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1 sce OF
REPORT
OF THE
SIXTY-SIXTH MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
LIVERPOOL IN SEPTEMBER -1896.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET,
1896.
Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.
PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON
CONTENTS.
ws Ape
Page
Ossects and Rules of the Association .............csecesseneeeeeeeeeeeeeceeeeeeees XXVil
Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries from CommenceMent ..........seseeeseeeeeeceeeceeeeneeeceseneeenes XXXViii
Trustees and General Officers, 1831-1897 .............cccsceeeceeceeeseeeneeeeeeees 1
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832... li
Taist of Evening Lectures ...........0.:cccccseccescasccssensccnesceccesccenecescesseeces ]xix
Lectures to the Operative Classes ........escesecseeeeeneeteenseneereeneeneeseeeennes Ixxil
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Liverpool Meeting ......... Ixxiil
ficers and Council, 1896-97 ........0..0.cers.coessoesacooessweoecstaporsencereendaes lxxv
DRPPRSTINEEISPACCCOUMN bist seececesneacracs abet iceesscuectsaepvenben cbse eeennceseceade ates Oh Ixxvi
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxxvili
Report of the Council to the General Committee ..............essseeeeenereeee ees lxxx
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Liverpool Meet-
ING in September 1896 ...............seecsecsecesccccesscrseascnstacecerscceseeecens lxxxv
Communications ordered to be printed 27 e1tenso ..........sccseeseeeeeeeeneneeees xciil
Resolutions referred to the Council for Consideration, and action if
Rr shes ry sos cccns cs cta Ie Mededeids 145 MIN eS xciv
Semonsis Of Grants of Money ......2..cc0sssceesestesrbccecdssceetcncctscseestaneessons XCV
Places of Meeting in 1897, 1898, and 1899 ...............s.csesseccscsecesceseaeeee xevi
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for
SMT ETEUUIC Es OM POSOS ful fect Senin exits ante sided Musee eee Jha) tel gaasiyes Teva cecelsqasteebniawacet xevil
BEE MAIUINICELINIIS vedscacecetcescectsescescsccesccsscaccctsseesssdcdsecesceccceeeees {R28 exil
Address by the President, Sir Josrpm Lister, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D.,
PET DPEUIBE SPEIER ro PREECE Ra cto wets ce AN lass U haa sis ehcitah qaaabiedd oiente ncG4UEA 3
iv REPORT—1896.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark ¢ indicates the same,
but a reference is given to the journal or newspaper where it is published in extenso. |
Page
Corresponding Societies.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor R.
Metpora (Chairman), Mr.’f. V. Houmss (Secretary), Mr. #Rancis GALTON,
Sir Doveras Gatton, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir Jounw Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
W. Wairaxer, Professor E. B. Poutron, Mr. CurHpprrt PreK, and Rey.
WanonvHeys. DRISURAM 22. .5<2..00.-22se+2e-0 sees epee sesepoetince== += eee annem aes BL
Calculation of the G (7, v)-Integrals.—Preliminary Report of the Committee,
consisting of Rev. Ropert Hariey (Chairman), Professor A. R. ForsytH
(Secretary), Mr. J. W. L. Guatsner, Professor A. Lopez, and Professor
Kart Pearson. (Drawn up by Professor KARL PEARSON.) .......2..+0000+++ 70
AprEenpix.—Tables of y-functions, x1, x5) Xs) ANA Xz -esseveeseeeeecseees 75
On the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir Dovetas Gatton (Chairman), Lord RaYLeieH,
Lord Ketvry, Sir H. E. Roscon, Professors A. W. Rucker, R. B. Cirrron,
Carey Fostpr, A, Scuuster. and W. E. Ayrton, Dr. W. ANDERSON, Dr.
T. KE. Toorrn, Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. R. T. GrazeBrRoox, and Professor
FT LODGE, (Secretary), Jc: +7.:02-sesspesce+sospepesseaceseceee sees Se eae enema 82
Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications.—Report of :
the Committee, consisting of Professor Srtvanus P. THompson (Chairman),
Dr. G. H. Bryan, Dr. C. V. Burton, Mr. R. T. Guazeproox, Professor
A. W. Ricrer, Dr. G. Jounstonr Stoney, and Mr. James SwINBURNE
ABECTREALY) © Zediisicasin gs yaad as daivadsnn ches dee talismrae eae sila ce ppesaarek eae ae 86.
Comparison of Magnetic Instruments.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor A. W. Ricker (Chairman), Mr. W. Watson (Secretary), Pro-
fessor A. Scxustur, and Professor H. H. TurRnER, appointed to confer with
the Astronomer Royal and the Superintendents of other Observatories with
reference to the Comparison of Magnetic Standards with a view of carry-
gnc ront such Comparison ...2..c07.<sseeseevnssceoses .hecucies set seeo Renan CS ec eLOTL
Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
Raytelen (Chairman), Lord Kenvin, Professor B. Price, Mr. J. W. L.
GLAIsHER, Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, Professor
P. A. Macmanon, Lieut.-Colonel Artan CunnineHam, and Professor A.
Lopes (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of calculating Tables of cer-
tain Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, of taking steps to carry out
the Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form ............ 98
Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Elec-
trical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
Carey Foster (Chairman), Lord Ketvry, Lord Rayreten, Professors
Arron, J. Perry, and W. G, Apams, Drs. O. J. Lope, Joun HopKinson,
and A. MurrHeap, Messrs. W.H. PReEcr and Hersert TaYyLor, Professor
CONTENTS. Vv
Page
J. D. Evererr, Professor A. Scuusrer, Dr. J. A. Friwrne, Professors A
A. W. Ricker, G. F. FrrzGeratp, G. Curystat, and J. J. THomson,
Messrs. R. T. GuazEBRooK (Secretary) and W. N. Suaw, Rev. T. C. Frrz-
parrick, Dr. J. T. Borromiry, Professor J. Virtamu Jonzs, Dr. G. Jonn-
STONE Stronzy, Professor 8. P. Tuompson, Mr. G. Forses, Mr. J. Runnin,
nd Mr, E. H. GRIFFITHS.....c...ccccsscseccoscsssceseaensaecnseensceseeeseensweneceees 150
Apprenpix.—I. Extracts from Letters received, dealing with the Ques-
tion Of the Wnitor Heat SLi t.cs..ccssersssere eer ree 154
55 II. The Capacity for Heat of Water from 10° to 20°C. re-
ferred to its Capacity at 10° C. as Unity............... 162
III. Recalculation of the Total Heat of Water from the
Experiments of Regnault and Rowland. By W.N.
SIAN oe oro Saas an nde ovenecw cuss anceeenscrs aetna: sonatectaes 162
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. —Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaren (Chairman), Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary),
Dr. Joun Murray, Dr. AtexanperR Bucuan, and Professor R. CopELAnD.
(Drawn up by Dr. BUCHAN.)........::cceseeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeseceeeeeteteseneeeessanenees 166
The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Pheno-
mena.—Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons
(Chairman), Professor R. Metpoxra, Mr. J. Hopxrnson, and Mr. A. W.
CiaYpEN (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .........-.sseeeeseeeeeeees 172
Seismological Investigation.—First. Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Dr. C. Davison and Professor J. MILNE
(Secretaries), Lord Ketvin, Professor W.G. Apams, Dr. J. T. BorromLEy,
Sir F. J. Bramwetz, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horacr Darwin, Mr.
G. F. Deacon, Professor J. A. Ewrne, the late Professor A. H. GREEN,
Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor G. A. Lesour, Professor R. Mutpora,
Professor J. Perry, Professor J. H. Poynrine, and Dr. Isaac Roserts.
Report of Committee .......ccccceececeseceseeeeeeenes Baraat dae deanna tee 180
I. Notes on Instruments which will record Earthquakes of Feeble
Intensity. Professor J. Miznz, F.R.S. (Also see Section VII.
”
and Appendix.) ........ccccccscrscnsescnesensecenteererscenenseccecaeeeenes 181
TI. Observations with Milne’s Pendulums T and U, 1895-1896. Pro-
fessor J). MaGN, WAR;S. ..ocn. cccasccece suds ovecesmaaonaie sea oeladeiceanist 184.
The Localities and their Geology..........-.seescseneereeeseeeeeess 184
The Instruments T and U and their Installation ............... 187
Artificially produced Disturbances ............ssssseesseee sess eens 188
Sudden Displacements and Earthquakes in the Isle of Wight 188 .
Earthquakes recorded in Europe, and possibly noted in the
Isle of Wight, August 19 to October 16, 1895 .............4. 191
Notes on Special Earthquakes. (See also Appendix, 229.) ... 199
Tremors and Pulsations, their relationship to the hours of the
day. Air-current effects. Effects of barometric pressure,
temperature, frost, rain, KC. ...........seeeeeeeeeec eee eeseeeeee eens 2
Biren al |W ay esc asccucseaee sad a-e sevice recor vara easecnjeraccenose-iesie sees 212
TIT. Changes in the Vertical observed in Tokio, September 1894 to
March 1896. Professor J. MItnn, FRAG, ..........eeeeee cess ee ees 215
IV. On Experiments at Oxford. By Professor H. H. TuRNER......... 216
V. The Perry Tromometer. Professor Joun PprRY, F.RS. ........- 218
VI. Earthquake Frequency (a note). Dr.C. G. Kyort, F.R.S.E....... 220
VII. Instruments used in Italy, Cartes Davison, Sc.D..........+.++++ 220
Apprnpix.—Notes on Special Earthquakes. Prof. J. Minnz, F.R.S. 229
vi REPORT—1896.
Page
Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr, W.N. SHaw (Chairman), Rev. T. C. Frrzparrick, and Mr. W. C. D.
WED HAM CSCKOATY))! Sse ide sense soa ss cee ceedilesosie vanes oaonsusigslaeonsadeeeeenenaenns 230:
Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations.—Keport ot the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. G. Apams (Chairman), Dr. C. Corer
(Secretary), Lord Ketvry, Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor G. CHRystTaL,
Professor A. ScHusteR, Captain EH. W. Creax, The AstRonoMER Royat,
Mr, Wittiam Extis, and Professor A. W. Ricker. (Drawn up by the
SECKCLALY a) Reteitandscaschahassascchsiescres sess beosed eres Somens donne eee eae 231
Non-cyclic Effects at Kew Observatory during the selected Quiet Days of
thelsrYears, P890-1895,. By C. Crrmn, Sc.D. ........-s-nensucseeeeneeee arene 231
I. Introductory Remarks: ‘Non-cyclic’ Effect .................. 231
II. Non-cyclic Effects during Six Years, 1890-1895 ............... 231
III. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Annual Changes ............ 233,
TV.-VI. Mean Annual Values from Quiet and Unrestricted Days ... 234
VIL-VIII. Relations of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Ranges ......... 235
IX. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Inequalities ...... 236
X. Elimination of Non-cyclic Effect ..............000. ssscesseseene 236
NON. CA'scociated (Phenomena *-........+.--osseacse+essosce eee neneeee ean 237
Apprnpix.—Remarks by W. ELLIs, F.R.S. .........2.sccecccnsecececncenees 238.
Solar Radiation.—Twelfth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G.
Stokes (Chairman), Professor H. McLzop (Secretary), Professor A.
Scnusrer, Mr. G. Jounstone Sroney, Sir H. EK. Roscon, Captain W. DE
W. Asney, Mr. C. Curen, Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. W. E. Witson,
appointed to consider the best Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity
of Solar Radiation. (Drawn up by Sir G. G. STOKES.) ..........02sssseeceeeee 241
Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor Hersert McLeop, Professor W. C. Ropertrs-Austen, Mr. H. G.
MAMAN, andaVir: DH ONAGHI.. .....35 secesescceoctsdereseeecsces ace-cet tee eEeaeeEee 243
The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.—Third Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor J. Emrrson Ruynoups (Chairman), Dr.C. A.
Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRANKLAND, Professor F, CLowxzs, Dr. Hues
Marsyatt, Mr. A. E. Frurcuer, Mr. D. H. Nace, and Professor W.
CARTON OW ILGTAMS shsc.cidss dseestousescessacciegvdle bbe cadet necereneee ee 244
The Determination of Bismuth. (Part I.) By Professor J. Emerson
Reynotps, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S., and G. Percy Barnny, B.A.......... 244
The Apparatus employed and the Arrangement of the Circuits for
Electrolytic Analysis. By Cuartus A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc. ......... 247
The Determination of Antimony. By Cuartrs A. Kony, Ph.D., B.Sc.,
and ©..K BARNES, B.SC. «0c secnsaxaapeuaceen sess shes apie eee 251
The Determination of Tin. By Cuartes A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc., and
Gi BaRnns; B.Se..\.55.. cise: s0ckdeanesvessssdes ee elbns deesite aaa 255
The Carbohydrates of Cereal Straws.—First Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor R. Warineron (Chairman), Mr. C. F. Cross,
Mr. Mannine Prentice (Secretary). (Drawn up by Mr. Oross.)............ 262
{someric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Tenth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor W. A. TinpEn and Professor H. E, ARMSTRONG.
(Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG.)......... yp oAsie sete yed Semaine eae ene bocce Sear 265.
The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Grapstonz (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. Gzoren Griapstons, Sir Joun
Lussocs, Sir Puitrp Maenvus, Sir H. E. Roscon, and Professor S. P.
SDHOMESON jag .sdsoadanpesdtbens-,2s0csuezs2cénssestnd><canes ane 268.
CONTENTS.”
vil
Page
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscon (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Watts (Secretary), Professors J. N. Lockyzr, J. Dewar, G. D.
Liveine, A. Scuuster, W. N. Harriry, and Wotcorr Grpss, and
Captain ABNEY. (Drawn up by Dr. WATTS.) ............ecsccceeeeeeeeeeseeeeees
Proximate Constituents of Coal.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
I, Lowru1an Butt (Chairman), Professor P. PHILLIPs Bepson (Secretary),
Professor F. Crowss, Dr. Lupwie Monn, Professor Vivian B. Luwzs,
Professor E. Hurt, Mr. J. W. THomas, and Mr. H. BAUBRMAN...............
The Production of Haloids from Pure Materials.—Interim Report of a Com-
mittee consisting of Professor H. KE. Armsrrone, Professor W. R. Dunstan,
Mr. C. H. Bormamtey, and Mr. W. A. SHmnstonn (Secretary) ...............
Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of Committee, consisting of
Professor T. E. THorrs (Chairman), Professor J. J. Hummen (Secretary),
Dr. W. H. Prrxry, Professor W. J. Russett, Captain Axsney,
Professor W. Srrovup, and Professor R. Menpora. (Drawn up by the
Re ecco wavs onan nacb ay Tor Tuscdandaiadadderse; nese ainn sent saps heat ptosis
Stonesfield Slate—Third and Final Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. H. B. Woopwarp (Chairman), Mr. E. A. Watrorp (Secretary),
Professor A. H. Greuy, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr, J. WrinDogs, appointed
to open further sections in the neighbourhood of Stonesfield in order to
show the relationship of the Stonesfield Slate to the underlying and
overlying strata. (Drawn up by Mr. Epwin A. WALForD, Secretary.)
Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Seventh Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor JamMEs Guixie (Chairman),
Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. Tempest AnprERson, Mr. J. E. Beprorp,
Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. E. J. Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Goopcurp,
Mr. Witi1Am Gray, Professor T. McKrenny Hueurs, Mr. Ropert
Kipston, Mr. A. S. Rerp, Mr. J. J. H. Teatt, Mr. R. H. Tippeman,
Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, with Mr. Osmonp W. Jzrrs and Mr. W. W. Warts
(Seerctaries). (Drawn up by Mr. W. W: WATTS.) ...002...2.-..secessennsnences
AppEnDIx.—Reference List of Photographs illustrating Geological
I AEESIATIC OVCM OITA yaa. ic sectise ssa saisaied «wea aureeesta esate uepieine «seeletent er asehasa's
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—First Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor E. Hurt (Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. P.
