. McLeod on, 615.

SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 117.

on the best methods of recording the

direct intensity of solar radiation, 106.

on wave-length tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 248

, a suggested explanation of the

secular variation of terrestrial magnet-

ism, 571.

on the construction of delicate
galvanometers, 572.

Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, report on, 359.

SCLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the occupation
of a table at the xvological station at
Naples, 335.

— on the present state of our know-

INDEX,

ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 343.

SCLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the zoolagy and
botany of the West India Islands, 344.

on the compilation of an index

generum et specierum animalium, 347.

(W. L.) on the compilation of an

index generum et specierum animalium,
347.

*Scort (Dr. D. H.) on the structure of
fossil plants in its bearing on modern
betanical questions, 698.

SEDGWICK (A.) onthe occupation of atable
at the zoological station at Naples, 335.
SEEBOHM (H.) on the exploration of
Hadramout, in Southern Arabia, 254.
*SEWARD (A. C.) on the geological

history of Cycads, 698.

(E.) on the prehistoric and ancient
remains of Glamorganshire, 418.

Sex, the 7éle of, in evolution, Prof. J. B.
Haycraft on, 691.

SHARP (D.) on the present state of our
Rhnowledge of the zvology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 343.

on the present state of our know-
ledge of the zoology and botany of the*
West India Tslands, 344.

SHAw (W. N.) on practical electrical
standards, 117.

Shell-bearing deposits, the high-level, at
Clava, Chapethall, and other localities,
the character of, second report on, 307.

Appendix: on the Chapelhall clay,
by David Robertson, 313.

Shells used in the domestic economy of
the Indonesians, Dr. J. D. C. Schmeltz
on the, 786.

SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on the struc-.
ture and function of the mammalian
heart, 464.

Sierra Madre of Mexico, explorations in
the, O. H. Howarth on, 715.

Sight, hearing, and touch, the measure-
ment of simple reaction time for, Prof.
W. Rutherford on, 805.

*Signalling through space, W. H. Preece
on, 756.

*Siluroids, some models of the crania of,
H. B. Pollard on, 698.

Skates, ancient bone, Dr. Robert Munro-
on, 784.

*Skeletons, the long barrow, from Rush-
more, Dr. J. G. Garson on, 784.

*Skin, hair, and pigment, notes on, by
Prof. A. Thomson, 778.

SLADEN (Percy) on the oceupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
335.

*SMART (Bolton) on the unemployed, 730.

SMITH (H. A.) on the present state of our.
knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 343.

—— (Vet.-Capt. F.) on an attempt to

INDEX, -

supply motor power to the muscles of
the larynx from a new source, 815.

SmirH (Dr. J. Lorrain) and E, TREVI-
THICK, a form of experimentally pro-
duced immunity, 808.

(Prof. Michie) on underground tem-
perature, 107.

——- (Dr. Wilberforce) on the physical
_and mental deviations from the normal
among children in public elementary
and other schools, 434.

—— on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Nottingham meeting,
444.

—— (W. G.), experiments on memory,
817.

SnELUS (G. J.) on the best method of
establishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 237.

Soap-bubbles, the formation of, by the
contact of alkaline oleates with water,
Prof. G. Quincke on, 475.

Soap-films, the effect of gases on the
surface tension and electrical conduc-
tivity of, H. Stansfield on, 569.

Soda-felspar rock at Dinas Head, north
coast of Cornwall, Howard Fox on a,
655.

Solar radiation, tenth report on the best
methods of recording the direct inten-
sity of, 106.

Solution, the bibliography of, eighth (in-
terim) report on, 246.

*Solutions, properties of, interim report on
the, 630.

——. salt, the effect of dilution upon the
colours of, and the measurement of
this effect, Dr. W. W. Randall on, 618.

t+Sonorous waves which are but just
audible, the amplitude of, Lord Ray-
leigh on, 573.

South Georgia or other Antarctic island,
report of the Committee for making
geographical, meteorological, and na-
tural history observations in, 358.

Space, n-dimensional, the order of the
groups relating to the anallagmatic
displacements of the regular bodies
in, Prof. P. H. Schoute on, 562.

Spectra of the elements and compounds,
wave-length tables of the, report on, 248.

Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, siath
report on, 161.

Spectrum analysis, new methods of,
and on Bessemer flame spectra, Prof.
W.N. Hartley on, 610.

——, the cause of the spurious double
lines sometimes seen with spectro-
scopes, and of the slender appendages
which accompany them, Dr. G. J.
Stoney on, 583.

, the infra-red, recent researches in,
Dr. 8. P. Langley on, 465.

Spelling of place-names, the best method

841;

of aiming at uniformity in the, G. G..
Chisholm on the, 717.

SPILLER (J.) on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 237.

Spring, a loaded spiral, the vibrations of,
L. k. Wilberforce on, 577.

*Standard of value, prices, and wages,
Edward Atkinson on, 730.

*Standards of low electrical resistance,
Prof. J. Viriamu Jones on, 592.

STANSFIELD (H.) on the effect of gases
on the surface tension and electrical
conductivity of soap-films, 569.

*STARLING (Dr.) on the mechanical
theory of lymph formation, 810.

* and W. M. BAYLIss on the inuer-
vation of the portal vein, 811.

Statistics and Economic Science, Ad-
dress by Prof. C. F. Bastable to the
Section of, 719.

Statuette, a new, of the Reindeer age re-
presenting a woman, sculptured in
ivory, Dr. E. Cartailhac on, 783.

Steam-engine cylinders, the most eco-
nomical temperature for, or hot wv.
cold walls, Bryan Donkin on, 755.

locomotion on common roads, some
reminiscences of, by Sir F. J. Bram-
well, 748.

STEBBING (T. RB. R.) on random publish-.
ing and rules of priority, 697.

Steel and iron, the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of, final report on, 237.

—— ——,, the strength and plastic exten--
sibility of, Prof. T. C. Fidler on, 750.

Sterilisation and a theory of the strobilus,
Prof. F. O. Bower on, 695.

Stock Exchange taxation, Dr. J. Man-
dello on, 729.

STOKES (Sir G. G.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 106.

Stone age on the borders of the Medi-
terranean basin, the end of the, Dr. E.
Cartailhac on, 783.

implements of Australian type from
Tasmania, Dr. E. B. Tylor on some, 782-.

—— implements, the evolution of, H.
Stopes on, 776.

*____ implements, Tasmanian, H. Ling.
Roth on, 782.

Stonesfield slate, report on opening further
sections of the, 304. :

StonEy (Dr. G. Johnstone) on the best.
methods of recording the direct inten-
sity of solar radiation, 106. 4

— on practical electrical standards,
117.

on the cause of the spurious double

lines sometimes seen with spectro-

scopes, and of the slender appendages

-which accompany them, 583. :

t+

842

STONEY (Dr. G. J.), how to avoid the
misuse of the word ‘Force,’ in attrac-
tions, electricity and magnetism, with-
out much departure from existing
practice, 586.

on a nomenclature for very much
facilitating the use of systematic
measures, 587.

STooke (T. 8.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 283.

Storrs (H.) on the evolution of stone
implements, 776.

—— (Mrs.), three Neolithic settlements
in North Kent, 785.

STRAHAN (A.) on underground tempera-
ture, 107.

*Strains, small, an apparatus for mea-
suring, Prof. J. A. Ewing on, 574.

*STRASBURGER (Prof. E.) on the periodic
variation in the number of chromo-
somes, 684.

String, a stretched, a new explanation of
the wave-movements of, W. Barlow on,
593.

Strobilus, a theory of, Prof. F. O. Bower
on sterilisation and, 695.

STRONG (Oliver S.) on a modification of
Golgi’s methods, 815.

STROUD (Prof. W.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 238.

STRUTHERS (Prof. J.) on the carpus of
the Greenland right-whale compared
with that of fin-whales, 684.

Suffocation in mines, the cause and pre-
vention of, Dr. J. S. Haldane on, 816.

Sulphur, phosphorus and aldehyde, the
rate of oxidation of, Dr. T. Ewan on,
609.

Sunlight in the High Alps, the iodine
value of, Dr. 8. Rideal on, 612.

*Suprarenal extract, Prof. E. A. Schiifer
on effects of, 806.

Surface-tension of soap-films, the effect
of gases on, H. Stansfield on, 569.

SWINBURNE (James) on the ‘ hunting’ of
governed engines, 758.

Symons (G. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 19.

on the best methods of recording the

direct intensity of solar radiation, 106.

on underground temperature, 107.

on the application of photography

to the elucidation of meteorological

phenomena, 143.

on earth tremors, 145.

on the circulation of underground

waters, 283.

on the climatological and hydro-

graphical conditions of Tropical Africa,

348.

Tartrarsenites, G. G. Henderson and A. R.
Ewing on the, 624.
Tasmania, some stone implements of

INDEX.

Australian type from, Dr. E. B. Tylor

on, 782.

*Tasmanian stone implements, H. Ling
Roth on, 782.

*Tautomerism, investigations on, by Prof.
W. J. Briihl, 620.

Taxation, Stock Exchange, Dr. J. Man-
dello on, 729.

TAYLOR (H.) on practical electrical stan-
dards, 117.

TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 274.

—- on the volcanic phenomena of Vesu-
vius and its neighbourhood, 316.

*TEICHMULLER (J.) on the specific con-
ductivity of copper, 592.

Telegony, interim report on, 346.
{Telephone, an attempt at a quantitative
theory of the, Lord Rayleigh on, 573.
+t——, the minimum current audible in

the, Lord Rayleigh on, 572.

, photographic records of currents
produced by speaking with a, the pro-
duction with the capillary electrometer
of, G. J. Burch on, 818.

Temperature entropy diagrams, H. F.
W. Burstall on the, 758.

as a factor in the distribution of

marine animals, Dr. O. Maas on, 627.

underground, report on, 107.

TEMPLE (Sir R.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 359.

Terraced hill slopes of North Oxfordshire,
E. A. Walford on the, 645.

Tetanus, the voluntary, in man, on some
experiments to determine the time-
relations of, by D. Fraser Harris, 792.

*Thames bacillus, Prof. Marshall Ward
on a, 698.

Thermodynamics, the present state of our
knowledge of, report on, by G. A. Bryan:
Part II, the laws of distribution of
energy aud their limitations, 64.
Appendix :

A. The possible lans of partition of
rotary energy in non-colliding rigid
bodies, 98.

B. Onthe law of molecular distribution
in the atmosphere of a rotating planet,
100.

C. On the application of the determi-
nantal relation to the kinetic theory
of polyatomic gases, by Prof. Ludnig
Boltzmann, 102.

Thermometer, platinum, a direct reading
form of, G. M. Clark on, 758.

THOMAS(J.W.) on the proximate chemical
constituents of coal, 246.

on the chemistry of coal formation,
611.

— (T. H.) on the legislative protection
of wild birds’ eggs, 347.

*

INDEX.

THoMAS! (T. H.) on the prehistoric and
ancient remains of Glamorganshire, 418.

*THOMPSON (Prof. D’Arcy) on some diffi-
culties of Darwinism, 689.

(1. C.) on the marine zoology of the

Trish Sea, 318.

(Prof. Silvanus P.) on practical

electrical standards, 117.

on the teaching of science in elemen-

tary schools, 359.

on mirrors of magnetism, 574.

* on some advantages of alternate
currents, 756.

*THOMSON (Prof. Arthur), notes on skin,
hair, and pigment, 778.

—— (Basil H.), on the pantheon of the
Fijians, 786.

——- (John) on geographical photography,
714.

—— (Prof. J. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 117.

the connection between chemical com-
bination and the discharge of electricity
through gases, 482.

+ on the velocity of the cathode
rays, 582.

THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on the action of
light wpon dyed colours, 238.

— and J. W. RopGER on the relations
between the viscosity of liquids and
their chemical nature, 615.

Ticklishness, the anthropological signifi-
cance of, Dr. Louis Robinson on, 778.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the cave at Elbolton,
270.

——, on the Calf Hole Cave, 272.

-—, on the collection, preservation, and
systematic registration of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 274.

TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on establishing an
international standard for the analysis
of iron and steel, 237.

—— on the bibliography of solution, 246.

on the investigation of isomeric
naphthalene derivatives, 268.

Tobas of Gran Chaco, South America, J.
Graham Kerr on the, 789.

TOPLEY (W.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 19.

on the circulation of underground
naters, 283.

Touch, sight, and hearing, the measure-
ment of simple reaction time for, Prof.
W. Rutherford on, 805.

*Tow-net, a deep-sea, report on, 687.

Town water-supply, bore-hole wells for,
H. Davey on, 748.

*Trade, the mathematical theory of inter-
national, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth on, 729.

Transformer for replotting curves, a
graphical, A. P. Trotter on, 558.

TRAQUAIR (Dr. R. H.) on the eurypterid-
bearing deposits of the Pentlands, 302.

843

TRAQUAIR (Dr, R. H.), preliminary note
on a New Fossil Fish from the Upper
Old Red Sandstone of Elginshire, 656.

Tremors, earth, report on, 145.

TREVITHICK (H.) and Dr. J. LORRAIN
SMITH on a form of experimentally
produced immunity, 808.

Trias of Budleigh Salterton and of
Cannock Chase, a comparison of the
pebbles of, by Prof. T. G. Bonney, 655.

in Cheshire, some forms of Saurian
footsteps from the, O. W. Jeffs on, 658.

Triassic sandstone, Carboniferous lime-
stone and salt-bearing marls of the
north of the Isle of Man, Prof. W.
Boyd Dawkins on, 662.

Trigraphic fields of spaces, the impossi-
bility of, J. W. Russell on, 578.

TRISTRAM (Rev. Canon H. B.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 19.

on the legislative protection of wild
birds’ eggs, 347.

Troglodytes, the, of the Bruniquel, a grotto
of ironworks on the borders of Aveyron,
by Dr. E. Cartailhac, 782.

Trophic changes in the nervous system,
Prof. Justus Gaule on, 794.

Trotter (A. P.) on a graphical transformer
for replotting curves, 558.

Tunnel Construction by means of shield
and compressed air, with special
reference to the tunnel under the
Thames at Blackwall, Maurice Fitz-
maurice on, 751.

TURNER(Prof. H. H.)on some photometric
measures of the corona of April 1893,
568.

——(T.) on the electrolytic methods of

quantitative analysis, 160.

—— on an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 237.

TYLDEN-WRIGHT (C.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 283.

TyLor (Dr. E. B.) on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 453.

—— on the diffusion of mythical beliefs
as evidence in the history of culture,
774.

—— on some stone implements of Aus-
tralian type from Tasmania, 782.

*Typhoid bacilli in water, Dr. L. Olivier
on, 818.

Uganda and the Zambezi, native tribes
between the, Lionel Decle on, 785.

Underground temperature, the rate of
increase of, dornwards in various lo-
calities of dry land and wnder water,
twentieth report on, 107.

—— waters in the permeable formations
of England and Wales, the circulation
of, and the quantity and character of

844.

the water supplied to various towns and
‘districts from these formations, twen-
tieth report on, 283.

*Unemployed, Bolton Smart on the, 730.

and the Church Army, Rev. W. H.
Hunt on the, 729.

United Kingdom, economic studies in the,
the condition of, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner
on, 387.

UnwIn (Prof. W. C.) on methods of de-
termining the dryness of steam in boiler
trials, 392.

VACHELL (Dr. C. T.) on the legislative
protection of wild birds’ eggs, 347.

on the prehistoric and ancient re-
mains of Glamorganshire, 418.

van’t Hoff's constant, the determination
of, Dr. Meyer Wildermann on, 616.

*Variation, progressively adaptive, cer-
tain principles of, observed in fossil
series, Prof, H, F. Osborn on, 693.

*Vaso-dilator reflexes, W. M. Bayliss on
some, 811.

Vesuvius and its neighbourhood, the vol-
canie phenomena of, report on, 315.

Vibrations of a loaded spiral spring, L. R.

Wilberforce on the, 577.

Vines (Prof. 8. H.) on investigations
made at the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation laboratory at Plymouth, 345.

Viscosity of liquids and their chemical
nature, the relations between the, Dr.
T. E. Thorpe and J. W. Rodger on, 615.

*Vision, an electrical theory of, Prof. O.
J. Lodge on, 582.

Volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, report on the, 315.

subsidences in the north of Iceland,
Dr. Tempest Anderson on certain, 650.

*Vowel and consonant sounds, Prof. D.
L. Hermann on, 806.

Wages, hours, and productivity of labour,
the relation between, J. A. Hobson on,
738.

and the numbers employed in the
coal-mining industry, the relation be-
tween, R. H. Hooker on, 737.

*____. prices, and the standard of value,
Edward Atkinson on, 730.

WALFORD (E. A.) on the Stonesjicld slate,
304.

—— on the terraced hill slopes of North
Oxfordshire, 645.

WALKER (A. O.) on the marine zoology of
the Irish Sea, 318.

(E. 0.), values of five standard coils
belonging to the Indian Government,
131.

WALLACE (Dr. A. Russel) on the in-
Jluence of previous fertilisation of the
female on her subsequent offspring, and

INDEX,

the effect of mental impressions during’
pregnancy on the offspring, 346.

WANKLYN (Prof. J. A.) on the atomic
weight of carbon, 619.

*WARD (Prof. Marshall) on a Thames
bacillus, 698.

WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
and mental deviations from the normal
among children in schools, 434.

*Water, the boiling of, in an open tube,
experiments showing, by Prot. Osborne
Reynolds, 564.

——, the determining of the freezing-
point of, Dr. M. Wildermann on, 616.
Water supply, town, bore-hole wells for,

Henry Davey on, 748.

Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and-
compounds, 248.

(W. W.) on the collection, preserva-

tion, and systematic registration of

photographs of geological interest in-

the United Kingdom, 274.

on a Keuper sandstone cemented by
barium sulphate, from the Peakstones
Rock, Alton, Staffordshire, 665.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, report on,
248.

Wave-movements of a stretched string, a
new explanation of the, by W. Barlow,
593.

WEBB (Sidney) on the ‘economic here-
sies’ of the London County Council,
735.

WELD (Miss A. G.) on the possibility of
a common language between man and
other animals, 780.

Wells, bore-hole, for town water-supply,
Henry Davey on, 748.

West India Islands, seventh report on the
present state of our knowledge uf the
zoology and botany of the, 344.

WETHERED (E.) on underground tem-
perature, 107.

—— on the circulation of underground
waters, 283.

Whales, the Greenland right-, and the
fin-, comparison of the carpus of,
by Prof. J. Struthers, 684.

WHARTON (Capt. W. J. L.), Address to
the Geographical Section by, 699.

WHETHAM (W. C. D.) on the velocity of
the hydrogen ion through solutions of
acetates, 569.

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 19.

-—— on the circulation of underground
naters, 283.

on the age of the plateau beds, 652.

WILBERFORCE (L. R.) on the vibrations
of a loaded spiral spring, 577.

WILDERMANN (Dr. Meyer) on determin-
ing the freezing-point of water, van’t

yt nel

INDEX.

Hofi’s constant, Arrhenius’s law of
dissociation, Ostwald’s law of dilution,
616.

WILDERMANN (Dr. Meyer) on P.B.Lewis’s
method for accurately determining
the freezing-point of aqueous solutions
which freeze at temperatures just
below 0° C.

WILKINSON (J. J.) on the cave at
Elbolton, 270.

on the Calf Hole Cave, 272.

WILson (C. I.) on methods of determin-
ing the dryness of steam, 392.

(W. EB.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 106. .

WILTSHIRE (Prof. T.) on the fossil
Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic rocks,
271.

WINDLE(Prof.Bertram)on anthropometric
work in schools, 439.

—— on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Nottingham meeting,
444.

—— on mythical pygmy races, 781.

WINDOES (J.) on the Stonesfield slate,
304

Wing of Archeopteryx viewed in the
light of that of some modern birds,
W. P. Pycraft on, 693.

*Women’s industries, Miss Maitland on,
731.

Woopwarp (Dr. H.) on the fossil Phylio-
poda of the Paleozoic rocks, 271.

on the Stonesfield slate, 304.

on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 347.

—.-.- (H. B.) on the collection, preser-
vation, and systematic registration of

845

photographs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 274.

Woopwarp (H. B.) on the Stonesfield
slate, 304.

WRIGHT (Prof. E. P.) on the ethnographi-
cal survey of Ireland, 429.

WYNNE (A. B.) on underground tempera-
ture, 107.

Youne (Prof. Sydney) on the biblio-
graphy of solution, 246.

*ZACHARIAS (Prof. E.) on the function
of the nucleus, 696.

Zambezi and Uganda, the native tribes
between the, Lionel Decle on, 785.

Zoological nomenclature: rules of priority
and random publication, T. R. R.
Stebbing on, 697.

——— Station at Naples, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 335.
Appendix :

I. On the ‘ reduction division’ in the
cartilaginous fishes, by J. LE. S. Moore,
338.

IL. List of naturalists who have worked
at the station from the end of June
1893 to the end of June 1894, 340.

Ill. List of papers published in 1893
by naturalists who have occupied
tables at the station, 341.

Zoology and botany of the West India
Islands, seventh report on the present
state of our knonledye of the, 344.

—— marine, of the Irish Sea, second
report on the, 318.

-— of the Sandwich Islands, fourth
report on the present state of our
knowledge of the, 343.

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CoNnTENTS :—-Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Third Report
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—Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ;—Fourth Report on the Influence of
Silicon on the Properties of Iron and Steel;—Second Report on the best method of

848

establishing an International Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel ;—Report
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REPORT or tue SIXTY-FIRST MEETING, at Cardiff, August
1891, Published at £1 4s.

ConTENts :—Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Report on the
present state of our knowledge of Thermodynamics, specially with regard to the
Second Law ;—Sixth Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings;
—Fleventh Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan ;—Second
Report of the Committee for calculating Tables of certain Mathematical Functions,
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results in an accessible form ;—Fifth Report on the application of Photography to
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Committee for co-operating with Dr. C, Piazzi Smyth in his Researches on the Ultra-

849

violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum ;—Report on the best means of Comparing and
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issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Interim Report of
the Committee for carrying on the Tables connected with the Pellian Equation from
the Point where the work was left by Degen in 1817 ;—Seventh Report on the best
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Preparation of a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements
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Report (provisional) on the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen
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—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report
of the Committee for improving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net for
opening and closing under water;—Report on the teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools ;—Third Report on the investigation of the Action of Waves and Currents
on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of Working Models ;— Report of
the Committee for editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries ;’—
Seventh Report on the North-western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada ;—Fifth
Report on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British Islands ;—Fourth and Final
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1894. 31

850

REPORT or tHs SIXTY-SECOND MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1892, Published at £1 4s.

ConTENTS :—-Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Report on
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851

REPORT or rue SIXTY-THIRD MEETING, at Nottingham,
September 1893, Published at £1 4s.

Contents :—Address by the President, Professor Burdon Sanderson ;—Report
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Interim Report on the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory ;—Interim
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the Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Phenomena ;—
Ninth Report on the best methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radia-
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Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours;—Seventh Report on Isomeric
Naphthalene Derivatives;—Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the
Elements and Compounds :—Fifth Report on establishing an International Standard
for the Analysis of Iron and Steel;—Report on Solution ;—Report on the Influence
of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ;—Bacteriology in
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Circulation of Underground Waters;—Tenth Report on the Phyllopoda of the
Paleozoic Rocks ;—Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills ;
—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its Neighbourhood ;—Report
on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of
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Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall, and other localities ;—Twenty-first
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present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ;—Interim
Report of the Committee for making a Digest of the Observations on the Migration
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PRESIDENT.
THE Most Hon, 11k MARQUIS OF SALISBURY, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of the
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The Right Hon. Lorp WaLsinGHAM, LL.D., F.RS., | Sir G. G. Sroxes, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.
High Steward of the University of Cambridge. | Dr. BE. FRANKLAND, D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Right Hon, LorpD RAYLEIGH, D.C L., Sec.R.S., | Professor G. H. DARWIN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Essex. | Fetx T. CopBoip, Esq., M.A.
The Right Hon. Lorp Gwypyr. MA., High
Steward of the Borough of Ipswich.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir DoveLAs Garton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GnirriTH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR W. Ricker, M.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT IPSWICH.
G. H. HEWE'TSON, Esq. E. P. RIDLEY, Esq.
5. A. Norcurt, Esq., LL.M., B.A., B.Se.

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT IPSWICH.

Geometry.

™|

H. J. W. Jervis, Esq. | ROGER KERRISON, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ANDERSON, Dr. W., F.R.S. MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S.
Ayuton, Professor W. E., F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
Baker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. RAMSAY, Professor W., I’.R.S.
Boys, Professor C. VERNON, F.R.S. RAINOLD, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
EpGEWorrH, Professor F. Y., M.A. REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D.,
Evans, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S. F.R.S.
FOXWELL, Professor H.S., M.A. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
HEDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Horsey, Professor Vicror, F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. J., F.R.S.
LANKESTER, Professor E. Ray, F.R.S. UNWIN, Professor W.C., F.R.S.
LIVEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S. VINES, Professor 8. H., F.R.S.
Loner, Professor OLIVER J., F.R.S. Warp, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S,
MARKHAM, CLEMEN''s R., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. | WHIVAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presilents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurers and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

The Right Hon. Lord RayLeicuH, M.A., D.C.L., LU.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.

The Right Hon, Lord PLayrair, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D. F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Lord Armstrong, 0.B., LL.D. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., ’.R.s.

Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. | Siv W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.&. Sir Frederick Abel, Bart., F.R.S.

Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. Dr. Wm. Huggins, D.C.L., F.R.S.

The Rt. Hon, Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.| Lord Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S.

Lord Kelvin, LL.D., Pres.R.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. | Prof.J.S.Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F. Galton, Esq., I’.R.S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof, Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Prof. Michael Ioster, Sec.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S, | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.

AUDITORS.

Prof, W. Cunningham, D.Sc. | Dr. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S, | Ludwig Mond, Esq., F.R.S,
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LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1894.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1894.
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Esq.

Year of
Election.

1887. *Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1887. tAbbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1863. *AseL, Sir Freperick Aveustus, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
London, 8. W.

1886, {Abercromby, The Hon. Ralph, F.R.Met.Soc. 21 Chapel-Street,
Belgrave-square, London, S.W,

1891. §ABeRDARE, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Duf-
fryn, Mountain Ash, South Wales.

1885, *AsERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D. 387 Grosvenor-
square, London, W.

1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. 37 Grosvenor-square, London, W.

1885. tAbernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.

1863. *ABERNETHY, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 4 Delabay-street, West-
minster, 8. W.

6 LIST OF MEMBERS.

lection.

1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

1873. *ABNeEy, Captain W. bE W., R.E., C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
FOS. W illeslie House, Wetherby -road, ‘South Kensington,
London, 8S. W.

1886, {Abraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

1877. {Ace, Rey. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, near Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.

1884, tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.

1873. tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1882. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. 388 Pont-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.

1869. tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.

1877. *Acland, Captain Francis KE, Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

1875. *Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.

1894, *Acland, Harry Dyke, Old Bank, Great Malvern.

1873. *Actanp, Sir Henry W. D., Bart., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of
Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.

1877, *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, London, W.

1860. tActanD, Sir THomas Dyxe, Bart., M.A., D.C.L. Killerton, Exeter ;
and Athenzeum Club, London, 8S. W.

1887. {Apami, J.G., B.A. New Museums, Cambridge.

1892. tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.

1884. tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

1876. tAdams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

1871. §Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1879. *Apams, Rey. Tomas, M.A., D.C.L., Principal of Bishop’s College,
Lennoxville, Canada.

1877. tAdams, William. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.

1869, *ApAms, WiLt1AM Grytts, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Campden Hill-square, London, W.

1879. tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Aberdeen.

1890. tAddyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.

1890. {ApENEY, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Harlsford-
terrace, Dublin.

1865, *Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.

1883. tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

1884. {Agnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

1887. tAgnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.

1884, tAikins, Dr. W.T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1864, *Ainsworth, David, M.P. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

1871. * Ainsworth, John Stirling, Harecroft, Cumberland.

1871. {Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

1891. *Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuar t-square, Cardiff,

1871. § AITKEN, Joun, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.

1884, *Alabaster, H. Hazeldene, Wood-vale, Honor Oak, London, 8.E.

1886. *Albright, ’G. 8. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1862. tAxcocx, ’ Sir RvuTHERFORD, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

1894, §Alexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.

1891. {Alexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.

1883. tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.

1888. *Alexander, Patrick Y. Experimental Works, Bath.

18785, {Alexander, Reginald, M.D. 138 Hallfield-road, Bradford, York-
shire,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 7

Election.

1891.
1883.

1885.
1885.

1867.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1891.

1887.§
1878.

1861.
1887.
1891.
1889.
1865.
1889.

1886.
1887.
1875.
1891.
1883.
1885.
1884.
1885.

1850.
1883.
1885.
1874.
1892.
1888.
1887.
1889.

1880.
1886.

1880.
1885.
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.

*Alford, Charles J., £.G.8. Coolivin, Hawkwood-road, Boscombe,
Hants.

tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

{Alger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.

tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.F. 10 Austin Friars, London, I.C.

{Atcen, Atrrep H., F.C.S. Sydenham Cottage, Park-lane, Sheffield.

*Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.

*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. Melrose, Grange-road, Cambridge,

*Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.

§Allen, F. J. Mason College, Birmingham.

fAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham.

{Allen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.

§Allen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, vii Preston.

tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W

tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.

*Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.

tAllen, W. H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.

tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.

tAllhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Allhusen, Frank E. Charterhouse, Godalming.

*AtiMAN, Grorcr J., M.D.,LL.D.,F.R.S.,F.R.S.E.,M.R.LA., F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.

{Allport, Samuel. 50 Whittall-street, Birmingham.

tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Ambrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks, Cardiff.