F. Kenpatt (Secretary), Mr. C. E. De Rancr, Professor W. J. Soxtas,
Mr. R. H. TrppEman, Rey. 8. N. Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, and Mr. Dueatp
Bett. (Drawn up by the Secretary.).............ccesssesssesersecaesscesrereeereees
Structure of a Coral Reef.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor T. G. Bonney (Chairman), Professor W. J. Soxzas (Secretary),
Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Professors A. H. Grezn, J. W. Jupp, C. Lar-
worrH, A. C. Happon, Boyp Dawxins, G. H. Darwin, 8. J. Hickson, and
A. Stewart, Admiral W. J. L. Warton, Drs. H. Hicks, J. Murray,
W. T. Buanrorp, Lz Neve Foster, J. W. Grecory, and H. B. Guppy,
Messrs. F. Darwin, H. O. Forsuzs, G. C. Bournz, A. R. Bryytz, J. C.
HawksHaw, and Hon. P. Fawcerr, appointed to consider a_ project
for investigating the Structure of a Coral Reef by Boring and Sounding...
The Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits in Kintyre.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. Horne (Chairman), Dr. Davin
Rosertson, Dr. T. E. Jamieson, Mr. James Fraszr, Mr. P. F. Kenpatt,
and Mr. Dueatp Bett (Secretary). (Drawn up by Mr. Bett, Mr. Fraser,
and Mr. Horne; with Special Reports on the Organic Remains by Dr.
BMMPELIVOON AY) a Qeeath cys cess ncscccba nacdaavionieeucucussasunigesosenstannerinesssesteevess
De NTIGIICIION Ie. oe sas satne dios: ice set cae swe vasevseadedsisse casdabiececiessieecssse
278
340
B47
347
. 356
357
365
366
377
378
Vill REPORT—1896.
Tile Geographical Position! Ws... 2.dexc-sceesees coe ccncestis+00eeerentaeemiecees 378
III. Previous Observations regarding the Shelly Clay, &c................ 378
IV. Detailed Examination of the Shell-bearing Deposits by the
@omnshtee rec s.2 on eters 2c -ts- en noscoecsaedecst nossa ete eemeeeenmnn 380
iV. Direction.iof Ice-flow in Kintyre, ..2.--.:..2-.0<ssn=:csesdeshee eee eres 587
WieeRenort by) Drs DAviD ROBERTSON, ;.cscccs-:s- 2-08-6002 ts smean eee eae 389
RVATEMOGHCHISION Gas. ..--.osercer-+os-n00 secu oswseaees seins» oracle eeeeenane 399
Selangor Caves.—Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W.
H. Fiowsr (Chairman), Dr. R. Hanrtscu, Mr. CLement Rew, Mr. H. N.
Riptey (Secretary), and Mr. A. Russet WaLLAcs#, appointed to explore
certain Caves in the Neighbourhood of Singapore, and to collect their living
pmGUextine GH aUnalscdeice ict se. cc teeecsceccccsedsvuscbocds +s ose seee treed =e eee Emenee 399
The Relation of Paleolithic Man to the Glacial Epoch.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir Jomn Evans (Chairman), Miss E. Morsr, Mr.
Crement Rei (Secretary), Mr. E. P. Riptny, and Mr. H. N. Rivtey,
appointed to ascertain by excavation at Hoxne the Relations of the
Paleolithic Deposits to the Boulder Clay, and to the deposits with Arctic
and Temperate Plants. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .............seseeeeeeee 400
APPENDIX: —Detallsiof Boringe.s..-.ccec...cs--oceseedecers oe seerectaseemeatee 412
Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. E. J. Garwoop (Secretary),
and Mr. A. H. Foorp, appointed to study the Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous Rocks. (Drawn up by Mr. GARWOOD.) ............ceeeeeeeeeeeeee 415
The Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea.—Fourth and
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Happon,
Professor G. B. Howrs, Mr. W. E. Hoyts, Mr. Crement Rem, Mr.
G. W. Lametovcn, Mr. I. C. Tompson, Dr. H. O. Forpus, Mr. A. O.
Waker, Professor F. E. Wetss, and Professor W. A. HERDMAN
(Ohatrminn and Reporter): <.0.... 02. 01..sco:snoncesacessoecaendenp ess pavecoeaeaaeeeeemaes 417
The Life-history and Economic Relations of the Coccide of Ceylon, by Mr.
KE. E. Green.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. McLacuLan,
(Chairman), Professor G. B. Howzs (Secretary), Lord WatsineHam, Pro-
fessor R. Murpona, Professor L. C. Mraz, Mr. R. Newsteap, Dr. D.
SHARP, and Colonel Os Swiwow® ......65.0.cciv.ctsuce tives cecbustarcoeseeaineeeee 450
Bird Migration in Great Britain and Iveland.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), Mr. Jonw Corpnavx (Secre-
tary), Mr. Joun A. Harvigz-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrineton, Mr. W. EAGLE
CiaRKE, and Rev. E. P. Knusuery, appointed for the purpose of making a
Digest of the Observations on the Migrations of Birds at Lighthouses and
Daght-vessels, 1880-1887. .i.5...055.062. 0s odaslec uch eddns substi ts Ghexeeeeeaanna 451
Post Office Regulations regarding the Carriage of Natural History Speci-
mens to Foreign Countries.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
WatstneHam (Chairman), Mr. R. McLacutan, Dr. C. W. Srrzus, Colonel
C. Swuvnor, and Dr. H. O. Forpus (Secretary)..........cc:cccceccccceeeecssneees 477
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScraTer, Professor E. Ray LANKESTER,
Professor J. Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Fosrrr, Professor S. J. Hickson,
Mr. A. Srpewrcr, ‘Professor W.C. McInros, and Mr. Percy SLADEN
MSECIOLANY) Ss ceon eead ices oeebasede +. .2vveehedarteniiady elects ee 478
APPENDIX I,—Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. H.
CHARLES WILLIAMSON -
4 II.—List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological
Station from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896............ 48]
CONTENTS.
Apprnpix III.—List of Papers which were published in 1895 by Natu-
ralists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological
SULIT lade dine Gngaaneecec nbc cdooU HAC ERRRDPA Ee ECNHee CASEEREREEES
African Lake Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L.
Sctarer (Chairman), Dr. Jonn Murray, Professor EK. Ray LANKEsTER,
Professor W. A. Hprpman, and Professor G. 5. Howzs (Secretary).........
Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. Bourne (Chairman), Professor E.
Ray LanxeEster (Secretary), Professor M. Fosrer, and Professor 8. H.
Vins, appointed to investigate the Relations between Physical Conditions
ASM NER TITIOMH ATEN ANGE LORA sieves ndevsdaac tach oensceeeseduvdeer’+osttecnscaecocs>o
Algological Notes for Plymouth District. By Mr. Grorecr Bresyer .
The Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of Oceanic
Islands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLowrr
(Chairman), Professor A.C. Happon (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bourns, Dr.
H. O. Forsis, Professor W. A. Herpman, Dr. Jonn Murray, Professor
A. Newton, Mr. A. E. Surprny, and Professor W. F. R. Wetpon. (Drawn
PSMMUNVALUENSECTOLALY:)avecsescccccsacscccscssessseccodoccnccccnessetuacences Bets ccsceseads
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consist-
ing of Sx W. H. Frowrr (Chairman), Mr. P. L. ScuatEer, Dr. H. Woop-
Warp, and Mr. F. A. Barurr (Secretary), appointed for superintending
the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animalium ............
Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir W. H. Frowsr (Chairman), Professor W. A. HerpMaAN, Mr.
W. E. Hoyts, Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Mr. Apam Srepewickx, Dr..D. Sarr, Mr.
C. D. SuHerporn, Rev. T. R. R. Srepsine, Professor W. F. R. WeLpon,
REE tee Bee AL EATEN (SCCKELALY Ji sicees s+ s<t ero eeacccesooc uses scecceeciectedacne
The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Sixth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor A. Newron (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Buan-
FORD, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Professor C. V. Rinny, Mr. O. Satviy,
Dr. P. L. Scratser, Mr. E. A. Surry, and Mr. D. Swarr (Secretary) ......
Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.—Ninth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Sctarpr (Chairman), Mr. Grorce Murray
(Secretary), Mr. W. Carruruprs, Dr. A.C. L. Gunter, Dr. D. SHarp,
Mr. F. Du Canz Gopman, Professor A. Newton, and Sir Guoren F.
Hampson, Bart., on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology
and Botany of the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to investigate
ascertained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora ................ceceseeeeeeeee ees
The Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. J. MackinpER
(Chairman), Mr. A. J. Herpertson (Secretary), Mr. J. Scorr Kzttis, Dr.
H. R. Mitt, Mr. E. G. Ravensretn, and Mr. Ext SowERBUTTS .............+
The Climatology of Africa.—Fifth Report of a Committee consisting of Mr.
E, G. Ravenstern (Chairman), Sir Joun Krrx, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. H.
R. Mitt, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chair-
BEDEEE Bees < cet-Ris seats bre gee cape: haw wre cia Sua ck qoieela ste bose ash asananwshacddvegth sateasleds.
The Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure on the Tides.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor L. F. Vernon Harcourt, Professor
Unwin, Mr.G. F. Deacon, and Mr. W. H. Waeeter (Secretary). (Drawn
SEMEL UC, DECEOUALV ale aceon och: cet co scsecenorsensressncigs comme eo sa ones aavondbsesdssiene’s
Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H. PREECE
(Chairman), Mr. Conran W. Cooxz (Secretary), Lord Katviy, Sir F. J.
BraMwet., Sir H. Trupman Woop, Major-Gen. Wessex, Mr. R. E.
Crompton, Mr. A. Stron, Mr. A. Lz Neve Fosrer, Mr. C. J. Huwirt,
ix
Page
482
484
485
485
487
489
490
492
494
495
503
x REPORT— 1896.
Page
Mr. G. K. B. Expurystons, Mr. T. Buckney, Col. Warkry, Mr. E. Rige,
and Mr. W. A. Price, appointed to consider means by which Practical Effect
can be given to the Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Asso-
ciation in 1884. (Drawn up by the Chairman.) ............csscsscescseeenereeee 527
Tita e MPH SE Be. ase <cocsintiewsee oes cbistics see Sabicea salto wa paeRe eet eE aan me ene 527
DHE WE TESONG Wa iees. cccactapsce- este st.cceao0sa dette sta nett tE ese teem ene 529
ee herbie: Mis iv. ted lecalet nate ec cuascesva dee cs Conamoae eee emer seme eeeeee 531
Apprnpix I.—Enlarged Shadow Photographs of Screws. By Col.
Wann, ‘C2. R.A.., 8000)... acstesearet eee ae neeee ee eee 532
Il.—Gauges for Verifying the Accuracy of Screws (for
Workshop Use only). By A. Stro# .................. 584
» I1—Working Dimensions in Millimetres and Thousandths
ofan Inch. By A. Le Neve Fostsr........:c........ 536
Tests of B.A. Screws by Hervé Diameters. By W. A.
PRIOK) “ova: sais ound ness tiaaseaduesdog deeiuec=ets seigee teeta tas 587
Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. B. W. Kennepy (Chairman),
Professor J. A. Ewrne, Professor D. 8. Carper, Professor T. H. Brarg,
and Professor W. C. Unwin (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) 538
On the Physical and Engineering Features of the River Mersey aud Port of
Liverpool. By Grorer Fospery Lyster, M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief
Lo twen Mersey Wack Hstate:..2-silcs-.ccerecceessseteessene avdess see eae et ne ener 548
The North-Western Tribes of Canada.— Eleventh Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor E. B, TyLor (Chairman), Mr. Curnzert E. Park
(Secretary), Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. Hatreurron, and Mr. Horatio
HAts, appointed to investigate the Physical Characters, Languages, and
Industrial and Social Conditions of the North-Western Tribes of the Domi-
BUA! CANBOD A foe ecteas ven leases. ccldesteveeescl sive otuepathn aden ota a eee 569
Sixth Report on the Indians of British Columbia. By Franz Bos ... 569
Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public
Elementary and other Schools,—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir Dovetas Gatton (Chairman), Dr. Francrs Warner (Secretary), Mr.
KE. W. Brasroox, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. WrLBERFORCE SmirH, and Mr.
E. Waite Watts. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ............ Smeeaora ase 592
APPENDIX.—Twelve tables, showing for each division of schools the
number of children seen, the number presenting one or more class
of defect. The classes of defect are distributed first under school
standards, secondly in age groups
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom,—Fourth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Brasroox (Chairman), Dr. Francis Gabon,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A.C. Happon, Dr. JosepH Awnpprson, Mr. J.
Romitty Atien, Dr. J. Beppog, Professor D, J. CunnineHaM, Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Arruur J. Evans, Mr. F. G. Hitron Prics, Sir
H. Howorru, Professor R. Mutpora, General Prrr-Rivers, Mr. E. G.
RaveEnstEIn, and Mr. E. Sipyey Harrnanp (Secretary). (Drawn up by
the Chairman.)
AppENDIX J.—The Ethnographical Survey of Ireland, Report of the
COMMIS... ss esascennozecueennoeeerest (inet 609
» I1.—Report of the Ethnographical Survey of Pembrokeshire 610
» I11.—Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland.
By Rev. Dr., WALTER GREGOR» \.r..se-svaeusP eee 612
CONTENTS. xl
Page
Apprnpix [V.—On the Method of determining the Value of Folklore
as Ethnological Data. By G. Lavrencn Gommg,
TR SHANG, . codcodneccdenronetacde dp tedOnic oe eEocuencenne pcre 626
The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Third Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Sir
Joun Evans, General Pirr-Rivers, Mr. A. J. Evans, and Mr. A.
Butxeip (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ........ ....-seeeeeeeeseee 656
Linguistic and Anthropological Characteristics of the North Dravidian and
Kolarian Races.—the Uranws. Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. E. Srpney Harrianp (Chairman), Mr. Huen Raynsirp, jun.
(Secretary), Professor A. C, Happon, and Mr. J. L. MYRBS ........0-- eee 659:
The possible Infectivity of the Oyster, and upon the Green Disease in
Oysters. By Professor Rupert W. Boyce, M.B., M.R.C.S., and Professor
W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S., University College, Liverpool; being the
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN
(Chairman), Professor R. Boyce (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bournn, and
Professor C.S. SHERRINGTON, appointed to report on the Elucidation of the
Life Conditions of the Oyster under Normal and Abnormal Environment,
including in the latter the effect of sewage matter and pathogenic
PURE NIG Wate fo cJocc saben sddentaa aden: «sve U2sccplensRdasidp ie qpsesemdeey braamue «gf Seas 663
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.—Report by the Committee,
consisting of Professor Joun G. McKunprick (Chairman), Professor G. G.
Morray, Mr. Davin S. Wriveate, and Mr. Joun 8. McKxenprick, on the
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph, and on the Form of the
Voice-curves made by the Instrument.............0.06 ceeeeceeeeeecsedeeeneeeeeecees 669
On the Ascent of Water in Trees. By Francis Darwin, F.R.S. .............-- 674
Preservation of Plants for Exhibition—Interim Report of the Committee, ~
consisting of Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor I. Baytry Batrour,
Professor L. Errera, Mr. W. Garpiner, Professor J. R. GREEN, Professor
J.W.H. Trait, Professor F, E. Wutss, and Professor J. B. Farmer (Sec-
retary), appointed to Report on the best Methods of Preserving Vegetable
Specimens for Exhibition in Museums ............66 ccsseeeeenseeseeeeeeeetteeece eens 684
Apprnprx I,—Report on Experiments made at the Institut Botanique
de l'Université de Bruxelles. By Professor HRRERA 686
5 II.—Report by Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., F.RS, ... 692
xii
REPORT—1896.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Page
Address by Professor J. J. THomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the
i,
OCHO, | ccc tcwiciessnlltieresntiatiace seiaus a saecsgneenesensan tetetaceease o7. ncn ae eeenee 699
Report on the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory ............ 707
2. On the Evolution of Stellar Systems. By Isaac Rosurts, D.Sc., F.R.S. 707
» On Periodic Orbits. By G. H. Darwin, FURS: 2.02. ..c0:0.0-2..eccesaedewesess 708
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
. On Cathode Rays and their probable Connection with Réntgen Rays.
By Protessor de WBN ABD tan. . ssnc-.cectsadwnsseadecccecmeustee sacs sass thot eee Ee 709
. TOn the Laws of Conduction of Electricity through Gases exposed to the
Rontgen Rays By Professor J. J. THomson, F.R.S., and HK. Rurmer-
(HOB teeec crepe teases te sasaabaresttiekcnsacansbenbiien (ab. adaccecaeay iat ee 710
. On the Transparency of Glass and Porcelain to the Réntgen Rays. By A.
Wi. RUCKER, HR.S., and, W. WATSON, (B.SCiys..cssadacsass ec catesteeeeeeeeee 710
. Measurement of Electric Currents through Air at different Densities down
to one Five-millionth of the Density of Ordinary Air. By Lord Kenvin,
J.T. BorroMLEy, and MaGnus MACLEAN .........ccsccseceseecseceeeees Pace 710
. The Duration of X-Radiation at each Spark. By Frep. T. Trovron,
WM Aig IDS GE, OsEvwatiswasn vabcganeds oat vn cistWagepteaedaws cas! notes taas ieee ann 711
» On the Relations between Kathode Rays, Réntgen Rays, and Becquerel
Rays. By Professor Sitvanus P. THOMPSON, F.R.S. .....c.cccsecceeeuesceas 712
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
DEpPartMEnT I.—PrHysics.
1. Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Standards ............sssseceeseeeeee 715
2. Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations ...... 713
3. “Adjourned discussion on Professor S. P. Tuompson’s Paper on the Rela-
tion between Kathode Rays, Réntgen-Rays, and Becquerel Rays ......... 713
4. On Hyperphosphorescence. By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson,
LL STOR S's Hncneg Sree date ee Se. 713
5. *Observations on the X-Rays. By H. H. F. HynpMAN ...........000e00ee- 718
6. *On the Component Fields of the Earth’s Permanent Magnetism. By Dr.
gees RUANIINRE J Pc pse's a sadancees ce cas cecoeu suc save occacodcepelac ean eo 713
CONTENTS. xiii
Page
. On a One-Volt Standard Cell with Small Temperature Coefficient. By
MBER ME TIES Conta ave te beara Sacands eMac acemwrss Ge cao sls nota: ve eses See cea setae 713
. On Reostene, a new Resistance Alloy. By J. A. Harxur, D.Sc., and
PRMD YAQUEDR ON fo ccbaete dec Gecsio pale csec ed ote Insieaciapenia Meleeeais¥ aes epian scares depose 714
Department [I.--Marnemarics.
. Report on the G (7, v)-Integrals ...........eceeeceeeeeeseseneeeeeeteeeseeaaneeenens 714
2. Report on Bessel Functions and other Mathematical Tables .................. 714
. Results connected with the Theory of Differential Resolvents. By the
eMC ROR EVA REBY SINE Att HEU .)1\. oceosesitddeatboce tecndcememearehestades spe 714
. Connexion of Quadratic Forms. By Lieut.-Colonel ALLan CuNNING-
Re E Es Soe uL de bebe otic ceadddva, eoowoudeviewecau. dvcadund shy deeienens sms aeph ono 716
. On the Plotting out of Great Circle Routes on a Chart. By H. M.
PER NLA 52 ccc cancsinasoscventcewanduses/< si nandesiensdeassagdessssngeaat=-Seaaeeee 716
. On the Stationary Motion of a System of Equal Elastic Spheres in a Field
of no Forces when their Aggregate Volume is nor Infinitely Small com-
pared with the Space in which they Move. By S. H. Bursury, F.R.S, 716
. On some Difficulties connected with the Kinetic Theory of Gases. By
PEAMESTEVA: Ci) i, Blas ca5icccen seecgecus-acos teases «nv eactedmpanadoeed renee 721
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
. *On the Communication of Electricity from Electrified Steam to Air.
By Lord Katvrn, F.R.S., Dr. Macnus Mactzan, and ALEXANDER
‘Soa hola? 2a RR aS ioe cose er enicnontactbosocadticodcdaccancascocada 721
2, On the Molecular Dynamics of Hydrogen Gas, Oxygen Gas, Ozone,
Peroxide of Hydrogen, Vapour of Water, Liquid Water, Ice, and Quartz
Crystal. By the Right Hon. Lord Ketviy, G.C.V.O., F.R.S. ..........-. 721
3. A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves. By E. Rururrorp, M.A.... 724
. On a Complete Apparatus for the Study of the Properties of Electric
Waves. By Professor Jagapis CHuNDER Boss, M.A., D.Sc................ 725
. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis..........-++++++eeese+++ 725
. Report on Solar Radiation ...............::ccseeeeees nesses eseeeeeeeeeteeereeeeeees 725
. Report on Seismological Observations ..........s-ssseeseeeeseceseneeeeeeseeeeee ees 725
. Report on Meteorological Photographs ......-....ssseeeeeeeeeeeeate nese eeeeeens 725
. The Effect of Atmospheric Refraction on the Apparent Diurnal Move-
ment of Stars, and a Method of allowing for it in Astronomical Pho-
tography. By Professor A. A. Rampaut, M.A., Sc.D. ...seseeteeeeereeeeee 726
10. On the Sailing Flight of Birds. By G. H. Bryan, Se.D., F.R.S. ......... 726
. *On the Stanhope Arithmetical Machine of 1780. By the Rev. R.
POM Y VeAte VERS; bop ccsccus-s-pcocacnardsssoenrec sa Pontes. 25 5 ae 728
. The Exploration of the Upper Air by means of Kites. By A. LAvRENCE
ROre# ........ Se dtieh dade rhemgacnbannete qearepsier xaie Ee eee tach. Cee eecere ee te 728
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
. Interim Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ........+.+++-.:+++000+ 728
Report of the Electrical Standards Committee ..........:.::seeeeeeeeseeeeeeees 728
wo
. The Total Heat of Water. By W. N. Smaw, M.A., FLR.S. «20... seers 729
“Xiv
REPORT—1896.
Page
.*Note on the Measurement of Electrical Resistance. By E. H.
GRrrritHs, M.A., FLRS. .....ccccceeecesersseeeneecsececeenceeneesereneceneees PASS
. Researches in Absolute Mercurial Thermometry. By §S. A. Sworn,
M.A. (Oxon.), F.C.8., Assoc.R.C.S0.D. oc eeeeeeeeeeseeseceereeeenenneeeeenneeees 729
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
DEPARTMENT I.
. Measurement by means of the Spectroscope of the Velocity of Rotation
of the Planets. By James H. KEELER, Sc.D. .........-....cscceceneceseereees 729
. On the Photo-electric Sensitisation of Salts by Cathodic Rays. By Pro-
fessor J. Exster and Professor H. GHITEL .........sccssssceeseesereetetecceeeees 731
. *On certain Photographic Effects. By Professor P. pg Hen ............... 731
. Some Experiments on Absorption and Fluorescence. By JoHN
BURKE, BiAcscccctvaecsornscsnsvieessosnsensnanessosneenenganssvcnassgieagegemben tere 7351
. On Homogeneous Structures and the Symmetrical Partitioning of them,
with application to Crystals. By WILLIAM BARLOW ..........0.sseeeeeeees 731
Department II,
1. Report on the Sizes of Pages! of Periodicals) <.c-s<..<00----+sssseensseeeeeees (Ey
9. +On Disturbance in Submarine Cables. By W. H. Preece, C.B.,F.R.S. 752
3, *On Carbon Megohms for High Voltages. By W. M. Morpsy ............ 732
4, *On an Instrument for measuring Magnetic Permeability. By W. M.
WOR DMV ees. conc Ne ceetete sosns -cteame rete scene stn astreertecccass. cre ceteah eae 732
5. A Direct-reading Wheatstone Bridge. By A. P. Trorrer, B.A. ......... 732
6. The Division of an Alternating Current in Parallel Circuits with Mutual
Induction. By FREDERICK BEDELL «.........c:006se05 veveesconepeseseebumnentye 735
Section B.—CHEMISTRY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER (i.
Address by Dr. Lupwie Monn, F.R.S., President of the Section.................. 734
1. On Reflected Waves in the Explosion of Gases. By Professor H. B.
Dixon, E. H. Srraneez, and E. GRAwAM ........ 13 sieclot ood vous ogee as 746
2, The Action of Metals and their Salts on the Ordinary and Réntgen
Rays: a Contrast. By Dr. J. H. Guapsrone and W. H1pperr ......... 746
. Limiting Explosive Proportions of Acetylene and Detection and Measure-
ment of the Gas in the Air. By Professor Frank Crowss, D.Se. (Lond.) 746
4. The Accurate Determination of Oxygen by Absorption with Alkaline
Pyrogallol Solution. By Professor Frank Crowns, D.Sc. (Lond.) ...... TAT
5. On the Amides of the Alkali Metals and some of their Derivatives. By
AD W). Tismpenny, MiSe., Ph.D: 0. ccs.5cs.sseecscsocnede tes case 748
6. Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy..........+sc0esseeeeeeeees 748
7. Report on the Action of Light on Dyed Colours............cessceseceseenecenees 748
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. Report on the Carbohydrates of Barley Straw .............cccccssecuecenceeees 748
. The Retardation of Chemical Reaction from Diminution of Space. By
Professor OSCAR LUBBREUCH 22 ......0:1sccs.cccccuvevovsseccoocteetheet stone yaeenEe 748
CONTENTS. xv
. *Excrescent Resins, By Professor M. BAMBERGER 750
; eh on the Proximate Chemical Constituents of the various kinds of
(OMIT oct Sat ap aac Re tinbcS SaBASS AE SOc cL AEE AMR fcr: SR Sele a a ana 750
. On the Velocity of Reaction before Perfect Equilibrium takes place. By
MEIER VV IEDR ACAININE Mice. tusseciosl So csade el ewedens ocldnctiacece iia cceleh. JF 751
. The Behaviour of Litmus in Amphoteric Solutions. By Tuomas R.
ESAS HUAN UESANG HGID pate stias sou tect cane cucnechecadodttdcacantetmeeatowesetieeetes 75
Ol
ao)
. Constitution of Sa Yellow or Curcumine, and Allied Colouring Matters.
By ARTHUR G. GREEN and ANDRE WAHL .............:ecseceeeceeeeseeeeees 753
. *Abnormalities in the Behaviour of Ortho-derivatives of o-Amido- and
Nitro-benzylamine. By Dr. F. E. FRANCIS ...............:ccececsceseecaceeees 756
. Nitrates: Their Occurrence and Manufacture. By Wittiam Newron... 756
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 2).
1. *On Helium. By Professor W. Ramsay, F.R.S. ..........ccccecseccaneeeceees 757
2. On the Discovery of Argon in the Water of an Austrian Well. By
PemiescOr MAX BAWBERGERT 2... ivaseotenadotcchersaecser@eerdhaticseresicetiasts 757
3. *The Manufacture of Chlorine by means of Nitric Acid. By Dr. F. Hurrer 758
4, *Low Temperature Research. By Professor J, Dewar, F.R.S. ............ 758
Owteport on Blectrolytic Analysis .-.............-secsseaseesasseesses saseusesecseone 758
6. A Modified Form of Schrétter’s Apparatus for the NOR of
Carbonic Anhydride. By Cuartes A. Koun, Ph.D.,B.Se. ............... 758
7. A new Form of Aspirator. By Caartes A. Kony, Ph.D., B.Sc, and
MME WTSMESALENY VELA occ sscnstacnetasetocase conc teneasecteecsestntaidestias opnes. 759
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
1. The Detection and Estimation of Carbon Monoxide in Air. By Dr. J.
APR IUAROH restos Mr eh soln nein cose oMantcantin os « «sss pe OM Tt ee RTE co ce 759
2. The Detection and Estimation of Carbon Monoxide in the Air by the
Flame-cap Test. By Professor Frank CLowes, D.Sc. ............00..0000 760
3. *Chemical Education in England and Germany. By Sir H. E.
PORES SU SESS. ion ene aendire sx ys -ccngatdeseyeséxe'ssas sagueuseeeeeeaaeedeaetiees cede ily 761
4. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools..................... 761
6. The Teaching of Science in Girls’ Schools. By L. Epna Watrsr,
Me A MG liad oo bay dtegew «ochre =o de NARRM Sd bn soo we de PERERA doo sco eee 761
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Address by J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S., Sec.G.8., President of the Section ... 762
1. On the Geology of the Isle of Man. By Professor W. Borp Dawxrns,
LCS A, a ee: a 776
2, Observations on Some of the Footprints from the Trias in the Neighbour-
hood of Liverpigel, Tig eH. Cigbasrig. ;..... cattess....<sesautnraswencs..+-- ~ 779
3, Recent Borings in the Red Marl, near Liverpool. By G. H. Morton,
OS eee eee, Se ee a 780
4, Erosion of the Sea Coast of Wirral. By G. H. Mortoy, F.G.S. ......... 781
,
¢
bo
co OO
bo
REPORT—1896.
Page
. Oscillations in the Level of the Land as shown by the Buried River
Valleys and later Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Liverpool. By T.
IMiioreawATea) Tseis/ ono} 1 eC BIS ite waa eon aoe pope eaeeoperson cone ca iscntsascenatosdeco~ st 782
. Tertiary Deposits in North Manxland. By Atrrep BBLIL ...............-, 783
. On the Occurrence of Sillimanite Gneisses in Central Anglesey. By
WARD CURTIN, (Bsr Sp lcerseeeniaces<ier ossles one senplees Sea gageeee Ree ene stem 783
. On Quartzite Lenticles in the Schists of South-eastern Anglesey. By
IBID WARD) CEREEN DY. EGS. yan caved sce rnin shieogcrsenss5ocut apg eh eee eee heeeceen 783
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
. Pre-Cambrian Fossils. By Sir Wirtram Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S.......... 784
. Some Features of the Early Cambrian Faunas. By G. F. Marrunw,
TDStey5 JACI SH O Si anneal ae ene nese oop Re EnEe are oePP RO SERB Neca cccode wae 785
. Report on Life Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks ............-:.s00e 000s 787
. The Range of Species in the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales.
Psy. HORTON, SEGIS. «ai. cernano0ensp2ecneenoe sr doatpie seen Juss Seen 787
. On the Source of Lava. By Professor J. Logan Losizy, F.G.S8.......... 788
. On the Post-Cambrian Shrinkage of the Globe. By Professor J. Logan
HOBIE Y 5 EAB Ss asin bonnie ae'nke «sn dicev'ee neigh aa gisia on atlepeeieas ale eebea te Reena 789
. On the Cause of the Bathymetric Limit of Pteropod Ooze. By Purcy
FH MISGEINIDATr Tig Gye inas coniosjce saccades ocdsvapineseiethanb beseueeeencs asnet ae eee 789
. On the Conditions under which the Upper Chalk was deposited. By
ISHRGVIES WHNDATI, EGS. 5.5 cccchccnncuenenectua ce eessene meseEnens Osea eee 791
. The Highwood Mountains of Montana and Magmatic Differentiation.