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.

§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.

tAmi, Henry. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

tAnderson, Charles Clinton. 4 Knaresborough-place, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.

t Anderson, Charles Wiliiam. Belvedere, Harrogate.

{Anderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.

*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.8. Holywood, Belfast.

{Anderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 35a Great George-street, London, S.W.

{Anderson, Professor R. J., M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.

tAnderson, Robert Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

*AwpErson, Tempest, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York.

*ANDERSON, WiLL1AM, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Director-General
of Ordnance Factories. Lesney House, Erith, Kent.

{Andrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.

{Andrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.

t{Andrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Kithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.

8

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Electior.

1877.

1886.
1886.
1878.

1890.
1870.
1874.
1894.
1884.

2851.

1884.

1883.
18838.

1887.
1867,
1857.

§ANGELL, Jonny, F.C.S. 5 Beacons-field, Derby-road, Fallowlield,
Manchester.
tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton. -
tAnsell, Joseph. 88 Waterloo-street, Birmingham,
tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-

ham.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

tArcher, Francis. 14 Cook-street, Liverpool.

tArcuer, W., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 11 South Frederick-street, Dublm.

§Archibald, A. Bank House, Ventnor.

*Archibald, E. Douglas. Care of Mr. F. Tate, 28 Market-street,
Melbourne.

tAneyL1, His Grace the Duke of, K.G.,K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.F.,
F.G.S. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W. ; and Inyerary,
Argyllshire.

§Arlidge, John Thomas, M.D., B.A. The High Grove, Stoke-upon-
Trent.

§Armistead, Richard. 383 Chambres-road, Southport.

*Armistead, William. 15 Rupert-street, Compton-road, Wolver-
hampton.

tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.D.

*ArmstRone, The Right Ilon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cragside, Rothbury.

. *ARMSTRONG, Sir ALBXANDER, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

The Albany, London, W.

tArmsrronc, Grorcr Frepericx, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinkurgh.

*ArmstRonG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.8., Professor o%
Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 55 Granville
Park, Lewisham, 8.F.

. Armstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

tArmstrong, John A. 32 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.

Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.

jArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

'yne.

§Arnold-Bemrose, H., M.A., F.G.S. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.

tArnott, Thomas Reid. LBramshill, Harlesden Green, London,
N.W.

*Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, S.W.

tAscough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.

tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

§Ashley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.

Asuton, THomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 386 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.

*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
tAshworth, Mrs. Harriet. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near Stock-
ort.

eee Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

Year of
Election

1888.
1890.
1887.

1887.
1875.
1861.
1861.
1887.

1865.

1884,
1894,
1894.
1861.
1881.
1881.
1894,
1863.

1884.
1886.
1860.
1881.
1888.

1877.

1883.

1884.

1863.
1883.
1887.

1887.
1881.

1877.
1883.
1892.
1883.

1893.
1870.
1887.
1865.

1855.

1887.
1868,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

*Achworth, J.J. 389 Spring-gardens, Manchester.

tAshworth, J. Reginald. 20 King-street, Rochdale.

tAshworth, John Wallwork. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near
Stockport.

tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Birchwood-grove, Burgess Hill, Sussex.

§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C,

§§Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, M.A. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-
Mersey.

*Arxryson, Epuunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Porteshery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.

tAtkinson, inaseand Ph.D., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

§Atkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, London, 8.W.

*Atkinson, Harold W. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

tAtkinson, Rev. J. A. The Vicarage, Bolton.

tAtkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

tArKrinson, Ropert WittiaM, I'.C.S, 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

*ATTFIELD, Professor J.,M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.

tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tAulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.

*Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William E. C., M.A. Kincraig, Winchester.

tAzon, W. E. A. Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tAyre, Rev. J. W., M.A. 380 Green-street, Grosvyenor-square,
London, W.

*Ayrion, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, London, 8. W.

*Basineton, CHarLes CARDALE, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.

tBaby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.

Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.

{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.

*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.

Siege Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London,

v.W.

tBaddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.

{Baden-Powell, Sir George S8., K.C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.A.S.,
F.S.S. 114 Eaton-square, London, 8.W.

tBadock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.

tBaildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.

§Baildon, H. Bellyer. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.

§Bailey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.S., F.R.G.S. Edinburgh.

tBailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.

{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.

tBailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.

tBaillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.

10

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1894.
1878.
1885.
1873.
1885.
1882.

1891.
1881.
1875.
1881.
1884.
1871.
1894.
1875.

1883,
1878.
1866.

1878.

1885.
1886.
1869.

1890.

1882,
1884.
1866.
1884,
1890.
1861.
1855.
1894,
1871.
1852.
1860.
1876.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1882.
1886.
1890.

1860.
1879.
1882.
1879.

1865,

*Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. University College, Liverpool.

{Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W.

{tBary, AtexanpER, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.

{Bain, Sir James, M.P. 3 Parlk-terrace, Glasgow.

tBain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glaseow.

*Baxer, Sir Bensamiy, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.1.
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

{Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.

{Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

{Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.

{Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.

{Balete, Professor H. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

{Balfour, G. W., M.P. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.

§ Balfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Batroor, Isaac Baytny,M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.

tBalfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Batz, Sir Ropert Stawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.

¢Batt, Vatenting, C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of
the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.8. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, 8.W.

§Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada,

tBance, Major Edward. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton.

tBarbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.

tBarber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

{Barber, Rev. S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.

*Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

{Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland. ‘

§Barclay, Arthur. 3 Castle-street East, Oxford-street, London, W.

tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, I2.C.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

*Barclay, Robert. Springfield, Kersal, Manchester.

{Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.

{Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

{Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.

tBarham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.

{Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross,
London, 8.E.

*Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. ast Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.

tBarker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.

*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.

*Barker, Rev. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Boroughbridge Vicarage,
Bridgwater.

{Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 11

Year of
Election.

1870. {Barxty, Sir Henry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
: gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
1886. {Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1873. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E,. 2 Old Palace-yard, West-
minster, S. W.
1889. §Barlow, H. W. L. Wolly Bank, Croftstank-road, Urmston, near
Manchester.
1883. {Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.
1878. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.
1883. {Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
1885. {Barlow, William, F.G.8. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N.
1873. {Bartow, Witiiam Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace-
yard, Westminster, S. W.
1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelteniam.
1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. Harlow, Essex.
1889. {Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.
1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
1884, {Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Barr, ARCHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.
1890. {Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.
1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1891. §Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.
1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1883. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1860. {Barrett, T. B. 20 Victoria-terrace, Welshpool, Montgomery.
1872. *Barrerr, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1883. {Barrett, William Scott. Winton Lodge, Crosby, near Liverpool.
1887, {Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
1874, *Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
1874, *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
1885. *Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
grove, Shortlands, Kent.
1881.§§Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.
1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
1895.§§ Barrow, George, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.
1886. {Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
1886. [Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
1886. {Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
1886, {Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
1858. {Barry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.
1862, *Barry, Cuartes. 1 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
1883. {Barry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
1875. isch ie Wolfe,C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster,

1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.

1884. *Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York.

1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson, The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare,
1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1858. *Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, EKaiing, Middlesex, W.
1892.§§Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.
1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.
1884. {Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
1873. {Bartley, George OC. T., M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
1892. {Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
1893.§§ Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
1884. {Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
1852. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
1892. {Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy -terrace, Mayfield, Edimburgh.
1887. {Bartrum, John S. 15 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
1882. *Basine, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S. 74 St. George’s-square,
London, 8.W.
1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
1876. {Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
1888. *Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Hedborough Hall, Holyport, Berkshire.
1891. {Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
1866. *Basserr, Hmnry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.
1889. {Basrastr, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 6 Trevelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.
1869. {Bastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter.
1871. {Basrran, H. Cuartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London. 84 Manchester-square, London, W.
1889. {Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. {Bateman, A. E., C.M.G. Board of Trade, London, S.W.
1868. {Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.RS., F.R.G.S., F.L.8. Home House,
Worthing.
1889. {Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
1884. {Bareson, Witt, B.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1881. *Bather, Francis Arthur, M.A., F.G.8. 207 Harrow-road, London, W.
1836. {Batten, Edmund Chisholm. Thorn Falcon, near Taunton, Somerset.
1863. §BauprMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cav endish-road, Balham, London, 5. i
1867. {Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
1892.§§Bayly, F. W. Royal Mint, London, E.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
1875. *Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
1876. *Baynes, Roprrt E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
1887. *Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
1887. {Baynton, Alfred. 28 Gilda Brook Park, Eccles, Manchester.
1883. *Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
1886. {Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
1886. {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1860. *Brarr, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of the Principles and
Practice of Medicine in King’s College, London. 61 Grosyenor-
street, London, W.
1882. §Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A, W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, Lon-
don, S.W.
1884, {Beamish,G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13

Election.

1872.

1883.
1889.

1887.

1842.
1889.
1855.

1886.
1861.
1887.
1885.

1871.

1887.
1885.

1870.
1858.
1890,
1891,
1878.

1884.
1873.

1874.
1891.

1892.
1873.
1871.
1884.
1894.

1860.
1862.

1875.

1891.
1871.

1883.
1864.
1876.
1867.
1888.
1842,
1882.

{Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.

t+ Beard, Mrs. 15 South-hill-road, Toateth Park, Liverpool.

§Beare, Professor T. Hudson, F.R.S.E. University College, London,
W.C

{Beaton, John, M.A. 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester.

*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.

tBeattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.LS., F.S.S. 18 Picea-
dilly, London, W.

{Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal.

*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

*Beaumont, W. J. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

§Beaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Melford, Palace-road,
Tulse Hill, London, S.W.

*Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, London,
S.W

*Beckert, JouN Hamppren. Corbar Hill House, Buxton, Derbyshire.

§BEeppARD, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London. Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.

§Brppor, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.

§Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.

{Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

§Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

{Brpson, P. Puitiies, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

{Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

tBelcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

*Belinfante, L. L., B.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Geological Society,
Burlington House, London, W.

tBell, A. Beatson. 143 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

{Bell, Asahel P. 32 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester.

{Bell, Charles B. ‘6 Spring-bank, Hull.

{Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.

§Brtt, F. Jerrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. 5 Radnor-place, Gloucester-square,
London, W.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

tBell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

*BELL, Sir Isaac Lowruray, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.

{Brtt, Jamns, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. lowell Hill
Lodge, Ewell, Surrey.

{Bell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.

*Ben., J. CARTER, F.C.S. Banktield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

*Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.

{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

tBell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.6. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

{Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

Bellhouse, Edward Taylor, Eagle Foundry, Manchester.

{ Bellingham, William. 15 Killieser-avenue, Telford Park, Streatham

Till, London, 8. W.

14

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1893.§§ BELPER, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.

1884,
1886.

1885.
1891.
1870.

1836,
1887.

1881.
1883.
1881.

1870.
1887.
1889.
1848,
1887.

1863.
1885.
1884,
1894.

1865.
1886.
1894.
1887.
1870.
1862.

1865.
1882.
1890.
1885.

1880.

1884.
1885,
1890.
1863.

1870.
1888.
1885.

1882.

1891.
1886,
1887.
1884.

{Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada,

§ Benger, Frederick Baden, F.I.C., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford,
Cheshire.

{Beyaam, Witriam Braxtanp, D.Sc. University College, Lon-

don, W.C.
§Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 22 St. Alban’s-road, Harlesden, London,
N.W.

{Benyert, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 1

tBennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.

tBennett, James M. St. Mungo Chemical Company, Ruckhiil,
Glasgow.

§Bennett, John R. 16 West Park, Clifton, Bristol.

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.

tBennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.

*Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpodl.

{Bennion, James A., M.A. 1 St. James’-square, Manchester.

{Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{tBenson, Starling. Gloucester-place, Swansea,

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape
Town.

{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Bent, J. THEopoRE. 15 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.

{Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

§ Berkeley, The Right Hon, the Karl of. The Heath, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.

tBerkley, C. Marley Till, Gateshead, Durham.

{Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.

§Berridge, Douglas. The Laboratory, The College, Malvern.

§Berry, William. Parklands, Bowdon, Cheshire.

{Berwick George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.

{Besant, Wittt1AM Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*BrssemEr, Sir Henry, F-R.S. Denmark Hill, London, S.F.

*Bessomer, Henry, jun. Town Hill Park,West End, Southampton.

{Best, William Woodham. 351 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

{ Bettany, Mrs. 83 Oakhurst-grove, East Dulwich-road, London,
S.E.

*Bevan, Rev, James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Vow-
church, Hereford.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

{tBeveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

§Bevington, Miss Mary E. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks, Kent.

{Bewick, Thomas John, F'.G.S, Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney
Hill, London, E.C.

tBickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.

*Bidder, George Parker. The Zoological Station, Naples.

*BIDWELL, SHELFORD, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.

§Biges, C. H. W., F.C.8. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, London,

10)

8.1.
{Rillups, J. E. 29 The Parade, Cardiff.
{Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, London, N.W.
*Bi dloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.
*Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. Electric Works, Sheffield.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Election

1881.

1878.
1880.
1888.
1887.
1871.
1892.
1885.
1894.
1885.
1886,
1889.

{ Binnie, Alexander R., M. Inst. om i., F.G.S. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, London, $ SWE

tBinns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport.

*Birley, Miss Caroline. Seedley-terrace, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Birley, H. K. 13 Hyde-road, Ardwick, Manchester.

*BiscHor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.

{ Bishop, ‘Arthur W., Ph.D. Heriot Watt College, Edinbur eh,

{Bishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester.

§ Bisset, James. 5 East India-avenue, London, E.C.

[ Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, NB

*Bixby, Captain W. H. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.

{Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1889.§§ Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.

1881.

1869.
1834.
1876.
1884,
1877.
1859.

1876.
1855.
1884.
1883.
1888.
1883.
1892.
1892.
1863.

1886.
1849.

1885.
1846.
1891.

1878.
1886.
1894.
1861.
1887.
1881.
1884.
1869.

1887.
1887.

1887.
1884,

tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

{Blackall, Thomas. 15 Southernhay, Exeter.

Blackburn, Bewicke. Calverley Park, Tunbridge Wells.

{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.

tBlackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.

tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

{Blackie, John S., M.A., Emeritus Professor of “Greek in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, 9 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh,

tBlackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.

*Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

{ Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Fawmille-street, Montreal, Canada.

tBlacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport,

{Blame, R.8., J.P. Summerhill Park, Bath.

{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

{Blair, Alexander. 385 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinbur. ch,

{Blake, C.Carter, D.Sc. 28 Townshend- ‘road, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W

{Blake, Dr. James, San Francisco, California.

*Braxe, Henry Wottasron, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.

*Briaxe, Rey. J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 43 Clifton Hill, London, N.W.

*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Pether ton, Somerset.

{Blakesley, Thomas H., .. M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, London, $ E.

{Blakeney, Rev. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield.

{Blakie, John. The Bridge Blolises Newcastle, GSiaftordshing:

§Blakiston, Rev. C. D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.

§Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. Free Hills, Bursledon, Hants.

{Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.

§Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

tBranrorp, W. T., BED: E.R.S., F.G.S., F.RGS. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hill, London, Ww.

*Bles, A. JS. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bles, Edward J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

{Bles, Marcus 8S. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Blish, W roi G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

1880. §$Bloxam, G. W., M.A. 11 Presburg-street, Clapton, London, N.E.

1888.

§Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoce.M.Inst.C.E. 73 Clarendon-road,
Crumpsall, M anchester 5

16 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870. {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.

1859. +Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.

1885. {Bryta, JAmus, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow. .

Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.

1883. {Blyth, Miss Phoebe. 27 Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.

1867. *Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

1887. {Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

1870. tBoardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.

1887. *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester,

1889. {Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 30 Walbrook, London, E.C,

1884, {Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

1881. tBojanowski, Dr. Victor de. 27 Finsbury-circus, London, F.C.

1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.

1894. §Bolton, John. Clifton-road, Crouch End, London, N.

1883. §Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

1888. §Bonney, Miss 8. 28 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1871. *Bonney, Rev. Tuomas Georer, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1866. {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.

1888. {Boon, William. Coventry.

1893. §Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

1890. *Booth, Charles, F.8.S. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, London,

C

1883. § Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

1883. {Booth, Richard, 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C.

1876. {Booth, Rev. William H. Mount Nod-road, Streatham, London,
S.W

1883. tBoothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham.

1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.

1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

1876. ‘Boaaeate R: H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. New Univer-
sity Club, St. James’s-street, London, S.W.

*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.

1881. §BotHamiEy, Cuartes H., F.LC., F.C.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Fernleich,
Haines Hill, Taunton, Somerset.

1867. {Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.

1887. {Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.

1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover.

1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

1887. ile ate James, D.Se., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-rcad, Men-
chester.

1871. *Borromiry, Jamrs THomson, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.8. The
University, Glasgow.

1884, *Rottomley, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.

1892. tBottomley, W. B. Ferncliffe, Morecambe.

1876. { Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1890. §Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.

1883. {Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, London, 8.W.

1883, {Bourns, A. G., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Presidency
College, Madras.

LIST OF MEMBERS. WG

Year of
Election.

1893. §Bourne, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford.

1889. {Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

1866. § Bourne, STEPHEN, F'.S.S. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E.

1890. {Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.

1884. {Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada.

1888. {Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.

1881. *Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in

the University of Glasgow.

1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.

1886. {Bowlby, Rev. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

1884. { Bowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent.

1880. {Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

1887. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

1865. §Bowman, F. H., D.Se., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Ashleigh, Ashley Heath,
Bowdon, Cheshire.

1887. §Box, Alfred M. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1884. *Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1871. {Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

1865. {Boyrr, The Very Rey. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury. -The
Deanery, Salisbury.

1884, *Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, London, S.W.

1892. §Boys, CHaRLEs VERNON, F.R.S., Assistant Professor of Physics in:
the Royal College of Science, London, S.W.

1872. *Brasrooxr, HK. W., F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, London, S.W.

1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, ,
Middlesex.

1894, *Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

1893. §Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1892. §Bradshaw, W. Carishrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

1857. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich. -’

1863. {Brapy, GroreE S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural ’
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland. ;

1880. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham,Romford, Essex, |

1864. {Branam, Purr, F.C.S. 38 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road,
London, S.E.

1870. {Braidwood, Dr. 35 Park-road South, Birkenhead.

1888. §Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

1879. {Bramley, Herbert. 6 Paradise-square, Sheffield.

1865. §BramMWELL, Sir Freprrick J., Bart., D.C.L., LU.D., F.R.S
M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, London, S.W.

1872. {Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.

1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. The Rectory, Dickleburgh.

1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Oakfield Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1890. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.

1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

1877. {Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.

1882. *Bretherton, C. EK. Goldsmith-buildings, Temple, London, !.C.

1881. *Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford

1866, {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.

1875. {Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.

1886. §Bridge, T. W., M.A., Professor of Zoology in the Mascn Science
College, Birmingham.

1894 B

2

18

Year of
Election

1870.
1887.
1870.
1886.
1879.
1870.
1890.
1870.
1893.§
1868.

1893.

1884.
1879.
1879.
1878.

1884.
1859.
1883.
1865.
1884.

1885.
1881.
1855.
1864.
1855.
1888.

1887.
1863,
1887.
1887.
1883.
1886.

1885.
1863.

1892.
1867.

1855.
1871.
1863,
1883.
1881.
1883.
1884,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Bridson, Joseph R. Sawrey, Windermere.

{Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitetield, Manchester.

{Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.

{Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Ndgbaston, Birmingham,

{Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.

*Bricc, Joun. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, near Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.

§Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.

{Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
London, S.W.

§Briscoe, Albert E., A.R.C.Sc., B.Sc. University College, Not-
tingham.

{Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

{ Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.

*Brirrain, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

{Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, S.W.

*Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.

*BropHurst, BernaRD Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 20 Grosvenor-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.

*Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common,
SW

{Brovie, Rey. PErer BetxinceEr, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
{Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,

*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne.

§Brook, Robert G. Raven-street, St. Helens, Lancashire.

t{Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

*Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.

{Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

t¢Brooke, Rev. Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,
Bath.

$Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Manchester.

tBrooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Brooks, 8S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

*Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent.

§Brotherton, E. A. Fern Cliffe, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

§Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.

*Browett, Alfred. 14 Dean-street, Birmingham.

*Brown, ALEXANDER Orvum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
grave-creseent, Edinburgh.

{Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.

t{Brown, Charles Gage, M.D., C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, London,
S.W.

tBrown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

tBrown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.

*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Cavrlisle.

{Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool
tBrown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

tBrown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
tBrown, Gerald Culmer., Lachute, Quebec, Canada,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1883.
1884,
1883.
1870.

1883.
1870.

1876.
1881.
1882.
1859.
1894,
1882.
1886.
1863.
1871.

1891,
1865.
1885.
1884,
1863.

1892.
1879.

1891.
1862.

1872.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1855.
1892.

{Brown, Mrs. I]. Bienz. 26 Ferryhill-place, Aberdeen.

tBrown, Harry. University College, London, W.C.

{Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Horace T., F.R.S., F.C.S. 52 Nevern-square, London, S.W.

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.

{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh.

*Brown, Professor J. Campbett, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.

§Brown, John. Edenderry House, Newtownbreda, Belfast.

*Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.

*Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

{Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D. Haddington, N,B.

§Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

*Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.

§Browr R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.

{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Brown, Roser, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Fersley, Rydal-
road, Streatham, London, S.W. :

§Brown, T. Forster, M.Inst.C.. Guildhall Chambers, Cardiff.

Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.

tBrown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.

{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co., Virginia, U.S.A.

jBrowne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

{Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries.

{Browne, Sir J. Cetcuton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
street-mansions, Victoria-street. London, S.W.

§Browne, Monracu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.

*Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow,
Ireland.

{tBrowne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent.

tBrownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand. London, W.C.

Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

{Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

tBruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

1893.§§Bruce, William S. University Hall, Riddle’s-court, Edinburgh.

1863.
1863.
1875.
1868.

1891.
1878.
1886.
1894,
1884.
1894,
1890,
1871.

1867.
1885.
1881.
1871.

*Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

tBrunel, J. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W

{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Brunton, T. Lauper, M.D.. D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street. London, W.

{ Bruton, Edward Henry. 181 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

*Bryan, G. H. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.

§Bryan, Mrs. 2. P. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.

{Bryce, Rev. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada.

§Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§BucHan, ArexanpeR, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

*Buchan, William Paton. Fairyknowe, Cambuslang, N.B.

*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

{Bucwanan, Joun Younes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S,, F.C.9,
10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

BY

20

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

84. {Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.

1883.

1886.
1864.
1865.
1886.
1884.

1880.
1869.
1851.

{Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington,
London, W.

*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, London, W.C.

{BucxtE, Rev. Grorer, M.A. Wells, Somerset.

*Buckley, Henry. 8 St. Mary’s-road, Leamington.

§Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver-park, Didsbury.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., I'.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, London, W.

tBuckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, London, W.C.

{Buckni11, Sir J.C., M.D., F.R.S. East Cliff House, Bournemouth.

*Bucxton, GrorcE Bowpter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

. {Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley

Range, Manchester.

. t{Budgett, Samuel. Kirton, Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

. {Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.

. §Bulleid, Arthur. Glastonbury.

. tBulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.

. {Bulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.

. {Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

. {Bunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham-
. §Bursury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London,

W.C.

. *Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.
. {Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
. tBurdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W..
. {Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly,

London, W.

. tBurge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

. §Burke, John. 77 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

. *Burland, Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

. {Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

. *Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.S.1., C.LE., F.R.G.S-.

132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W.

. {Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescenit, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

. *Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.

. {Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.

. {Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,

Georgia, U.S.A.

, {Burr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, F.C.

. {Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, H.C.

. §Burroughs, 8. M. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.

. *Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales.

. tBurrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.

. §Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, London, N.W.

. {Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.

. {Burt, John Mowlem. 3St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
. {Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.

. §Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, London, W.

. *Burron, Frepertck M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough,

. {Burton, Rey. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.

. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St.

George’s Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

. *Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. {Burcusr, J. G., M.A. 22 Coilingham-place, London, 8.W.
. *Bulcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng, Clydesdale, Windsor.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

1884.
1888.

1884.
1872.

1883.
1887.
1868.
4881.

1872.

1854.
1885.
1852.
1883.

1889.
1892.
1863.
1894.
1863.
1861.
1875.
1886.
1868.
1857.

1887.

JButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

{Buttanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Bath.

*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester.

{Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfoll.

t{Buxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, I*elixstowe.

{Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich,

t¢Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, London, S.W.

tBuxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., F.R.G.S. Warlies, Waltham
Abbey, Essex.

{Byerrtey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth-park, Liverpool.

tByres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.

tByrne, Very Rey. James. TErgenagh Rectory, Omagh.

{Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.

{Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.

{Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.

§Caillard, Miss E. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.

tCaird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.

*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, J)undee.

{Caldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Rectory, Shipston-on-Stour.

*Caldwell, Wiliam Hay. Birnam, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

tCaley, A. J. Norwich.

tCallan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.

{Cartaway Curartiss, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Sandon, Wellington,
Shropshire.

1892.§§Calvert, A. F’., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Oseney-crescent, Camden-road,

1884.
1876.

1857,
1884,
1870.
1884.
1883.

1876.
1862.

1882.
1890.

1888.

1894.

41880.
1883.
1887.
1873.

2877.
1867.
1876.
1884,

London, N.

tCameron, AAneas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens,
Glasgow.

{CameEron, Sir Cuartus A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.

{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.

{ Campbell, H. J. 81 Kirkstall-road, Talfourd Park, Streatham Till,
London, S. W.

{Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin.

Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.

*Campion, Rey. Witt1aM M., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

{tCandy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.

tCannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.I1.E. 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.

§Capper, D. 8., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, London, W.C.

{Capper, Robert. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Capper, Mrs. R. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.

tCapstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.

*Carsurt, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, London, W.

{Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

t{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

t Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.

{Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

22 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1884. tCarpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A.

1854. {Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.

1884. *CARPMAEL, CHARLES. Toronto, Canada.

1889. {Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

1893.§§Carr, J. Wesley. 128 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

1889. {Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

1867. {CarrutTHEeRs, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. British Museum,
London, 8. W.

1886. {Carstare, J. BarwaM. 30 Westfield-road, Birmingham.

1883. tCarson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast.

1861. *Carson, Sa Joseph, D.D., M.R.LA. 18 . Fitzwilliam-place,
Dublin.

1868. {Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.

1866. {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

1855. {Carter, Richard, I.G.8. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1870, {Carter, Dr. William. 78 Itodney-street, Liverpool.

1883. {Carter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

1883. +Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

1878, *Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.B. i Courtfield-gardens, London,

S.W,
1870. §Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., Borough Surveyor. . Bury,
Lancashire.

1862. {Carulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.
1884, *Carver, Rev. Canon Alfred J. , D.D., F.R.GS. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, London, 8. Ww.
1884, {Carver, Mrs, Lynuhurst, Streatham Common, London, 8.W.
1883. { Carver, James. Garfield House, Elm-avenue, Nottinghan.
1887. {Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.
1866, {Casella, L. P. ,FR.A. S. The Law ns, Highgate, London, N.
1871. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-groye, Coventry.
1873. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 38 Elmfield-terrace, Savile Park,. Halifax.
1888. +Cater, Rh. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.
1874. {Caton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpoo)
Medical School. “Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.
1859. {Catto, Robert. 44 Kine-street, Neri
1886, *Cave-Moyles, Mrs, Isabella. Repton Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham.
1860, §Carrry, ArtuurR, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.R.AS.,
Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Garden House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. ‘Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wvydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. “Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
1860. {CHapwicx, Davi. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, S.E.
1883. {Chadwick, James Percy. 5] Alexandra-road, Southport.
1859. {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
1883. {Chalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1859, {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
1e83. {Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South-
port.
1884. sltienberleins Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.
1883. {CHAMBERS, CHARLES, F.R.S. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
188:3. {Chambers, Mrs. Coliba Observatory, Bombay.
1883. {Chambers, Charles, jun., Assoc.M. Inst.C.E. “Colaba Observatory,
Bombay.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
1881. *Champney, John EL. Woodlands, Halifax.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 23

Year of
Election.

1865.
1865.
1886.
1865.
1888.
1861.

1889.
1884,
1877.
1874.

1874.
1866,

1886.
1883.
1884,

1886.
1867.

1884.
1883.
1864.

1887.
1887.
1874.

1884,
1879.

1865
1883

1884.
1889.
1894.
1842.
1863.
1882.
1887.
1893.

tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Chance, James T. 51 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.

*Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chance, Robert Lucas, Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chandler, 8. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

*Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.

{Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

+Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.

{Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Firbank, Hereford.

{Charles, J. J.. M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.

tCharley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurvy, Ireland.

{Cuarnock, Ricwarp SrepHen, Ph.D., F.S.A. Crichton Club,
Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.

{Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

t Chater, Rev. John. Part-street, Southport.

*Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.0.H. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
don, 8.W.

§Chattock, A.P. University College, Bristol.

*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.

{CuavvEav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.

{Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Gambridge.

{CHeapiz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, 8. W.

{Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde.

{Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.

*Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E.,C.B. Care of Messrs. Cox &
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W.

{Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

*Chesterman, W. Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.

CuicuEstEr, The Right Rey. Rrcwarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord

Bishop of. Chichester.

. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Holywell Lodge, Oxford.

.§§Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

t{Chipman, W. W. L. 6 Place d’Armes, Ontario, Canada.

tChirney, J. W. Morpeth.

§Chisholm, G. C., M.A., B.Sc. 26 Dornton-road, Balham, London, 8S. W.

*Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.

tCholmeley, Rev. C. H. The Rectory, Beaconsfield R.S.O., Bucks.

{Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.

*Chree, Charles. Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.

1861. {Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James's-square, Manchester.
1884. *Christie, William. 29 Queen's Park, Toronto, Canada.

1875.
1876.

*Christopher, George, F.C.S. 6 Barrow-road, Streatham Common,
London, 8.W.

*CurystaL, Georer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.

1870.§§Caurcu, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the

Royal Academy of Arts, London. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road,
Kew, Surrey.