A Criticism. By H. J. Jounston-Lavis, M.D., F.GS. ...........ceeecreees 792
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
. The Depths of the Sea in Past Epochs. By E. B. Wrruurep, F.G.S,... 793
. The Rippling of Sand. By VAUGHAN CORNISH ..............sscsececeeseewes 794
. Are there Fossil Deserts ? By Professor Dr. Jomannus WALTHER......... 795 —
. Notes on the Ancient Rocks of Charnwood Forest. By W. W. Watts,
IMA DE GES viene Seutiomesdesnisecieeillelveaap vise wnnae siete acts decid Nea en ee ee 795
. The Geology of Skomer Island. By F. T. Howsrp, M.A., F.G.S., and
eV 5 OMATL, MA, B.Sc., HiGaSi cit. §.0scsncncsoaoshenkeeseeetes cee 797
. Notes on Sections along the London Extension of the Manchester,
Sheffield, and Lincoln Railway between Rugby and Aylesbury. By
ORAGEES.: WooDWARD,HH.RIS., EVG-S, .....ocese... 000.50 ce eee eee 798
. Reportionsthe Stonesfield Slate. ............0. eteac- sce ss o0oce eee eee eee 799
. Report on the Investigation of a Coral Reef .................csceeeeeseaseeseees 799
. Report on Geological Photographs
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
. Report on the Hoxne Excavation 799
. On the Discovery of Marine Shells in the Drift Series at High Levels in
Aymeure, N:B. Byvoun Swain 9.0).........05-....4.:....:scgenst eso aE 799
3. Notes on the Superficial Deposits of North Shropshire By C. Cartaway,
TONS TIONS too tas ae Se Sa i eee 800
CONTENTS. XVil
Page
4, On the Glacial Phenomena of the Vale of Clwyd. By J. Lomas,
Peat. aNd be Hs ICRNDA TI, EGG. ook eccjdouce sh ssiass aneacensaecaseedees 801
5. On Some Post-Pliocene Changes of Physical Geography in Yorkshire,
RMS Ec MEN DAT:, B Ry de caas'eune Secghiessnepnssve seta voessioxavoness scene 801
Bmereport Gm to Frratic BIOCKS ”.........s0-0ccacccenesenpassseresacereocscorcevece die 803
7. Another Possible Cause of the Glacial Epoch. By Professor Epwarp
(OTD) SUR ASE GA AA J © | AR oe mS a Se Ue oP 803
8. Final Report on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Kintyre,
EAST c i ltcd ides cdees cise liisedddedvccdgdddcceddaceteases tee tes Gb « 804
9. Interim Report on the Singapore Caves ............cesccsecesseseessecsscsncecens 804
10. *Interim Report on the Calf Hole Exploration ..............cscesseceeceeeeeees 804
11. *Interim Report on the High-level Flint-drift at Ightham .................. 804
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
1, *Interim Report on the Investigation of the Locality where the Cetiosaurus
Remains in the Oxford Museum were found ..............sccceeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 804
2, *Interim Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills 804
3. *Interim Report on the Palaeozoic Phyllopoda ..............ceccecaseneseeseees 804
4, *Interim Report on the Registration of Type Specimens ..............0..00++ 804
5. Fifth Contribution to Rhetic Literature. By Montagu Browns, F.GS.,
PERRI nlo a van tev Daan: devon ve etnias sek sks caste ieenks sian vawsacnateattn ee deancs 804
6. On the Skull of the South African Fossil Reptile Diademodon. By Pro-
PPS rem Edom Cr SEH UEV Be Eis Foes ee a iee nc, Sad. « coccadcdesal vw ccuvesccusetsatetcsees 805
7. Note on Examples of Current Bedding in Clays. By Professor H. G.
MRP ERP ES AE oh heaped afresh <gwaphwaid xh tbasaciscs acundtecnwenatenucsanleasshet. 805
8. On some Crush-Conglomerates in Anglesey. By Sir ARcHIBALD GEIKIE,
Ms ia ce ca een ts sot, 2e dedosetar tanner coast wetanah Sasa 806
9. Report on Seismological Investigations .......c0..s.ccsecseceeeceesecsesceeeees 807
10. Note on some Fossil Plants from South Africa. By A.C. Sewarp, M.A.,
BR ed or chresth or HS gipaedayiNo wala aarged SROs cL beer PAO AP EP CPPLS Ge Enor ccc Renee 807
11. On the Production of Corundum by Contact Metamorphism on Dartmoor.
Bepeeroressor KART y USA? saiaistn a syidegvatnaterst$uSte<+« deydveharnasenieleyoe del. 807
12. *Interim Report on the Age and Relation of Rocks near Moreseat, Aberdeen 807
Srection D.—ZOOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Address by E. B. Pourton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford, President of the Section ..............cecceeeeeeeeceeeees 808
1. *On the Cultivation of Oysters as Practised by the Romans. By R. T.
PETIINPDHIGR AVG AY, sete oS S559 SRST SE SSG anche SRR eo ddsd dooce e dew scveedeseaseecdds 828
2, On the Function of Certain Diagnostic Characters of Decapod Crustacea.
ee ALE ASABOEANG WE UN er vot urocuientrsertesoenbiessasas teugpen sie vnaesesex cnn, 828
3. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands....................00005 Gceee 830
4, Report on the Occupation of a Tableat the Marine Biological Laboratory,
PLU IN OUUCD AM ees re dadetetacniceste Toe nereccsnsnt sete ctees sclctoneeases so» seawanaares sisters 8350
5. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ... 830
6. Report on the Fauna and Flora of the West Indies ...............eccecceeeees 830
7. Report on the Biological Investigation of Oceanic Islands................00608 830
1896. a
nes
XV REPORT—1896.
PRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18,
Page
1, *Discussion on Neo-Lamarckism, opened by Professor Luoyp-Mor@an ... 330
2. Report on the Coccidee of Ceylon .............s..sssceecesseeceecene Snot: ceesdeee O00
3. Report on the Transmission of Specimens by Post............ anal « ia coin Geet 830
4, Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication ................ sen aecsene 830
5. Report on the Index generum et specierum animalium..............seseee ... 830
6. *On the Life-history of the Tiger Beetle (Cicindela campestris). By
Tis] BS VOI Agagnogdonosodebbocee th Doe SBoe ods open ONG aCHUNGO DOE cSoododod,.coscnetchéasoa so 831
7. The Hatchery for Marine Fishes at Flodevigen, Norway. By G. M.
MMe ye o oescog 02sec oor cee cbeoc4ans wae coe nae sun Poon peat ee 831
8. On the necessity for a British Fresh-water Biological Station. By D. J.
RCO UREDIND” seeacuaunasiaclagassnswoksnasecarwcasvastereaseweie ree eschenehe = teteemamee 831
9. *On Improvements in Trawling Apparatus. By J. H. Macture ......... 832
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
Report on the Migrations of Birds), js jddsteas signe ste sydde cons daegmenth camtenseeeee 832
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
1. *Discussion in conjunction with Sections H and I on the Ancestry of the
WWieTtO DACA me fosctisnssansescer ie usv cou nercnieonseeneseaqhsthccsetes(acannestttt teem 832
2. *On Paleospondylus Gunni. By Dr, R. H. Traavarr, F.R.S. ............. 832
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
i, *Discussion in conjunction with Section K on the Oell Theory ............ 832
2. The Theory of Panplasm. By Professor CHARLES S. MINOT .........0..008 832
3. On Multiple Cell Division as compared with Bi-partition as Herbert
Spencer's limit of growth. By Professor Marcus Harroe, M.A., D.Sc.,
FRTEGS catia tees dade ybdeoe feits dos ahd stad asteeveh sag hath sf estat: Dee en 833
4. The Present Position of Morphology in Zoological Science. By E. W.
MACB REDD MAN ir rends dis edeandeveld, sack covolassianssb baeswel doa eee 833
5. The Olfactory Lobes. By Professor CHARLES S. MINOT ........cccceeeeee 836
6. On the relation of the Rotifera to the Trochophore. By Professor
ee
a
. Statistics of Wasps. By Professor F, Y. EpenwortH
. “Note on Genyornis, Stirling, an extinct Ratite Bird supposed to belong
. Report on the Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea
. Phoronis, the Harliest Ancestor of the Vertebrata. By A.T.MAsteRMAN 837
Manous Hartoe, M-A., DiSe., FILS. -4....0..05:<ccsdesre oo elena 836
to the Order Megistanes. By Professor A, Newron, F.R.S. 836
Stee e eee eeeeeee
- Report on the Fauna of African Lakes .............ccsesccceeececeeeee wis aboek- 836
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
BofbiocDOded 836
The Effects of Pelagic Spawning Habit on the Life Histories of Fishes. By
Discs MASUBEMAN — cwcdessnerenserteerastecvnecesccrecnc hs 837
*The Structure of the Male Apus. By Dr. BENHAM ............cceccenecoue 837
. *On the Life History of the Haddock. By Professor W. C. M‘Intosx,
PMN ARIOD shall ofp cniidiciveicesds cently HEEL en
CONTENTS. xix
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Address by Major L. Darwin, Suc.R.G.S., President ............csccseeseeeeeeees “358
Tone Journey in Tripoli. By Hi. S. CoWPER, .4:.5:05.te.cdseenoenesraietd anal el 849
2. *The Land of the Hausa. By Rev. J.C. RoBINSON ...........ccceceeeeeese 850
3. Photographic Surveying. By JoHN Cones ou... cee eee bo 850
4. *Marine Research in the North Atlantic. By H. N. Dickson, F,R.S.E. 850
5. On a Proposed Geographical Description of the British Islinds. By
MueH ROBERT, Minn,DiSe.,)FUR.SiBis ©. costes coated... emda eh Wea ode 850
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1, The Weston Tapestry-Maps. By Rev. W. K. R. Buprorp, M.A.......... 850
2, The Altels Avalanche. By Tempest AnpgErson, M.D., B.Sc. ............ 851
3. On Uganda and the Upper Nile. By Lieutenant C.F. S. VaANpELEUR... 85%
4, Coast-forms of Romney Marsh. By Dr. F.G. GuLtiver .................. 85-4
. Sand Dunes. By Vauenan Cornisu, M.Sc.
. *Last Year’s Work of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition. By A,
GMMR OE SEAR ICH! Sian tee bn eee ene re hath toc ccanc wicades vscaccsiettrass ve culadlace stele 855
. The Influence of Climate and Vegetation on African Civilisations. By
Seeger SCO Mat TMTOTs Hine us Gisel’ Wank the cccsdeeck bestisgsenedceGeccencgss bas 856
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. World Maps of Mean Monthly Rainfall. By Anprew J. Ilprpertson,
aprein pHa te ry Ss) acca. ve vew oececeateac sete dans das eaauettsetetecah< de ier eeneee? 857
Ze tne Climate of Nyasaland. By J. W.. More: ...cssssscsosccnenesesrsntscsneee 858
Srmrmponnan Atrican Qlimaten cys han aibhisiWeds tideaeciledvdvssaestoarcudced beessee 858
4, Practical Geography in Manchester. By J. Howarp Rump ............... 858
5. *Canada and its Gold Discoveries. By Sir JAMES GRANT ............00006- 858
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
“1. A Journey towards Lhasa. By W. A. L. FLETCHER ..............0..00c000s 859
2. The Northern Glaciers of the Vatna Jokull, Iceland. By FrepEricKk
BAPE ie eELOMGEa Linea a cciseeias ss ate acies anenalse scissirsoesceteckeeae sees dees adtebouveuieeee 859
%. Notes on the less-known Interior of Iceland. By Kart Grossmann,
PPE are OA ME a Mina Sets aauben ts cians cp acer rises aes nctigning suaebereeapseeg 859
4, The Relativity of Geographical Advantages. By Grorce G. CuIsHoLm,
M.A., B.Sc......... Banee ponte dase cnecenaaeeeneneces ceanpetescancsidsessacsslesssincss das , 860
5. The various Boundary Lines between British Guiana and Venezuela,
attributed to Sir Robert H. Schomburgk. By RatpxH Ricwarpson,
BR nEU.S. i., FLOM. SCC: btis Gee HE SAV SCObs sss ceaccsstscastacvesarccseccesoece 861
. *A Journey in Spitzbergen in 1896. By Sir W. Martin Conway, M.A. 862
. The Present Condition of the Ruined Cities of Ceylon. By Henry W.
OT re ak Re cnn eta ahs eneasbitd kad ve 862
. *Earthquakes and Sea-Waves. By Professor Jonn MItnz, F.R.S. ...... 862
a 2
xx REPORT—1896.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER. 22.
Page
1. The Southern Alps of New Zealand ; and a proposed Ascent of Aconcagua.
By A. E. FITZGERALD .....c.sececseennscseeeneceseesenerseeeeesesenseanseseaeeeneess 862
. *The Egyptian Sudan. By General Sir Cartes Witsoy, K.C.B., F.R.S. 863
. The Teaching of Geography in relation to History. By A. W. AnDREWws 864
The Border-land of British Columbia and Alaska. By E. Opium ......... 865
. *Some Remarks on Dr. Nansen and the Results of his Recent Arctic
Expedition. By J. Scorr KEtrie ........... anecvadecessccesecssuareusteeseceneun 865
. An Apparatus to illustrate Map Projections. By ANDREW J. HERBERTSON,
FLEE Dae SEC ees SOREN 5 865
7, A New Population Map of the South Wales Coal District. By B. V.
NOME BISHURE PMS AGtest.ncstccsiotsscoccsesacsceesncsensuctserersscscens Sch veenaaaeense 865
8. Report on Geographical Teaching,.........ssscasevessses-+0esessseareouessonpsesses 866
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Address by the Right Hon. Leonarp Courtney, M.A., M.P., President...... 867
1. Some Economic Issues in regard to Charitable or Philanthropic Trading.
By Oe OCH C. . cin asec ani «+ oeseannclasjelcnsjeSha anes dtaceddn a yan dete ede een eeemet 875
2, Trade Combinations and Prices. By H. J. Faux, M.A. ..............s000e-e 876
8. Les Crises Commerciales. By Monsieur CLEMENT JUGLAR ..............000- 876
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
. That Ability is not the Proper Basis of Local Taxation. By Epwix
(GARNITAD MESA sp See ceo oeme ae dae e ida docdon ode ceecsanevobawes sseene sete se eet aaa 877
2. Some Observations on the Distribution and Incidence of Rates and Taxes;
with special reference to the transfer of charges from the former to the
latter.” ‘By G.oH. BLUNDEN) ..::..23--.-s-nee>n-asee ite anes net rns Gsee ee Eee 878
3. Proposed Modifications of the Rating System. By W.H. Smira......... 878
4, Farm Labour Colonies and Poor Law Guardians. By Harorp E.Moors,
BUS eoesrerasss ee vse ssGuls osleseiceasicressiavacate acest yra seb as ee ae cneee see eee een 879
5. *Raffeisen Village Banks in Germany. By Professor W.B. Borromtry 879
G. The Decay of British Agriculture: its Causes and Cure. By Cuartzs
IBANTOUT ese .esdon.ccstcssdtpocesveck vccssteetteesetes ceoeseavo cece sevecs soca anaes 879
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. Metric Measures and our Old System. By F. Toms ............sereeee: Speanpe CBU
2. *Comparison of the Age-Distribution of Town and Country Popula-
tion in Different Wands. By A. W. Brux, M.A. ......::.::caces sc serene -- 880
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
1. Mercantile Markets for ‘Futures.’ By Exryan HLM ........ccccececseeees . 880
2, Grain Futures, their Effects and Tendencies. By H.R. RaTHont ...... 881
3.
Cotton Futures, what they are, and how they Operate in Practice. By
CRABIRS SUBWART IS . Seipings vcsinvan dus sles<ccacecstsaciedd onl eeeeseue eel tae 881
4,
a
2.
3.
CONTENTS. Xxi
Page
The Influence of Business in Futures on Trade and Agriculture, By J. ;
LLL D Gala Ra as as 3 aay 882
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The Currency Question in the United States and its bearing on British
ameter Eby. ARTE Wildy SHE I05. 00. $0 fo dp chrd0d dows Biode ha eacgeacvnsoaavescuca cane 883
Standard of Value and Price. By Winttam FowLee .........0....cccecceeee 884
The Monetary Standard. By Major L. Darwin .......... oasedidetotecett ee 885
Section G.-MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Address by Sir Dovatas Fox, Vice-President of the Institution of Civil
Tae EUCBICLOUG? i.0 states cae cststasccctcrstetent secnced cacecacecteosaeceoesasortae 886
1. Physical and Engineering Features of the River Mersey and the Port of
Peecupouw Ay Gib. aweavns boc Vere date. UR Ted satb lees Ni iveebes odes 896
2. The Cause of Fracture of Railway Rails. By W. Worsy Beaumont,
HVEPETES Ca(Ce Biers. 2 53 .itdccaicaain w Ales aes see ao dytne Pcisiessepabeieds anedestesncmaedetepalat 896
FRIDA Y, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. Report on the Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure on the Tides ... 897
2, Report on the Calibration of Instruments in Engineering Laboratories ... 897
3. Description of general features and dimensions of the Tower Bridge. By
ures HAIG PEGA TERY | C545, 80) Ene acess seeetSeaegescmnuivdes code cvscereceie Gogo ss 897
4. On the Liverpool Waterworks, By J. PARRY ............::::cssssseseeeneeces 897
5. *The present position of the British North Atlantic Mail Service. By
EE ERISIE oy caiscycars valet seine ive <Sec vs foce¥eesls snsescoducansnsesspancna idee atesdae 897
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
emmmnnrrt Gi miall Screw ‘GAUGES... ....5...cccescceccosccenasessecsansenensecressnanse 898
2. *Test of Glow Lamps. By W. H. Preece, C.B., F.R.S..........ceeceeeeeeee 898
3. *The Liverpool Overhead Railway and the Southern Extension of it.