1860, {Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
E.C

1857

: tChurchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Co, Tyrone.

24

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1857.

1876.
1890.
1877.

1876.
1892.
1892.
1876.
1881.
1861.

1855.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1886.
1886.
1872.
1875.
1861.

1877.

1883.
1884.
1889.
1866.
1890.
1850.

1859.
1875.
1861.

1886.
1861,

t Clarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
Dublin.

tClark, David R., M.A. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.

{Clark, E. K. 81 Caledonian-road, Leeds.

*Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Street, Somerset.

Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.

tClark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glascow.

§Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.

tClark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.

{Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 12 Feversham-terrace, York.

fCrark, Lariuer, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street, London,
S.W.

tClark, Rey. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.

tClarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.

§Clarke, C. Goddard. Ingleside, Elm-grove, Peckham, S.E.

{Clarke, Charles 8S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

tClarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.

§Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.

*CLARKE, HypE. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.

tCrarKe, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

*Clarke, John Hope. 62 Nelson-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Man-
chester. /

tClarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.

Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.

{Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.

tClaxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Ciaypen, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.

tClayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.

*Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

{CiecHorN, Hueu, M.D., F.L.S. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scot-
land.

tCleghorn, John. Wick.

tClegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.

§CLELAND, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

tClifford, Arthur. Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Ciirron, R. Bertamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1893.§§Clofford, William. 36 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

1878.
1873.
1892.
1883.

1863.
1881.
1885.
1868,
1891.

1884.
1889.
1889.
1892.

Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
§Close, Rey. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
{Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.

tClouston, T. 8., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.
*Ciowes, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Univer-

sity College, Nottingham. 99 Waterloo-crescent, Nottingham.

*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
“Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.
{Clyne James, Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.
tCoaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
*Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
§Cobb, John. Summerhill, Apperley Bridge, Leeds.
tCochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cockburn, John. Glencorse House. Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 25

Year of
Election.

1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
1861. *Coe, Rey. Charles C:, F.R.GS. Fairfield, Heaton, Bolton.
1881. *Corrin, Water Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
1865. tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
1884. *Cohen, B. L., M.P. 380 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
1887. {Cohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1887. {Cohen, Sigismund. 111 Portland-street, Manchester.
1894. *Colby, Miss E. L. Carregwen, Aberystwith.
1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.
1868. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
1893. tCole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1879. {Cole, Skelton. 887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
1894, §Colefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, London, S.W.
1893.§§Coleman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.
1878. {Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S, 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
1854. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
1892. §Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, London, N.
1892. §Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.
1887. tCollie, Norman. University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.
1887. {Collier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
1869. {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
1893, §Collinge, Walter KE. Mason College, Birmingham.
1854, {Co~Linewoon, Curnzert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, London, W.C.
1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street,
London, W.
1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churehfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876. tCortins, J. H., F.G.S. 60 Heber-road, Dulwich Rise, London, S.E.
1876. {Collins, Sir William. 38 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
1892. {Colman, H. G. Mason College, Birmingham.
1868. *Corman, J. J.,M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
. street, London, E.C.
1882. {Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
1884, {Colomb, Sir J. C. R., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Treland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8.W.
1893. §Coltman, Thomas. West End Cottage, King Richard’s-road,
Leicester.
1888. {Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.
1884. {Common, A. A., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing,
Middlesex, W.
1891. {Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.
1892. §Comyns, Frank, B.A., F.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham.
1884, {Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.
.1890. {Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.
1871. *Connor, Charles C., M.P. Notting Hill House, Belfast.
1881. t{Conroy, Sir Joun, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford.
1893.§§Conway, W. M.,M.A.,F.R.G.S. 21 Clanricarde-gardens, London, W.
1876, {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glascow.
1882, {Cooxr, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, London, S.W.
1876, *Cooxn, Conran W. 28 Victoria-street, London, 8. W.
1881. {Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.
1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

26 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1868. {Cooxr, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, Lon-
don, N. ;

1884, {Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1878. {Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.

1881. {Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

1859. *Cooke, His Honour Judge, M.A., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.

1883. {Cooke-Taylor, R. Whateley. Frenchwood House, Preston.

1883. {Cooke-Taylor, Mrs. Frenchwood House, Preston.

1865. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham,

1888. {Cooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.

1883. {Coomer, John. Willaston, near Nantwich.

1884. {Coon, John 8. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

1893.§§Cooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

1883. {Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C.

1838. Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.

1868. {Cooper, W. J. New Maldon, Surrey.

1889. {Coote, Arthur, The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-wpon-Tyne.

1884, {Cope, E. D. Philadelphia, U.S.A. :

1878. {Cope, Rev. S. W. Bramley, Leeds.

1871. {Corrtanp, Ravpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.

1885, {Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.

1881. {Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.

1842. Corbett, Edward. Grange-avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester,

1891. §Corbett, E,W. M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.

1887. *Corcoran, Bryan. 31 Mark-lane, London, E.C.

1894. §Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Sutton, Surrey.

1881.§§Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes House, R.S.O., Lincoln.

1883. *Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.

1870. *Corrretp, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College. 19 Savile-row,
London, W.

1893. *Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.

1889. {Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1884. *Cornwallis, F. 8. W. Linton Park, Maidstone.

1885. {Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.

1888. {Corser, Rey. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath.

1891. {Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

1891. {Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road,
Cardiff.

1883. {Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 33 Chancery-lane, London, W.C.

1891. *Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. Moonbeam Villa, Merton-road, South
‘Wimbledon.

Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.

1857. {Cottam, Samuel. King-street, Manchester.

1874. *Correritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

1864. {Corron, General FrepErick C., R.E., C.S.I. 18 Longridge-road,
Earl's Court-road, London, 8S. W.

1869. {Corron, Witt1aM. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

1879. {Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallet, Somerset.

1876, {Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

1876. {Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

1889. {Courtney, F. 8. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, London,
S.W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Election.

1890.

1863.
1863.
1872.

1886.

187].
1867.
1867.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1867.
1883.
1890.
1892.
1884,

1876.
1858.
1884,

{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennyeuick, Edinburgh,

tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham,

{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.

*Oowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S, 81 Belsize Park-gardens,
London, N.W.

{Cowen, Mrs. G. R. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.

Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.

{Cowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.

*Cox, Edward. Lyndhurst, Dundee.

*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.

{Cox, Robert. 84 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

{Cox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the 8., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, London, 8. W.

{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

§Crabtree, William, M.Inst.C.E. 126 Manchester-road, Southport.

tOradock, George. Wakefield.

*Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

§Cratciz, Major P. G., F.S.S. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.

t{Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.

{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

1887.§§Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

1587.
1871.
1871.
1846.

1890.
1883.
1870.
1885.

1879.
1876.
1887.
1880.

1890.
1878.

1857.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1886.
1887.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey,
Cheshire.

*Orawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate-
ford, Edinburgh.

*CRAWFORD AND Batcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LI.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.

*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough,
Leicestershire.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, London, N.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.

§CrEaxK, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 36 Kidbrooke Park-road,
Blackheath, London, S.E.

{Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffieid.

*Crewdson, Rey. George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

*Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S, 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting ITill,
London, W.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

tCrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

t{Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

t{Crombie, John. 129 Union-street, Aberdeen.

{Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen.

{Cromatg, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.

t{Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

t{Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

t Crompton, Dickinson W. 40 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Croox, Ifenry ‘I. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

28

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1865,

1879.
1870.
1894.
1870.
1890.

1887.
186].
1886.
1853.
1870.
1871.
sev
1894.
1894.
1883.
1882.
1890.
1883.
1863.
1885.
1888.

1873.
1883.

1883.
1878.
1883.
1874.
1861,

1861.
1882.

1887.
1877.

1891.
1852.
1892.
1885,

1869.
1883.

1892.
1850,
1892.
1885.
1892.
1884,
1878.

§Crookrs, Witr1aM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-cardens,
London, W.

{Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-cardens, London, W.

tCrosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.

*Crosfield, William, M.P. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Tarwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

{Cross, Rey. John Edward, M.A. Halecote, Grange-over-Sands.

}Crosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.

tCrosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.

{Crossley, Herbert. Ferney Green, Bowness, Ambleside.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

§Croswellor, William Thomas, I’.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sideup, Kent.

§Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock-road, Oxford.

tCrowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry. DBramley Oaks, Croydon.

tCrowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield.

{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen,

tCrummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.

tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.

*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*Culverwell, Edward P. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

{Culverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.

{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

{Cumming, Professor, 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.

*Cunliffe, Idward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.

*Cunlifte, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

*CunnineHam, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.LC.E. 19 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.

{Cunningham, Dayid, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., F.S.8. Harbour-
chambers, Dundee.

*CunnineHam, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.

t{Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

tCunningham, Very Rey. John. St. Bernard’s College, Edinburgh.

{Cunnincuam, J. T., B.A. Scottish Marine Station, Granton,
Edinburgh.

tCunnineuam, Rozerr O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen's College, Belfast.

*CunnincHAM, Rey. Wittiam, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

{ Cunningham, William. 14 Inverleith-gardens, Edinburgh.

t{Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.

§Cunningham-Craiz, E. H. Clare College, Cambridge.

{Curphey, William S._ 15 Bute-mansions, Hill Head, Cardiff.

*Currie, James, jun. Larkfield, Golden Acre, Edinburgh.

tCurrier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.

{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 20

Year of
Election.

1884.
1883.
1881.

1889.
1854,
1883.

1889.
1837.

1863.
1865.
1867.
1894,
1870.

1862.

1876.
1849.
1894.
1861.

1876.
1882.

1881.

1878.
1894.

1882.
1888.
1872.
1880.

1884.

1870.
1885.
1891.
1890.
1875.
1887.
1870.
1887.

{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.

{Cushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depdét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, London, S.W.

{Dagger, John H., F.I.C., F.C.S. Endon, Staffordshire.

{Daglish, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

{Diihne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.

{Dale, Henry F., F.R.MS., F.ZS. Royal London Yacht Club, 2
Savile-row, London, W.

tDale, J. B. South Shields.

{Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.

{Dalgleish, W. Dundee.

§Dalgleish, W. Scott, M.A., LL.D. 25 Maytield-terrace, Edinburgh.

t{Datiincrr, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, London, 8.E.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.

{Danzy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. 1 Westbourne-terrace-road, Lon-
don, W.

{Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.

*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

§Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.

*DARBISHIRE, RoBERT DUKINFIELD, B.A.,F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester,

tDarling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.

{Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L:S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.

*Darwt, GrorcEe Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Darwin, Major Leonard, M.P. 18 Wetherby-place, South MKen-
sington, London, S.W.

{Darwin, W. E., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.

tDaubeny, William M. 1 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

tDavenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.

*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Prince’s-street, Westminster
S.W.

{David, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, Lon-
don, F.C.

t{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

tDavidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.

{Davies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.

{Davies, Arthur. East Brow Cottage, near Whitby.

{Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.

§Davies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.

tDavies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.

*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

1893. *Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A. Midland Baptist College, Notting-

1842.
1887.
1873.

1870

ham.

Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
{Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
*Davis, Alfred. 13 St. Ermin’s-mansions, London, S.W.

. *Davis, A. 8. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds,

30

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864.
1842.
1882.
1883.

1885.
1891.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.

1869.
1869,
1860.
1864,

1836.
1891.
1885.
1884.
1855.

1859.

1892.
1870.
1861.
1887.
1861.
1884.
1866.

1884.

{Davis, Coartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham.

{Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springtield-road, Brighton.

tDavis, Robert Frederick, M.A. Earlsfield, Wandsworth Common,
London, S.W.

*Davis, Rudolf. Almswood, Evesham.

Davis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

tDavis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.

{Davison, Cuartes, M.A. 373 Gillott-road, Birmincham.

*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.

{Davy, Epwonp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.

{Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.

{Daw, R. R. M. SBedford-circus, Exeter.

*Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales.

tDawxins, W. Boyp, M.A., F.RS., F.S A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.

tDawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. East Holt, Alverstoke, Gosport.

{Dawson, Samuel. 258 Universitv-street, Montreal, Canada,

§Dawson, Sir Witiram, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Montreal, Canada.

*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common,
Kent.

t{Day, J.C, F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick-sqyuare, London, 8. W.

{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.

{Deakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.

tDean, Henry. Colne, J.ancashire.

*Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, London, N. W.
tDenvus, Herrica, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 1 Obere Sophienstrasse,
Cassel, Hessen. :

tDeck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

1893.§§Deeley, R. M. 10 Charnwood-street, Derby.

1878.
1879,
1884.
1889.
1873.
1884.
1889.

1874.
1874.
1873.
1868.

1894.
1868.

tDelany, Rev. William. St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

}De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London, N.E.

*De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.

Dendy, Frederick Walter. 3% Mardale-parade, Gateshead.

}Denham, Thomas, J.P. ITIuddersfield.

tDenman, Thomas W. Lamb's-buildings, Temple, London, E.C.

§Denny, Arrep, I.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Firth College,
Sheffield.

Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.

§De Kancr, Cnarues E., F.G.S. 55 Stoke-road, Shelton, Stoke-
upon-Trent.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, London, W.

tDe Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.

{Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.

*Deverell, F. H. 13 Lawn-terrace, Blackheath, London, S.E.

{Drwar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.C.S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-
bridge.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 3)

Election.

1881.
1883.

1884.
1872.

1887.

1884.
1873.
1889.
1863.
1887.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1862.

1877.
1869.
1876.

1884.
1874.

1883.
1888,

1886.
1879.

1885.
1887.
1885.
1890.
1885.
1860.

1892.
1891.
1878.

1893.
1864.
1894.
1875.
1870.
1876.
1889.

t{Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

{Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson's Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.

*Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.

abla he Ee E. S., MA., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, Lon-

on, W.

{De Winton, Colonel Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

tDe Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.

*Dew-Surru, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.

tDickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton. i

TDickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.

{Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff, Preston.

§Dickson, H. N. 125 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.

{Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.

*Ditxe, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartes Wenrworru, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, London, S.W.

{Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 386 Dawson-street, Dublin.

{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.

pDrtotfeld, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London,

{Dix, Jobn William H. Bristol.

*Dixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork. q

{Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.

§Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, London, S,W.

{Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Dixon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemis'ry in
the Owens College, Manchester. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Man-
chester.

{Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.

{Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

tDoak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

{Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.

§Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh.

ae Sse Edward, M.A. 384 Westbourne-park, Lon-

on. W.

tDobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

{Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

*"Dosson, G. E., M.A., M.B.,P.R.S.,F.L.8. Adrigole, Spring Grove,
Isleworth.

§Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.

*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

§Dockar-Drysdale, Mrs. 359 Belsize-park. London, N.W.

*Docwra, George, jun. 108 London-road, Coventry.

*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.

tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College. Cambridge.

TDodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

ay

1893.§§Donald, Charles W. [Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Kdinburgh.

1885.

1882.
1869.

fDonaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

tDonaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.

{Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter,

32

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1877.
1889.
1861.

1887.

1881.
1867.
1863.

1876.
1877.

1884.

1890.
1885.
1884.
1884.

1884.
1876.
1894.

1884,
1857.
1865.

1881.

1887.
1894.

1883.
1892.
1868.
1890.

1892.

1887.
1893.
1889,
1892.
1889,

1856.
1870.
1367.
1852.

1877.
1875.
1890.

1884,
1883,

*Donkin, Bryan, jun., M. Inst.C.E. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.

{Donkin, R. S., M.P. Campville, North Shields.

{Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. South Ken-
sington Museum, London, S.W.

{tDorning, Elias, M. Inst.C. E., F.G.S. 41 Joba Dalton-street, Man-
chester.

{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Care of H. M. ‘Doughty, Ksq., 5 Stone-
court, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

* Douglas, Rev. G. C. M., ’D.D. 18 Roy yal-crescent West, Glasgow.

*Dovetass, Sir JAMES N,, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Stella House, Dul-
wich, London, 8. E.

t Douglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.

{tDove, Arthur. Crown Cotta, York.

{tDove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard's, St. Andrews, N.B.

Dove, P. Edward, F.R.A.S., Sec.R.Hist.Soc. 23 Old-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

tDowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

tDowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

§Dowie. Robert Chambers. 18 Carter-street, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.

tDown1ne, S., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

*Dowson, EK. Theodore, F.R.M.S. ’Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

*Dowson, Joseph Emerson, M.Inst.C.K. 3 Great Queen-street, Lon-
don, S.W.

{Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

§Doyne, R. W., F.R.C.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York,

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

{DREssER, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C.

tDrew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.

{Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
Armagh.

tDreyfus, Dr. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester.

§Druces, G. Crariper, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford.

{Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newenstle-upon-Tyne.

tDu Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.

t¢Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, London, W.

*Ducin, The Richt. Hon. Hryry Jonn Reynotps Moreton, Fark
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W.; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edzee.

tDuckworth, Heury, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.

*Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrstvart ELpHInstoneE GRANT-,
G.C.8.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham.

{Dorrertn AND AVA, "The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.OS.L, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. ” Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Treland.

tDu fey, ‘George F., M. D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

{Duafiin, W. EL Estrange. Waterford.

+Dufton, 8S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{tDugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.

§Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 33

Year of
Election.

1892.
1866,
1891.
1880.
1881.
1893.
1892.

1881.
1865,
1882.

18835.
1876.
1878.

1884.

1859.
1890.
1893.
1885.

1866.
1869.
1860.

1887.
1884.

1885,
1869.

1868.
. {Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alyington, Devon.

1877

1888,
1874,
1871.

1863.
1876,
1883.
1893.

1887.
1884,
1861.
1870.
1887.

1884.

{Dulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, London, S.W.

*Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E. C,

*Dunean, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

tDuncan, William S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, London, We

{Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil. Nawton Grange, York.

*Dunell, George Robert. 9 Grove Park-terrace, Chiswick, London, VV.

{Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Mor ton, Rose, & Co., B. tholo.
mew House, London, E.C.

{ Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’ s-court, York.

{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

fDunn, J. T., M.Se., F.C.S. High School for Boys, Gateshead-one
Tyne.

{Dunn, Mrs. Denton Grange, Gateshead-on-Tyne.

{Dunnachie, James. 2 West "Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D. , Professor of Logic in the Catholie Uni»
versity of Ireland. 4 ‘Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.

§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,
U.S.A.

tDuns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

t Dunsford, Follett. Rougemont Villa, Headingley, Leeds.

*Dunstan, M. J. R. 9 Hamilton- -drive, } Nottingham.

*Dunst: uy, WyNDTAM R., M.A., F.R.S., See.C. S. , Lecturer on Chemis-
try at St. Thomas’ 3 Hospital and Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C. :

{ Duprey, Perry. Woodberry Down, Stoke Newington, London, NV.

{D’ Urban, W.S. M., F.L.S. Moorlands, Exmouth, Devon.

{DurHan, ARrHuR Epwarp, F.R.C.S.. F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, ‘Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

{Dyason, John Sanford, F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. Boscobel-yardens,
London, N.W.

tDyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

*Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.

tHade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

{KHarson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dubliz.

*HKaston, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 16 “Great College-street,
Westminster, S.W.

{Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.

}Easton, John. Durie House, Abereromby-street, Helensburgh, N.DB.

Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.

§Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland- -alley, Kenchurch-street, London,
E.C.

*Kecles, Mrs. 8. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.

t Eckersley, W.T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.

tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.

*Kddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 6G Park-square, Leeds.

*Kddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

tEde, Francis J. Silchar, Cachar, India.

Iden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.

*Kdgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A » FCS. The College Ilouse,

Leamington,

1894. c

34

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.

1870.
1883.
1888.
1884,
1883.
1867.
1855.
1884,
1887.
1876.
1890.
1885.

1868.

1885.
1888.

1891,

1864,
1883.

1879.
1886.

1877.
1875.
1883.
1880.
1891.
1884.
1869.

1887,
1862.

1883.
1887.
1870.

1863.
1891.
1891.
1884,
1863,
1858.
1890.

1894.
1866.
1884.

§EpcrwortH, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College,
Oxford. 3

*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C.

{Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Honiton, Devon.

*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, London, S.W.

*Edmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W.

{Edmunds, Lewis, D.Se.,LL.B. 1 Garden-court, Temple, London, E.C.

*Edward, Allan. Farineton Hall, Dundee.

*Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.

{Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.

tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glascow.

§Elford, Perey. St. John’s College, Oxford.

*Elear, Francis, LL.D., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 113 Cannon-street.
London, F.C.

fElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston,
Bedford.

tEllingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.

{Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S.W. :

tElliott, A. C., D.Sc. Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 3

tEliott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A.

*Ertiotr, Epwin Battery, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Wavynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford,
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

Eiliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham.

tElliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire.

tElliott, Thomas Henry, F.S.S, Board of Agriculture, 4 Whitehall-
place, London, 8.W.

{Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.

*Fllis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.

Ellis John. 17 Church-street, Southport.

*Eiiis, Joun Henry. Woodland House, Plymouth.

§Ellis, Miss M. A. 2 Southwick-place, London, W.

tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada.

}Enits, Wrttram Horron. Hartwell ILouse, Exeter.

Ellman, Rey. K. P. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.

tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.

{Elphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. ‘

tElwes, George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.

§Etwortay, Freperick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.

*Exy, The Right Rev. Lord AtwynE Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambrideeshire.

tEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tEmerton, Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.

{Emerton, Mrs. Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.

tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

tEmpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.

t{Emsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Tead-
ingley, Leeds.

§Emtage, W. T. A. University College, Nottingham.

{Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

{England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 35

Year of
Blection.

1853.

1869.
1883.
1869.
1844.

1894.
1864.
1862.

1878.
1887.
1887.
1869.
1888.
1883.
1891.
1881.

1889.
1887.

1870.

1865.
1891.
1889.

1884.

1883.
1883.
1861.

1881.
1885.
1875.
1865.
1891.
1886.
1871.
1868,

1863.
1886.
1885.
1881.

1874.
1876.

tEnglish, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Compzz-y, Lowgate,

ull.

tEnglish, J. T. Wayfield House, Stratford-on-Avon.

tEntwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westcly ffe-road, Southport.

*Enys, John Davis. Enys, Pearyn, Cornwall.

tEricussy, Joun Eric, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., President of, and
Emeritus Professor of Surgery in, University College, London.
6 Cavendish-place, London, W.

§Erskine-Murray, James R. 40 Montgomerie-drive, Glasgow.

*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.

*Esson, Wrrr1aM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Merton College,
and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

{Estcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.

*Estcourt, Charles. Vyrniew House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

*Esteourt, P. A., F.C.S.,F.LC. Analytical and Technological Insti-
tute, 35 Greaves-street, Oldham.

{Erumrincr, Rosert, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square,
London, 8.W.

tEtheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, London, 8. W.

§Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras.

tEvan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,

tEvans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.

*Evans, A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Hillside, New Mills, near Stockport,
Derbyshire.

*Evans, ARTHUR JoHN, F.S.A. 33 Holywell, Oxford.

“Evans, Rey. Cuartus, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, London, W.

tEvans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.

{Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.

tEvans, Horace L. 6 Albert-buildings, Weston-super-Mare.

*Evans, James C. Morannedd, Eastbourne-road West, Birkdale Park,
Southport.

*Eyans, Mrs. JamesC. Morannedd, Eastbourne-road West, Birkdale
Park, Southport.

*Evans, Sir Joun, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.L.S., F.G.S. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

tEvans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.

*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth,

{Evans, Sparke. 38 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, William Llewellin. Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff.

tEve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.

tEve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.

*Evernrr, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Derryvolgie,
Belfast.

*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.

tEveritt, William E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.

{Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh.

tEwart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.

*Ewine, JAmEs Atrrep, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Mechanism and Applied Mathematics in the University of
Cambridge.

c 2

36

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.

1871.
1884.
1832.

tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.

*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.

*l’yerman, John. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

tEyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

. {Faser, Epmunp Beckett. Straylea, Harrogate.

. *Farripy, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
3, [Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

. {Falkner, F. 1. Lyncombe, Bath.

x

3. Fallon, Rev. W.S 9 St. James's-square, Cheltenham.
. §Farapay, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.8. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-

street, Manchester.

. {Fards,G. Penarth.
. *Farmer, J. Bretland, M.A., F.L.S. Royal College of Science,

London, S.W.

. }Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes.

. *Farnworth, Eruest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

. {Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

3. [Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

. {Farquhar, Admiral. Carlogie, Aberdeen.

. {Farquharson, Colonel J., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton,
9, tFarquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

. {Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

. "FARRAR, Ven. FRrepERIC Wittiram, M.A., D.D., F.R.S.,- Arch-

deacon of Westminster, 17 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, 8. W.

. {Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.

9. *Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

3. {Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

. §Faulkner, John, 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.
. *Faweett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

. §Kelkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 8 Alva-street, Edinburgh.

Fell, John B, Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.

. *FEtLows, Frank P., K.S.J.J., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hamp-

stead, London, N. W.

. {Fenton,S.Greame. Keswick, near Belfast.

. tFenwick, E. H. 29 Harley-street, London, W.

. {Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

. {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

3. {Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

. *Fereuson, Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor

of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

. {Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace,

Edinburgh.

. *Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee.

. tFernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham.

3. *Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

. {Ferrers, Rey. Norman Macrgop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College

Lodge. Cambridge.

3. {Ferrrer, Davip, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-

Pathology in King’s College, London. $84 Cavendish-square,
London, W.

. {Ferrier, Robert M., B.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
Election.

1887.
1875.
1868.
1886.

1869.

1882.
1885.

1878.
1892.
1884.
1887.
1881.

1891.
1884.
1860.

1873.
1875.
1858.
1887.

1885.
1871.

1871.

1883.
1868.
1878.
1878.

1885.
1894.

1857.
1888,
1865.
1881.

1876.
1876.
1867.

1870.
1890.

{Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.

{Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

tField, Edward. Norwich.

tField, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Fretp, Rogers, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, 8. W.

{Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.

*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.

Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.

*Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{Findlay, J. R., B.A. 3 Rothesay-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

{Finnemore, Rev. J., M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S. 12 College-road, Brighton.

{Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.

Firth, Thomas. Northwich.

{Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.

*Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.

{FisHer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.

{Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

tFishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 14 Dean-road, Willesden Green, London,
N.W

tFison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.

*Fison, Frepprick W., M.A., F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.

tFircn, J. G., M.A., LL.D. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.

{Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.

{Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.

Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

§FrrzGeratp, Grorce Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, Dublin.

*Fitzgerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 69 Botanic-avenue, Belfast.

§Fitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.E. Blackwall Tunnel Office, East
Greenwich, London, 8.E.

Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dubiix.

*Frrzpatrick, Rev. Taomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{ Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Pauls, Birmingham.

tFleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael's Vicarage, Ebury-
square, London, S.W.

{Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.

tFleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.

§Fiercuer, Atrrep E., F.C.S. 13 Christchurch-street, Crouch End,
London, N.

{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

{Fletcher, B. Morley. 12 Trevor-square, London, S. W.

1892.§§Fletcher, George. 59 Wilson-street, Derby.

1869.
1888.

1862.

{FiercuEr, Lavineron E., M.Inst.C.E. Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Frprcuer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.8., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
London, 8.W. 86 Woodville-road, Ealing, London, W.

§Frower, Sir Wirtram Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.RS.,
F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Director of the Natural History De-
partments, British Museum, South Kensington, London. 26
Stanhope-gardens, London, 8.W.

38

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1889.
1877.
1890.
1887.
1885,
1891.
1879.
1889,

1873.
1883,

1885.
1890.
1875.
1883.
1894,
1887.
1867.
1883,

1884.
1877.
1882.§
1870.
1875.
1865.
1865.

1885.
1857.

1877.
1859,

1863.

1866.
1868.
1888.
1892.

1876.
1882.

1884,
1883.
18838,

1883.
1847.
1888.
1886.

{Flowe:, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, London, 8.W.
*Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Helwan, Egypt.
*Flux, .A. W., M. A. Owens College, Manchester.

tFoale, William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

{Foale, Mrs. Williata! 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

§Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

{Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.

{Foote, R. Bruce. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill,
London, E.C.

*Forbes, GrorGe, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 Great
Ceorge-street, London, 8S. W.

{ForsxEs, Henry O,, F.ZS., Director of Museums for the Corpora-
tion of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

{Forbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.

{Forp, J. Rawiryson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.

*ForpuaM, H. Grores, F'.G.S. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

§Formby, R. Kirklake Bank, Formby, near Liverpool.

§Forrest, Frederick. Castledown, Castle Hill, Hastings.

{Forrest, Sir Joun, K.C.M.G.,F.R.G.S. Perth, Western Australia.

tForster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

{Forsytu, A. R., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

tFort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.

{Fortescuz, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

§Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Scuthend.

{Forwood, Sir William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.

{Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8.W.

tFoster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

*FostEr, Crument Lr Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor
of Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llan-
dudno.

{Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.

*Foster, Grorcr Oarry, B.A., F.RS., F.C.S8., Professor of
Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, London, N.W.

§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Se ad

* Foster, Micwatt, M.A., M.D., Pi D., Sec.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S.,
Professor of Physiology i in the Univ arity of Cambridge. Shel-
ford, Cambridge.

tFoster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.

{Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

§Fowler, Gilbert J. Dalton Hall, Manchester.

§Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 5 Imperial- -buildings, Ludgate-circus,
London, E:.C.

*Fowler, John. 16 Kerrsland-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Fowter, Sir Jomy, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, 8. W.

{Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth.

*Fox, Charles. The Cedars, Warlingham, Surrey.

§Fox, Sir Charles Douglas, M.Inst.C.. 28 Victoria-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.

{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Falmouth.

*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.

{Fox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.

{Foxwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 39

Year of
Election. .

1881.

1877.
1884.
1869.
1886.

1887.
1887.

1892.
1882.
1883.
1887.
, 1875.
1875.
1884.
1872.
1859.
1869.

1884.
1891.

1881

1887.
1836.
1857.

1863
1876
1850

*Foxwett, Herbert S., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge

. {Frain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-

‘Tyne.