BRINE. OA NG TEED AN Sad des thd «a Seale vbev'e deeds cgleubicdbrnonsvéccsctvencecoses 898
4, Notes on Electric Cranes. By E. W. ANDERSON ..............ccssccssceeseens 898
5, *Experiments on the Hysteresis of Iron in Revolving Magnetic Fields.
By Professor J. A. Firemine, F.R.S., R. Bearrin, and R. C. CLinker... 899
6, Street Lighting by Electric Incandescent Lamps. By Wrtttam GEorGE
Nace: Mi Inst: Mii. AVM Inst. ©.Biis. cc vvesscesssscsceesceteesscsrsccevcsesee 899
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
. Armour and Heavy Ordnance—Recent Developments and Standards.
BSva CA NERY AW HEN; (WA QUES) tocdtadsmoaadecdsisecsdsdionnetecerenesncceiectcetsencees 900
2. A new Spherical Balanced Valve for all Pressures. By Jamzs Casry ... 901
3. Engineering Laboratory Apparatus. By Professor H. 8. Hurz-Suaw,
BPMRPCE MIB ES sebh By cnus. dgdach Us hops. vosierave ds owl. wadd st teicvswgede odes «dbvev dba sea oduene 903
4. *Development of the Art of Printing in Colours, By T. Conp ....... Sage 905
5. *Expanded Metal. By H. B. TARRY ...........cccecccssececectsesenscscoscasenes 905
XXll REPORT—1896.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
Page
Nie Wareek alsin. By). BELL i5...2.0-cnchoyeveces dsavex’ anid aguetnte se cence ements 905
2, *Horseless Road Locomotion. By A. R. SENNETT ............0seceececeeeees 905
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Address by Artuur J. Evans, M.A., F.S.A., President of the Section ......... 906
1. Report on the Mental and Physical Condition of Children ................+8 922
2. Stone Implements in Somaliland. By H. W. Spron-Karr................. 922
8. The Older Flint Implements of Ireland. By W. J. Kyowtzzs, M.R.LA. 923
4, *The Dolmens of Brittany. By Professor W. A. Hprpman, F.R.S., and
IPTOLESSOr W...0YD DA WKING, HURSs) 0. sesee secs ne tee.cueadebeaeeteceeeeeeeheree 924
5. The Sculptured Stones of Scotland. By Miss C. MACLAGAN............00000- 924
6. The ‘ Brochs’ of Scotland (with model), By Miss C. Mactacan ......... 924
7. Ancient Measures in Prehistoric Monuments. By A. L. Lewis, F.C.A. 924
8. Paleolithic Spear and Arrow-heads. By H. SToPES .............csseceneees 925
9. Palzoliths Derived and Re-worked. By H. STOPES.............cccceeceeeeees 925
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. *The Centenary of the Birth of A. Rerzius was commemuorated............ 925
2. Physical Anthropology of the Isle of Man. By A. W. Moors, M.A.,
and JOHN BEppOE, MAD,, FuRLS. ..si<d dete. raeaagsessaes pupa decks eee 925.
3. The Trinil Femur (Pithecanthropus erectus) contrasted with the Femora
of various Savage and Civilised Races. By Davin Hepsury, M.D.,
UP ES So BL Ses oe Re eee RRR SERRE pee eB +s voigegeteae aaa 926,
4. Proportions of the Human Body. By J. G. Garson, M.D. ......ccc000-e 927
5. “Some Pagan Survivals. By F. T. ELWORTHY ..........cccccccscceceeeeceesees 927
SA TURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
i. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland ...... 928
2, (Bent. in Relation to the Ethnographical Survey. By I. W. Brasroor,
BIOL Selec ccisebiele 02 9/4 221s 6a.ls os. su seimuianleielbs se\skeeejepin ce 2 fae peu geetee Soe 928
3. An Imperial Bureau of Ethnology. By ©. H. Ruan, Sec.S.A. ..cccceeeee- 928
4. Anthropological Opportunities in British New Guinea. By Sripney
BAAN oa dach ec er psec eccggitcnsserit sd: SaUicdlashi St eer 928
10,
. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada '
- *The Coast Indians of British Columbia. By Professor E. Opium. .....- 929
. *The Growth of Agriculture in Greece and Italy, and its Influence on
. Interim Report on the Immediate Investigation of Oceanic Islands ...... 929
. On a Method of Determining the Value of Folklore as Ethnological
Data, illustrated by Survivals of Fire-worship in the British Isles. By
£5 LUA TRENGE GOMME oo nnni%sacsanqontons» odihidae obo hia . 929)
Karly Civilisation. By Rev. G. Hartwett. Jonus, M.A. ...ceccceeee seve 929
Report on the North Dravidian and Kolarian Races of India .......esse-e- 929
a
CONTENTS. XXili
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
Page
1, Cyprus and the Trade Routes of S.E. Europe. By Joun L. Myrzs,
REE A uLARS cat tet aa. con sk vahapadecussckeevscesrscessccentdeesercesctenvertstwens 2s
2. The Transition from Pure Copper to Bronze made with Tin. By Dr.
J. He GuapsTone, FURS. :....88) Giese eee ece nee ie Aide janteee tea teen setae 930
3. Hallstatt and the Starting-point of the Iron Age in Europe. By Professor
VAMEUUNG WAY MG Atte ses tctsc sn scunactctcastccsteccsesesdrasescscescdustrpertesese. 930
4, The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy. By Dr. OscAR MoNTELIUS......... 931
5. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury ............::sssesceeeneeseeeeesees 931
6. *Sergi’s Theory of a Mediterranean Race. By J. L.Myrs, M.A.......... 93
7. *Boat Graves in Sweden. By Dr. H. STOLPE............ccccsceeceeeeeereeeeeees 931
8. Notes on a Prehistoric Settlement in Co. Kerry. By R. A. 8S. Mac-
/STLTISTIO TR NY ale egaactacemandaomooyemee secon ascer agg en dinn 2s hhe end sncnedaneneucacos prebepone 931
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
*Discussion on the Early Civilisation of the Mediterranean....... Kid SOUTER OSCCE Se 932
1. Who produced the Objects called Mykenzean? By Prof. W. Ripceway,
Oils hele dae eee eIgHs Je SEE SS EEE EEE See ae USE? ERMC Or LER aN eat Oe 932
. Preclassical Chronology in Italy and Greece. By Dr. Oscar Monrerius 933
3. Pillar and Tree Worship in Mycenzean Greece. By ArrHuR J. Evans,
Tivos EIS i oaanddaderoustaneandssaassbinw son! ec adsee Go anCue tis Aaa ESS eOROScEBBeCSE 934.
4, *The Ornament of N.E. Europe. By G. COFFEY .........cc1..ceseeeereereenes 934
5. Manx Crosses as Illustrations of Celticand Scandinavian Art. By P. M.C.
KKERMODE..........cccsccccecscccccecscccccesssecessreescnseuenees Sn.cenne enon OASNRaROOe 984
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
1, An Ethnological Storehouse. By Professor W. M. FrinpEers PErrts,
TIO. Bedeeste ass An ect ad ag Sere CR soe ton See anno BEC oc Bsa choec i SB B ocr Sere 935
2. The Duk Duk and other Customs as Forms of Expression of the Intel-
lectual Life of the Melanesians. By GRar VON PPEIL ...............0600+ 939
8. An Ancient British Interment. By F. T. Etwortay ...................06+ 940
4. On the Aboriginal Stick and Bone Writing of Australia. By Dr.
ESHGRGH UARDMY, EES; ccossesoreraseesescrtovre+dseemsaste cas snsiencensieccesrntees 941
6, *The Straw Goblin. By C. G. LELAND ..........c cic eeecesscecneeeeesseeceeees 941
6. *Marks on Ancient Monuments. By C. G. LEDAND...........:0.0eeeee eee 941
Srctrion I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including Exprrimentat Patrnonoey and
EXPERIMENTAL PsycHoLoey).
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER li.
1. The Genesis of Vowels. By R. J. Luoyp, D.Lit., M.A. .........eseeeeeeeees 972
2. The Interpretation of the Phonograms of Vowels. By R. J. Luoyp,
Nn thags Mitt me mnenedeecnssieestenace roc sivuaed yesecaena+avarsenreseccesspsicucsoses toons a
8. Report on Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.........-.--...+++++ 973
4, On a New Method of Distinguishing between Organic and Inorganic Com-
pounds of Iron in the Tissues. By Professor A. B. Macatium, M.B., ole
MRED rcsca- ee seestiast eee ieccatebecccesceccacteecstcseccecnsccsssccccrsesobosscasnsersnce
5.
On the Different Forms of the Respiration in Man. By W, Manrcer,
M.D., F.R.S.
ecelcec cece eedeeccecescccencnccesecsseseseeeser esses eee sesessesssseesersens?d
XXIV REPORT—1896.
to
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
Page
. The Occurrence of Fever in Mice. By Professor J. Lorrain SMITH,
M.A., M.D., and F. F. WESBROOK, M.D. .........csseccssecsereoneeseenbeneses 974
. The Physiological Effects of ‘ Peptone’ when Injected into the Circula-
tion. By Professor W. H. THOMPSON, M.D. ......:seseecseneeeeeeeeeeeeenees 975
. On the Nerves of the Intestine and the Effects of Small Doses of Nicotine
upon them. By J. L. Bunow, M.D., B.Sc. 2.2... .eeseecseeeeeeeert ete cete eters 976
. On the effect of Peritonitis on Peristalsis. By A.S. Grinpavm, M.A.,
M.B. (Cantab.), M.R.C.P. .....seceneeceeecensceeeeecncnceces Nags « gheaeeiant eaten 976
. The Glucoside Constitution of Proteid Matter. By F. W. Pavy, M.D.,
Rots: Rak Ln) Bee eS ee . 976
. The Discharge of a Single Nerve Cell. By Professor F. Gorcu, F.R.S. 978
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
. On the Principles of Microtome Construction. By Professor CHARLES
NSIS ENON ere ccs oh hassisuccp ions ahacisiactelpnia’e «dines ecineler ate one oeeainasle sei eee aeteemtert 979
. Fragments from the Autobiography of a Nerve. By A. W. WALLER,
NIST ESH MLE Sec tastascensstetesecns verge aseecs-cabewcssaes@ceseecbes a ssietueschaca ieee 980
. Structure of Nerve Cells as shown by Wax Models. By Gustav Mann,
in) yet scolece osscis-sssacigimest eae eee 980
. Cell Granulations under Normal and Abnormal Conditions, with special
references to the Leucocytes. By R. A. M. Bucwanan, M.D. ............ 981
. Some Points of Interest in Dental Histology. By F. Pavr, F.R.C.S8. ... 982
. The Effect of the Destruction of the Semicircular Canals upon the Move-
ment of the Eyes. By EnGaR STEVENSON, M.D. .........csecsecseceeeoneee 982
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
Address by W. H. Gasxett, M.D., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., President of the
Section ....... ain os Wawsateiate wale « Sais env ml URle din ooh oa ORE ke Ue eee 942
*Discussion on the ‘Ancestry of the Vertebrata’ at a joint meeting of
DechOns WE ands oo. can. step « tascnes qekcserscdhemmeeamtensae cack oe epee aeeee 983
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
1 *Photometry and Purkinje’s Phenomena. By Professor J. B, Hayorarr 988
2. The Physical Basis of Life. By Professor F. J. Atten, M.D. (Cantab.) 983
5 *The Réle of Osmosis in Physiological Processes. By Dr. - Lazarus
PRETO cnn cep sn: onndennaneasnnpadie«vinss s Sachinrip’y -inh Rvapaie Sxap Cae ae 984
4. The Organisation of Bacteriological Research in Connection with Public
Health. “By Sims Wooprean, M.D. .j50..cescacee penance snes snsteneeeeeee 984
5. Bacteria and Food. By A. A. Kanruack, M.D. ..........ss.cccsssssseseeeore 985
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
. The Minute Structure of the Cerebellum. By ALexanpeR Hitz, M.D.... 986
2. The Basis of the Bacteriological Theory, founded upon Observations upon
the Fermentation of Milk. By Professor A, P. FOKKER..........00.+ BeORG 986
3. Report on Oysters under Normal and Abnormal Environments .........0+. 986
4
. The Presence of Iron and of Copper in Green and in White Oysters. By
Perrone A. KOHN, Ph.0)., B.Sc, ...c00s0vasooscscviccceoseiotiteeect cea . 986
CONTENTS, xXXV
Page
5. Experiments on the Action of Glycerine upon the Growth of Bacteria. By
S. Moncxron Copeman, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), M.R.C.P., and Frank R,
BAXALL, M.D. (Lond.), D.P.H. .........0. cescescescnneesvonccscescesceccsesenees 988
6. Some Points in the Mechanism of Reaction to Peritoneal Infections. By
FHERBERT EF, DURHAM ...........csccsconscnscnccnccncsesenccsccneceseeseesecsseesens 987
7. On the Agglutinating Action of Human Serum on certain Pathogenic
Micro-organisms (particularly on the Typhoid Bacillus). By Atserr S.
Grinpaum, M.A., M.B. (Cantab.), M.R.C.P......... cece eeeeeeeee eee reeee eee e ees 989
8, The Detection of Lead in Organic Fluids By Jon Hirt Aram, M.D.
(Lond.), M.R.C.P., and Prosper H. MarspEn, F.C.S...... ..sseeseeseeeeeeee 990
|
Section K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
| Address by D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Honorary Keeper of the Jodrell
Laboratory, Royal Gardens, Kew, President of the Section ...........+++. 992
1. Report on Methods of preparing Vegetable Specimens for Museums ...... 1010
2. On some Species of the Chytridiaceous Genus Urophilyctis. By Professor
MEPIENGNUS ..<.00..c0ac-cterdos sevessecouscrastuaepvecdducesscbextaesencescorsqsenssacse 1010
8. A Parasitic Disease of Pellia epiphylla. By W.G. P. Exuis, M.A. ...... 1010
4, On Corallorhiza innata, R. Br., and its associated Fungi. By A. VAUGHAN
RUNS SHU. Ch Sane nein cance sd ecidesiedancosescoen's Uy octet behisinatiootcs elt sek 1011
5. On a New Genus of Schizomycetes, showing Longitudinal Fission. (Aséro-
bacter Jonesii.) By A. VaueHan Jennines, F.LS., F.G.S. «2.0.00... 1012
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. On the Arrangement of the Vascular Bundles in certain Nympheacee.
By D. T. GwYNNE-VAUGHAN, B.A. (Cantab.)........cccecceseeeserseeeeeeeees 1012
2. The Influence of Habitat upon Plant-Habit. By G. F. Scorr Extror,
ak Ra ig Ei, Ee sccecss asada agdecevad-saekscouvas deatleces ddeeeenaigeanomens 10138
_ 3. Discussion on the Movement of Water in Plants, opened by FRANcIs
PROPRENUENE DEMERS) op Pact sol avas cancers thite ft endear aco cods -ssebastmctesscacoune acdsee ses 1014
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. Changes in the Tentacle of Drosera rotundifolia, produced by F eeding
with) Hee Albumen. By Diriy El. HUTn ..............cccscessseceserecesseres 1014
2. On the so-called Tubercle Bacillus. By A. Coppmn Jones, F.L.S. ...... 1016
8. Preliminary Notes on Floral Deviations in some Species of Polygonum.
HVE ETOLOSSON Os WV ocEL, TRAIT, FEU, oycicccesnrcseusonecucevancnsaritqrsssesoce 1016
4, On the Singular Effect produced on certain Animals in the West Indies,
by feeding on the Young Shoots, Leaves, Pods, and Seeds of the Wild
Tamarind or Jumbai Plant (Leucena glauca, Benth.). By D. Morris,
erg Ne Meg Pipe 9S hse). cdeccusccaucboenwendastanezeaesc ee orattaerctsnesdase 1017
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
1. *On the Number of Spores in Sporangia. By Professor F.O. Bowsr, F.R.S. 1019
2. The Polymorphism of the Green Algz, and the Principles of their
Evolution. By Professor R. CHopat 1019
TeUTeET TT PEEP OECCECOCC CCC eee
XXV1 REPORT—1896.