. {Francis, James B. Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Francis, Witn1AM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., P.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, .C.; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.

. {Franxranp, Epwanp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.RS., FCS.

The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.

. *FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry

in Mason College, Birmingham.

. {Franklin, Rev. Canon. Clayton-street West, Neweastle-upon-Tyne,
. §Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 9 Pembridge-gardens, London, W.

. {Fraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.

. {Fraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.8. 232 Union-street, Aberdeen.

. t Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.

. *Fraser, Joun, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

. {Frasnr, Tomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia,

Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

. *Frazer, Daniel. 127 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
. *Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042

Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

. *Fream, W., LL.D., BSc, F.LS., F.G.8., F.S.8. The Vinery,

Downton, Salisbury.
§Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.
*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. Royal Mint, London, E.
{Frere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.
{Freshtield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill,
London, W.
Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.
{Froehlich, The Chevalier. (Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.
*Frost, Edmund. The Elms, Lasswade, Midlothian.
§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
+Frost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. St. James’s-chambers, Duke-street, London, 5. W.
{Fry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 13 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.
§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham,
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.
{Furter, Freperick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.
{Furter, Guorcr, M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
§Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.
{Fulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Gabb, Rev. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.
{Gaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
{Gacxs, ALpHonsE, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.
{Gairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
{Garrpner, W. T., M.D., F.R.S., LL.D., Professor of Medicine in the
University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.

40 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Yenr of
Election.

1876. {Gale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giasrow.

1863. {Gale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.

1885. *Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

1888. {Gallenga, Mrs. Anna. The Falls, Chepstow.

1888. {Gallenga, Mrs. A.A. R. The Falls, Chepstow.

1861. {Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

1861. {Galloway, John, Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

1889. tGalloway, Walter. Eighton Banks, Gateshead.

1875. {GatLoway, W. Cardiff.

1887. *Galloway, W. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

1860. *Gatron, Sir Doveras, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Prestppyt-ELecr and GENERAL SECRETARY.)
12 Chester-street, Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W.

1860. *Gatron, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., F.RS., F.G.8., F.RGS. 42
Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.

1869. {Gatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.8. New University Club, St-
James’s-street, London, 8S. W.

1870. §Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D., C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1889.§§Gamble, David, jun. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1870. {Gamble, J. C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1888, *Gamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.8. Dehra Dun, North-West Provinces,
India.

1877. {Gamble, William. St. Helens. Lancashire.

1868. {Gamerr, ARTHUR, M.D... F.R.S. Davos, Switzerland.

1889. {Gamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1885. {Gant, Major John Castle. St. Leonards.

1887, {GarpineR, Water, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Clare College, Cambridge.

1882. *Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, The Gofis, Eastbourne.

1894, §Gardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.

1882. {GarpNER, JoHN Srarkin, F.G.S. 29 Albert Embankment, Lon-
don, S.E.

1884, {Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1888. §Garnett, Frederick Brooksbank, C.B., F.S.S. 4 Argyll-road, Kensing-
ton, London, W.

1887. *Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.

1882. {Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-gardens,
London, 8. W.

1878. ¢{Garnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.

1885. §Garson, J. G.,M.D. 82 Dulke-street, St. James's, London, S.W.

1894. §Garstang, Walter, M.A., F.Z.S. Lincoln College, Oxford.

1874. *Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

1882. tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

1892. §Garvie, James. Devanha House, Bowes-road, New Southgate,
London, N.

1889, {Garwood, E. J. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1870, {Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

3870. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.

1862. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Felbridge Place,
Kast Grinstead, Sussex.

1890. {Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.

1875. {Gavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

1875. [Gaye, Henry S., M.D. Newton Abbot, Devon.

1892. {Geddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

1871. {Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 41

Year of
Election.

1883. tGeddes, John. 33 Portland-street, Southport.

1885. Geddes, Professor Patrick. 6 James-court, Edinburgh.

1887. {Gee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

1867. {Guixin, Sir Arcnibatp, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,

; Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom, Jermyn-street. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park,
London, N. W.

1871. {Gxrxts, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. 381 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh.

1882. *GrnzsE, R. W., M.A.. Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwith.

1875. *George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.

1885. {Gerard, Robert. Blair- Dev enick, Cults, Aberdeen.

1884. *Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. Worcester College, Oxford.

1884. {Gibb, Charles. Abbctsford, Quebec, Canada.

1865. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,

1874, {Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.

1892.§§ Gibson, Francis Maitland. 1 Fingal-place, Edinburgh.

1876. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,
Edinburgh.

1892. {Gibson, James. 10 North Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.

1884. {Gibson, Rev. James J. 185 Spadina-ayenue, Toronto, Canada.

1885. 1Gibson, John, Ph.D. 15 Hartington-gardens, Edinburgh.

1889. *Gibson, T. G. 2 Kslington-read, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1893.§§Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

1887. {Girrren, Ropert, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.8.8. 44 Pembroke-road,
London, 8S. W.

1888. *Gifford, H. J. Lyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.

1884, {Gilbert, E. EH. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.

1842. GuiLBERT, Str JosErpH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Pro-
fessor of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford. Hayr-
penden, near St. Albans.

1883. §Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.

1857. tGilbert, J. T., M.R.IA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.

1884. *Gilbert, Philip H. 1875 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

Gilderdale, Rey. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.

1882. {Giles, Alfred, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. 26 Great George-street, London,

S.W.

1878. {Giles, Oliver. Crescent Villas, Bromserove.
Giles, Rey. William. Netherleich House, near Chester.
1871. ee ee LL.D., F.R.S., FRAS. Royal Observatory, Cape
own
1888. §Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.
1868. tGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’ s-le-Grand, E.C.)
1887. {Gillett, Charles Edwin. Wood Green, , Benbury, Oxford.
1888, pea oe E. T. 259 West Seventy-fourth-street, New York,
S.A.
1884. {Gillman, Henry. 150 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
1892, §Gilmour, Matthew <A. B. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.
1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
1893. *Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham, London,

42
Year of

Election

1867.

1884.
1874.
1886.
1883.
1885.
1850.

1849,

1890.
1861,

1885.
1881.
1881.
1859,
1867.

1874.

1870.
1889.
1872.
1886.
1887.
1878.
1880.

1885,
1852.
1879.

1876.
1881.
1886,

1873.
1890.

1884.

1852.
1878.
1884.
1886.
1885.
1884.

1584.
1885.

- 1885,

LIST OF MEMBERS,

tGrnspure, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.

tGirdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.

*Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle Station, Assa, N.-W.T., Canada.

*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.

*Gladstone, Miss E, A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.

*Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove,
Brighton.

*GLADSTONE, JoHN Hatt, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, London, W.

*Gladstone, Miss Margaret E. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.

*GiaisHEer, James, F.R.S., FR.A.S. The Shola, Ieathfield-road,
South Croydon. ’

. *GuatsHER, J. W.L.,M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,

Cambridge.

tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.

*GiazEBRoox, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. 7 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 84 Kensington Park-road, London, W.

{Glennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A, Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey.

{Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.

Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W.
{Glover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

{Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Goddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tGopparp, Ricwarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{ Godlee, Arthur, 3 Greenfield-crescent, Edybaston, Birmingham.

tGodlee, Francis. 51 Portland-street, Manchester.

*Godlee, J. Lister. 8 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

t{Gopman, F. Du Canz, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.

{Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

§Gopwin-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford.

tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

{GotpscuMipT, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.

{Gotpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.C.S.1., F.R.G.S.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.

{Goldthorp, Miss R. F. C. Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Gonner, E. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.

{Good, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal,
Canada.

tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Iveland.

{Goodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

{Goodbody, Robert. J'airy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

} Goodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Goopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

“Goodridge, Richard E. W. 1080 The Rookery Building, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.

{Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

tGoouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Gordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton. 50 Queen’s
Gate-gardens, London, 8. W.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 43

of

Election.

1885. {Gordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.5. Chetwynd Rectory,

Newport, Salop.

1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-

1884.

1857.
1885,
1887.
1865.
1875.

1873.
1849.

1857

1881.
1894.
1888.
1873.
1867.
1876.
1883.
1875.

1886,
1867.

minster, 8. W.

*Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. 8 St. Mary-street, St.
Andrews, N.B.

tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.

{Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.

{Gordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, London, S.W.

{Gorx, Groner, LL.D., F.R.S. 67 Broad-street, Birmingham.

*Gorcu, Francrs, B.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, Liverpool. 11 Prince’s Park-terrace, Liver-
pool.

{Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

t{Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

. {Gough, The Right Hon. George 8., Viscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Lough Cutra Castle. Gort, Co. Galway, and St. Helen’s,
Booterstown, Co. Dublin.

tGough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York.

§Gould, G. M. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tGouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey.

t@ourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St, Andrew's-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.

t{Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.

{Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D, Madeira.

*({RAHAM, Sir Crrit C., Bart., C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Cheyne-
walk, Chelsea, London, S.W.

1875. {Graname, James, 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1892. §Grange, C. Ernest. Royal Grammar School, Lancaster.
1893.§$Granger, F. S., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street, Nottingham.

1892.§§Grant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

1864

1881
1890

1864

1865.
1876,
1881.
18958.

1892.
1892.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1873.

1883.

. ¢{Grantham, Richard F. Northumberland-chambers, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C.
. {Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
. ¢Gray, Professor Andrew, M.A., F.R.S.E, University College,
Bangor.

. "Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Rotherham.

{Gray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston.

tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

{Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.

*Gray, James H., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

§Gray, John, 351 Clarewood-terrace, Brixton, London, 8.W.

§Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Cleveland Villa, Shurdington Road,
Cheltenham.

tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

{Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

{Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel Witttam. Farley Hall, near Reading.

{Gray, William Lewis. 86 Gutter-lane, London, E.C,

44

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.
1886.

1883.
1866.
1893.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1889.

1888.

1887.
1887.
1858.
1882.

1881,
1884,

1884.
1884,
1887.
1863,
1889.
1890.
1877.
1849,
1887.

1887.
1861.

1860.
1868.
1894.

1885.
1881.
1859,
1870.

1878.

1894,
1894.
1859.

1870.
1884.
1884.
1891.

{tGray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.

alga Rey. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Bir-

mingham,

{Greathead, J. H., M.Inst.C.E.- 15 Victoria-street, London, S.W.

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreaves, William, 33 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.

Green, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Oxford. 137 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

§Green, JoserH R., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 17 Bloomsbury~
square, London, W.C.

tGreene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, London, 8.W.

tGreenhalgh, Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London, F.C.

*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.

tGreEnHitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
pee Artillery College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, London,

V.C, ;

§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

bare he ame F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London,
Ne

{Greenshields, E. RB. Montreal, Canada,

tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

{Greenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby.

tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

tGreenwell, T. G. Woodside, Sunderland.

{tGreenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.

tGreenwood, Holmes, 78 King-street, Accrington.

{Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.

§Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Larcashire.

bosep ies Puts, F.G.S8., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-

ord, Herts.

tGreeor, Rey. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-
shire.

tGregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S.W.

§Gregory, J. Walter, D.Sc. British Museum, Cromwell-road,
London, S.W.

tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.

tGregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, S.O., Yorkshire.

tGrierson, THomas Boytz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

tGrieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin-
cent-street, Glasgow.

{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

Gritin, S. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, London, N.

*Griffith, C.L. TI. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

*Griffith, Miss F. H. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

*GRIFFITH, Grorer, M.A. (AssIstANr GENERAL SECRETARY.)
College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

tGriffith, Rey. Henry, F.G.S. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex.

{Grirrirus, E. H. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

{Griffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

{Griffiths, P, Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1847.

1870.
1888.

1884.
1881.
1894.
1894.
1864.

1892

1891.
1863.
1869.

1886,
1891.
1887.

1842.
1885.
1891.
1877.

1866.

1894,
1880.
1876.
1883.
1857.
1876.

1884.
1887.
1865.
1884.
1881.
1842,
1888.
1892.
1870.
1879.
1887.
1879.
1883.

1881.
1854.
1887,

{Grifiths, Thomas. The Elms, arborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D, 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Grimshaw, James Walter. Australian Club, Sydney, New South
Wales.

tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

tGripper, Edward. Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

§Groom, P., M.A., F.L.S, 38 Regent-street, Oxford.

§Groom, T. T. The Poplars, Hereford.

t{Groom-Naprer, CHarLEs Orrtry. 18 Elein-road, St. Peter's
Park, London, N.W.

.§§Grove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.

Grove, The Right Hon. Sir Wrttr1am Roserr, Knt., M.A., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S. 115 Harley-street, London, W.

{Groyer, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.

*Groves, THomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.

tGruss, Sir Howarp, F.RS., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.

tGrundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.

tGrylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.

tGuictemard, F. H. H. Eltham, Kent.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-creen, Dublin.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.

{Gunn, John. 4 Parkside-terrace, Edinburgh.

tGunn, John. Llandaff House, Llandaff:

tGunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh.

{Gintoer, Arpert OC. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, South Kensineton, London, S.W.

§Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, Hich-street, Swansea.

{Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

{t Guthrie, Malcolm. 2 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.

tGwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.

}Gwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.

1Hackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester.

tHackney, Wiliam. 9 Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London, 8. W.

tHadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

*Happon, ALFRED Cort, B.A., F.Z.S. Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.

Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.

*Hadfield, R. A. Hecla Works, Sheffield.

§Haigh, E., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

tHaigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.

tHaxs, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants,

tHale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

*Hall, Miss Emily. Burlington House, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.

{Hall, Paar Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London,
W

*HALL, Huen Ferraz, F.G.S. Staverton House, Woodstock-road,
Oxford.
{Uall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.

4G

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1872.

1885.
1884.

1866,
1891.
1891.
1873.
1888.

1886.
1858.

1883.
1885.
1869.

1888.

1851.
1881.
1892.
1878.

1875.
1861.

1890.
1882.
1884.
1894.
1859.
1886.
1859,

1890.

1886.
1892.
1865.
1869.
1877.
1869.
1886.
1894.
1894,
1894.
1858.

1858.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1881.
1890.
1876.

*Hall, Captain Marshall, F.G.S. Easterton Lodge, Parkstone R.S.0.,
Dorset.

§Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N.

tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada.

*HALL, TownsHEND M.,I.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple.

*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire.

§Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

*Hatrerr, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath,

§Hattrpurton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
Kine’s College, London. 9 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-street,
London, W.C.

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
t{Hambleton, G. W. 23 Bryanston-street, Portman-square, London, W.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S, Holmeside, Hazelwood,

Derby.

*Hamel, bet D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

tHamilton, David James. 1a Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

tHamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

*Hamuonn, AntHony, J.P. 10 Royal-crescent, Bath.

{Hammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.

*Hammond, Robert. 18 Dickerson-road, Crouch End, London, N.

tHanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

tHance, Edward M., LL.B. 15 Pelham-grove, Sefton Park, Liver+

ool.
‘Hace C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, 8.W.
tHancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon-
don, E.C.

{Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tHankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.

§Hannaford, E. P. 2575 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, London, W.

t Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.

§Hansford, Charles. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester.

*Harcourr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F-.C.S.
(GENERAL SECRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford.

*ITarcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate,

London, S.W.

*Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. Beechenden, Hampstead, London,N.W.

*Harden, Arthur, F.C.S. Ashville, Upper Chorlton-road, Manchester.

tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.

tHarding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.

tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

tHarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.

{ Hardman, John B. St. John’s, Hunter’s-lane, Birmingham,

§Hardman, 8. C. 225 Lord-street, Southport.

§Hare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.

§Hare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, Kast Twickenham, Middlesex.

*Harp, CHartes Jon, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, London, W.

{Harerave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

tHargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.

tHargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

§Harker, ALFRED, M.A.,F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tHarker, Allen, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

Year of
Election.

1887.
1878.

1871.
1875.

1877.
1885.
1862.

1885.
1862.

1868.
1881.
1882.
1872.
1884.

1872.
1888.
1842,
1889.

1884.

1888.
1860.
1864.
1874.
1858.

1892.
1889.
1870.

1855.
1892.
1886.

1885.
1876.
1875.
1893.

1871.
- 1890.

1886.
1887.

tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Harkness, H. W.. M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.

J pageay William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C

We

*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex.

*Harley, Miss Clara. The Quintic, Savile Park, Halifax, Yorkshire.

vii Bane M.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, Lon-

on, W.

*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.

*Hartey, Rev. Roper, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S. The Quintic,
Savile Park, Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

*Harmer, Sipney F., M.A., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge.

tHarper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton. ‘

tHarpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.

tHarrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. Wallbrac-place,
Montreal, Canada. x

*Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.

tHarris, C. T. 4 Wilburn Priory, London, N.W.

*Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Moray-place, Dunedin, New Zealand.

§Harris, H. Granam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W. ;

{Harris, Miss Katherine E, 73 Albert Hall-mansions, Kensineton-
gore, London, S.W. 5

tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens. London. S.W.

tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.

t{Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park,
London, W. é

Harrison, Jonn. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.

§Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

tHarrison, Reernarp, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, London, W.

tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.

tHarrison, Rey. 8. N. Ramsay, Isle of Man.

tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham, ‘

{Hart, Charles J. 10 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*Hartland, HE. Sidney, F.S.A. Barnwood Court, Gloucester,

Hartley, James. Sunderland.

tHartrey, Watter Nogrt, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.0.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Hartnell, Wilson. 8 Blenheim-terrace, Leeds.

*Hartoe, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.

§Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

1885.§§ Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

1862.
1884.
1882.
1893.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors.

Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada
tHaslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester,
§Haslam, Lewis. Ravenswood, near Bolton, Lancashire,

48 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1875. *ITasrines, G. W. 23 Kensington-square, London, W.
1889. tHatch, Dr. F. H., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
1893.§§Hatton, John L. 8. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, London, E.
1857. tHavueuton, Rey. Samuet, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LU.D., F-.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.
1887: *Hawkins, William. 11 Fountain-street, Manchester.
1872. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
1864. *HawksHAw, Jonn Crarke, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Down-
street, W., and 33 Great George-street, London, 8. W.
1884. *Haworth, Abraham. Hilston House, Altrincham.
1889.§§Haworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.
1887. *Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1887. t{Haworth, S. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.
1886. t{Haworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.
1890. {Hawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.
1877. tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.
1861. *Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
1885. *Haycraft, dobn Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. University College,
Cardiff.
1891. {Hayde, Rey. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff.
1894, §Hayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford,
1873. *Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
1858. *Haywarp, Ropert Batpwin, M.A., F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin,
Isle of Wight.
1888. { Hazard, Rowland R. Little Mulgrave House, Hurlingham.
1851. §Heap, Jeremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 47 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.
1883. {Headley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
1883. {Headley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W.
1883. §Headley, Rey. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W.
1871. §Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere.
1883. *Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.
1861. *Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.
1883. {Heape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.
1883. {Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
1882. *Heape, Walter, M.A. St. Mary’s, Trumpington, Cambridge.
1877. {Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
1877. {Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
1883. {Heath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1866. {Heath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
1884, {Heath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburch.
1883. tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
1886. tHeaton, Miss Ellen. Woodhouse-square, Leeds.
1865. {Heaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham.
1892, *Heaton, Witi1am H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University
College, Nottingham.
1889, *Ieaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
1884, §Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.
1833. {HuavisrpE, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. ,The Close, Norwich.
1888. *Heawood, Edward, B.A., F.G.S. Skelwith Bridge, Ambleside.
1888. *Heawood, Percy Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elyet, Durham.

Yeur of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 49

Hlection.

1855.

1867.
1882.
1887.

1863.
1881.

1887.
1867.
1873.
1883.
1891.

tHecror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D. F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington,
New Zealand.

tHeddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B.

{ Hedger, Philip. Cumberland-place, Southampton.

*Hepees, Kintineworts, M.Inst.C.E, ~ 92 Victoria-street, London,
S.W.

t Hedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Here-Suaw, H. 8., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 20 Waverley-road, Liverpcol.
§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Sussex Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

*Henderson, A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, S.FE.

tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, 8.1.

*Henverson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A.,F.C.8., F.LC., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow.

1892.§§Henderson, John, 3 St, Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.
1880. *Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hallmansions,

1885.
1892.
1856,

1873.

1884.
1892.
1855.
1855.
1890.
1890.
1892.
1887.

1893.

1891,
1871.

1874.
1890.
1884.
1894.
18933.
1833.

1381.

London, 8. W.

tHenderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.

§Henigan, Richard. Alma-road, The Avenue, Southampton.

tHennessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 81 Marlborough-road,
Dublin.

*Henricr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 34
Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.

Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
tHenshaw, George H. 43 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
tHepburn, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.
*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Dartford, Kent.
tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
tHepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.
tHepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.

*Herbertson, Andrew J. University Hall, Edinburgh.

*Herpman, WitiiaM A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S , Professor of
Natural History in University College, Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs. 32 Bentley-road, Liverpool.

tHern, S. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

*HERSCHEL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.

§Herscurr, Colonel Joun, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks,

{Hewetson, H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 11 Hanover-square,,

Leeds.

§Hewett, George Edwin. Cotswold House, St. John’s Wood Park,.
London, N.W.

§Hewins, W. A.S, M.A., F.S.S. 26 Leckford-road, Oxford.

§Hewitt, Thomas P. Eceleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.
{Hewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avente,
The Plains, Belfast.
tHey, Rey. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York.
D

1894.

50

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1882.
1883.

1866.
1879.
1861.
1886.
1833.

1887.

1888.
1881.
1878.

1877.

1886.
1834.
1887.

1864.
1875.

1871.
1891.

1894.
1885.
1872.

1881.

1887.
1884.

1886.

1881.
1885.
1888.
1876.
1885.

1886.
1865.
1887.
1858.

1870.
1883.
1888.
1886.

tHeycock, Charles T., B.A. King’s College, Cambridye.

tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Beacons-
field-villas, Dynham-road, West Hampstead, London, N.W.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire,

tHeywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.

*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.

§Heywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.\S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

*Herwoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.8. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.

tHeywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.

tHichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The College, Cheltenham.

§Hicx, Taomas, B.A.,B.Se. Brighton Grove, Rusholme, Manchester.

tHroxs, Henry, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon,
Middlesex, N.W.

§Hicrs, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S., Principal of Firth
College, Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield.

tHicls, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Hindcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

{ Hickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Hrcuson, Sypney J., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology in Owens
College, Manchester.

*Hrern, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.

tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.

{Hicerns, Crementz, B.A., F.C.S. 5 Trebovir-road, Earl's Court,
London, S.W.

§Higgs, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. 164 Brixton Hill, London, S.W.

Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.

§ Hill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. The Vicarage, Downton, Wilts.

*Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.

§Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathly, East Grinstead.

*Hill, Rey. Canon Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.

pa se Epwin, M.A., F.G.5. The Rectory, Cockfield, R.S.O.,

uffolk.

{Hill,G. H. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.

tHill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.

tH, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, London.

{Hill, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.

*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

tHill, William. Hitchin, Herts.

THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

*Hin1Hovse, WirrtaM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College, Birmingham. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford.

THills, F. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E,

tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

tHancks, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,
Clitton, Bristol.

tHuvpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S._ Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey.

*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.

tHingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart., M.P. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley,
Worcestershire.

LIST OF MEMBEKLS. 51

Year of
Election.

1881. {Hiugston, J.T. Clifton, York.
1884. {Hinestoy, Witiiam Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 87 Union-ayenue,
Montreal, Canada.
1884, {Hirschfilder,C. A. Toronto, Canada.
1890. *Hirst, James Andus. Adel ower, Leeds.
1858. {Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
1884. {Hoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
1881. §Hobbes, Robert George. Livingstone House, 374 Wandsworth-road
London, S.W.
1879. {Hobkirk, Charles P.,F.L.S. West Riding Union Bank, Dewsbury.
1887. *Hobson, Bernard, BSc. Tapton Elms, Shetlield.
1883. tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington,
London, W.
1883. tHobson, Rev. HE. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
1877. {Hockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
18835, tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
1877. {Hodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.
1876. {Hodges, Frederick W. Queen’ s College, Belfast.
1852. {Hodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
1863. *Hopexry,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1887. *Hodekinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
1880. §Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., P.R.S.1., Professor of Chemistry
and Physics in the Royal ’ Artillery "College; Woolwich. 8
Park-villas, Blackheath, London, S.©.
1873. *Hodgson, George. Thornton- road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1884, {Hodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.
1863. tHodegson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
1863. {Hodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, "Newcastle- -upon-Tyze.
1894. §Hoge, A. F. 134 Bivchatoarrcatt South Norwood, London, S8.E.
1894. §Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Oheapside, London, E.C.
1854. *Holeroft, George. Tyddyngwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly, North
Wales.
1883. t{Holden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.
1873. *Holden, Sir Isaac, Bart., M.P. Oakworth House, near Keighley,
Yorkshire,
1883. t{Holden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
1883. {Holden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.
1884. {Holden, Mrs. Mary FE. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada,
1887. *Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.
1891. §Holgate, Benjamin, F.G.S. Cardigan Villa, Grove-lane, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
1879. {Holland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Aneriey,
London, 8.E.
eee Philip H. 8 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N.W.
1889. §§Hollinder, Bernard. Wing's College, Strand, London, W.C.
1886. {Holliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
1865. tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
1883. {Hollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
1883. *Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W,
1866. *Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.
1892, tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby. Lerizie, Scotland.
1889. t Holmes, Ralph, B.A, Hulme Grammar School, Manchester,
D2

52

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1882.

189).

1875.
1847.

1892.

. *Iooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, 8. W.
. *Hlooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. The Vicarage, Blackheath Hill,

*TIormes, Thomas Vincent, F.G.S. 28 Croom's-hill, Greenwich, 8.E.
~Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.6. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

{Ilooxer, Sir Josrr# Darron, K.C.S.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
FI.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
§Ilooker, Reginald H., B.A. Royal Statistical Society, 9 Adelphi-

terrace, London, W.C.

Greenwich, S.I.

. {ooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.

Tope, Thomas Arthur. 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W-

. *Hopkins, Edward M. Orchard Dene, Henley-on-Thames.

. {Hopkins, J.8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. *Hopexinson, Cuartes. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester.

2, *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.

. *Ilopxinson, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon,

Surrey.

. *IIorninson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret-

street, Cavendish-square, London, W.; and The Grange, St.
Albans.

8. {Topkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
. tHorder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.

. [Horne, Edward H. Innisfail, Beulah Hill, Norwood, SL.
5, {Horne, Jonny, F.R.S.E., F.G.S8. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff

Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

. *Horniman, F. J., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Thll,

London, S.E.

. *Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.

87. {Horsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

2. t Horsley, Reginald L., M.B. 46 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

. *Horstey, Vicror A. H., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of

Pathology in University College, London. 25 Cavendish-
square, London, W.

. *Hotblack, G.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

. {Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.

. {Hough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.

. THoughton, F.T.S.. M.A. 119 Gough-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. [Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
. tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.

3. *Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,

West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.

. §Howard, F. T., B.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff.

3. {Howard, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandyerott, Shaw.

. *Howard, James L., D.Sc. 86St. John’s-road, Waterloo, near Liverpool.
. *Howard, 8.8. Bayfield, Beckenham, Kent.

. {Howard, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 13 Cavendish-

street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.

. {Howatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.

. tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glascow.

. {Howden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B.

. §Howden, Robert, M.B. University of Durham College of Medicine,

Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

57. ;Howell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of

Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 53

Year of
Election.

1868. tHowrrr, Rev. Canon Imps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
1891. §Howell, Rev. William Charles, M.A., Vicar of Holy Trinity, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.
1886.§§IIowes, Professor G. B., F.L5. Royal College of. Science, South
Kensington, London, S.W.
1884, {Howland, Edward P., M.D. 2:1 414-street, Washington, U.S.A.
1884. {Howland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.
i865. *Howzert, Rey. Freperick, ’.R.A.S. Last Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
1863. {Howorrn, Sir H. H., K.C.LE., M.P., F.R.S., F.S.A. Benteliffe,
Eccles, Manchester.
1883. t{Howorth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.
1883. tHoyle, James. Blackburn.
1887. §Hoyrz, Witrtam E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
1888. tHudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Iristol.
1888. t{Hupson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Daw-
lish.
1894. §Hudson, John E. 334 Marlborough-street, Boston, Massachusetts,
US.A.
1867. *Hupson, Witttam H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.
1858. *Hvecins, Wrt1aM, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,
90 Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.
1892. { Hughes, Alfred W. Woodside, Musselburgh.
1887. tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
1883. tHughes, Miss E. P. Newnham College, Cambridge.
1871. *Hughes, George Pringie, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
1887. tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham,
1870, *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
1891.§§Hughes, Thomas. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
1876, *Hughes, Rev. Thomas Edward. Wallfield House, Reigate.
1868. §Huenns, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge.
1891.§§Hughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.
1865, tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Birmingham.
1883. t{Hutxe, Jonn Wuirtarer, F.RS., F.R.CS., F.G.8. 10 Old Bur-
lington-street, London, W.
1867. §Huxt, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Arundel-garaens,
Notting Hill, London, W.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
1887. *Hummet, Professor J. J. 152 Woolsley-road, Leeds.
1890. {Humphrey, Frank W. 63 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W.
1884. *Humphreys, A. W. 50 Broadway, New York, U.S.A.
1878. tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
1880. {Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.
1862. *Humpury, Sir Grorcr Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.
1877. *Hunt, Anruur Roors, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.
1891. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.
1886. {Hunt, Charles. Tbe Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.
1891. tHunt, Dy de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,
Cardiff.

54 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election

1865. t{Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.

1864, {Hunt, W. Folkestone.

1875. *Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

1881. tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

1889, tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham. -

188]. {Hunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.

1884, *Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.

1869, “Hunter, Rey. Robert. LL.D., I.G.S. Forest Retreat, Staples-road,
Loughton, Essex.

1879, {Huntineton, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. King’s College, London, W.C.

1885. {Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

1863. {Huntsinan, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

1883. *Hurst, Chavles Herbert. Owens College, Manchester.

1869, tHurst, George. Bedford.

1382. {Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden.

1861. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.

1870. t{Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.

1887. {Husband, W. £. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.

1882. }Hussey, Captain EF. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.

1894, *Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

1876. | Hutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
| 1864, *fTutton, Darnton, 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,

1857. { Hutton, Henry D. 17 Palmerston-road, Dublin.

1887. *Hutton, J. Arthur. 29 Dale-street, Manchester.

1861. *Hurron, T. Maxwert. Summerhill, Dublin.

1852. {Huxnpy, The Right Hon. Tuomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon. Professor of Biology in the Royal
College of Science, London. Hodeslea, Eastbourne.

Hyde, Edward. Dukintield, near Manchester.
1883. tHyde, George H. 25 Arbour-street, Southport.
1871. *Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

1882, *I’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington.
1883.§§Idris, T. H. W. 58 Lady Margaret-road, London, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
j884. *Iles, George. 7 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.
1885. {im-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.
1888. “Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.
1858. tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
1893. §Ingle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.
1876. {Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1891. {Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.
1852. {Ineram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.L.A., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
1885. {Ingram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.
1886, {Innes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
1892.§§Ireland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh.
1892. {Irvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.
1892. {Irvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.
eee Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., P.G.S. Hockerill, Bishop Stortford,
erts.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

i
Tt

Year of
Election.

1888.
1883.

1881.

1891.

1886.

1859.
1884.
1876.

*Isaac, J. F. V., B.A. 114 Marine-parade, Brighton.

Isherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Ishiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square,
London, W.

*Ismay, Thomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.

Izod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.

. *Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc., F.C.S. 358 Collins-street, Mel-

bourne, Australia.
tJackson, Arthur, F.R.C.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.
tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.
*Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.

. *Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset.

*Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.

. tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

. §Jackson, Moses, J.P. Lansdowne House, Tonbridge.

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

. *Jaffe, John. 38 Prom. des Anglais, Nice, France.

*Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

. {James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.
. *James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.
. *James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln's Inn, London,

W.C.

. tJames, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney-hill, London, E.C.

{James, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

. tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsail.

{James, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

{James, John. 24 The Parade, Cardiff.

{James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street, Strand,
London, W.C.

tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.

{James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.

tJameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W.

tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

§Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 37 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

tJamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B.

{Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.

. *Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S._ Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

*Japp, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Aberdeen. )

. {Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
. tJasper, Henry. Holmedale, New Park-road, Clapham Park,

London, S.W.

. §Jeffeock, Rev. Prebendary John Thomas, F.S.A. The Rectory,

Wolverhampton.

. {Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.
. *Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
. {Jeffreys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, London, W.

56

Year of
Election

1885.
1887.
1881.
1864.
1873.

1880.
1891.

1852.
1893.
1878.

1889.
1884,

1891.
1884,
1884.

1883.
1883.
1871.

1883.
1865.
1888.
1876.
1872.
1870.
1863.
1881.
1890.

1887.
1883.
1883.
1861.

1883.
1859.
1864.

1884.
1883
1884.
1884,
1885.

1886.
1864.
1864,
1871.

1888.
1888.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

.

tJeflreys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood Ilouse, Chesterfield.

§JzErFs, OsmuND W. 92 Westbourne-street, Liverpool.

{Jetiicon, C. W. A. Southampton.

tJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.

§Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London,
5. W

*JENKINS, Sir Jonn Jones. The Grange, Swansea.

tJenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 17 St. Julian’s-road,
Kilburn, London, N.W.

tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S.,M.R.I.A. Brown-street, Cork.

§Jennings, G. KE. Ash Leigh-road, Leicester.

tJephson, Henry LL. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.

Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
tJevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.

tJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

tJohn, E. Cowbridge, Cardiff.

{Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

§JoHNscN, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

tJohnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

tJohnson, Ben. Micklegate, York.

*Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.S. 11 Thurlow-terrace, Larkhali Rise,
Clapham, London, 8S. W.

tJohnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

*Johnson, G. J. 386 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tJohnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, London, N.

{Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

tJobnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.

tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.

jJohnson, R. S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.

{Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

*Jobnson, Thomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

tJohnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.

tJohnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

tJohnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.

tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

tJohnston, H. H. Tudor House, Champion Hill, London, 8.E.

tJohnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.

fa James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,

tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.

{Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,

*Johnston, W. H. 6 Latham-street, Preston, Lancashire.

{Jounstoy-Lavis, H.J., M.D., F.G.S. Palazzo Caramanico, Chiatc-
mone, Naples,

{Johnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.

*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.

tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.

fJorty, Wirriam, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

{Jolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

jJoxy, Jouy, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 89 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Election.

1881. {Jones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.

1849. tJones, Baynham. Walmer House, Cheltenham.

1887. {Jones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools, 7 Marine-terrace,
Aberystwith.

1891. {Jones, D. Edgar, M.D. Spring Bank, Queen-street, Cardiff.

1890. §Jones, Rev. Edward, F.G.S. Fairfax-road, Prestwich, Lancashire.

1891. {Jones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.

1891. {Jones, Evan Rowland. Bonnyrigg, Penarth.

1887, {Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S, Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.

1891. *Jonzs, Rev. G. Hartwert, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey,

1883. *Jones, George Oliver, M.A. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.

1884, tJones, Rev. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent's Park, London,
N.W.

1877. {Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal Coliege of Science, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.

1893.§§Jones, Professor J. E', B.Sc. LEllenslea, 70 Lichfield-road, Stafford.

1881, *Jonzs, J. Virtamu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Carditt.

1873. {Jones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.

1880. {Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.

1860. {Jonxrs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S, 10 Uverdale-roa/l, King's-
road, Chelsea, London, 8S. W.

1883. {Jones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.

1891. {Jones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1875. *Jose, J. E. 29 Cressington Park, Liverpool.

1884. {Joseph, J. H. 758 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,

1891. {Jotham, F. H. Penarth.

1891. tJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.

1875. *Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. Rothesay, N.B.

1879. {Jowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheftield.

1890. {Jowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.

1872, tJ Se ale Junior United Service Club, St. James's, London,

W

1848, *Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berkshire.

1883. {Joyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

1886. {Joyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

1891. {Joynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.

1848. *Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.

1870, {Jupp, Jonn Westey, F-.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the

: Royal College of Science, London. 16 Cumberland-road, Kew.

1883. {Justice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane,

London, W.C.

1868, *Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road,

London, N.

1888.§§Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E, 31 Parliament-street,
London, 8S. W

1887. {Kay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester.

1859, tKay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.

1833. {Kearne, John H. Westcliffe-road Birkdale, Southport.

1884. {Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1875. {Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

1886, {Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.

58 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1894 §Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.LS., F.Z.8., F.S.8. 11 Queen’s-gate,
London, 8S. W.

1894, §Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
Hssex.

1892. {Keiller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 54 Northumberland-
street, Edinburgh.

1887. {Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 35 Crescent, Salford.

1884, {Kelloge, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

1864. *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.

1885. §Keltie, J. Scott, Assist.Sec.R.G.S., F.S.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.

1847. *Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, MLA. LL.D., D.C. Be Pres. R. S.,
F.RS. E., F. B.A, S., Professor of Natural ’ Philosophy in the
University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.

1877. *Kelvin, Lady. The University, Glasgow.

1887.§§Kemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester.

1884, {Kemper, Andrew U.,A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

1890. §Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, Arundel-road, Eastbourne.

1891. §Kenpatt, Percy F., F.G.S. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1875. {kpnnepy, ArLExanpER B. W., F-.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Emeritus
Professor of Engineering in University College, London. 2
Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W.

1884. {Kennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1876. {Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.

1884, {Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884. {Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

1886, {Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edebaston,
Birmingham.

1893. §Kent, A. F. Stanley. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, 8.E,

Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.

1886. §KENWARD, James, F.S.A. 280 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

1857. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Treland.

1876. {Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

1881. {Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsay, Isle of Man.

1892. §Kerr, J. Graham, Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1884, {Kerr, James, M.1). Winnipeg, Canada.

1887. {Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.

1883, {Kprr, Rev. Jony, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College,
Glasgow. »

1889, {Kerry, W. H.R. Wheatlands, Windermere.

1887. {Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

1869. *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1869. *Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

1883. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.8. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

1876. {Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

1886. §Kipsron, Roper, F.R.S.E., F.G.8. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling.

1885. *Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

1896.§§Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.

1878. {Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.

1860. {Kiwanan, G. Henry, M.R.i.A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

1875. *Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

1888. {King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

1888. *King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.

1883. *King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

of

Election.

1875. *King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

1871. *King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.
1855, {King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

1883. *King, John Godwin. Wainsford, Lymirgton, Hants.

1870.

{King, John Thomson, 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
N.W

1883. *King, Joseph, jun. 6 Wedderburn-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. 3 Clifton-park, Clifton, Bristol.

1875. *King, Perey L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clitton, Bristol.

1870. {King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

1889. §King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.

1869, {Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.

1875. §Kinezerr, Cuartes T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst, Kent.
1867. tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.

1892. {Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B.
1870. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.

1860. {Krrxman, Rev. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Fernroyd, St. Mar-

garet’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1875. {Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.

1883. {Kirsop, Mrs. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.

1870. {Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1890. *Krrson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.

1886. {Klein, Rev. L. Martial. University College, Dublin.

1869. {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.

1886. {Knight, J. M. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

1888. {Knott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-street,

Edinburgh.

1887. *Knott, Herbert. Wharf Street Mills, Ashton-under-Lyne.

1887. *Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

1887. {Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

1873. *Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.

1874. tKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
1883. {Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
1883. tKnowlys, Mrs. C, Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
1876. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

1875.
1885.

1892

1890.
1888.

188].

1870.
1865.

1858.
1884.

1885.
1870.

1877

*Knox, George James. 27 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,

*Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.

{Knubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.

.§§Kohn, Dr. Charles A. University College, Liverpool.

*Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Wilmslow, Cheshire.

*Kunz, G@. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.

t{Kurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, Lon-
don, W.

{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S, Kensington, Liverpool.

{Kynnersley, J. C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.

{Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.

{Laflamme, Rey. Professor J. C, K. Laval University, Quebec,
Canada.

*Laing, J. Gerard. 1 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.

§Laird, John. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.

. tlake, W.C., M.D., F.R.G.S. Teignmouth.

60 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1859. tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Tall, Cork Hill, Dublin.

1889. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Old Lodge, Salisbury.

1887. {Lams, Horacs, M.A., F.R.S., Protessor of Pure Mathematics in the

1887

1883.

1885

Owens College, Manchester. Burton-road, Didsbury, Manchester.
{Lamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Lamsert, Rev. Brooxn, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, 8.E.

1893.§§Lambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

1884.

{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.

1893.§§ Lamplugh, G. W., F.G.S. ‘Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,

1890.
1884.
1871.
1886.
1877.

1885.
1859.
1886,
1870,
1865,

1880,
1884,

1878.
1885,

1887.
1881.
1883.
1870.

1870.

1891.
1888.
1892.
1883.
1870.
1878.
1862.
1884.
1870.
1881,
1889,

London, 8. W.

tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.

tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.

{Lancaster, Kdward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.

tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, London, 8.E.

tLang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness.

{Lang, Rey. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.

*LAnGLeEy, J. N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLanxestrer, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of
Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
2 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

*LANSDELL, Rey. Hunry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.

§Lanza, Professor G, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,

tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

{Lapworru, Cuarius, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham. 13
Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.

{Larwor, Josnrn, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§ Lascelles, B. P., M.A. The Moat, Harrow.

*LatHamM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, S. W,

{Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. Catesby House, Manor-
road, Barnet, Herts.

tLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, London, E.

tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, London, E.C.

§Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Se., F.LS. King’s College, Cambridge.

tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia.

*Law, Channell, JIlsham Dene, Torquay.

tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.

tLaw, Rev. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.

§Law, Robert. Fenny Royd Hall, Hipperholme, Halifax, Yorkshire.

{Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

{Lawrence, Rev. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.

§Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Winchester-terrace, Newcastle-upons
Tyne.

. {Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.

Halifax, Nova Scotia.

. {Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.

. *Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S. Ootacamund, Bombay.

. {Lawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.

. §Layard, Miss Nina F, 1 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 6)

Year of
Election.

1856.
1883.
1883.
1875.

1870.
1894.
1884.
1884.
1847.
1863.
1884.
1872.

1884.
1861.

1887.

1891.
1884.
1887.

1892.
1886.
1882.
1859.
1885.

1889.

1881.
1872.
1869.
1892.
1868.

1856.

tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

§Leach, John. Claremont, Levenshulme, Manchester.

eae Colonel Sir G., K.C.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, London,

*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 6 Sussex-place, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.

“Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College,
Sheffield.

*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.

tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.

*LuatHaM, Epwarp AtpaM. 46 Eaton-square, London, S.W.

tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.

“Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

tLepovr, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tLeckie, R. G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.

tLee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.

*Lee, Sir Joseph Cooksey. Park Gate, Altrincham.

§Lee, Mark. 8 Llandati-road, Cardiff.

*Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

tLeech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.

*Lees, Coartes H., M.Sc. 6 Heald-road, Rusholme, Manchester,

“Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.

tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.

{Lees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh,

*Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport,

*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

{Lr Fevver, J. KE. Southampton.

fLerevre, The Right Hon. G. Saaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Bryan-
ston square, London, W.

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

§Lehfeldt, Robert A. Firth College, Sheffield.

eee The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Nor-
folk.

tLeien, The Right Ton. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey. Kenilworth, ;

1890.§§Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.

1891.
1867.
1859.
1882.
1867.
1878.
1887.
1874,
i884,
1890.

1885.
1880.
1894.
1887,

tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

{tLeishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.

tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

§Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 11 The Avenue, Southampton.

tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

tLennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

*Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, London, W.

tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.

tLesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

*Lester, Joseph Henry, 651 Arcade-chambers, St. Mary's Gate
Manchester, f

§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

tLercuer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea,

§ Leudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

tLeverkus, Otto. The Downs, Prestwich, Manchester.

62

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1890.
1893.
1879.

1870.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1884.
1860.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1862.

1887.
1878.
1881.

1871.
18833.
1885.
1882.
1888,
1861.

1876.

tLevy, J. H. Florence, 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park,
London, S.W.

*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval
College, Greemvich.

{tLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, London. S.W.

tLewis, Atrrep Lionec. 54 Highbnry-hill, London, N.

{Lewis, *y J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.

§Lewis, D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Abervstwith.

tLewis, W. Ly neombe V illa, Cow bridge- road, Cardiff.

{Lewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

{Lewis, W. Henry. pryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.

*Lewis, Sir W. T. The Mardy, Aberdare.

{Lrpstt, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D. Ascot, Berkshire.

tLiebermann, L. 54 Portland-street, Manchester,

tLietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.

*Lightbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester.

tLrzrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall , Oundle, North-
amptonshire.

*Liverick, The Right Rev. CHartzs Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,
F.R.S., MLR.LA. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.

{tLimpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical W orks, Manchester.

{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

*Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.Is., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.

tLindsay. Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.

{Lipscomb, Mrs. Lancelot C. 7A, 95 Elgin-crescent, London, IW.

tLisle, H. Cland. Nantwich.

*Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.

tLister, J. 7. Leytonstone, Essex. FE.

*Livrine, G. D., M A., F-R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
Univer sity of Cambridee. New nham, Cambridge.

*Liversipcr, Ancarnanp, F.RS., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the Univer sity of Sy dney,
N.S.W. Care of Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.,
Charing Cross-road, W.C

1864.§§Livesay, J. G. Cromartie ous, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.

1880.
1889.

1842,
1865.
1855,
1886.

1891.

1886.
1865.
1854.

1892.
1867.
1892.
1863.

TLiEWELYN, Sir Joun T. D.. Bart. Penllegare, Swansea.

Lloyd, Rev. A. R. Hengold. near Oswestry.

floyd, Rev. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Lloyd, Ndward. WKing-street, Manchester.

tLloyd, G. B., J.P. Mdebaston-crove, Birmingham.

{Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

tLlovd, John Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

*Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt. 4 Halkyn-avenue, Sefton Park,
Liverpool.

{Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.

*Lloyd, Wilson, F’.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury.

*Lont. BY, JAMES Logan, F.G.S.. F.R.GS. City of London College,
Moorgate-street, London, E.C.

§Loch, C.8., BA. 15a Buckingham-street, London, W.C.

*Locke, John. 231 Clarence-road, Kentish Town, London, N.W.

tLockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Mdinburch.

{Locxyer, J. Norman, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kersington, London, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Year of
Election.

1886.
1875.

1894.
1889.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1883.
1883.
1875.

1872.

1881.
1883.
1861.
1894.

1889.

1883.
1887.
1886.
1876.

1885.
1875.

1892.
1889.
1867.
1885.
1891.
1885.
1892.
1861.

1884.
1886.

1850.

1894.
1881.
1853.

1881.
1870.
1889,
1878.
1889.
1891.
1875.
1881.

*Lopen, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.

*Lopsn, Ontver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.

*Lodge, Oliver W. F. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool. —

tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

{Long, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.

*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

{Longden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

{Longe, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham,

{Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

*Longstaft, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.S. Highlands
Putney Heath, 5. W. i ,

peonetats Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,

wrrey.

*Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*Loneton, E. J.. M.D. Lord-street, Southport.

*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden,

§Lord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, New
York, U.S.A. ;

tLord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, W.

*Love, A. E. H., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge,

*Love, ae Bill Ae aa Ree Melbourne, Australia.

*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 11 Campden Hill-squar
London, ‘W. p Hill-square,

tLove, James Allen. 8 Easthourne-road West, Southport.

*Lovett, W. Jesse, F.1.C. Sydney House, 17 St. David's-road, St
Anne’s-on-Sea. Hcg

§Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.

tLow, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, London, W.

*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwyn’s Hill, East Grin ; q

ion Taha: Be Hilasegteaty, Cardi a aa

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.

*Lows, Epwarp Josera, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., FRA.S
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow. oA

tLowe, F. J. Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.

*Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E. Engineer’s Office, Midland Raij-
way, Derby. ‘ re

Hare, Laas Ifenry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-

urgh.

§Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield

tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Hayes, Kent. }

*Luspock, The Right Hon. Sir Jomn, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D
E.RS., F.L.S.,F.G.S. High Elms, Down, Kent, °

{tLubbock, John B, 14 Berkeley-street, London, W.

tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W

tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead, > —

Talons Janek. Hootie Graveney, London, S.W.

tLuckley, George. e Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle- -

*Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff. pon ED.

{Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthor

tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York, aera eentee:

64

Year of
Election

1866.
1873.
1850.
1892.

1853.
1883.

1874.
1864.
1871.

1884.
1884.
1874.
1885.
1862.

1852.
1854.

1876.
1868.
1878.

1879.
1885.
1883.
1866.
1884.
1834,
1840.
1884.

1886.
1887.
1884,
1884,
1891.
1876.
1863.

1878.
1892.
1892.
1885.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1884.

1885.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lundie, Cornelius, 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.

fLunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh.

tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Mining Engineer-
ing in Yorkshire College. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

*Lupron, Sypney, M.A. Grove Cottage, Roundhay, near Leeds.

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

uaver es Leonard, Bart., M.P., F.G.S. 48 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.

tLyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.

tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

§Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

*Lyre, F. Maxwe.t, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, London, S.W.

tMcAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.

*MacapaM, SrEvenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., I.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.

*Macapam, Wit1tAm Ivison., F.R.S.E., F.LC., F.C.S. Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.

t{MacaLtster, ALEXANDER, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

tMacAnistTer, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.

§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon,

§MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester,

*M‘Arthur, Alexander, F.R.G.S. 79 Holland Park, London, W.

tMacarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.

Macauray, James, A.M., M.D. 25 Carlton-vale, London, N.W.

*MacBrayne, Robert. 65 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

tMcCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.

t{MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham,

*McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.

*McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.

t{McCausland, Orr. Belfast.

*McClean, Frank, M.A., F.S.S. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.

*M‘CrLELLAND, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

¢M‘Crrntock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

*McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. University College, Dundee.

tMcCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.

tMcCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool,

tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.

tMacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.

*MeDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

t¢MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1453 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.

MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kaldare-place, Dublin.
t¢MacDonnell, Rey. Canon J.C., D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutter-
worth.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 65

Year of
Election.

1878.
1884,

1884.
1881.

1871.
1885,

1879.
1884.
1867.
1888,
1884,
1884.

1873.

1885.
1884.

1885.

1876.
1867.

1884,
1883.
1884.

1885,
1873.

1883.
1880.
1884,
1884.
1883.
1872.
1867.
1884.
1887.
1867.
1889,
1891.
1850.
1867.
1872.

1892.

1892.
1892.

tMcDonnell, James. 82 Upper Fitzwiliiam-street, Dublin,

}Macdougall, Alan, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Adelaide-street East, Toronto,
Canada.

t{McDougall, John. 35 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.

tMacfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., l'.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.

t{M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.

tMacfarlane, J. M., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Uo., Penn-
sylvania, US.A.

{Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.

tMacfie, K. N., B.A., B.C.L. Winnipeg, Canada.

*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

tMacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, London, W,

tMacGillivray, James, 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canads,

tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont-
real, Canada.

t{McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-ayenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tMacgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*MacGrecor, JaAmEs Gorpon, M.A., D).Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada,

{M‘Gregor-Robertson, J., M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, Hillhead,
Glasgow.

fM‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

*M‘Intosu, W. C.,M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

tMclIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.

tMack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.

tMackay, Alexander Howard, B.A., B.Sc. The Acaderay, Pictou,
Nova Scotia, Canada.

§Macxay, Jonn Yutz, M.D. The University, Glasgow.

tMcKeyoricx, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. The University,
Glasgow.

t{McKendrick, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.

*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Atheneum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.

tMcKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.

1McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.

tMackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.

*Mackey, J. A. 1 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.

tMacxiz, Samu. JoserH. 17 Howley-place, London, W.

tMcKilligan, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

tMackinder, H. J.. M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

tMcKinley, Rev. D. 33 Milton-street, West Hartlepool.

tMackintosh, A. C. Temple Chambers, Cardiff,

tMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

tMackson, H. G. 25 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.

*McLacutan, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, S.E.

§Mactacan, Sir Dovetas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the University of dinburgh. 93
Heriot-row, Edinburgh. i

{Maclagan, Philip K. D. 14 Belgrave-place, Edinburgh.

tMaclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh,

E

1894,

66 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1873. {McLandsborough, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manning-
ham, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1885. *M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.

1860, {Maclaren, Archibald, Summertown, Oxfordshire.

1873, tMacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.

1882. {Maclean, Inspector-General,C.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.

1892. *Maclean, Magnus, M.A., F.R.S.E, The University, Glasgow,

1884. {McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {McLennan, Hugh. 817 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884. {McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.

1868. §McLrop, Hurperr, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.

1892. {Macleod, Reginald. Woodhall, Midlothian.

1892. tMacleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.

1861. *Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.8. Whalley Range,
Manchester.

1883. *McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.G.S. 20 Nevern-square, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

1883. tMacManon, Major P. A., R.A., F.R.S., Professor of Electricity in
the Artillery College, Woolwich. 40 Shaftesbury-avenue,
London, W.C.

1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.

1862. {Macmillan, Alexander. Y%1 Portland-place, London, W.

1888. {McMillan, Robert. 20 Aubrey-street, Liverpool.

1874. t{MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.

1884. {McMurrick, J. Playfair. Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

1867. {M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

1883. {McNicoll, Dr. E.D, 15 Manchester-road, Southport.

1878. {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

1887. tMaconochie, Archibald White. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros.,
Lowestoft.

1833. {Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

1887. §McRae, Charles, M.A., F.L.S. Department of Science and Art,
South Kensington, London, S8.W.

*Macrory, Epaunp, M.A. 19 Pembridge-square, London, W.

1883. {McWhirter, Wiliam. 170 Kent-road, Glasgow.

1887. {Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.

1883. {Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1883. {Maggs, Thomas Charles, I'.G.S. 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.

1868. {Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.

1875. *Magnus, Sir Philip, B.Sc. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square,
London, W.

1878. {Mahony, W. A. 34 College-creen, Dublin.

1869. tMain, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.

1887. {Mainprice, W.S. Longeroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1885. *Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart. Stirling, N.B.

1883. {Maitland, P.C. 186 Great Portland-street, London, W.

*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, S.E.

1881. {Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

1874. {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.

1889, {Maling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. ;

1857. {Maxrer, Jomn Wit11AM, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.

1887. {MancuestER, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.

1870. {Manifold, W. H.,M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 67

Year of
Election,

1885.
1888.
1894.
1878.
1864.
1888.

1891.
1889.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1864,

1894.
1863.
1888.
1888,
1881.

1887.
1887.
1884.
1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889,

1889.
1892.

1881.
1890.
1881.
1858.
1886.

1849.

1865.
1883,
1887.
1891.
1848.
1878.

1883.

1884.
1889.

1890.

{Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.

{Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

§Manning, Percy. Watford, Herts.

§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.

t{Mansel-Pleydell, J.C. Whatcombe, Blandford.

{tMansergh, James, M.Inst.C.K. 3 Westminster-chambers, Lon-
don, S.W.

{Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Manville, E. 3 Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. 2 West-street, Rochdale.

{Marcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

{Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

{Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.

§Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.

{Marxruam, Crements R., C.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A.
21 Eccleston-square, London, 8. W.

§ Markoff, Dr. Anatolius. 36 Cambridge-street, Hyde Park, London, W.

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Marr, Joun Epwarp, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

t{Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester,

{Marsden, Joseph. Ardenlea, Heaton, near Bolton.

*Marsden, Samuel. St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry. 72 Wellington-street, Leeds.

{Marsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.

*MARSHALL, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Kconomy

in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,

Cambridge.

{Marshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Druim Shellach, Liberton, Mid-
lothian.

*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Church Institute, Leeds.

{Marshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

tMarshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.

{ Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.

*MarsHati, Witt1am Baytey, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*MarsHatL, Wittram P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Marren, Epwarp Biypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge,

{Marten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, 8.W.

*Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.

*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.

{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.

tMartin, H. Nnwett, M.A., M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of
Biology in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

*Marrin, Joun Bippurrn, M.A., F.S.S. 17 Hyde Park-gate, London,
S.W

§Martin, N. H., F.L-S. 8 Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Lyon House, New
Barnet, Herts.
§Martindale, William. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.
E 2

68

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1865.
1883.
1891.
1878.

1847,

1886.
1879.
1898.
1891.
1885.
1885.
1887.

1890.
1865.
1894.
1865.
1889.

1861.

1881.
1883.
1858.
1885.
1885.
1863.
1890,
1893,
1865,
1894.
1876.
1887.

21883.
1883.
1884,
1878.
1884,
1871.
1879.
1887,
1881.

1867.

1883.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1881,

*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London,
W.C

tMartineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tMarwick, Sir James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.

t{Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

{Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.

{MasketynE, Nevin Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Basset Down House,
Swindon.

t{Mason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.

{Mason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.

*Mason, Thomas. 6 Pelham-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

{Masson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

t{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

*Mather, William, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Man-
chester.

{Mathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.

t{Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

§Mathews, G. B. Bangor.

*Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

t$Mathews, John Hitchcock, 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London,
WwW

*Marupws, Witi1AM, M.A., F.G.S. 21 Augustus-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

t{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.

tMathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Matthews, I". C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire,

{Marruews, JAmMEs. Springhill, Aberdeen,

tMatthews, J. Duncan. Springhill, Aberdeen.

t{Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Maund, E. A. 294 Regent-street, London, W.

§Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.

*Maw, Groreg, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Kenley, Surrey.

§Maxim, Hiram S. Baldwin’s Park, Bexley, Kent.

tMaxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.

{Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

§May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.

tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.

*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.

{Mecham, Arthur. 11 Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

tMeikie, James, F'.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W.

tMeischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settlements.

*Metpora, Rarmaet, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, London, W.C.

{Metprum, Cuarzzs, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis,
Mauritius.

tMellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

{Me xo, Rey. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

of

Election.

1887. {Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.

1847
1863
1877

. {Melville,Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,Galway.
. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
. *Menabrea, General, Marquis of Valdora, LL.D. Chambéry, Savoie.

1862, {Mennett, Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,

London, E.C.

1879. §Mertvatz, Joun Herman, M.A., Professor of Mining in the College

of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1880. tMerry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.

1889. *Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1863. {Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.

1869. {Mratt, Louis C., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in

1886.
1865,
1881,

1893,
188i.

1894.
1889.
1886.
1881.
1885.

1859,
1889.

1892.

1882.
1875.
1892.
1888.
1885.
1886,
1861.
1884.
1876.
1868.

the Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.

tMiddlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.

§Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.

tMiddleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 15 Grange-road, West Har-
tlepool.

“Miers, HL A., M.A. British Museum, Cromwell-road, London, 8. W.

tMilburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tMiles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.

§Mites, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton.

§Mii1t, Huex Rosert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Librarian R.G.S. 109 West
End-lane, Hampstead, London, N.W.

{Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.

*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.H, Perta,

*Millard, William Joseph Kelson, M.D., F.R.G.S. Holmleigh, Rock-
leaze, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

{Miller, A. J. 15 East Park-terrace, Southampton.

{Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.

tMiller, Hugh, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 3 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

{Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

tMiller, Rev. John, The College, Weymouth.

*Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.

tMiller, T. F., BAp.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

*Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.RS., F.C.8., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasgow.

1880. §Milis, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E. Mansfield Woodhouse, Mansfield.
1834. Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., I. It.S.E. Inveresk.

1885.
1882.

1885

tMilne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Mitne, Joun, F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Mining and Geology in
the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan. Ingleside,
Birdhurst Rise, South Croydon, Surrey.