Page
3. On some Peculiar Cases of Apogamous Reproduction in Ferns. By
VARIETAL OMINIGS IVECES,. SSCs. csc .ececese cones anc sunstracet esenesep Seem eeeeeener 1019
4, *On the Geographical Distribution of Plants. By W. T. Txisrtron-
DR Ese Cec Cre Oke be feevtecccesctset or cceseess temsiveestiasee gaeneteeeeen 1020
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
1. *Discussion on the Cell. Some current Problems connected with Cell-
division. By Professor J. BRETLAND FARMER ............sccccseeeeseeseees 1020
2. On the Heterotype Divisions of Lrliwn Martagon. By Etuen Sareant 1021
38. On the Cells of the Cyanophycex. By Professor E. ZACHARTAS............ 1021
4. *On a New Hybrid Passion Flower. By Dr. J. WItson ............0000-000 1022
5. Observations on the Loranthaceze of Ceylon. By F. W. Kursts, B.A.
(Oantas)) 24 -cctoctescitteageeas-cscecax <x -aeaaes ocduce compas nensaccre «eseeehenseie meenerats 1022
6. Specimens of Recent and Fossil Plants were demonstrated in the Zoologi-
cal Laboratory by Dr. D. H. Scorr, Professor Maenus, Professor
ZACHARIAS, Miss EK. Sareant, Mr. A.C. S—warp, Mr. W. H. Lane, and
OUHONS grees ten ve be auch is janine fe goatee’ led eishiv'oiingts waite wee spares threes tueg eesti eee eee 1023
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
1. On Latent Life in Seeds. By M. Casimir DB CANDOLLE .........0.....0c0008 1028
2. On some Carboniferous Fossils referred to Lepidostrobus. By D. H.
Com MAL PRD, HARGS: ...<ccse.sissnesasedcssenadecthanbens octhsteen tae eee 1024
3. A New Cycad from the Isle of Portland. By A.C. Swarp,M.A., F.G.S. 1024
PME Sic. asa ceusecents vespicostis seen sci ce ecaunattanebecaetes eee tee ate Et eee eee 1024
5. *A New Species of Albuca (A. prolifera, Wils.). By Dr. J. Wizson ...1025
6. *Observations on Hybrid Albucas: By Dr. J. WiItson ..............0.0000 1025
MEN PHANG sae Airigics sas sougaesspsessancages dense sabe cenresscbateness tas nae eete seen 1027
PLATE.
Illustrating the Report on the Relation of Paleolithic Man and the Glacial Epoch.
——E—————
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
—_+—_
OBJECTS.
Tur Assoctation contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sam of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
Annvat SupscriBers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive
XXViil REPORT—1896,
gratwitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.
Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. |
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription,
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!
Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xxix
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance!; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
Cuass A. Prnmanent MempBers.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
matting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association tu be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Crass B. TrEmporary Mrempers.?
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organising Sectional Vommittees.3
9 J
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,‘ and of preparing Reports
1 Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1596.
2 Revised, Montreal, 1884.
3 Passed, Edinburgh, 1871.
4 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
XxX REPORT—1896.
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.'
An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the Sectional Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.”
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.m., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee except for Thursday and Saturday.®
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
DETONE! -5.cs acu ccmeccee east .s., addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... > If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.
! Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. 3 Edinburgh, 1871.
* The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883, * Nottingham, 1893.
EE — oe
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxi
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxix), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
‘specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or
_ Committees for the executiou of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Locai Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members uf the Committee shouid be named, and
1 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
2 This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871,
XxXxil REPORT—1896.
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.
That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.
That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to cnable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Comnuttee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Commuittee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.'
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.
Notices regarding Grants of Money.?
1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.
2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.
3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. Ifthe work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.
4, Each Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. InterimReports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.
1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
7 Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXill
5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, I'.R.S8., for
such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.
6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.
7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.
8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
further grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.
9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received.
10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of Natural History are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Association.
11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.
12. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.
At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,' and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
' The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours
of meeting of the Section and Sectional Committee, except for Thursday and
Saturday.
1896. b
XXX1V REPORT—1896.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties uf the Doorkeepers.
1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant General Secretary.
3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed cn
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.!
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.
All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.”
If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.®
1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
? Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
® Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION, XXXV
Corresponding Societies.'
1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. ‘This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
_ General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
4. Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
‘Ist of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, ard which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list,in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ew officio members.
9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
_ part in the meetings.
10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed tc transmit to
1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
b2
EXRVI REPORT—1896.
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
earried into effect.
11. It will bethe duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
(1) The Council shall consist of !
. The Trustees.
. The past Presidents.
. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
. Ordinary Members.
NI lor) oe Conor
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
* Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.
RULES. OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVil
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
_ The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
1896.
REPORT
XXXVI
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REPORT
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1896.
] REPORT—1896.
TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1897.
TRUSTEES.
1832-70 (Sir) R. I. MuRcHISON (Bart.),
F.R.S.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
¥832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S.
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., F.R.S.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.8.
1872-97 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart., F.R.S.
1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
RS.
1883-97 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1883-97 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFAIR,
F.RS.
GENERAL TREASURERS.
W831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq, F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTIsWOODE, Esq., F.RS.
| 1874-91 Prof. A.W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.
1891-97 Prof. A. W. Rickur, F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1852-35 Kev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
F.RB.S.
1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARcoURT,
F.R.S, and F, Batty, Esq.,
F.RB.S.
1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARcouURT,
F.R.S., and R. I. MurcHIsoN,
Esq.. F.R.S.
1337-39 R. I. MuRcHIsON, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rey. G. Peacock, F.R.S.
1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcutson, F.R.S.,
and Major E. SABINE. F.R.S.
1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and
J.F. ROYLE, Esgq., F.R.S.
1652-53 J. F. RoYLeE, Esq., F.B.S.
1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
7859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R:S.
1896-62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.RS.
1662-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.
1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.RS., and
F. GALTON, Esca., F.RS.
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.RB.S.
1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hrgst, F.R.S., and Dr.
T. THOMSON, F.R.S.
1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1872-76 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S.,
and Dr. MICHAEL FostTEr,
F.BS.
1876-81 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S.,
and Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.B.S.
1881-82 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S.,
and Prof. F. M. BALFouR,
F.RB.S.
1882-83 Capt. DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1883-95 Sir DouGLAS GALTON, F.RB.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
Ksq., F.R.S.
1895-97 A. G. VERNON HArcouRtT, Esq.,
HRS: and ‘Prof, shoe.
ScHAFER, F.R.S.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1631
JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary.
2832
Prof. J. D. Forses, Acting
Secretary.
1822-62 Prof JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R:S.
1862-78 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.
1$78-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.,
Assistant Secretary.
G. GRIFFITH, Esy., M.A., Acting
Secretary.
1881
1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.RS.
Secretary.
1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.
1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.
1890-97 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.
li
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838,
Liverpool...
Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork.........
1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
‘ ton.
1847. Oxford
1848, Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850, Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ..,
~ 1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull...
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Rev. Dr. Robinson .......... ..|Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Rev. William Whewell, F.2.8.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.............
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. 3...
The Very Rey. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. .....
William Hopkins, F.R.S.......
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.R.S.
W. Thomson,
‘ M.A.,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E.
.| The Very Rey. the Dean of
Ely, F.B.S.
als
Wheatstone.
Prof, Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof, Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr.
Stokes.
Stevelly, G. G.
'Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
. Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
|Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. pee
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof, Stevelly, J. Welsh.
CY
hii
Date and Place
REPORT—1 896.
Presidents
1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856, Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869, Exeter
1879. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......
1875. Bristol
eoenes
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.1A.
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.
The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
G. B. Airy, M.A., D:C.i;,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes,
F.R.S.
Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
M.A.,
Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S,
Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
.| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof de Lyndall; bse,
F.RB.S.
Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
E.R.S.
J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
M.A.,
Prot. PG. Tait, Hake. iemees
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, F.R.S. .
Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.
Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L,, F.B.S.
Prof. G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.
Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
George Johnstone Stoney,
) M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof,
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof, Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, .H,
J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rey. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. dw (Ss
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof.H.J.S. Smith,
Rev. 8. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof, A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. I’. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
lili
Presidents
Secretaries
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
Swansea ...
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford ......
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Dublin
Bristol ......
Liverpool...
Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Manchester
Cambridge
|Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
|| PEO “Ws
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.B.5. |
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A..,|
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. Chrystal,
| F.R.S.E.
|Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball, M.A.,
LL.D., F.RB.S.
| Prof. G. F.. Fitzgerald, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.R.S.
J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.R.S., V.P.B.A.S.
M.A.,
Sc.D.,
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
M. Hicks, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,
D.Se., F.R.S.
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D.
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Prof. A. I. Selby.
|. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
| Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
J. Walker.
Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
G. T. Walker, W. Watson.
Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker,
W. Watson.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IJ.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
Oxford...... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
I PRELO PC sersee = noses seascenccsllaes
James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
| Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......
Rey. Prof. Cumming
Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Rey. William Whewell,F.R.S.
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .........
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F'.R.S. ....:s
Rey. Prof. Cumming
Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
‘Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
\Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
‘Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr, T, Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Dr. L, Playfair, E. Solly, T, H. Barker.
|R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,
H. Solly.
liv
REPORT—1896.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853.
1854. Liverpool
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin...;...
1858.
1859. Aberdeen... |
1860.
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton... |
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast...... |
1875. Bristol......
1876, Glasgow ..
1877. Plymouth... |
1878, Dublin......
. | Prof.
-|W. H. Perkin, -F.R.S; ....0...
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
RES;
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,)
F.R.S.
Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. |
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S8.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S. |
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.8.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S. |
Prot. Bb. ©.) Brodie, HORS, ...
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L. |
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S...... |
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. |
Prof. W.H.Miller, M.A.,¥.R.S. |
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F-.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
AVALON CASy
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.|
M.D..,|
Dr. Hy. Debus, Fi Risy. oars:
Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
WOAY Abel) BH RiSierccsccetee ee
Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
B. C. Brodie, R, Hunt, Prof. Solly.
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams,
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
'T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D, Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.
J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
.|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
F.R.S.
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T, Wills.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lv
Date and Place
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
Presidents
Secretaries
Sheffield ...
Swansea
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham |
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
ee eeee
Ipswich
Liverpool...
...| Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,'
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.
F.R.S. |
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
|Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,)
F.R.S. |
| Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D., |
LL.D., F.B.S.
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D., |
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. |
| Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S8.
Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Sir J. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
| D.C.L., F.R.S.
D.Sc.,
B.Sce.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.8.
|Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S8.
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
| Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S. |
Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
|H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.
P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R, E.
Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.
P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, 'T. Gough.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.¥ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson,
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W W. J. Nicol.
H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.
C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.
J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.
SECTION B (continwed).—-CHEMISTRY.
..| Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......!
E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
Kohn, J. W. Rodger.
Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn
GEOLOGICAL (ann, untm 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge.
1834. Edinburgh .
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle. .'
1839. Birmingham
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .....
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.......
Prof, Jameson
Rie Dp Grist, jen .ecessessececscenee
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe,
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
.../John Taylor.
W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, 8S. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N.
W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H, E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
lvi
REPORT—1896.
Date and Place
. Glasgow ...
1840
1841.
1842,
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
Plymouth...
Manchester
Cambridge.
Southamp-
tor.
Oxford
Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850.
1851
1852
1853,
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864
Edinburgh!
. Ipswich ...
. Belfast
. Hull
see eeeees
Liverpool..
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Aberdeen...
Oxford...
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Presidents
Charles Lyell, F.R.S.—Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Henry Warburton, Pres. G. 8.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.B.S.
Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.K.S.
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.
SECTION C (continued).
William Hopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col.
F.RB.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........|
Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.|
Portlock, R.E.,
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
E.R.S., F.G.8.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.B.S., F.G.S.
Secretaries
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.
KE. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.
A, Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, -
Prof. Nicol.
Oldham,
— GEOLOGY.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.
Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright. 4
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rey. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C,
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
1 The subject of Geography was separated from Geology and combined with
Ethnology, to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the “Geographical
and Ethnological Section” in 1850; for Presidents and Secretaries of which see
page
1xii.
‘7 3=—e * oes Peer or. «- 5
sf
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1865. Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol......
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin......
Sheffield ...
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen ..
Birmingham
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
eneee
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Ipswich ...
Liverpool...
.|Archibald Geikie, F.B.S.
.|H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.,
lvii
Presidents
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,)
F.R.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,8.
Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
Prof; J: Phillips, D.C.L.,|
F.R.S., F.G.S8.
Prof. Hull, 1): ere dg Sah 5
F.G.S.
Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.5.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ......
W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.
John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.
BiG.Ss... |
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. C.
LL.D., F.R.S.
We Te Blanford, F.RS., Sec.
8.
Williamson,
G.
.|Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec. |
G.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.RB.S., F.G.S.
Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S8.
Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,
FE.R.S., F.G.8.
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.RB.S.,
F.G.S.
L. Fletcher, M.A., F.B.S.
W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...
Secretaries
Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. EK.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
KE. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
|W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rey. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.
L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.
J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler,W.Topley.
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
|E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
|W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. HE. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, EH. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.
F, Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.
W. J. Harrison, Jied. (H.. Teall Wi.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Waits.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
F, A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.
J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S.,|J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, Clement
Sec. G.S.
Reid.
lviii
REPORT—1 896.
Date and Place
Presidents Secretaries
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge?
1834, Edinburgh.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
seeeee
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
Serer ry
1844, York.........
1845, Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
aeeeee
|Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...| Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S. C. C. Babington, D. Don.
|Prof. Graham |W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
eee e wate eseereeesesee
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
Dr AUN AT osc cteesenseccessnccs ‘J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
Rev. Prof. Henslow ...........5 J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.
Wi SS) Macleay ....:2.0-ssceees C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W.
| Swainson.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
| Dr. Richardson,
Prof Owen, FURS. <.. access 'E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D....... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.| J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her- Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
bert, LL.D., F.L.S. | Turner.
William Thompson, F.L.S.....G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
| Patterson.
Very Rev. the Dean of Man- Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
chester. | Dr. Lankester.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S..., Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
Sir J. Richardson, M.D., Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
F.R.S. | Wooldridge.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. Ixi.]
1848. Swansea ..
1849, Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856,
Liverpool. f
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
») Lu. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S.......05.
.../Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
| Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell,
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
| Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
Rev. Dr, Fleeming, F.R.S.E. | William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S8.| Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
| Dr. Lankester.
Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D., Prof.J.R.Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
F.R.S. Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
William Spence, F.R.S. ....../
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.
F.R.S.
Wie CUD Yi itioss vsceresscscses
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. 1xi.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lix
Date and Place
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birming-
ham !
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh.
Presidents Secretaries
|
iC. GC. Babington, M.A., F.R.S. Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
| Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wricht.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
| Dr. Ogilvy.
Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S.... W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
| L.Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S8.' Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
| | P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
| Prof. Huxley, F.R.S._......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.... Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H,
| B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. ... H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
'T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
SECTION D (continued), —BIOLOGY.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,| 3B. Tristram, W. Turner, HE. B.
¥.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
A. R. Wallace.
...| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S. | H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
H. Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,| EH. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.— H. T,. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.| tram.
Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
Anat. and Physiol.,Prof.M.| T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.| C. Staniland Wake, HE. Ray Lan-
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. kester.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...
1 The title of
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and| HE. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King,
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.— | Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,| Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, HE. Ray
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S8.
Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Ru-| BR. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
therford, M.D.—Dep.ofAn-| Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.|_ H. Lamprey.
Section D was changed to Biology; and for the word ‘Sub-
‘section,’ in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘Depart-
ment’ was substituted.
lx
Date and Place
REPORT— 1896,
Presidents
Secretaries
1874. Belfast.....,
1875, Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877.
1878.
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881.
1882. Southamp-
ton.!