. {Milne, J.D. 14 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

1885. {Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1887
1882

1888

. {Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.

. {Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 22a Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.

. {Milsom, Charles. 69 Pulteney-street, Bath.

1880. tMinchin, G. M., M.A. Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s

Hill, Surrey.

70

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1855.
1859.
1876.
1883.

1883.

1863.
1873.
1885.
1885.
1879.

1885.
1885.
1883.
1878.
1877.
1884.
1887.

1891.
1882.
1891.
1892.
1872.
1872.
1884,
1881.
1894.

1891.
1890.

1857.
1871.
1891.
1881.

1873.

{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 465 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

tMitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.

tMitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

tMitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.

}Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.

tMitchell, C. Walker, LL.D. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tMitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Mitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen.

tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.

¢Mrvart, St. Grorce, Ph.D., M.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. Hurst-
cote, Chilworth, Surrey.

{Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.

tMoir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

tMolloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.

*Molloy, Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

tMonaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Monp, Lupwie, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, B.A., F.R.S.E. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.

“Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens,
London, W.

tMontefiore, Arthur, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Care of London and South-
Western Bank, South Hampstead, London, N.W.

$Montgomery, Very Rev. J. F., D.D. 17 Athole-crescent, Edin-
burgh.

t{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.

tMoon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.

tMoore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.

§Moore, Henry. Collingham, Maresfield-gardens, Fitzjohn’s-avenue,
London, N.W.

§Moore, H. E. 41 Bedford-row, London, W.C.

tMoore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.

tMoore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.

*Moors, Jonn Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 113 Haton-square,
London, S.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.

*Moore, Rey. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.

tMore, ALEXANDER G., F.L.S., M.R.IL.A. 74 Leinster-road, Dublin.

tMorel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff.

tMorean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.

tMorgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, London,
S.W.

1891.§§Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.

1885.
1887.
1891.
1882.
1878.
1889.

1892.
1867.

tMorgan, John. 57 Thomson-street, Aberdeen.

tMorgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.

tMorgan, Sir Morgan. Carditf.

§Morgan, Thomas, Cross House, Southampton.

tMorean, Witrti1am, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea.

§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

tMorison, John, M.D., F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.

tMorison, William R. Dundee.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBEKS. 71

Election.

1893.
1891.
1883.

1889,

1881.
1880.

1883.
1892.
1883.
1880.
1883.
188.
1880.

1876.

1874.
1890.
1871.
1886.
1865.
1869.
1857.
1858.
1871.
1887.
1886.
1883.
1891.
1878.
1876,

1864,
1892.
1873.
1892.
1869,
1866.
1862.

1856.
1878.

1863.
1861.

1877.
1887.

1888.
1884.

1884.

§Morland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.

tMorley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.

*Morley, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 47 Broadhurst-gardens,
South Hampstead, London, N.W.

tMortpy, The Right Hon. Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.P. 95
Elm Park-gardens, London, 8.W.

{Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.

{Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn, R.S.O., Car-
marthenshire.

tMorris, C. 8. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.

tMorris, Daniel, C.B., M.A., F.L.S. 11 Kew Gardens-road, Kew.

tMorris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.

§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.

{Morris, John. 40 Wellesley-road, Liverpool.

{Morris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

{Morris, M. 1. £. The Lodge, Pencluwdd, near Swansea.

Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.

tMorris, Rev. S. S.0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. H.M.S. ‘Garnet,’
S. Coast of America.

tMorrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.. Shanghai, China.

{Morrison, Sir George W. Leeds.

*Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

tMorrison, John T. Scottish Marine Station, Granton, N.B.

t{Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Drittield.

Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

§Morton, Grorce H., F.G.8. 209 Edee-lane, Liverpool.

*Morton, Henry JosepH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.

{Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.

tMorton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.

*Morton, P. F. Hook House, Hook, near Winchfield, Hampshire.

tMoseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.

{Moss, Arthur J.. M.B. Penarth, Glamorganshire.

*Moss, JoHN I’rancis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.

§Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.C.S., M.R.LA. St. Aubyn’s, Bally-
brack, Co. Dublin.

*Mosse, J. R. Conservative Club, London, S.W.

tMossman, R. C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

{Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.

*Mostyn, S. G., B.A. Colet House, Talgarth-road, London, W.

§Morr, Aubert J., F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

§Mort, Freprrick T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.

*Movar, Freprrick Joun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.

{Mould, Rev. J.G., B.D. Roseland, Meadtoot, Torquay.

*Moutron, J. Furrcuer, M.A., Q.C., M.P., F.R.S, 57 Onslow-
square, London, 8.W.

tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

*Mounicastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.

tMovunz-Epccumne, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgeumbe, Devonport.

tMoxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

tMoyle, R. E., B.A., F.C.S. ‘The College, Cheltenham.

tMoyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.

tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

72

Year of
Election

1894.
1876.
1874.
1876.

1872.
1876.
1884.

1883.
1883.
1891.

1884.
1880.
1866.

1876.
1885.

1883.
1864.
1864.
1855.
1890.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1891.

1859.
1884.

1884.

1872.
1892.
1863.
1883.
1874.
1870.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

§Mugliston, Rev. J.. M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.

*Muir, Sir John, Bart. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.

{Murr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

t¢Muir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Beechcroft, Bothwell,
Glasgow.

tMuirhead, Alexander. D.Sc., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, S.W.

*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. Bridge of Weir, Ren-
frewsbire.

*Muirhead-Paterson, Miss Mary. Laurieville, Queen's Drive, Cross-
hill, Glasgow.

tMurwaxt, Micuart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

{Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

§Mtrter, F, Max, M.A., Professor of Comparative Philology in
the University of Oxford. 7 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Mutter, Hueo, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

tMuiler, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.

f{Mounpetta, The Right Hon. A. J., M.P., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 16
Hivaston-place, London, 8.W.

tMunro, Donald, F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.

{Munno, J. E. Crawrorp, LL.D. 14 Upper Cheyne-row, Chelsea,
London, S.W.

*Munro, Rosprr, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh,

{Mourcu, Sir JerRom. Cranwells, Bath.

*Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead.

t{Murdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

t¢Murphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.

§Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland.

tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.

tMurray, G. R. M., F.RS.E., F.L.8. British Museum (Natural His-
tory), South Kensington, London, 8S. W.

Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

t{Murray, Joun, F.R.S.E. ‘Challenger’ Expedition Office, Edin-
burgh.

{Murray d . Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logie and Mental and Moral

Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,

Montreal, Canada,

Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

Murray, T. S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

Murray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Murray, W. Vaughan, F.R.G.S. 2 Savile-row, London, W.

Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumelass House, Belfast.

Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

Fmt tt ttt

1891.§§Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylyania, Philadelphia,
US.A

1890.

1886.
1892.
1890.
1876.
1872.

*M yres, John L. , BA. Swanbourne, Winslow, Buckinghamshire.

§Nacet, D. H., M.A., F.C.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Michaei B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

§Nalder, Francis Henry. 16 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.

tNapier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glascow.

{Nares, Admiral Sir G. 8., K.C.B., R.N., F.RS., F.R.G.S. St.
Bernard's, Maple-road, Surbiton.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73

Year of
Election.

1887.

1887.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1855.
1876.
1886.
1868.
1866,

1889.
1869.
1842.
1889.
1891.
1886.
1842.

{Nason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D., F.C.S. Troy, New York,
U.S.A

§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.

*Neild, Theodore, B.A. Dalton Hall, Manchester.

{Neill, Joseph S. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.

{Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.

t Nelson, D. M. 11 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

{Nettlefold, Edward. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tNevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.

*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

{Neville, F. H. Sidney College, Cambridge.

{Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 8 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.

*Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

*Newell, W. H. A. 10 Plasturton-gardens, Cardiff.

tNewbolt, F. G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.

*NewMAN, Professor Francis WitttaM. 15 Arundel-crescent,
Weston-super-Mare.

1889.§§ Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Roseacre, Epping.

1860.

1892.

1872.
1883.
1882.
1867.
1875.
1866.

1867.
1887.
1884,

1883.
1887.
1881.

*Newrton, ALFreD, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.

t{Newrovn, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.

t{Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.

TNias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.

{Nias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.

tNicholl, Thomas. Dundee.

tNicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.

{Nicnotson, Sir Cuartes, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

{Nicnotson, Henry Atternz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.

*Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

{Nicnotson, JosppH S., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,

tNicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.

tNicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.

tNicholson, William R. Clifton, York.

1893.§ §Nickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.

1887.
1885.

1878.

1886.
1877.
1874.
1884.
1863.

1879.
1886.

{Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.

§Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E, 15 Blacket-place, Edin-
burgh.

t{Niven, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
ey in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Aber-

een.

{Niven, George. Erkingholme, Coolhurst-road, London, N.

{Niven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.

{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

t{Nixon, T. Alcock. 383 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

*Nosie, Sir AnprReEw, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tNoble, T. 8., F.G.8. Lendal, York.

tNock, J. B. Mayfield, Penns, near Birmingham.

74

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1887.
1870.
1882.
1863.

1888.
1865.

1872.
1883.
1881.
1886.
1894,
1861.
1887.
1883.

1882.

1878.
1883.

1858.

1884.
1857.

1894.
1885.
1876.
1885.

tNodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.

tNolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

tNorfolk, F. 16 Carlton-road, Southampton.

§Norman, Rey. Canon AtrreD Mertz, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Burnmoor Rectory, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

{Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

ae: Ricuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birming-

am.

tNorris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.

*Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.

tNorth, William, B.A., F.C.S. 84 Micklegate, York.

Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London,

S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.

tNorton, Lady. 385 Haton-place, London, 8.W.; and Hamshall,
Birmingham.

§Norcurt, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Locan Secretary). 9 Museum-
street, Ipswich,

tNoton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.

tNursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland~
avenue, London, W.C.

*Nutt, Miss Lilian. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, S.E.

§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

tO’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.

fOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple,
London, E.C.

*Optine, WitiiaAM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

tOdlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.

fO’Donnayan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.

§Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

fOgilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

{Ocitvin, F, Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Heriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.

1893.§§Ogilvie, Miss Maria M., D.Sc. Gordon's College, Aberdeen,

1859,
1884,
1881.
1887.
1892.
1853.
1885.
1893.

1892.
1863.

1887,

tOgilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.

*Ocle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.

{O’Halloran, J. 8., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute, Northum-
berland-avenue, London, W.C.

tOldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.

tOldham, Charles. Syrian House, Sale, near Manchester.

§Oldham, H. Yule. Lecturer in Geography in the University of
Cambridge.

fOrpHaM, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.

fOldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

§Oldham, R. D., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs. H. S.
King & Co., Cornhill, London, E.C.

tOliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

tOrrver, Daniet, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew.

tOliver, Professor F. W., D.Sc. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew, Surrey,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Election.

1883.
1883.
1889.
1882.

1860.

1880.
1887.

tOliver, J. A. Westwood. The Liberal Club, Glasgow.

§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.

§Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Olsen, O. T., F.RALS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s - terrace,
Grimsby.

*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S8. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, London, W.

*Ommanney, Rey. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea, Hants.

{O’ Neill, Charles. Glen Allan, Manley-road, Alexandra Park, Man-
chester.

2. {Onslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.

. tOppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.

. tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.

. fOrd, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.

. {Ord, Miss Sarah. 2 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.

. {O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of. Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal

College of Science, Dublin.

. {Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester.
. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

. {Orpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

. *Orpen, Major R.T., R.E. Gibraltar.

. *Orpen, Rev. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.

Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.

. [Osborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
. §O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. Firth College, Sheffield.

*Ostmr, A. Fotterr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. *Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,

Birmingham.

. *Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
. {Osler, William, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in

McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

. {O’'Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-

Trent.

. *Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Sansome-street, San Francisco, U.S.A.

. {Owen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. “Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

. *Owen, Thomas. 8 Alfred-street, Bath.

. tOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.

. {Page, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. {Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

. {Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.

. *Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.

. §Paget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, London, E.C.

. {Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

. tPaine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.

. *PancRAVE, R. H. Ines, F.R.S., F.S.S. Belton, Great Yar-

mouth.

. {Palgrave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth.

. [Patmer, Sir Cuartes Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, Yorkshire.
. {Palmer, George, M.P. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.

. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. 8 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

. §Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.
. “Palmer, W. R. 1 The Cloisters, Temple, E.C.

76

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1890.
1883.
1886.

1884,

1888.
1883,
1880.

1868.
1874.
1886.
1891.

1865.

1879.
1887.
1859.
1862.
1883.
1877.
1865.
1878.
1883.
1875.

Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.

t Pankhurst, R. M., LL.D. 8 Russell-square, London, W.C.

§Pant, F. J. Vander. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.

fPanton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

}Panton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.A., F.G.S. Ontario Agricultural
College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

{Park, Henry. Wigan.

{Park, Mrs. Wigan.

*Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.

{Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tParker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.

{Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

*Parkes, Samuel Hickling, F.L.S. Ashfield-road, King’s Heath, Bir-
mingham.,

tParkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

§Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.

{Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.

*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, N.E.

{Parson, T, Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

}Parson, T. Edgeumbe. 386 Torrington-place, Plymouth.

*Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tParsons, Hon. C. A. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

}Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.

{Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.

1881.§§Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.

1887.

1884.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1871.
1884.

{Paterson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.

*Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.

*Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.

*Paton, Hugh. 911 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

}Paton, Rev. William. The Ferns, Parkside, Nottingham.

*Patterson, A. Henry. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

} Patterson, Edward Mortimer. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.

1876.§§Patterson, T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

1874.
1863.
1863.
1867.

1879.
1863.
1892.
1868.

1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1881.
1866.
1888.

1886.

1876.

}Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.

{Parrinson, Joun, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

}Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{ Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 11 Queen Victoria-street, London,
E.C.

*Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.

fPavt, Benzamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S. W.

tPaul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

{Pavy, Freperick Witi1am, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.

tPaxman, James. Hill House, Colchester.

*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.

tPayne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Payne, J. C. Charles. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

tPayne, Mrs. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

tPayne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.

*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.

tPayton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.

{Peace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 77

Year of
Election.

1879.
1885.

1883.
1875.

1881.
1886.
1888.

1884.
1886.
1883.
1891.
1893.
1883.
1892.
1881.
1883.
1872.
1881.
1870.
1883.
1863.
1889.
1863.

1865.
1883.

1888.
1885.
1884,
1883.
1878.
1881.
1861.
1878.
1865.
1861.

1887.
1894,
1894,
1881.
1875.
1889.
1894.

1868.

tPeace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.

jPeacu, B.N., F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

}Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, Lon-
don, W.

{Peacock, Thomas Francis, 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,

*Prarce, Horacg, F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S, The Limes, Stourbridge.

*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.

§Pearce, Rev. R. J., D.C.L., Professor of Mathematics in the Univer-
sity of Durham. 7 South Bailey, Durham.

tPearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.

tPearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

tPearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, S. W.

tPearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff. :

*Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.

{Pearson, Miss Helen E. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tPearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.

tPearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

tPearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

*Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.

tPearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.

t Pearson, Rev. Samuel, M.A. Highbury-quadrant, London, N.

*Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyffe, Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire.

§Pease, H. F., M.P. Brinkburn, Darlington.

{Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tPease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
borouch.

tPease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tPeck, John Henry. 52 Hoghton-street, Southport.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

*Peckover, Alexander, F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House,
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

{Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

{Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron Park, Edinburgh.

tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

{Pxex, CurHBertE., M.A.,F.S.A. 25 Bryanston-square, London, W.

*Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.

tPeges, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.

*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

{Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.

tPemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-vow, Birmingham.

gee Sir John, G.C.M.G., M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London,
S.W.

§PenpLepurY Witiiam H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.

§Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

§Pengelly, Miss Hester. Lamorna, Torquay.

tPenty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York.

tPerceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.

Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

*Perigal, Frederick. Cambridge Cottage, Kingswood, Reigate.

§Perkin, A. G., F.RS.E, F.C.S., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-terrace,
Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.

*Pergin, Witttan Hervey, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.

78

Year of
Election

1884,

1864.
1885.
1886.
1886.
1879.
1874.

1883.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1882.
1886.
1884.

1884,
1886.

1886.
1865.

1892.
1870.
1855.
1853.
1877.
1863.
1889.
1883.
1894.

1887.
1892.
1880.

1890.

1883.
1881.
1868.

1894.
1884.
1883.
1885.

1884,

1888.
1871.
1884.
1865.
1873.
1883,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

{Perxin, WitttAM Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

tPerrin, Miss Emily. 381 St John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.

tPerrin, Henry S. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N. W.

tPerrin, Mrs. 23 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, W.

tPerry, James. Roscommon.

*Prrry, JoHN, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering and
Applied Mathematics in the Technical College, Finsbury. 31
Brunswick-square, London, W.C.

tPerry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.

tPerry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.

tPetrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S.,F.G.S._ 13 Fourth Avenue, Brighton.

tPfoundes, Charles. Spring Gardens, London, 8.W.

tPhelps, Colonel A. 28 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Phelps, Charles Edgar. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Notting-
ham.

tPhelps, Mrs. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

}Phelps, Hon. E.J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, London, S.W.

tPhelps, Mrs. Hamshall, Birmingham.

*Puenk, JoHn SaMvEL, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, S.W.

tPhilip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

tPhilip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

*Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

§Philips, T. Wishart. 3 Tower-villas, George-lane, Woodford, Essex.

tPhilipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Philipson, John. 9 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tPhillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

§ Phillips, Statf-Commander H. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

tPhillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 1883 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

§Phillips, J. H. Poole, Dorset.

§Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.

§Phillips, R. W., M.A., Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.

{Phillips, 8. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.

tPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

ee T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey,

§Pickard-Cambridge, Rey. O. Bloxworth Rectory, Wareham.
*Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford.
*Pickard, Joseph William. Lindow Cottage, Lancaster.
*PICKERING, SPENCER U., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 48 Bryanston-square,
London, W.
ae Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason County, Kentucky,
A. ;

*Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, London, W.

tPigot, Thomas F.,M.R.IL.A. Royal Colleze of Science, Dublin.
{Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
{Prxz, L.OweEn. 201 Maida-vale, London, W.

tPike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada,

tPilling, R. C. The Robin's Nest, Blackburn.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 79

Year of
Election.

1877.
1868,
1876,

1884,
1887.
1875.
1883.

1864.
1883.
1893.
1868.

1842.

1867.
1884.
1883.

1893.
1857.
1861.
1881.
1888.
1846,

Pim, George, M.R.I.A. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.

{Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

}Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.

{Pirte, Rey. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 83 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,

{Pirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

{Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.

{Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.

{Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 34 Ashburn-place, South Ken-
sington, London, S.W.

tPitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.

{Pitt, Sydney. 12 Brunswick-gardens, London, W.

*Pitt, Walter, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

{Prrr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.BS., F.G.S.,
F.S.A. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, S.W.

Prayrarr, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., E.R.S.,

F.R.S.E., F.C.8. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, 8. W.

{Prayrrarr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria.
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, London, 8.W.)

“Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London, 31 George-street, Hanover-square, London, W.

“Plimpton, R.T.,M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, London,
S.W.

§Plowright, Henry J., F.G.S. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.

{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.

*PocHIN, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.

§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

{Pocock, Rey. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.

f{Porz, Wit11aM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.

. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,

Cornwall.

. }Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.
. §Popplewell, W. C., B.Sc. Claremont-road, Irlams-o’-th’-Height,

Manchester.

. {Porrat, WrnpHam 8. Malshanger, Basingstoke.
. *Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D. Brechin Lodge, Cambridge-road, South-

port.

. {Porter, Paxton. Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birmingham.
. [Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

. {Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. {Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton. ;

. {Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of

Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Portland-terrace, New-
castle-upon-l'yne.

. §Potts, John. Thorn Tree House, Chester-road, Macclesfield.
. *Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Professor of

Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Oxford.

. “Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,

Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, London, W.

- “Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-

hampton.

. {Powell, John. Waunarlwydd House, near Swansea,
. *Powell, Richard Douglas, M.D, 62 Wimpole-street, London, W.

80 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1875, {Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland Iouse, Clifton,
Bristol.

1887. §Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Mosley-street,
Manchester.

1867. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
1855. *Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland.
1883. {Poyntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham. 11 St. Augustine’s-road, Birmingham,
1884.§§Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham,
1884, *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. Brazenose College, Oxford.
1891. rete: Bickerton. Brynderwen, Maindee, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
1869. *PrEEcE, Witt1am Hunry, C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
1888. ee ae Llewellyn. Telegraph Department, Midland Railway,
erby.
1884, *Premio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.
1894, §Prentice, Manning, F.C.S. Woodfield, Stowmarket.
1892. §Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.
1889, §Preston, Alfred Eley, 14 The Exchange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1894, §Preston, Arthur E. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.
18938. *Preston, Martin Inett. 9 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.
1893.§§Preston, Professor Tuomas. ‘Trinity College, Dublin.
*PrestwicH, Joseru, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. Shore-
ham, near Sevenoaks.
1884, *Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.
1856, *Pricz, Rev. BartHotomew, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Master
of Pembroke College, Oxford.
1882. {Price, John E., F.S.A. 27 Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
1888, {Pricr, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. Oriel College, Oxford.
1875, *Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.
1891. {Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.
1892. {Prince, Professor Edward E. St. Mungo’s College, Glasgow.
1875. {Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1888. { Prince, Thomas. Horsham-road, Dorking.
1864, er He C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent's Park, London,
1889. *Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Giles, Norwich.
1876. *PritcHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1888. {Probyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, London, 8.W.
1881. §Procter, John William, Ashcroft, Nunthorpe, York.
1863. {Proctor, R.S. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
1885. {Profeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B.
1863. {Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1884, *Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
1879. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road,
Ilfracombe.
1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. Weston, Stevenage, Herts.
1871. *Puckle, Thomas John. 42 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
1873, {Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
1867. *Pullar, Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
1883, *Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Ochil, Perth.
1891, {Pullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 81

lection.

1842. *Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.

1887. §PumpHrey, Witt1am. Lyncombe, Bath.

1885, §Purdie, Thomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

1852. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.I). Belfast.

1881. {Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

1882. {Purrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton

1874, {Pursmr, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

1866. {PurRsER, Professor JoHn, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College
Belfast.

1878. {Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

1884. *Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stafford-place, Oxford-street, Londor, W.

1860. *Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

1883.§§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
1883.§§Pye-Smith, Mrs, 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.

1868.

1879.
1861.

1893.
1894,

1870.
1887.
1870.
1877.
1879.

1855.

1888.
1887.
1864.

1894.

1885,
1863,
1834,

1884,
1861.
1889.
1867.

1876.

1883.
1887.
1835.
1869.

tPyz-Smiru, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy's
Hospital, London, 8.1.

tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

*Pyne, Joseph John. The Willows, Albert-road, Southport.

§Quick, James. University College, Bristol.
§Quick, Professor Walter J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A..

tRabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, London, 8.W.

tRabone, John. Penderell House, Hamstead-road, Birmingham.

TRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.

}Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.

tRadford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.

*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.

*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston.

tRadway,C. W. 9 Bath-street, Bath.

*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester, .

tRainey, James T. 3 Kent-gardens, Ealing, London, W.

Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.

*RamBaut, ArtauR A., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.A.S., M.R.LA,, .
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin,
and Astronomer Royal for Ireland. Dunsink Observatory,
Co. Dublin.

Ramsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.

tRamsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.

tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University

of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.

tRamsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.

tRamsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.

{Ramsay, Major R. G. W. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.

*Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 109 Sinclar-road, West Kensington Park.,

London, W.
*Ramsay, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in,
University College, London, W.C.

tRamsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, London, W.

tRamsbottom, John. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Rance, Henry. 6 Ormonde-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W,

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-

sington, London, 8. W.

1894. F

82

Year of
Election

LIST OF MEMBERS.

1868. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

1893.5
1863.§
1861.

1872.
1889.

1864.
1870.
1892.
1870.
1870.
1874.

1889.
1870.
1866.

1855.

1887.
1875.

1886.
1868.

1883.

1870.
1884.
1852.
1892.

1863.
1889.
1889.
1888.
1890.

1891.
1861.

1889.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1888.
1875.

§Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.
§Ransom, Witt1am Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
t{Ransome, ARTHUR, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Devisdale, Bowdon,
Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 11 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s
Tun, London, W.C.
§Rapkin, J. B. Sidcup, Kent.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W

tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, East Twickenham.

{Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.

§Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

tRathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.

§Rathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.

{Ravenster, HK. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 91 Upper Tulse-hill, London,
S.W

Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.

tRawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

tRawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.

*Raw.inson, Rey. Canon Gurorer, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

*RawLtyson, Major-General Sir Huyry O©., Bart., G.C.B., LL.D.,
E.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.

tRawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.

§Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.

tRawson, W. Stepney, M.A., F.C.S. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-
gate, London, S.W.

*RayieicH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. Queen-street, Lancaster.

*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.

{Reavz, THomas Metiarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E, 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.

*REDFERN, Professor PetER, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.

tRedgrave, Gilbert It., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Grove Lodge, Muswell
Hill, London, N.

tRedmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.

tRedmayve, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.

tRedmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Rednall, Miss Edith E. Ashfield House, Neston, near Chester.

*Redwood, Boverton, I’. R.S.E., F.C.S. 4 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E£.C.

Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.

Reece, Lewis Thomas. Somerset House, Roath, Cardiff.

{Reep, Sir Epwarp J., K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
gardens, London, S.W.

tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

§Rees, I. Treharne, M Inst.C.E. The Elms, Penarth.

tRees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.

tRees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.

tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, London, W.C.

tRees-Mogg, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 83

Year of
Election.

1881,
1883.
1892.

1889.

1876.
1884,

§Reid, Arthur S., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.

*ReEID, Ciement, F'.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.

§Reid, E. Waymouth, B.A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee.

fReid, George, Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
tReid, Rev. James, B.A. Bay City, Michigan, U.S.A.

1892.§§Reid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

1887.
1850.
1895.
1875.

1863.
1894.
1891.
1885.
1889,
1867.
1883.
1871.

1870.

1858.
1887.
1883.
1890.
1858.
1877.
1888.

1884.
1877.

1891.
1891.
1889,

1888.
1863,

1861.
186).
1882.
1884.

1889.
1884.
1870.
1889,

1881.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

tReid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.

§Reinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort.

§Rernotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physical Science in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

{Renats, KE. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.

§Rendall, G. H., M.A., Principal of University College, Liverpool.

§Rendell, Rev. J. R. Whinside, Whalley-road, Accrington.

tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

*Rennie, George B. Hooley Lodge, Redhill.

tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

*Reynolds, A. H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

}Rxryyorps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., M.R.LA.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.

*Reynoips, Ossorne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 23 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§Reynotps, RicwarD, F.C.8. 13 Briggate, Leeds.

tRhodes, George W. The Cottage, Victoria Park, Manchester.

tRhodes, Dr. James. 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.

tRhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.

*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.

*Rhodes, John. 860 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

§Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George’s-road,
London, 8.W.

t{Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.

tRichards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

tRichards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

fRichards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. . Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

*Ricuarpson, Artuur, M.D. University College, Bristol.

tRicwarpson, Sir Bensamrn Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 25
Manchester-square, London, W.

tRichardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.

*Richardson, Charles. 15 Burnaby-gardens, Chiswick, London, W.

§Richardson, Rey. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.

*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, 150 Piccadilly,
London, W.

§Richardson, Hugh. Sedbergh School, Sedbergh R.S.O., York-
shire.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

TRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.

{Richardson, Thomas, J.P." 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Richardson, W. B. Elm Bank, York.

F2

84 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876. §Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

1891. {Riches, Carlton Hl. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

1891. §Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

1886. §Richmond, Robert. Leighton Buzzard.

1868, {RickErrs, CHARLES, M.D.,F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

1877. t{ Ricketts, James, M.D. St. Helens, Lancashire.

*RIDDELL, Major-General CHARLEs J. Bucnanan, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.

Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

1883. *RIpEAL, SAMuEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-mansions, London $.w.

1862. { Ridgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.

1894. §Ripuey, E. P. (Locan Secretary). 6 Paget-road, Ipswich.

1861. {Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1889. {Ridley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.

1884. ¢Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.

1881. *Rigg, Arthur. 7 Portsdown-road, Maida Vale, London, W.

1€83. *Rieae, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, London, E.

1883. {Rigg, F. F., M.A. 82 Queen’s-road, Southport.

1892.§§Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

1878. {Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

*Ripon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.LE.,

D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment,
London, 8. W.

1892. {Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1867. {Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.

1889. {Ritson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1869. *Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.

1888. tRobb, W. J. Firth College, Sheffield.

1869. *Rosnrns, Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.

1878. {Roberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.

1887. *Roberts, Evan. Thorncliffe, 5 York-road, Southport.

1859. {Roberts, George Christopher. Hull.

1870. *Roserts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.

1894. *Roberts, Miss Janora. 5 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1891. { Roberts, Rev. John Crossby, F.R.G.S. 41 Derby-road, East Park,
Northampton.

1881. tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square,
London, E.C.

1879. tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

1879. tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

1883. {Roserts, Sir WiiiiamM, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Manchester-square,
London, W.

1868. *Roperts-AUsTEN, W. CHAnntER, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Chemist to
the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Col-
lege of Science, London. Royal Mint, London, E. 7

1883. tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

1859. {Robertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.

1884. tRobertson, I. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

1871. pBoberteoy, Se M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Atheneum Club, Lon-
don, S.W.

1883. tRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

1883. {Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

1876. {Robertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

3892. {Robertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, lédinburgh.

1888. *Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, &t.
John’s Wood, London, N.W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Election.

1865.

. *Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.

. [ Robinson, Edward E. 56 Dovey-street, Liverpool.

. tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

. }Robinson, Henry. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.

. { Robinson, James. Akroydon Villa, Halifax, Yorkshire.

. { Robinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.

. fRobinson, John. Engineer's Office, Barry Dock, Cardiff.

. {Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.

. {Robinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

. tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

. §Robinson, Richard. Belltield Mill, Rochdale.