1883. Southport *
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof.
Cleland, F.R.s.-—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
F.R.S.
A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,|
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. J. G. McKendrick,
F.R.S.E. ;
Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—|
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. Macalister.—Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.— |
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.|
of Anat. and Physiol. B.|
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S. |
Prof. St. George Mivart,|
F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.B.S. |
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S. |
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-|
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sander-
son, F.R.S8.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S. |
~-Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,|
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,.
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropal., |
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.
J.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,
W.T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. 0. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr. ~
Knox, Prof. W. KR.) M‘Nab; Dr,
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.
E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C, A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schafer.
s
G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick,
G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.8.E.
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
* The Departments of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were
amalgamated.
* Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. lxviii.
————
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lxi
Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries
1886. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres. L.8., Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
F.RB.S., F.G.8. | W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.
Manchester | Prof, A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S., C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
BES. Web Zen: | mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
| Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
BAG oeciess cos W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G., F. E. Beddard,:S. F. Harmer, Prof.
F.RB.S., F.L.S. H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
Newcastle - | Prof. J. 8S. Burdon Sanderson, C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
upon-Tyne| M.A., M.D., F.R.S. mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,|S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 8. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.
F. E. Beddard, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Cardiff ....., Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,| Dr. S.J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
F.R.S., F.L.S. W.N. Parker, H. Wager.
G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Edinburgh |Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,) Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
E.R.S., F.R.S.E. G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.
1893. Nottingham' Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,) W. A. Herdman, §. J. Hickson,
1894.
1895.
1896.
1833.
1834,
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844,
1845.
| M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.
W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Oxford? ...| Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,) Prof. W A. Herdman, Prof. S. J.
F.R.S. Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.
SECTION D (continwed).—zZOOLOGY.
Ipswich ...)Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.8.|G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E.
Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.
Oe ee E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. bree O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.
Hoyle.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
Cambridge |Dr.J. Haviland................0. |Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.
Edinburgh | Dr. Abercrombie .....-......... |Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
Dublin ...... Drid..@: Pritchard. ...34....4 Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
Bristol ...... Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Symonds.
Liverpool..,|/ Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....} Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr.J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Plymouth...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.
Sargent. '
Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
WOK sesscenns Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
Worlace. i. J. ©. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster,
1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixviii.
2 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.
xii
REPORT—1896.
|
Date and Place |
Presidents Secretaries
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ... iC. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
1846. Southamp- |
ton. gent.
1847. Oxford! ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......|Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
| | Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. |
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof, Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,)C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen... | Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D.............+65 G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
1864. Bath......... Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J. 8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
F.RS.
1865. Birming- | Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,)/Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
ham.” F.RB.S. | Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section OC,
p- lv.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846.Southampton) Dr. J. C. Pritchard ............ Dr. King.
1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...| Prof. Buckley.
MS pS NVARHSCre Berl beuacpesces cn sciesneensrea<ceecserecate G. Grant Francis.
US49 5 bir haM| ecw. .te.scebesenese ses oh eee eaae eee Dr. R. G. Latham.
1850. Edinburgh /|Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson,
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
| Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.
1852. Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.RB.S. Shaw.
1853; Hull\...;....: R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
1854, Liverpool... |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
F.R.S. Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1855. Glasgow .../Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,,Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham |Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,|R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857, Dublin...... Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|/R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres. R.LA. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section. D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. lviii.), Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.
* Vide note on page lix.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lxiii
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
seeeee
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........)
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee ...
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin......
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
1881.
1882. Southamp-
to’
mn.
1883. Southport
Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
F.RB.S.
Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,)
F.RB.S.
Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|
LL.D.
Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.
|H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G.
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
E.R.S.
R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. §. Watson.
H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T, Wright.
Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, CyrilGraham, Clements
R. Markham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.
T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continwed).—GEOGRAPHY.
Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
K.C.B.,
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.
Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E., C.S.1., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......
Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.RB.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
Clements R. Markhan, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L,
C.B., F.R.S
Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L,
F.R.GS.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.
H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.
H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.
A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
K. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
H. W. Bates, F, E. Fox, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C,
Rye
ye.
1884. Montreal ...}Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,|Rev.Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,V.P.2.G.8.
KE. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
lxiv
REPORT—1896.
Date and Place
1885.
Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890,
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839. Birmingham
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1850.
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Caidiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Dublin
Bristol
seneee
teeeee
Liverpool...
Newcastle
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Manchester
seen eeene
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford
Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
Edinburgh
\Col.
.|H.
Presidents
Secretaries
Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.8.
Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S8.1,, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
|Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.B.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
E. G. Ravenstein, F-R.G.S.,
F.S.8.
Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.B.S.,
V.P.R.Scot.G.S.
H. Seebohm, Sec. R.8., F.L.S.,
¥.Z.8.
Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, R.N.,
E.RB.S.
J. Mackinder, M.A.,
F.R.G.S.
Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S.
J. 8. Keltie, J. 8. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
F. T. §. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
E. G. Ravenstein.
Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein,
J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.
J. S. Keltie, H. J. Macxkinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.
A. Barker, John Coles, J. S. Keltie,
A. Silva White.
John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.
J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
Keltie, A. Silva White.
Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
Forbes, Dr. H. R, Mill.
\John Coles, W. S. Dalgleish, H. N.
Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.
‘John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.
Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
Cambridge Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........{J. E. Drinkwater.
Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......
| Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS,
Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........
Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........
|Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........
Rt. Hon, Lord Sandon, M.P.,
F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......
'G. W. Wood, M.P., F.LS. ..
|Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...
|Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,
F.L.S.
Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam
Gz. rorter, HR. Sime ch deceees
Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.
\J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S=...
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton......
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
| Y.P.R.S.E.
W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C,
Tayler.
W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
F, Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.
Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
.| Rey. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rey. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark,
PRESIDENTS
Date and Place
Presidents
AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lxv
Secretaries
1851.
1852.
Ipswich ...
Belfast......
1853.
1854.
Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
'R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ...
J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. ngram, James
MacAdam, jun.
Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
.|E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
. Cheltenham
. Aberdeen...
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
1863. Newcastle .
1865. Birmingham
1868. Norwich....
1869, Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878, Dublin
serene
1880, Swansea. ...
1881. York.........
1882, Southamp-
ton,
1896.
|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
1866. Nottingham
1867, Dundee ...../ 1
.| Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L.,|
M.P.
..|G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
Rt. Hon, Lord Stanley, M.P.
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.
Edward Baines
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. .
William Newmarch, F.R.S...
Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....|
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P. |
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers
see eeerneens
Samuel Brown), scccneceseseceese
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O’Hagan .......ceecseeeee
James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. 8.8.
Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.ILA.
S.S.
G. W. Hastings, M.P...........
Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff, |
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,!
M.P., F.BS, |
Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tarti.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
- Smith, Dr. John Strang.
.|/Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
.| David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F’. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
EK. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
. Macrory,
|F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Rept s
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
xvi REPORT—1896.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1883. Southport |R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S. |Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
1884. Montreal...|Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,| Prof. H.S. Foxwell, J.8. McLennan,
G.C.S.I., C.T.E., F.R.G.S. Prof. J. Watson.
1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,|Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Litt.D. Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
1886. Birmingham J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S. F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
1887. Manchester | Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.| Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
J. KE. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.
1888, Bath......... Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
LL.D., F.R.S. H. 8. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.
1889. Newcastle- | Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A., Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
upon-Tyne| F.S.S. | FE. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.
1890. Leeds ...... Prof, A. Marshall, M.A.,F.8.S. W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E.C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.
1891. Cardiff ...... Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D., Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
D.Sc., FS.S. E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
| Prof. W. R. Sorley.
1892. Edinburgh |Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle. Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
K.C.B. | KE. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.
1893. Nottingham| Prof. J. S. Nicholson, D.Sc.,/ Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
E.S.5. Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.
1894. Oxford...... Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,|E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
F.S.S. W.A.S8. Hewins, H. Higgs.
1895; Toswieh. se. |i. Price, M.A. sssasess.s0.00 E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
H. Higgs.
1896. Liverpool...|Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P....|E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A. S. Hewins, H. Higgs.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
1836. Bristol...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.|T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
1837. Liverpool...|Rev. Dr. Robinsor ............ Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1838. Newcastle | Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......|R. Hawthorn, ©. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.| W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Stephenson. Webster.
1840. Glasgow ....|Sir John Robinson ............. J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
1841. Plymouth |John Taylor, F.R.S. -....| Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
1842. Manchester] Rev. Prof. Willis, F. R. S$. SaGee J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
1843. Cork.........| Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....|James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
R44 Vion kuwsseens Von avon HRS. wc. ccsssee se Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1845. Cambridge George Rennie, F.R.S.......... Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
1846. South’mpt’n| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
1847. Oxford...... Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A. F. R.S.|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
1848. Swansea ...| Rev. Prof. Walker, M. A..F.R.S.|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé,
1849, Birmingh’m | Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F.R.S./Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
1850. Edinburgh |Rev. R. Robinson ............... Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
1851. Ipswich ..,../ William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Head, Charles Manby.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
78. Dublin
. Hull
. Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...
. Cheltenham
. Dublin
. Leeds
. Aberdeen...
. Oxford
. Bath
. Birmingham
. Exeter
. Liverpool...|
. Bradford ..
. Belfast
. Bristol
. Manchester
2. Cambridge
. Newcastle
. Nottingham
. Edinburgh
. Brighton ..
76. Glasgow ...
. Plymouth...
79. Sheffield ...
. Swansea ...
se erereee
. Southamp-
ton
3. Southport
- Montreal ...
5. Aberdeen...
.| W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ..
. Birmingham Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst..
\
Presidents
Ixvil
Secretaries
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ..
W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S. ...
George Rennie, F.R.S. .........
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...)
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. |
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. |
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .......
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL. De
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.)
C.E., F.G.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, |
LL.D., F.R.S.
.|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S
Chas. B. Vignoles, C
C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
«| rexel Bramwell, ONS zge55
. Crawford Barlow,
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.
.|J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson.
'L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.
C. Atherton. B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.
'P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
.|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
|P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, ©,
Manby, W. Smith.
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred. ;
H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith.
... H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman.
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D., A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, Jobn
C.E., F.R.S.E.
Smyth, jun.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S. W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
Edward Woods, C.E.
Edward Easton, C.E.
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech. |
Eng.
J. Abernethy, F.R.S.E..........
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...,
J. Brunlees, Pres. Inst.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,|
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........
C.E.
|
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
'A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
A. i. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
'A. T. Atchison, E. Tigg, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. "T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. G.
Rigg, J. N. Shooibred.
'C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
Ogilvie, E.
d2
Ixviii
REPORT—1896.
—_
Date and Place
Presidents Secretaries
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891,
1892.
1893.
1894,
1895.
1896.
1884.
1885.
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Montreal..
Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887.
1888.
1889,
1890.
1891,
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1894.
1896.
1895.
1896
iProf. W.
pealerot. 1a, 10.
.|E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...
Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,|C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
LL.D., F.B.S. E. Rigg.
W. H. Preece, F.R.S., C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
M.Inst.C.E. | Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
. C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
| C. A. Parsons, EB. Rigg.
Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,/E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. Bz.
F.R.A.S. | Marshall, E, Rigg.
T. Forster Brown, M-Inst.C.E., ©. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rige.
'C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall,
Rigg, H. Taibot.
Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.
‘Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.
Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
S. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
|G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.
W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E.
C. Unwin, F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E.
Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
F.C.8.
Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,|
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Vernon-Harcourt,
M.A., M.Inst.C.E.
Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E.
KE.
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.1.,
M.LP., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
Manchester | Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......|G. W. Bloxam, Dr, J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
Bath vss scene Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
D.C.L., F.R.S. Harris Stone.
Newcastle- |Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,!G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
upon-Tyne| LL.D., F.R.S. R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.
Leeds ...... Dr. J. Evans, Treas. R.S.,!G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
F\S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
Cardiff ...... Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ....G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.
Edinburgh |Prof. A. Macalister, M.A.,|G.W.Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
M.D., F.R.S. R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.
Nottingham|Dr. R, Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E.|G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myies.
Oxford...... Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,|H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling
F.R.S. Roth.
Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,|J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H.
D.C.L. Ling Roth.
Liverpool...|Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A. ....../Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres,
Prof. A. M. Paterson.
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExprrmentTan
PaTHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsyCHOLOGyY).
Oxford......|Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S.,{Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane,
Liverpool...
Tpswich
Liverpool...
M.R.C.S. M. 8. Pembrey.
Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S. Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C.S.Sherrington,.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
.]W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S.|A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S, Prof. Harvey Gibson, A. C. Seward,
Prof. F. E. Weiss.
ee eeee
1856.
Date and Place
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
LIST OF EVENING
Tecturer
lxix
LECTURES.
Subject of Discourse
—
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
ee eeweres
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
“851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853.
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
Cheltenham | Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......
Sir M. I. Brunel
RRO NPUCHISON 0. .cscesesecsce
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
Prof. EK. Forbes, F.R.S..........
Drs RODINGOM Pewee vets oa Se
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Dr. Falconer, EiR.S\....0.cccdes
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .......
WarRs GrovestE RS: sccccsvesces
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F’.R.S.......
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....
Jobn Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ............
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. ........0008
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S...........6.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E, Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson
se ereeses
W. R. Grove, F.RB.S. ........0008
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Mgean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope,
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Geology of Russia.
...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
..| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Shooting Stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.
Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani«
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time. ;
Correlation of Physical Forces.
_
lxx
REPORT—1896.
1866, Nottingham
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
Dundee......
Norwich
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Bristol
Glasgow ..
Subject of Discourse
Date and Place Lecturer
1857 Dublin...... Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ..
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
1858. Leeds ...... Prof, J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen...|Sir R. I. Murchison, Dene
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
1861. Manchester | Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.
1862 Cambridge |Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prot. Odling aH RiSiarsssesses
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......
James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
1864. Bath......... Prof. TRoscoe, HH R.S.cseccssscc
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
1865. Birmingham J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........
William Huggins, F.R.S.......
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S..,....
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
---/0. Fergusson, F'.R.S........0-00.
DrsyWinOdlines MR Seesccssses
Prof. J. Phillips, LL. D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
BF. A. Abel, F:R.S.....0. +
i. Be TylonenoRes: ices:
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W.K:; ‘Clifford’...t+..e<tes
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,
F.R.S.
Prony Huxley ReSc-.ccertces
Oa Eee
F. J. Bramwell, F.B.S...
i ekOt ee Dante ini, ’s. EK. a
| Sir Wyville Thomson, ERS.
.|The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands,
Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
.|Organic Chemistry.
The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
Recent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery « of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
The Scientific Use of the Imagina-
tion.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connee-
tion with Naval Architecture.
-..../ Some Recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
.| The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarised Light.
.| Railway Safety Appliances.
.| Force.
The Challenger Expedition,
Date and Place
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
lxxi
Lecturer
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
MOGI, YOLK, .cciscs
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886, Birmingham
1887. Manchester
wooo, Bath.........
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890.
eeeeee
1891. Cardiff
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1894, Oxford......
1895. Ipswich
1896. Liverpool...
W. Warington Smyth, M.A,,
F.B.S.
ProfsOdlings WURASs...c.seesace
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S. .........
Brote Dewars BARS vessscsssc-or
W. Crookes, F.R.S. .........008
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Francis Galton, F.8.S..........
Prof, Huxley, Sec. R.S.
ee eeee
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....
Prof.Sir Wm. Thomsen, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Prot. JH.c ey ball Hen Se nccceas
Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.
Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....
John Murray, F.R.S.E..........
A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F'.R.S.
Col, Sir F. de Winton .........
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.RS.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.
Walter Gardiner, M.A.........
E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.B.S.
Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.
Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.
Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.
J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.
...| Prof, 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
Prof. Percy F. Frankland,
E.R.S.
Dr. We Mlgary HRS.\...3o<cses0-
Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.
Subject of Discourse
Physical Phenomena connected with
the Mines of Cornwall and Devon.
The New Element, Gallium.
Animal Intelligence.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
Radiant Matter.
Degeneration.
Primeval Man.
Mental Imagery.
The Rise and Progress of Palzon-
tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Tides.
Pelagic Life.
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Galvanic and Animal Electricity.
Dust.
The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
The Great Ocean Basins.
Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.
-|The Rate of Explosions in Gases.
Explorations in Central Africa.
The Electrical Transmission of
Power.
The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.
The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.
How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.
Mimicry.