. tRobinson, Richard Atkinson, 195 Brompton-road, London, S.W.
. *Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Beechwood, Darlington.
. {Robinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

1891.§§Robinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in

1888.

70.
1576.
1872.
1885.
1894,
1885.
1866.
1867.
1890.

1883.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1876.

1892.
1891.
1894.
1869.
1872.

1881.
1855.

18838.

1892.
1894.
1885.
1874.
1857.
1887.
1880.

1859.

1869.

University College, Nottingham.

tRobottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, London,
N.W.

*Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W.

{ Robson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

*Robson, William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

*Rodger, J. W. 80 Anerley-park, London, 8.E.

*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 John-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.

tRoe, Sir Thomas, M.P. Grove-villas, Litchurch.

tRogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.

tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

§ Rogers, Rey. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.

*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth.

tRogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.

tRotut, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon,
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.

*Romanes, John. 3 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.

{Ronnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Rooper, T. Godolphin. The Elms, High Harrogate.

tRoper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.

*Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G,S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.

*Roper, W.O. Eadenbrecl, Lancaster. :

*Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrrevp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., M.P.,
F.R.S., F.C.S. 10 Bramham-gardens, London, 8.W.

*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 25 Dalebury-road, Upper Tooting, Lon-
don, 8.W.

tRose, Hugh. Kilravock Lodge, Blackford-avenue, Edinburgh.

§Rose, T. K. 9 Royal Mint, London, E.

tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.

tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.

{ Ross, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.

tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.

tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.R.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-

road, London, 8. W.
*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.
*RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.

86

Year of
Election

1891.
1893.§
1865,

1876.
1884,
186].

1861.
1883.
1887.
1881.
1865.
1877.

1890.
1881,
1881.
1876.
1883.

1885.
1888.
1875.

1892.
1869.

1882,
1884.

1887.
13847.

1889.
1875.

1884.
1890.
1883.

1852.
1876.
1886.
1852.

1886,
1888,
1891.
1871.

1887.

1879.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

§Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescott-street, Halifax, Yorks.

§Rothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Rothera, George Bell, F.L.S. Orston House, Sherwood Rise,
Nottingham.

tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasrow.

*Rouse, M. L. 343 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

tRourn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc, F.RS., F.RA.S., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.

tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glascow.

tRowan, Frederick John, 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

Rowe, Rey. Alfred W., M.A., F.G.S. Felstead, Essex.

tRowe, Rev. G. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.

tRowe, Rey. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.

fRown, J. Brooxine, F.LS., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth,

tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 37 St. Mary’s, York.

*Rownrret, J. 8. The Mount, York.

fRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow,

fRoy, Cuarces §., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.

tRoy, Parbati Churn, B.A. Calcutta, Bengal, India.

*Rucker, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Roya)
College of Science, London. (GENERAL TREASURER.) 19 Gled-
how-gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.

§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.

§Rupter, f. W., F.G.8. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.

{Rumball, Thomas, M-Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.

tRuntsz, John. Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.

§Ruscoe, John, F.G.S. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

{Rusxin, Jouy, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.S. Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side,

tRussell, The Right Hon. Farl, Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.

tRussell, Guerre, 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.1.

{Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.

*Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

Russell, John, 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

{Russell, R., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

tRussell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

*Russert, Witr1aM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamiltov-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.

tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester,

*Ruston, Joseph. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln.

§Ruthertord, Genids Garth House, Taff’s Well, Cardiff.

§RurnEerrorD, WitriaM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.

}Rutherford, William, 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.

Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
fRuxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell-
gardens, London, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 87

Year of
Election.

1875. {Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C,

1889. {Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

1865, {Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.

1861. *Ryztanps, THomas GLAzEBROOK, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.

1883. tSadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1871, {Sadler,Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, London, E.C.

1885.§§Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1866. *Sr. AtBANns, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.

1886. §St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle-road, Cardiff.

1x93. Satispury, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT).
20 Arlington Street, London, 8. W.

1881. {Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

1857. {Satmwon, Rev. Gzorez, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.

1883. {Salmond, Robert G. Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

1873. *Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

1872. {Satvry, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hawkstold, Haslemere.

1887. {Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.

1861. *Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

1894, §SAMUELSON, Sir BerNHARD, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. 56 Prince’s-gate,
London, 8.W.

1878. {Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

1883. *Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

1884, {Sanders, Henry. 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada.

1883. {Sanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.

1872. §Sanperson, J.S. Burpon, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford.
64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1883. {Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1893.§§Sanderson, Oundle. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

1892. §Sang, William D. 28 Whyte’s Causeway, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

1886, §Sankey, Percy H. Hill House, Lyndhurst, Hants.

1886. tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.

1886. {Saundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund-street, Birmingham.

1868. {Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

1886. {Saunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

1881. {SaunpERs, Howaprp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, W.

1883. {Saunders, Rev. J.C. Cambridge.

1846. {SaunpErs, TRELAwNEY W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.

1884, {Saunders, William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.

1891. {Saunders, W. H. R. Lilanishen, Carditf.

1884, {Saunderson, C. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

1887. §Savage, Rev. E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Parsonage, Douglas,
Isle of Man.

1871. {Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.

1883. {Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.

1883. {Savery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.

1872. *Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.

1887. §Saycr, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. Queen’s College, Oxford.

1884, {Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

88 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883. *Scarborough, George. Jolly Bank, Halifax, Yorkshire.

1884, {Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

1879, *ScuArer, Ki. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.8., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, London. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.

1883. {Schiifer, Mrs. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.

1888, §ScHARFF, Rosert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

1880. *Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

1892. Schloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, London, S.W.

1842. Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.

1887. {Schofield, T. ‘Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.

1883. {Schotield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1885. §Scholes, L. Eden-terrace, Harriet-street, Stretford, near Man-
chester.

Scnunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,
Manchester.

1873. *ScHusTER, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.

1887. {Schwabe, Colonel G. Salis. Portland Ilouse, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.

1847. *Sctater, Pure Lurizy, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.

1883. *Scrarer, WiiLram Luriry, M.A., F.Z.S. Eton College, Windsor.

1867. {Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

1881. *Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. University Chemical Laboratory,
Cambridge.

1882. {Scott, Colonel A.deC.,R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

1878. *Scott, Arthur William, M A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David's College, Lampeter.

1881.§§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angus. Lancashire College, Whalley Range,
Manchester.

1889. §Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Old Palace, Rich-
mond, Surrey.

1885. {Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.

1886. {Scott, Robert. 161 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.

1857. *Scorr, Roperr H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.S., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8S. W.

1884. *Scott, Sydney C. 15 Queen-street, Cheapside, London, E.C.

1869. {Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.

1881. *Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.

1883, {Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

1890.§§Searle, G. F. C., B.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

1859. {Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.

1880. {Sepewrck, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1880. {Szrnonm, Henry, F.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 22 Courtfield-gardens,
London, 8S. W.

1861. *SrrLry, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.

1893.§§SELBy-Biecr, L. A., M.A. University College, Oxford.

1891. {Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.

1855. {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

1879. {Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.

1885.§§Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. &9
of

Election.

1887.
1873.
1892.
1888.

1858.
1888.

1870.

1892

1888.
1875.
1892.
1891.
1868.
1891.
1888.
1883.

1871.
1867.
1881.
1869.
1878.

1886.

1883.
1870.
1865.
1887.
1870.
1891.
1889.

1887
1888

1883.
1891.
1884.
1878.

1865.
1881.
1885.
1885.
1890.

1888.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1888.
1886.

§Semple, James C., F.R.G.S., M.R.I.A. 2 Marine-terrace, Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.

{Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.

jSemple, William. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

*Senrer, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F'.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

*Senior, George. Old Whittington, Chesterfield.

*Sennett, Allred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. The Chalet, Portinseale-road,
Putney, S.W.

*Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

.§§Seton, Miss Jane. 87 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.

tSeville, Miss M. A. Blythe House, Southport.

tSeville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport.

tSeward, A. C.,M.A., F.G.S. 33 Chesterton-road, Cambridge.

t{Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.

tShackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tShackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.

{Shadwell, John Lancelot. 80 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, London, W.

*Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, London, S.W.

tShanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.

{Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.

*Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.

{Smarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge. ;

Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Waketield.
{Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rev. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-

shire.

tSharples, Charles H., F.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston.

tShaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.

tShaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.

*Shaw, James B. Holly Bank, Cornbrook, Manchester.

{Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.

{Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, London, E.C.

*Shaw, Mrs. M.S., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.

.§§Shaw, Saville, F.C.S. College of Science, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

. *SHaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.

t{Shaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.

tSheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.

{Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.

{Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

{Suenstone, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.

{Shepherd, Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen.

{Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds,

{Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.

{Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

{Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

tSherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vid Lancaster.

*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.

{Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, London, S.W.

90 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1892. tShields, John, D.Se., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.

1883. *Shillitoe, ya, FRCS. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, Lon-
don, E.C.

1867. tShinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey, S.W.

1887. *Saiptey, ArtHuR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1889. {Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.

1885, {Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.

1870. *SHooLBRED, JAMES N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 47 Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.

1888. {Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.

1888.§§Shoppee, G. A., M.A., LL.D, 61 Doughty-street, London, W.C.

1875, {SHore, THomas W., .G.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.

1882, {SHorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.

1889. {Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Upper Brook-street, London, W.

1883. {Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.

1888. *Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson, M.P. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1885. *Stpawick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge, Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

1873. *Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.

1878. {SiceRson, Professor Groreb, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Clare-
street, Dublin.

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh,

1862, {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C,

1874. {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.

1876. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.

1887. *Simon, Henry. Lawnhurst, Didsbury, near Manchester.

1847, {Simon, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Consulting
Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital, 40 Kensington-square,
London, W. *

1866. {Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.

1893.§§Simpson, A. H., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottinghamshire.

1871. *Simpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1883. {Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1887. {Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

1859. {Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

1857. {Sumpson, MaxweEtt, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 9 Barton-street,
West Kensington, London, W.

1894. §Simpson, Thomas. Fennymbre, Ealing, London, W.

1883. {Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.

1887. {Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.

1874. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.

1870. *Sinclair, W. P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1864, *Sircar, The Hon. Mohendra Lal, M.D., C.1.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.

1892.§§Sisley, Richard, M.D. 11 York-street, Portman-square, London, W.

1879. {Skertchly, Sydney B. J., F.G.S. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshal-
ton, Surrey.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 91

Year of

Election.

1883. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
1885. {Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.

1892. {Skinner, William. 35 George-square, Edinburgh.

1888,
1870.

1873.
1889.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1884,
1849.
1887.

1887.

1881,
1885.
1889,
1858.
1876.
1877.

1890.
1876.
1876.

1867.
1892.

1892.
1872.
1874.

1887.
1873.
1887.
1889,

1865.
1886.
1886,
1886.
1886.
1892,
1866,
1887.
1892.

1885.

1860,

1870.
1889,

§Sxring, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.

§Stappn, Watrrr Percy, F.G.S., F.L.8. 18 Hyde Park-gate, Lon-
don, S.W.

{Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.

§Slater, Matthew B., F.L.8. Malton, Yorkshire.

{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

{Sleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Clifton, Bristol,

§Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.

tSlooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.

§Small, Evan W., M.A., F.G.S. County Council Offices, Newport,

Monmouthshire.

§Small, William. Cuavendish-crescent North, The Park, Notting-
ham.

{Smallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport.

§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.

*Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow,

tSmecton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.

{Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

{Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.

§Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.

{Smieton, James, Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

{Smieton, John G. 38 Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham,
London, 8.W.

{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

{Smirn, ADAM Gites, F.R.S.E. 35 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edin-
burgh.

{Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Wabash College, Craw-
fordsville, Indiana, U.S.A.

*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead

_ Heath, London, N.W.

*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.

{Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.

*Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.

*Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc. F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras.

{Smirx, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

{Smith, Edwin. 83 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

{Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.

{Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.

{Smith, KE, Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.

*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.

§Smaitu, Rev. F. J., M.A., F.R.S, Trinity College, Oxford.

{Smith, Rev. Frederick. 16 Grafton-street, Glasgow.

{Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 21 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.

{Smith, H. L. Crabwal! Hall, Cheshire.

*Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 49 Beaumont-square,
London, I.

92

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.
1885.
1876.

1883.

1837.
1885.

1870.
1866.
1873.
1867.
1867.
1859.

1894.
1884.
1892.
1885.
1887.
1852.
1875.
1876.
1883,

1883.
1883.
1892.

1882.
1874,
1850.
1883.
1874.
1887.

1888.
1888.
1887.
1878.
1889,
1879.
1892.
1859,

1879.
1892.

1888.

1826.

t{Smith, I. W. Owens College, Manchester.

t{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.

*Smith, J. Guthrie. 54 West Nile-street, Glasgow.

Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Buridge,

Shropshire.

{Smith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax.

Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

{SmirH, Ropert H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Birmingham.

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

t{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C.

t{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Smith, Thomas. Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

t{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.8., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, Kast York-
shire.

§Smith, T. Walrond. 45 Selborne-road, Brighton.

tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.

tSmith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Watson. University College, London, W.C.

t{Smith, Dr. Wilberforce. 14 Stratford-place, London, W.

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.

{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{SmirHetts, ARTHUR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Yorl-
shire College, Leeds,

t{Smithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York.

{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.

§Smithson, G. E. T. Tyneside Geographical Society, Barras Bridge,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.

tSmoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

*Suryra, Caries Prazzt, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.

{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.

{Smyth, Henry. Eastern Villa, Newcastle, Co. Down, Ireland.

*Suyra, Joun, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

*Snavg, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.

{Snell, Albion ‘I’. Brightside, Salusbury-road, Brondesbury, London,
N.W.

{Snell, Rev. Bernard J.. M.A. 5 Park-place, Broughton, Man-
chester.

§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.

tSnell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, S. W.

*Sotzas, W. J., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity College,
and Dartry Park-road, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Somervail, Alexander. Torquay.

Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.

*Sorsy, H. Cuirron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheffield.

{Sorley, James, F.R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

tSorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.

tSouthall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-
ham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 98

Year of
Election,
1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
1859. tSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.

1887.
1888.

1890.
1863.
1893.
1889.
1837.
1884,
1889.
1891.
1868.

1864,
1894.
1864,
1878.
1864.
1854.
1883.
1888.

1884.
1877.

1888.
1884.
1892.

1883.
1865.
1881.

1883.
1894,

§Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 44 Brown-street, Manchester.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.

{Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

*Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.

*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

tSpence, Faraday. 67 Grey-street, Hexham.

{Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

§Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.

*Spencer, John. Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Spencer, Richard Evans. 6 Working-street, Cardiff.

*Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.

*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, Iigh-
bury, London, N.

§Spiers, A. H. Newton College, South Devon.

*Sprrier, JoHn, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.

§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, S.W.

*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, London,

W

S.W.

*Spracuz, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 26 St. Andrew-
square, Edinburgh.

{Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.

{Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, London, E.C.

*Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.

{Squvare, Wi1Lt1AM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S, 4 Portland-square, Plymouth.

*Squire, Lovell. 5 Munster-terrace, Fulham, London, S.W

*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 7 and 8 Paternoster-row, London, E.C,

tStancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of En-
gineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. 49 May-
field-road, Edinburgh.

*Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.

{Sranrorp, Epwarp ©. C., F.C.8. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.

*Stanley, William Ford, F.GS. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.

{Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.

§Stansfield, Alfred. Royal Mint, London, E.

1893.§§Staples, Sir Nathaniel. Lisson, Cookstown, Ireland.

1883.
1876.

1894.

1873.
1881.
1881.
1884,
1892.

1891.
1873.

Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
{Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe.
tStarling, John Henry, F.C.S. 3 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
§Stavert, Rev. W. J., M.A., F.C.S. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-
Craven, Yorkshire.
*Stead, Charles. Red Barn, Freshfield, Liverpool.
{Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
{Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, I.
{Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada,
§Sresprne, Rev. Toomas R. R., M.A. Ephraim Lodge, The Cormon,
Tunbridge Wells.
{Steeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
{Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire,

94

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1887.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1884,

1879.
1870.

1880.
1886.
1892.

1863.
1889.
1890.

1885.
1887.
1892.
1864,

1885.
1886.
1887.

{Steinthal, Rev. S. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.

tStelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.

{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

“Seeunens Ke Hudson. Lowville (P.O.), State of New York,

*STEPHENSON, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.

*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. 23 Elm Grove-terrace, London-road,
Salisbury.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Ie Mayals, near Swansea.

{Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester.

{Stevenson, D, A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.

*SrEvENSON, JAmus C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields,

tStevenson, T. Shannon. Westoe, South Shields.

*Steward, Rev. Charles J., F.R.M.S. Somerleyton Rectory, Lowes-
toft.

*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.

*Stewart, A. H. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, S.E.

tStewart, C. Hunter. +3 Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Srewart, Cuares, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, London,
S.E

tStewart, David. Banchory Ilouse, Aberdeen.

*Stewart, Duncan. 12 Montgomerie-crescent, Kelvinside, Glaszow.

{Stewart, George N. Physiological Laboratory, Owens College, Muan-
chester.

. *Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near

Clifton, Gloucestershire.

. §Stewart, Samuel, Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.

. [Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George's-road, Glasgow.
. {Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

. {Srrmerine, Wirrt1aM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology

in the Owens Collere, Manchester.

. *Stirrup, Mark, I'.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

. *Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred's, Walmer.

. {Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.

. *Srockrr, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian

Engineering College. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

. {Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
. *Sroxrs, Sir Grorer Gaprret, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc.,

F.R.S., [ucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.

. {Stone, E. D., F.C.8. 19 Lever-street, Piccadilly, Manchester.
. {Sronz, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the

Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

. Stone, J.B. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
. {Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
. {Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,

Temple, London, F.C.

. {Stonz, Jonn. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.
. [Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. 49 Bolsover-street, Regent's Park,

London, N.W.

. {Stone, Thomas William. 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush,

London, W.

. {Sronegy, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M-Inst.C.E., M.R.I.A., Engineer

of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

. *Stoney, G. Gerald. 90 Meldon-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 95

Year of
Election.

1861.

1876.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1873.

1884.
1888.
1874,
1871.

1881.

1876.
1863.
1889.
1882.
1881.

1889.

1879.
1884.
1859.
1883.
1887.

1887.
1876.

1878.
1876.
1872.

1892.
1884.
1893.
1888.
1885.
1879.
1891.

1884.
1887.
1888.
1883.
1878.
1863.
1886.
1892.
1884.

*Sronry, GrorcE Jounstonz, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 8
Upper Hornsey Rise, London, N.

§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. 31 Torrington-square, London, W.C.

tStopes, Mrs. 31 Torrington-square, London, W

{Storer, Edwin. Woodlands, Crumpsall, Manchester.

*Storey, H. L. Caton, near Lancaster.

§Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.

§Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

*Stothert, Perey K. Audley, Park-gardens, Bath.

{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

“SrracuEy, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., C.S.I., LL.D., F.RS.,
F.R.GS., F.L.S., F.G.S. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, Lon-
don, W.

{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, 8S. W.

{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

tStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

{Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mill-on-Tyne.

{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.

{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.

§Streatfeild, H. S. The Limes, Leigham Court-road, Streatham,
S.W.

*Strickland, Charles. 21 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.

{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.

tStronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.

§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

*Stroud, Professor H., M.A., D.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

*Srroup, Wi114M, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.

*STRUTHERS, JoHN, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy in
a University of Aberdeen. 24 Buckingham-terrace, Edin-

urgh.

tStrype, W.G. Wicklow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

*Stuart, Rev. Edward A., M.A. St. Matthew, Bayswater, 5 Prince’s-
square, London, W.

tStuart, Morton Gray, M.A. Ettrickbank, Selkirk.

{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

§§Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Stubbs, Rev. Elias T., M.A. 4 Springfield-place, Bath.

§Stump, Edward C. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.

*Styring, Robert. 5 Leopold-street, Sheffield.

*Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. 9 Park-grove, Wordsworth-road,
Birmingham.

tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

tSumpner, W. I. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, London, E.

{Sunderland, John E. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.

tSutcliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.

{Sutclilffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

{Sutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Trne.

{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. 5

§Sotherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.

{Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.

96 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1863. {Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
1889. {Sutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1891. alas George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.
1881. {Swales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.
1876. {Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.
1881. §Swan, JosepH Witson, M.A., F.R.S. Lauriston, Bromley, Kent.
*SwanseA, The Right Hon. Lorp, F.G.S._ Park Wern, Swansea;
and 27 Belgrave-square, London, 8.W.
1879. {Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.
1883. {Sweeting, Rev. T. HE. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.
1887. §SwInBURNE, JAwEs. 4 Hatherley-road, Kew Gardens, London.
1870. *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Capheaton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1885. {Swindells, Miss. Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
1887. *Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
1873. *Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
1890. §SwmvHog, Colonel C. Avenue House, Oxford.
1891.§§Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.
1889. §Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S. The Municipal Technical School,
Gravesend.
1873. {Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
1887. *Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, London, S.W.
1890. tSykes, Joseph. 118 Beeston-hill, Leeds.
1887. *Sykes, T. H. Cheadle, Cheshire.
SyLvEstER, JAMES JosEPH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. New
College, Oxford.
1893.§§Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.
1870. Symes, Ricwarp Guascort, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
1885. {Symington, Johnson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.
1881. *Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.
1859. SPURNED J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, London,

1855. *Symons, Witt1am, F.C.S. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton.

1886. §Symons, W. H., F.LC., F.R.M.S. 180 Fellowes-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.

1872. {Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.R.GS. United Service
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

1865. tTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.

1877. *Tarr, Lawson, F.R.C.S. The Crescent, Birmingham.

1871. {Tarr, Perer Gururieg, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.

1867. {Tait, P. oe F.S.8. 37 Charlotte-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.

1894, §Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.

1890. {Talbot, Rev. E.S. The Vicarage, Leeds.

1893.§§Talbot, Herbert, M.IL.E.E. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham.

1891. {Tamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.

1891. {Tanner, Colonel H. C. B., F.R.G.S. Fiésole, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

1890. {Tanner, H. W. Luoyp, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 97

Year of
Election,

1892.

*Tansley, Arthur G. 167 Adelaide-road, London, N.W,

1883. §Tapscott, R. L., F.G.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

1878. ¢Tarpry, Hveu. Dublin.

1861 *Tarratt, Henry W. St. Augustine, Southbourne, Christchurch, Hants.
1857. *Tate, Alexander. Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.

1893.§§Tate, George, Ph.D., F.C.S. College of Chemistry, Duke-street,

1890.
1858.
1884.

1887.
1874.
1887.

1881.

1884.
1882.
1887.
1861.

1873.
1881.
1865.
1876.
1°84,
12881,
1883.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1893.
1894.
1884.
1858.
1885.

1879.
1880.

1863,
1889.
1894.
1882.
1881.
1892.
1883.
1883.
1882,

1885.
1871.
1871.

1894.

Liverpool.
tTate, Thomas, F.G.S. 5 Eldon-mount, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds.
*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.
Taylor, Frederick, Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire,
§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Kecles New-road, Salford.
{Taylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.

tTaylor, George Spratt, F.C.S. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W.

*Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, London
S.W.

*Taylor, H. M.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. 17 Castlegate, Nottingham,

t¢Taytor, Rey. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. The Old Palace, Richmond,
Surrey.

tTaylor, John Ellor, Ph.D., F.LS., F.GS. The Mount, Ipswich.

*Tavlor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.

{Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.

*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

tTaylor, Rev. 8. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.

tTaylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.

{Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

§Taylor, W. F. Boswell Court, Croydon, Surrey.

*Taylor, W. W. 10 King-street, Oxford.

tTaylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.

{TeAtzE, THomas Prinein, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street, Leeds,.

{Tratt, J. J. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.

tTemple, Lieutenant George T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near
Worcester.

{Tewere, Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.CS.1L, C.LE., D.C.L., LL.D.,
M.P., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, London, S.W.

tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

§Terras, J. A., B.Sc. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.

§Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

{Terry, Sir Joseph. Hawthorn Villa, York.

*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Tetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

{Tetley, Mrs.C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

*Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Gower-street, London, W.C.

{Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W.

{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.

{TutsEtton-Drer, W. T., C.M.G.,O.LE., M.A., B.Sce., Ph.D.,F.R.S

F.L.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.

G

a

98

Year of

Blection.

1870.
1891.
1871.
1891.

1891.
1891.
1891.
1883.

1884,

1875.
1869.
1881.
1892,

1869.
1891.

1880.

1883.
1388.
1886.
1886.§

1875.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1882.
1888.

1885.

1883.
1891.
1859.
1893.

1870.
1889,
1883.

1891.
1891.
1883.

1891.
1861.
1876.
1883.
1876.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

t¢Thom, Robert Wilson, Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

{Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

{Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.

t¢Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

*Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O.

{Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.

§Thomas, E. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.

t Thomas, Ernest C., B.A. 13 South-square, Gray's Inn, London,
W.c.

{Tnomas, F. WotrerstaN. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.

Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.

tThomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

§THomas, J. Buount. Southampton.

{Thomas, J. C., B.Sc. Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Car-

marthen.
t¢Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.
${Thomas, John Tubb, L.R.C.P. Iastfields, Newport, Monmouth-

shire.

*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Drumpellier, Brunswick-road,
Gloucester.

§Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.

{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

t{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

§Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.

{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton,

{Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

{Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.

{Thompson, Charles O, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.

{Thompson, D’Arcy W., B.A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee. University College, Dundee.

*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon,

t{Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.

{Thompson, George, jun. 5 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, London, S.W.

Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.

{THompson, Sir Henry. 385 Wimpole-street, London, W.

t Thompson, Henry. 2 Eslington-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.

Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near Yori.

tThompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.

{Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.

*THompson, Isaac Cooxg, F'.L.S., F.R.M.S. Woodstock, Waverley-
road, Liverpool.

t¢Thompson, J. Tatham. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.

“THOMPSON, JosEPH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.

*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

t{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

t$Iuompson, Srtvanus Puitries, B.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.AS..
Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of
London Institute, Finsbury Technical Institute, K.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 99

Year of

Election.

1883. *Thompson, T. II. Ifeald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

1867. {Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

1894, §Thomson, Arthur, M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

1889. *Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1868. §THomson, Jamus, F.G.S. 6 Stewart-street, Shawlands, Glasgow.

1876.
1891.

t¢Thomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
{Thomson, John. 70 Grosvenor-street, London, W.

1890.§§Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Zoology at the

1883.
1871.

1886.
1863.
1874.

1880.
1871.
1886.
1887.
1867.
1883.
1845.
1881.
1871.
1881.
1864,

1871.

1883,
1868.

1889.
1870.

1873.
1874.

1873.
1883.
1883.
1865.
1876.
1891.
1889.
1887.
1857.
1888.
1864,

1887,

School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 30 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.

{THomson, J. J., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in
the University of Cambridge. 6 Scrope Terrace, Cambridge.

*“THomson, Jonn Mirxar, F.C.S8., Professor of Chemistry in King’s
College, London. 53 Prince’s-square, London, W.

{Thomson, Joseph. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

{Thomson, Murray. 44 Victoria-road, Gipsy Hill, London, 8.E.

§THomson, WitiaM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Mans
chester.

§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

tThornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

§Thornley, J. E. Lyndon, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.

{Thornton, John. 38 Park-street, Bolton.

{Thornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.

§Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.

{Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lypiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham,

{Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

{Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.

*Thorp, Josiah. 87 Selborne-street, Liverpool.

*THorr, WILLIAM, B.Sc., F.0.S. 24 Crouch Hall-road, Crouch End,
London, N.

{Tuorrr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Principal Chemist
of the Government Laboratories, Somerset House, London,
W.C.

§Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 12 London-street, Southport,

{Tuourtirer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., C.S.1., F-RS., F.R.G.S
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.

{Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.

fTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S,, M.R.I.A. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

*Tippeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.

{Trtpey, Wirtram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London,
S.W.

{Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.

{Tillyard, A. I., M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.

{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.

tTodd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E.

§Todd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.

§Toll, John M. Carlton House, Kirkby, near Liverpool.

tTolmé, Mrs. Melrose House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

{Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

{Tomkins, Rey. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

*Tomiinson, Cuares, F.R.S,, F.C.S. 7 North-road, Highgate,
London, N.

{Tonge, Rev. Canon. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.

G2

100

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election,

1887.
1866.

1865.
1873.

1887.
1886.
1875.

1886.
1884.
1884.

1873.
i875.
1861.
1877.
1876.
1883,
1870.

1875.
1868,

1891.

1884.
1868.
1891.

1887.
1883.
1884.
1884.

1879.
1877.
1871.
1860.

1884.

{Tonge, James. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.

tTonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood, Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.

*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.

*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal Schoo! of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.

tTopham, F. 15 Great George-street, London, 8S.W.

{Topley, Mrs. W. 15 Havelock-road, Croydon.

tTorr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.

tTorr, Charles Waller. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham.

{Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada.

*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,

Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.

}Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tTownsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

tTownsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.

{Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.

*Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

{Tratrt, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

{TRAILL, Witmm A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Treland.

tTrapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.

{Traqvarr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Natural History ’ Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh.

{Trayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, near Newport, Monmouth-
shire,

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Tartlepool.

tTrehane, Jobn. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

}Treharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.

Trench, F. A. Newlands House. Clondalkin, Ireland.
*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.
tTrendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.
tTrenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
cP iooas to C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,

S.A.

{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

tTrimen, Hunry, M.B., F.R.S., F.LS. Peradeniya, Ceylon.

{Trmmen, Roranp, F. R. Sipe i S., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary's
Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

§TRISTRAM, Rev, Henry Baker, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S8., Canon
of Durham. The College, Durham.

*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 22 Cottesmore-gardens, Victoria-road,
Kensington, London, W.

. §Trorrer, Courts, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 17 Charlotte-square, Edin-

burgh.

. {Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

. *Trouton Frederick T., M.A.., DSc., Trinity College, Dublin.
. TTroyte, C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.

. *Tubby, A. H. Guy’s Hospital, London, S.E.

. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

, tTuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.

Tuke, James H. Bancroft, Hitchin.

. tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
. [Tuke, W.C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 101

Year of
Election.

1883.

{Turrer, The Ion. Sir Coartes, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B., High Com-
missioner for Canada. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.

1892.§§Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawicix.

1855.
1893.
1891.
1882.
1883.
1894.

1888.
1886.

1863.

t¢Turnbull, John. 387 West George-street, Glaszow.

§Turner, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.

{Turner, Miss E. R. Ipswich.

tTurner, G. S. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.

t Turner, Mrs. G. S. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.

*Turner, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., Sec. R.A.S., Professor of Astronomy
in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.

t{Turner, J. S., J.P. Granville, Lansdowne, Bath.

*TurnER, THomss, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.C. County Offices,
Stafford.

*TURNER, Sir Witt1aM, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Kton-
terrace, Edinburgh.

1893.§§Turney, Sir Jonny, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

1890

1885.
1884.
1884.
1886.
1888.
1882.

1865.

1885.
1861.

1884.
1888.
1886,
1885.
1883.
1883.

1876.

1887.
1872.
1876.
1859.

1866.
1880.

1885.
1887.
1888.
1884.

1883.

*Turpin, G.8., M.A., D.Sc. 2 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.

{Turrell, Miss S. 8S. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol.

*Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.

*Tweddell, Ralph Hart. Meopham Court, Gravesend, Kent.

*Twige,G.H. 56 Claremont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Tyack, Llewellyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

§Tyer, Edward. Horneck, 16 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, London,
N.W.

§Tytor, Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the
University Museum, Oxford.

{Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Garden-wharf, Battersea, London, 8. W.

*Tysoe, John. Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

tUnderhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.

tUnderhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.

§Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, Loudcu.

§Unwin, John. FEastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

§Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, near Liver-
pool,

*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W.

tUpton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

tUpward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, London, W.

{Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

{Urquhart, bE Pollard. COraigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Treland.

{tUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

{Ussuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.

t{Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

{Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.

{Van Horne, Sir W. C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.

*Vansittart, ‘the Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

102

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Blection,

1886.
1868.

1865.
1870.
1869.
1884.
1887.

1875.
1885.
1881.
1873.

1883.
1883.
1864.
1890.

1868.
1883.

1891.

1886.
1860.
1890.

1888.
1890,
1891.
1884.

1886.
1870,
1892.
1884,
1891.
1891.
1894,
1882.
1893.
* 1890.
1885,
1885,

tVarpy, Rey. A. R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.

tVarley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newineton, London, N.

*VaARLEY, 8S. ALFRED. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

tVarley, Mrs. 8. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.

tVarwell, P. Alphingeton-street, Exeter.

tVasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, London, W.

*VauGHaNn, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop's House, Carlisle-
place, Westminster, 8.W.

tVaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

tVaughan, William, 42 Sussex-road, Southport.

§Vetey, V. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.

*Veryey, Sir Epuunp H., Bart., R.N., F.R.G.S. Claydon House,
Winslow, Bucks.

*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

tVernon, H. H., M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Vicary, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

*Villamil, Major R, de, R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Char-
ing Cross, London, 8. W.

tVincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.

*Vives, Sypnry Howarp, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Vivian Stephen. Llantrisant.

*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.

tWaddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.

t{ Wadsworth, George Henry. 38 Southfield-square, Bradford, York-
shire.

tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

§WaceER, Harotp W.T. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

tWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

{ Wait, Charles‘E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.

tWaite, J. W. The Cedars, Besteot, Walsall.

{ Wake, CHARLES STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire.

tWaleot, John. 50 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

tWaldstein, Charles, M.A., Ph.D. Cambridge.

tWales, H. T. Pontypridd.

{ Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.

§ Walford, Edwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.

*Walkden, Samuel. 8% West End-terrace, Winchester.

§ Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay.

§ Walker, A. Tannett. Hunslet, Leeds.

} Walker, Mr, Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.

{ Walker, Charles Clement, F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport,
Shropshire.

1883.§§ Walker, Mrs. Emma. 18 Lendal, York.

1883,
1891.
1883.
1894,
1866.
1890.
1894,
1885.

tWalker, E.R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.

§ Walker, Frederick W. Hunslet, Leeds.

{Walker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool.

§WatkeEr, GT. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tWalker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.

tWalker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee.

*Walker, James, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

tWatxrR, General J. T.,°C.B, RE., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.GS,
13 Cromwell-road, London, 8. W.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 103

of

Election.

1866

1855.

1867.
1886.
1866.
1884,

1888

1887.
1885.

1881.
1883,
1863.

1892.
1887.

1889.
1883.
1884.
1886.

1883.
1894.
1887.
1891,

1883.
1862.

1881.
1863.
1884.
1887.
1874.
1881.
1879,

1890.
1874.
1887.
1857.

. *Watrer, Joun Francis, M.A., F.C.S.,F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham,
York.

{Waxker, Joun James, M.A., F.RS. 12 Denning-road, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.

*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.

*Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.

{Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.

{Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, S.E.

.§§Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.

{Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.

{Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.

Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

*Walker, William. 18 Lendall, York.

{Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

t{Wattacz, Atrrep Russet, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S, Corfe
View, Parkstone, Dorset.

{Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

*WaLterR, Aveustus, M.D., F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove End-
road, London, N.W.

*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.

{Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.

{Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.

Wallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Westfield, Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

t{Walmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.

*Walmisley, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, London, 8,W.

tWalmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.

§ Walmsley, Professor R. M., D.Sc. Heriot Watt College, Edin
burgh.

{Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.

{Watpotz, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W. .

{ Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.

{Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W,

tWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.

{ Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Owens College, Manchester.

§Ward, F. D., J.P., MR.L.A. Wyncroft, Adelaide Park, Belfast.

§Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

tWarp, H. Marswatt, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in
the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill,
Egham.

{ Ward, "tiaenttd John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.

§ Ward, John, F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.

§Warp, Joun, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.

{Ward, John S. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

1880, *Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford,
S.E

1884.
1883.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1858.

*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.

{Ward, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool.

{Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,
t{ Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.
{Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.

1884.§§ Wardwell, George J. Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.

1887
1878

. *Waring, Richard S. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
. §Warrineton, Rozsert, F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Albans,
Herts.

104

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1882,
1884,
1875.
1887,

{ Warner, F. 1., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester,

*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

{ Warren, Algernon. 6 Windsoyr-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

tWaRrREN, Major-General Sir CHartes, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.

1893.§§ Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.

1875.

1870.
1892.
1875.

1881.
1887.
1884.
1886.

1883,

1892.
1885.

1882.
1887.
1884.
1889.
18653.
1865.
1867.
1892.
1879.

1894.
1882.
1884.
1869.
1888.
1891.

1875.
1884,
1870.

1873.
1883,

1891.
1869.
1885.
1871.
1890.
1866.

1886.

*Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. 40 MHamilton-terrace, London,
Tr tA

tWaters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.

{Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh.

{ Watherston, Rey. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Yhe Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.

§Watherston, E. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, 8. W.

{Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, London, W.

{Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

*Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Bottville-road, Acock’s Green, Bir-
mingham.

{Watson, C. Knight, M.A. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House,
London, W.

§Watson, G. 9 Victoria-chambers, South Parade, Leeds.

{Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

{Warson, Rev. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry.

{ Watson, J. Beauchamp. Gilt Hall, Carlisle.

tWatson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

t Watson, John, F.I.C. 5 Loraine-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

{ Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

t+ Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

t}Watson, Thomas Donald. 23 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, F.C.

§Watson, William, M.D. Slateford, Midlothian.

*Warson, Witt1aAm Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones, Cumber-
land.

*Watson, W. 20 Rosetti-mansions, London, 8.W.

{Watt, Alexander. 89 Hartington-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

tWatt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Watt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.

+Warts, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.

*Watts, E. Hannay, F.R.G.S. Springfield, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.

*Warrs, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

*Watts, Rey. Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.

§Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.

*Warts, W. Marswatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.

§ Watts, W. W., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.; and Corndon, Worcester-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

{Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.

t{Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

tWebb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

tWebb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.

tWebb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, London, N.W.

*Wess, WitLIAM FREDERICK, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.

§WesBER, Major-General C. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Egerton-
gardens, London, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 105

Year of
Election.

1891.§§ Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.

1859.
1834.
1882.

1889.

1884.

1889.
1890.

1886.
1866.

1894.
1876,

1880.
1881.

1879.
1881.
1894.
1883.
1887.
1850.
1881.

1864,
1886.

1865.

1853.
1853.
1853.
1882.
1882.
1875.

1882.
1884,
1885.

1888,
1853.

1866,
1884.

1883.

tWebster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.

t Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.

*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, LL.D., Q.C., M.P. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, London, 8. W.

* Webster, William, F.C.S. 50 Lee Park, Lee, Kent.

*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Karlsruhe.

tWeeks, John G. Bedlington.

§Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.

tWeiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.

tWelch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, London, 8. W.

§ Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham Gardens, Oxford.

*We pon, W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London. 304 Wim-
pole-street, London, W.

*Weldon, Mrs. 380A Wimpole-street, London, W.

§Wellcome, Henry S, First Avenue Hotel, Holborn, London,
W.C.

§Wetts, Coartes A., A.I.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.

§ Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

§ Wells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.

tWelsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.

*Welton, T. A. Rectory House-grove, Clapham, London, S.W.

tWemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.

*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. 8 Great Cumberland-place, Lon-
don, W.; and Escrick Park, Yorkshire.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.

§ Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., ¥.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

{tWesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, London, W.

tWest, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.

{ West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

t West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.

*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Vale of Health, Hampstead, N.W.

{Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

*Weston, Sir Joseph D., M.P. Dorset House, Clifton Down,
Bristol.

}WerHeReD, Epwarp, F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-

am.
tWharton, KE. R., M.A. 4 Broad-street, Oxford.

*Wauarron, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.RS., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S.,
Hydrographer to the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-road, Wim-
bledon Park, Surrey.

{Wheateroft, William G. 6 Widcombe-terrace, Bath.

{ Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.

pee Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,

W

tWheeler, Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
USA

*Wheeler, George Brash. Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham,
Kent.

106

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1878.
1888.

1888.
1893.
1888.
1888.
1879,

1874.
1883.
1859,

1884,

1886,
1886.

1876.
1886,
1888.
1882.

1885.
18738.
1859.
1888.
1865.
1884,
1859,
1877.
1883.
1886,
1861.
1883.
1884,
1893.

1881.
1852.

1891.

*Wheeler, W. II., M.Inst.C.E. Boston, J.incolnshire.
§Whelen, John Leman. Bank House, 16 Old Broad-street, London,
E.C

{Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*WauerHam, W.C.D., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

*WuHIDBoRNE, Rey. Grorcr Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. St. George's
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, London, S.W.

{ Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Terrace, Belfast.

*Whitaker, T. Savile Heath, Halifax.

*Wuitaker, Witt, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and 83 East Park-
terrace, Southampton.

{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{ Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.

tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham,

{White, Angus. TEasdale, Argyllshire.

{ White, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, London, W.

}White, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.

{White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton,

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, near Dundee.

{TWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

{Wutre, Joun Forzes. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.

{ White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

{White, Joseph. Regent-street, Nottingham.

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.

tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

*White, William. 8 Albemarle-street, London, W.

*White, Mrs. 8 Albemarle-street, London, W.

*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.

*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. 99 New John-street West, Birmingham.

{ Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.

| Whiteley, Joseph. Huddersfield.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.1.C, 289 Woodborough-road, Not-
tincham. :

{ Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

{Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.

Whitley, Rev. Canon C. T., M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington Vicarage,
Northumberland.

eat Charles Thomas, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 47 Park-place,

ardiff.

. *Wuirry, Rey. Joun Irwins, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 1 Rodbourne-

villas, Crescent-road, Ramsgate.

. | Whitwell, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

. *Whitwill, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.

. [Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.

. [Whitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, London, W.
. §Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.

. [Wickham, Rev. F. D. CO. Horsington Rectory, Bath.

. |Wiggin, Sir Henry, Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birming-

ham,

. | Wiggin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
. | Wigglesworth, Alfred. Gordondale House, Aberdeen.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 107

Year of
Election.

1883.
1881.
1878.
1883.
1889.
1881.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1857.

t{ Wigglesworth, Mrs. Ingleside, West-street, Scarborough.

* Wigglesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate,
}Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

{ Wigner, G. W. Plough-court, 37 Lombard-street, London, E.C,
*Wilberforce, L. R., M. A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Wierrrorce, W.W. Fishergate, York.

t{Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*WILDE, Heyny, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester,
Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.

TWilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.

1892.§§ Wilkinson, Rev. J. Frome. Kivington Rectory, Orston, Nottingham,

1886.
1879.
1887.
1872.
1890.
1872.
1891.
1861.

1887.
1883.
1861.
1875.

1883,
1857.
1888,
1891.
1887.
1888,

1875.
1879.
1891,
1886.
1883.
1883.
1888.
1877.
1883.
1850.

1857.

1876.
1863.

1882.
1859,

1886,
1886.
1885.

*Wilkinson, J. H. Corporation-street, Birmingham.

{ Wilkinson, Joseph. York.

*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. The Polygon, Ardwick, Manchester.

t Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

{Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.

{Wutterr, Henry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.

tT Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.

{ Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.

*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

tWilliams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

t Williams, Rev. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.

tWilliams, James. Bladud Villa, Entryhill, Bath.

§ Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. The Cedars, Llandaff-road, Cardiff.

{ Williams, J: Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.

*Williams, Miss Katherine. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.

{Wit1aMs, Marruew W., F.0.8, 26 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.

tWilliams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

t Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.

{ Williams, R. Price. North Brow, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.

Williams, T. H. 2 Chapel-walk, South Castle-street, Liverpool.

tWilliams, W. Cloud House, Stapleford, Nottinghamshire.

*Wittiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.

Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire.

*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy. High
Pitfold, Haslemere.

}Wanrtansoy, BrngaMin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,

ublin

{ Williamson, Rey. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.

{ Williamson, John. South Shields.

Witrramson, Wittian ©., LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor
of Botany in Owens College, Manchester. 43 Elms-road, Clap-
ham Common, London, 8. W.

ft Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, London,

Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, ee

Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

{Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

108

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1878.

1876,
1894.

1874.

1876.
1890.
1863.
1847.
1875.

1874.
1863.
1883.
1879.
1885.
1886.
1890.
1865.
1884.

1879.
1894.

1876.
1847.
1885.
1892.

1861.
1887.
1871.
1861.

1877.

{ Wilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.

{ Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.I.C., F.C.S. 19 Little Queen-street, West-
minster, S.W.

tWutson, Colonel Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. The Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.

{ Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

{ Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, Regent’s-park, London, N.W.

tWitson, GzorcE Fereusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.8. Heatherbank
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.

*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardach, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

t Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, R.S.O., Kent.

tWilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

tWilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

tWiulscn, J. E. B. Woodslee, Wimbledon, Surrey.

t Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.

{ Wiutson, Ven. Jamus M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Rochdale.

{Wilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheritf Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

t Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

§Wilson, Rey. R. J., M.A., Warden of Keble College, Oxford.

Oxford.

tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candoyer Vicarage, Basingstoke.

tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

§Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

tWilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillock, Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.

*Wilson, William If. Daramona, Streete, Rathowen, Ireland.

*WitsHirE, Rev. Tuomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London,
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.

tWindeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.

,

1886.§§ WinDLE, Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Ana-

1887.
J893.
1865,

1894.
1888,
1883.
1884.

1881.
1883.
1863.
1861.
1883.
1875.
1878.

tomy in Mason College, Birmingham.
tWindsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.
*Winter, G. K., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S. Arkonam, Madras, India.
*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent,
Bath.
§ Witley, Arthur. 17 Acton-lane, Harlesden, London, N.W.
{Woprnotss, E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, London, 8. W.
{tWolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.
{Womack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 68 Abbey-road, London, N.W.
*Wood, Alfred John, 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
§Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
tWood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
tWoop, Sir H. Trurman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, London, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 109

Year of
Election.

1883. *Woon, Jamrs, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
1881.§§Wood, John, B.A. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa, York-
shire,
1883. *Wood, J. H. Woodbine Lodge, Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
1886. t Wood, Rev. Joseph. Carpenter-road, Birmingham.
1893.§§ Wood, Joseph T. 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.
1883. {Wood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.
1864, {Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
1890. *Wood, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Bainbrigge-road, Headingley,
Leeds. tA
1871. {Wood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
1850. {Wood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife.
1872. tWood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton,
*Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
1863. *Woopatt, JoHn Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas Iouse,
Scarborough.
1884. {Woodbury, C. J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.
1883. { Woodcock, Herbert 8. The Elms, Wigan.
1884, {Woodeock, T., M.A. 150 Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
1884. {Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1888. *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Belair, Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, South-
port.
1872. {Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Victoria-street, Westminster,
London, 8. W.
1883. {Woods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E.,F.R.M.S. 16 Adelaide-street, Lea-
mington.
Woops, Samus. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,

1888. {Woodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, Lon-
don, S. W.
1887. *Woopnwarp, Artuur Suitn, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper of
the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
1869. *Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
1886. {Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, London,
S.W.

1866. {Woopwarp, Hexyzy, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, London, 8. W.

1870. {Woopwarp, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street.
London, 8S. W.

1884. *Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.

1890, § Woolleombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F'.S.S., M.R.1.A.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

1877. {Woollecombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.

1883. *Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

1856. {Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.

1874. t Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.

1878. tWormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.

1863. *Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

1855. *Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Stourbridge, Worcester-

shire.

110

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1856.

1884.
1879.

1883.
1883.
1890.
1857.

1886.
1884.
1876.
1865.
1884,

1831.
1876.
1871.

1887.
1876.

1892.
1883.
1885.
1871.
1862.

1875.

1894.
1865.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1884.
1891.

1886.

1894.
1884.

1884.
1876.
1885.

Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
{Worthy, George 8. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N. W. é
t{Wragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
wee Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,

*Wright, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

*Wright, Rey. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.

Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.

}Wrieut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.LS., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University,
5 Trinity College, Dublin.

Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.

{ Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

tWright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.

Wright, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada. .

Wrisut, T.G., M.D. 91 Northgate, Wakefield.

t{Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.

{Wricutson, Tuomas, M.P., M.Inst.C.E., I.G.S. Norton Hall,
Stockton-on-Tees.

t Wrigleyy Rey. Dr., M.A., M.D., F.R.A.S. 15 Gauden-road, Lon-

on, 8.

PUREE Epwarp ALFRED, F.G.S. Carharrack, Scorrier, Corn-
wall.

{ Wyld, Norman. University Hall, Edinburgh.

§ Wyllie, Andrew. 1 Leicester-street, Southport.

{Wyness, James D)., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.

t{Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.

{Wywne, Artaur Bervor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

{Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.

*Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, London, E.

t Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.

t+Yeaman, James. Dundee.

tYeats, Dr. Chepstow.

{Yee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.
{Yonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.

tYorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.

{York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W.

s Younes Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, London,

*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.

*Young, George, Ph.D. Firth College, Sheffield.

TKoungn oe Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, London,

{Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto,
Canada.
{Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow. ~ ;
tYoung, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 111

Year of
Election.

1886, §Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.

1883. *Youne, Sypney, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Bristol.

1887. Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, London, E.C.

1890. {Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.

1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.

1886. {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
1886, {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.

112 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1887. Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, United States.

1892. Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm.

1881. Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States.

1887. Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 7, 6a, Germany.

1892. Professor M. Bertrand. L’Kcole des Mines, Paris.

1893, Professor Christian Bohr. 62 Bredgade, Copenhagen.

1880. Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Miinchen.

1887. His Excellency R. Bonghi. Rome.

1887. Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States.

1884. Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Boston, Massachusetts, United
States.

1890. Professor Brentano. Maximilian-platz, Miinchen.

1893. Professor W.C. Brogger. Christiania.

1887. Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.

1884. Professor George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.

1887. Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna.

1887, Professor J. B. Carnoy. Louvain,

1887. Dr. H. Caro. Mannheim,

1861. Dr. Carus. Leipzig.

1887. F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.

1855. Professor Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, The University, Breslau, Prussia.

1878. Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.

1880. Professor Cornu. L’Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.

1870. J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.

1876. Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.

1889. W. - Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United

tates.
1862. ee Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
ere.

1864. M. Des Cloizeaux. Rue Monsieur, 13, Paris.

1872. Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.

1870. Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.

1890. Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. Liége, Belgium.

1894, Professor W. Einthoven. Leiden.

1892. Prof-ssor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

1876. Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

1892. Professor Léo Errera. The University, Brussels,

1874. Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.

1886, Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 118

Year of

Election.

1887. Professor R. Fittig. Strasburg.

1872. W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

1887. Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. The University, Prague.

1892. Professor Dy. Gustav Fritsch. The University, Berlin.

1881. Professor C. M. Gariel, Secretary of the French Association for the
Advancement of Science. 59 Rue Jouffroy, Paris.

1866. Dr. Gaudry. Paris.

1861. Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.

1884. Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

1884, Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.

1889. G. K. Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States,

1892. Daniel C. Gilman. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, United
States.

1870. William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.

1889. Professor Gustave Gilson. Louvain.

1889. A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

1876. Dr. Benjamin A. Gould. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.

1884, General A. W. Greely. Washington, United States.

1892. Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,

Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

1862. Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.

1876, Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

1889. Horatio Hale. Clinton, Ontario, Canada.

1881. Dr. Edwin H. Hall. Baltimore, United States.

1872. Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.

1889. Dr. Max von Hantken. Budapesth.

1887. Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.

1895.
1893.

Professor Paul Heger. The University, Brussels.
Professor Richard Hertwig. Munich.

1887. Professor W. His. Leipzig.

1895.
1887.
1881.
1887.

1884.
1867.

1876.
1881.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

S. Dana Horton. New York.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. Utrecht.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa~
chusetts, United States.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.

Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. The Observatory, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzerland.

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. Annapolis, United States.

1887. Professor C. Julin. Liége.

1876

. Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.

1877. M. Akin Karoly. 92 Rue Richelieu, Paris.
1862. Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn.
1884, Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokio, Japan.

1873.

1874
1856
1887

Dr. Felix Klein. The University, Leipzig.

. Professor Dr. Knoblauch. The University, Halle, Germany.

. Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.

. Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-
versity, Berlin.

1887. Professor Krause. 31 Brueckenallee, Berlin.
1877. Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,

Switzerland.

1894. H

114 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. Lieutenant R. Kund. German African Society, Berlin.

1887. Professor A. Ladenburg. Breslau.

1887. Professor J. W. Langley. 847} Fairmount-street, Cleveland, Ohio,
United States.

1882. Dr. 8. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Washington, United States.

1887. Professor Count Solms Laubach. Strasburg.

1887. Dr, Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.

1872. M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris,

1887. Professor A. Lieben. Vienna.

1883. Dr. F. Lindemann. 40 Georgenstrasse, Munich.

1877. Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.

1887. Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. The University, Zurich.

1871. Professor Jacob Liroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany.

1871. Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.

1887. Dr. Henry C. McCook. Philadelphia, United States.

1867. Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.

1881, Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

. 1887. Dr. O. A. Martius. Berlin.

1890, Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 Rue de l’Université
Paris. i

1887. Professor D. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. St. Petersburg.

1887. Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.

1887. Professor Lothar Meyer. Tiibingen.

1884, Albert A. Michelson. Cleveland, Ohio, United States.

1848. Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris,

1887. Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.

1895, Professor H. Moissan. Paris. _

1877. Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.

1864, Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.

1887. I. S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Massachusetts,
United States,

1889. Dr. F. Nansen. Christiania.

1864, Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

1884. Professor Simon Newcomb. Washington, United States.

1869, Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

1887. Professor Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass.

1890, Professor W. Ostwald. Leipzig.

1889. Professor A. S. Packard. rown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, United States.

1890. Maffeo Pantaleoni, Director of the Royal Superior School of Com-
merce. Bari, Italy.

1887. Dr. Pauli. Héchst-on-Main, Germany.

1890. Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholm.

1870, Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtraf, Gand.

1884, Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, United States,

1887. Professor W. Preyer. The University, Berlin.

1886. Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States.

1887. Professor G. Quincke. Heidelberg.

1868, L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich,

1886. Rey. A. Renard. Royal Museum, Brussels. ‘

1873. Professor Baron von Richthofen, Kurfiirstenstrasse, 117, Berlin.

’

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 115

Year of
Election.

1887.
1892.
1890.
1881.
1887.
1883.
1874.
1846.
1873.
1876,

1892.
1887.

1888.
1866.

1889.
1881.

1881,

1870.
1884.

1864,

1887,

1887.

1890.
1889.
1887.
1886.
1887,

1887.

1887.
1887.
1881.

1887.

1874.
1887.

1887.

1887.
1876.
1887,
1887,

Dr. C. V. Riley. Washington, United States.

Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

A. Lawrence Rotch. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.

Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.

M. le Marquis de Saporta. Aix-en-Provence, Bouches du Rhéne.

Dr. Ernst Schréder. Karlsruhe, Baden.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague. _

Professor R. D. Silva. L’Eeole Centrale, Paris.

Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht.

Ernest Solvay. Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer. Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.

Professor G. Stefanescu. Bucharest.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘The University, Athens.

Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. The University, Breslau.

Professor Tchebichef, Membre de I’Académie de St. Pétersboure.

Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.

Dr. T. M. Treub. Java.

Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor J. H. Van’t Hoff. Amsterdam.

Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow.

Professor John Vilanova. Madrid.

M. Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium.

Professor H, F. Weber. Zurich,

Professor L. Weber. Kiel.

Professor August Weismann, Freiburg-im-Breisgau.

Dr. H. C, White. Athens, Georgia, United States.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.

Professor H. Wiedemann. Erlangen. [C/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig. }

Professor G. Wiedemann. Leipzig.

Professor R. Wiedersheim. Freiburg-im-Baden.

Professor J. Wislicenus. Leipzig.

Dr. Otto N. Witt. 33 Lindenallée, Westend-Charlottenburg, Berlin,

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la~Chapelle,

Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, United States.

Professor F. Zirkel. Leipzig.

116

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN

Admiralty, Library of the.

Anthropological Institute.

Arts, Society of.

Asiatic Society (Royal).

Astronomical Society (Royal).

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Midland Institute.

Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cardiff, University College of South
Wales.

Chemical Society.

Civil Engineers, Institution of.

Cornwall, Royal Geological
ciety of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

, Royal College of Surgeons in

Ireland.

, Royal Geological Society of

Ireland.

, Royal Irish Academy.

, Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

East India Library.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

——, Royal Medical Society of.

, scottish Society of Arts.

Iixeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Geographical Society (Royal).

Geological Society.

Geology, Museum of Practical.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineersand Ship-
builders in Scotland.

Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

Kew Observatory.

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.

So-

AND IRELAND.

Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.

Linnean Society.

Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.

, Royal Institution.

London Institution:

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

——, Mechanics’ Institute.

Mechanical Engineers, Institution of.

Meteorological Office.

Meteorological Society (Royal).

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

Royal College of Physicians.

Royal College of Surgeons.

Royal Engineers’ Institute, Chatham.

Royal Institution.

Royal Society.

Royal Statistical Society.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield, Firth College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales

United Service Institution.

University College.

War Office, Library of the.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

Zoological Society.

EUROPE.

Berlin ............ Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.

demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.

; schaften. Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists.

ROTI, so Gqzs---0- University Library, =| —— —eeseseeee University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.

Sciences. Naples ...........- Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.

servatory. TRIAGTS) » gasncdiocsane Association Frangaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of pour l’Avancement

Sciences. des Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, a petesaceenss Geographical Society.
Dresden ...,.....Royal Museum. = acho booee Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | —— o...ceseeee Royal Academy ot

ciety. Sciences.
Geneva............ Natural History So- | —— ............ School of Mines.

ciety. Pultioya) <-scccces Imperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. WOME: vs sescenseee Accademia dei Lincei.
REPEHUZM en sinsos- 0s. Naturwissenschatft- a ep paactibes Collegio Romano.

licher Verein. ——seveseeceees Italian Geographical
METIS) 7. .0..0--.--. Leopoldinisch-Caro- Society.

linische Akademie. | —— .........64 Italian Society ot
Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise Sciences.

des Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. ...Lmperial Observatory.
Helsingfors...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Kasan, Russia ... University Library. Muni e scccevscesss Royal Academy of
Bel ieen es o0sesss- Royal Observatory. Sciences.
PEG Y20. 1... 2000s00. University Library. Wieck) .ccc-..s. University Library.
Lausanne......... The University. Vienna............ The Imperial Library.
Leyden ......... University Library. | —— _ ....eseeeeee Central Anstalt fiir
MISE. occ scsecess. University Library. Meteorologie und
HEIRHON! ...2500+00. Academia Real des Erdmagnetismus.

Sciences. VERE ERY ceeceno oo General Swiss Society.

ASIA,

PAMRED 6000 cs0 ees The College. Calcutta ......... Presidency College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | ——- —...... Hooghly College.

Moma 8 HP Seere ces Medical College.
——_eevoeeece Grant Medical Col- | Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo.

lege. | Madras............ The Observatory.
Calcutta .........Asiatic Society. | teen eeeee eee University Library.

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope. . . The Royal Observatory.

118

AMERICA.
AN ene “Saconodes The Institute. New York...... Lyceum of Natural
Boston..,......+. American Academy of History.
Arts and Sciences. | Ottawa ......... Geological Survey of
California ...... The University. Canada.
a Naetis Lick Observatory. Philadelphia...American Medical As-
Cambridge ...... Harvard University sociation.
Library. —— .. American Philosophical |
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. Society. :
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- ...Franklin Institute. |
’ tific Society. Toronto: <2... The Observatory.
Montreal ......... McGill University. Washington ...The Naval Observatory.
oseeaiure Council of Arts and .. Smithsonian Institution.
Manufactures. — ...United States. Geolo-
New York ...... American Society of gical Survey of the
Civil Engineers. Territories,
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.
Brisbane. . . . Queensland Museum.
Victoria. . . . The Colonial Government.

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury Museum.

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