Quartz Fibres and their Applications.
Some Diffculties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.
Electrical Stress.
Pedigrees.
Magnetic Induction.
Flame.
The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.
Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.
Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism.
Magnetism in Rotation.
The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments.
Safety in Ships.
Man before Writing.
of
i i. LL. eS
Xxil
REPORT—189
6.
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1867. Dundee...... | Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force.
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.
1869. Exeter ......, Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Experimental Illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,
1870. Liverpool... Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,| Savages.
F.R.S.
1872. Brighton ...| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.| Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
1872. Bradford ...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S./ Fuel.
1874, Belfast ...... | Prof. Odling, F.R.S........0... The Discovery of Oxygen.
1875. Bristol ......| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |A Piece of Limestone.
1876. Glasgow ... Commander Cameron, C.B., A Journey through Africa.
R.N.
Site elymouth’. |W. He Preece. cscs scevereesesr | Telegraphy and the Telephone.
1879. Sheffield ...)W. E. Ayrton .............00006 | Electricity as a Motive Power.
1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.5. ............ |The North-East Passage.
TB SM MOK pac cvecesl Prof. Osborne Reynolds, Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
F.RB.S. flakes.
1882. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas.R.S.| Unwritten History, and how to
ton. read it.
1883. Southport | Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...| Talking by Electricity—Telephones.
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S..........| Comets.
1885. Aberdeen...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ The Nature of Explosions.
1886. Birmingham! Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,|The Colours of Metals and their
E.RB.S. Alloys.
1887. Manchester | Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ......| Electric Lighting.
1888. Bath......... Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,/ The Customs of Savage Races.
F.R.S.
1889. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........|The Forth Bridge.
upon-Tyne
TS890, Weedsy 25... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S. |Spinning Tops.
S91 Cardittr..... Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S8. | Electricity in Mining.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.| Electric Spark Photographs.
1893. Nottingham | Prof. Vivian B. Lewes......... Spontaneous Combustion,
1894. Oxford...... Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...|Geologies and Deluges.
18955 [Ipswich >: |/Dr: A. Ho HiSOn 2. .:cehvarsee=ses- Colour.
1896. Liverpool... | Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S....| The Earth a Great Magnet.
lxxiii
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE LIVERPOOL MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
President.— Professor J. J. Thomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A., F.R.S. ; Prof. W. M. Hicks,
F.R.S. ; Lord Kelvin, F.R.S.; Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc., F.R.S, ;
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Prof. W. H. Heaton, M.A.; J..L. Howard, D.Sc.; Prof.
A. Lodge, M.A. (Recorder) ; G. T. Walker, M.A.; W. Watson,
B.Sc.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.
President.—Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir F. Abel, F.R.S.; Prof. J. Campbell Brown ; Prof
J. Dewar, F.R.S.; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. ; A, G. Vernon
Harcourt, F.R.S.; E. K. Muspratt, Esq. ; Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S. ;
. Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S. ; Dr. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Arthur Harden, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Recorder); C. A. Kohn,
Ph.D., B.Sc.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. ; Sir Wm. Dawson,
C.M.G., F.R.S.; G. H. Morton ; J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S.; W. W.
Watts, M.A.
Secretaries.—J. Lomas, F.G.S8.; Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A. ; Clement Reid,
F.L.S. (Recorder).
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.
President.—Professor E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. ; Rev. Canon Tristram,
F.R.S.; Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.RB.S.
. Secretaries.—Dr. H. O. Forbes ; Walter Garstang, M.A. ; W. E. Hoyle,
M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY.
' President.—Major L. Darwin, Sec.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—J ohn Coles, F.R.A.S. ; Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney,
C.B., F.R.S. ; Sir Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G. ; E. G. Ravenstein ;
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.; Coutts Trotter ; Horace Waller.
lxxiv REPORT—1896.
Secretaries.—Col. F. Bailey, Sec.S.G.8. ; H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E. ; Hugh
Robert Mill, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; E. C. Du Bois Phillips.
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,
President.—The Rt. Hon. Leonard Courtney, M.P.?
Vice-Presidents. —= Prof. W. Cunningham, D. ee ; Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth,
A A.;* D.O.L, 5 do Bs Martin, “MACs tea. Price, Wika
Rathbone, LL. D.
Secretaries—E. Cannan, M.A.; Professor E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.
(Recorder) ; W. A. 8S. Hewins, M.A. ; H. Higgs, LL.B.
SECTION
NCE.
President.—Sir Douglas Fox, Vice-President Inst.C.E.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir B. Baker, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.; J. W. Barry, C.B.,
F.R.S. ; H. P. Boulnois; G. F. Deacon ; Prof. L. F. Vernon Har-
court, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. ; Prof. H. 8. Hele-Shaw.
Secretaries.—Professor T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; Conrad
W. Cooke ; S. Dunkerley ; W. Bayley Marshall, M.Inst.C.E.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President. —Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S. ; Prof. A. Macalister,
M.D., F.R.S.; R. Munro, M.D. ; De O. Montelius ; Prof. W. M.
Flinders Petrie, DiCia 7 Ca. Read, F.S.A.; Sir Wm. Tur ner, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Prof. A. C. Medion, MAYS Ji. eee M.A. Pane) :
Prof. A. M. Paterson, M.D.
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY,
President.—W. H. Gaskell, M.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—R. Caton, M. D.: Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S.; Sir Joseph
Lister, Bart., D.C.L., Pres. RS. ; Prof. Burdon Sanderson, M.D.,
F.BS.; ; Prof. KE. A. Schiifer, F.RS.
Secretaries. Prob Rubert Boyce, M.B. (Recorder) ; Prof. C. 8. Sherring-
ton, F.R.S.
SECTION K,—BOTANY.
President.—D. H. Scott, M.A., Ph.D., F.B.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Bayley Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor
F. O. Bower, F.R.S.; F. Darwin, F. RS. ; W.T. Thiselton-Dyer,
C.MLG.,-C.T. E,, F.R. S.: 5 Prog. Marshall Ward: F.R.S.
Secretaries pas aaa ‘Gisaon, M.A.; A.C. Seward, M.A.; Prof.
F. E. Weiss (Recorder),
1 Mr. Courtney was unable to attend the Meeting.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1896-97.
PRESIDENT.
SIR JOSEPH LISTER, Barr., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hon. the Eant oF DrerBy,G.0.B., Lord | THE PRINCIPAL of See College, Liverpool.
Mayor of Liverpool. W. RaTuBons, Bsq., LL D
The Right Hon. the EArt or Serron, K.G., Lord- | W. Crooxss, Esq., ERS.
Lieutenant of Lancashire. T. H. Ismay, Esq., J.P., D.L.
Sir W. B. Forwoop, J.P. Professor A, LIVERSIDGE, F.R.S.
Sir Henry E, Roscon, D.C.L., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT,
Sir JOHN EVANS, K.O.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Treasurer of the Royal Society of London.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Excellency the Right Hon. the Earn or } The Hon. LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR of the Province
ABERDEEN, Governor-General of the Dominion of Ontario.
of Oanada. The Hon. the MINISTER OF EpuUCcATION for the
The Bight Hon. the Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A,, Province of Ontario.
D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Hon. Sir OHARLES TUPPER, Bart., G.C.M.G.
The Right Hon. the Lorp KELVIN, M.A., D.O.L., | Sir WiLL14aM Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.S.
E. Professor J. Loupon, M.A., Tare D., President of
His Honour WirFrrRED LAuRIER, Prime Minister the University of "Toronto.
of the Dominion of Canada.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
Professor E, A. SC HAFER, F.R.S. ” University College, London, W.C,
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR W. RiickER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT TORONTO.
Professor A. B. MACALLUM, M.B., Ph.D. | B. E. WaLkkr, Esq.
ALAN MACDOUGALL, Esq., M.Inst. C.E. | J.S. WILLISON, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT TORONTO.
JAMES BaIn, Jun., Esq. | Professor R. RAMSAY WRIGHT, M.A., B.Sc.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
ANDERSON, Dr. W., C.B., F.R.S. ‘ Preece, W. H., Esq., O.B., F.R.S.
Boys, Professor C. VERNON, F.R.S. RAMSAY, Professor W., F.R.S.
OREAK, Oaptain E. W., F.R.S. REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D»,.
EpDGEWORTH, Professor F. Y., M.A. F.R.S.
FOXWELL, Professor H.§., M.A. SuHaw, W.N., Esq., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. FR, VERNON, M.A. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
HERDMAN, Professor W.A.,, F.R.S. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Hopxinsov, Dr. J., F.B.S. THISELTON-Dygr, W. T., Esq., C.M.G., F.R.S..
HORSLEY, Vie TOR, Esq., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.E.
LonpGE, Professor ‘OLIVER J., F.R.S. TyLor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
Mark, J. E., Esq., F.B.S. UNWIN, Professor W.C., F.R.S.
MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S. “4 VINES, Professor S. H., F.R.S.
Povtoy, Professor E. B., F.R.S. WARD, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer an@
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT),
The Right Hon. Sir Jonn Lussock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord Raye, M.A., D.C.L., Ue a0 Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Lord PLAYFAIR, K.0.B., Ph.D. LED, ERS.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS,
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. | Sir Frederick Abel, Bart. ae ca 8.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. Dr. Wm. Huggins, D.C. Ti RS.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K SI. Lord Playfair, K.C. Fy "Fr. HS e Sir Archibald Geikie, LL. D., . R. =
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart. +, F.R.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, C. 1G. es S. | Prof.J.S.Burdon Sanderson, RS
Lord Kelvin, LL. D., F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D. 0. L., nis i whe Marquis of Salisbury, K. G., ip
F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S, Sir F. J. Bram well, Bart., F.R.S.
Prof, Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,F.R.S. | Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof, T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S.
Prof, Michael Foster, Sec.R.S. P. Ti. Sclater, ¥sq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S,
Sir Douglas Galton, K.0.B. FBS.
AUDITORS.
Ludwig Mond, Esq., F.R.S. | Jeremiah Head, Esq., M.Inst.0.E. | Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S.
lxxvi
REPORT—1896.
Dr.
1895-96.
THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
RECEIPTS.
£ 8 dd.
Balance broughs Morwards co.cc... sccosescsrescscssqusestennsideet eae 1621 19 11
iferComposibions uh eecseet het ece scenester scecsvenehcccsesesanseteorte 200 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ............scececseecsceeeees 76 0 0
Annual Sibscriptions).yet. ts. 4eeeskee te eeee ease sen ch <> ssssseseens cos 541 0 O
SaleiofAssociates’ Tickets 2.20. 0e.er.ccesOitsncsedevcss socesencense 487 0 0
Sale 6f Ladies” Tickets. wvavnwaqecgshacetwesiyh onsecccuccsscwevceescee 261 0 0
Sale.of Index, ASGIE OO ye ucein ose ssines aapashe snctdssavetts mesat='ashtecw 1813 9
Sale of other Publieations...... acscecssceccss-Padivenetstecskacedetes 136 18 8
Interest on Deposit at Ipswich Bank ...............c.scececeneeees 10 4 0
Interest on Mxchequer Billi: «tess. sccussczvccesceseperetveate Menthe 913 4
Dividends onWonsgols) sic aes .b «vad hands eceetees ce tuloel. Mat ast 200 7 4
Dividends on India 3 per Cents ............ssecsecececcsevcsececees 104 8 O
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned :—
Committee on North-Western Tribes of Canada £76 15 0
Committee on New Sections of Stonesfield Slate 26 7 6
Committee on Erratic Blocks ...... sayecdhwsngsees ces 210 6
Committee for Comparison of Magnetic Stand-
ALAS ic acaseunesacass tates cammmeeaare neces erent cetdates 0 4 8
————. 10517 3
ye
e
Lee
4
va
£3773 2 3
ie
Investments
£ s, d.
June 295 189% Consols. ic... cosccantassencah meen se nwar espe aaelatets 7537 3
India ‘3 per Cents) 2..see:,-2¢--ssosessdear-peeees 3600 0 0
£11,137 3 5
ae ee eS
Lupwic Monp, ‘
BE, FRANKLAND, } Auditors.
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. lxxvii
from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896. Or.
1895-96. PAYMENTS.
ees EE
Expenses of Ipswich Meeting, including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &c. ......... evstidetnenah ccevanscaeaeret 148 10 5
Rent and Office Expenses ............ Bb 2
MalaMESiavecostesh see seecectveduscpesecs 0 0
Printing, Binding, &c. .............. 5 4
Payment of Grants made at Ipswich:
s. d.
Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena .. 00
Seismological Observations............ccceceeeee 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers...... 0 0
Calculation of Certain Integrals 0 0
Uniformity of Size of Pages of Transactions, kc. ...... 5 0 0
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements .... 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.............00000% oe 2 NT
Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis ..............eseeee 10 0 0
The Carbohydrates of Barley Straw ............se00s 50.0 0
Reprinting Discussion on the Relation of Agriculture to
SELGNCEI rc. crop telaiolaira chsiail aiktplotavalete siclalexcle aces) siccere sie 5 0 0
Erratic Blocks...... 10 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ........ &.0 40
Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, &e. 10 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills..... 200
Investigation of a Coral Reef by Boring and Sounding... 10 0 0
Examination of Locality where the Cetiosaurus in the
Oxford Museum was found....,.. Sc.dtr botidnopccradcs 25 0 0
Paleolithic Deposits at Hoxne .............- ce eeeeee ae De 40
Fauna of Singapore Caves .......sseesescesececes oe 40,0 0
Age and Relation of Rocks near Moreseat, Aberdeen .... 10 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ..... <awania nfo aes, 1 Oo
Table at the Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.......... 15 0 O
Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea.......... 50 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ..........-eeeeeeeeeee 100 0 0
NEPICAT TAKS Rav aisry a.c.01rosate <[n is «(aG dnigiaieieisia seieieisiate orale 100 0 0
Oysters under Normal and Abnormal Environment .... 40 0 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa .............cceeceeeecs 10 0 0
Calibration and Comparison of Measuring Instruments.. 20 0 0
Small Screw Gauge ......secesececece : 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Canada 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury ..........ce.seceee stale 0 0
Ethnupraphical SUEVey ccc sree a5 sso aleisisis va culsesiaanme’ 0 0
Mental and Physical Condition of Children 22212227! BORO)
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.......... 25,0 0
Corresponding Societies Committee,.......... aiatei@ine ee. 30, 0 10
1104 6 1
In hands of General Treasurer :
At Bank of England, Western Branch £481 10 5
Less Cheques not presented ............ 25 00
——-——. 45610 5
Mxchequer Billsiueeevees<)-deresas cae chntvidecnanannoanc 500 0 0
QASHi cect Mite nses seca ach oaks saaeaiacietias Gineab dep desvecase 1 410
— W9STI MS IAS
£3773 2. 3
Account.
Ee ACE
: 54
| 0 0
: £11, 137° 13.5
ARTHUR W. RiickER, General Treasurer.
July 10, 1896,
Ixxviii
REPORT—1896.
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting Where held Presidents
| Old Life | New Life
Members | Members
1831, Sept. 27...... MORE C Re eed The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L............. = =
1832, June 19...... Oxford _..| The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. — _—
1833, June 25...... Cambridge .| The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. — —_
1834, Sept. 8 ....... Edinburgh ...| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L......... = =
1835, Aug. Dublin ..., ...| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. _ —-
1836, Aug. Bristol ..., .| The Marquis of Lansdowne ... _— _
1837, Sept. ul) Tiverpool ee ke. .tn- The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S. — —
1838, Aug. .| Neweastle-on-Tyne...| The Duke of Northumberland ......... = ae
1839, Aug. Birmingham ......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt.. = =
1840, Sept. Glasgow......... ....| The Marquis of Breadalbane... = =
1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth .| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 169 65
1842, June 23......) Manchester .| The Lord Francis Egerton... 303 169
1843, Aug. 17...... Cork: = .)2.2 .| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ... 109 28
1844, Sept. 26 ...... York . - .| The Rev. G. Peacock, DD. ... 226 150
1845, June l9...... Cambridge -ssseeeeees.{ SiX John F. W. Herschel, Bart... 313 36
1846, Sept.10 . ... Southampton .| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241 10
1847, June 23......| Oxford ...... .| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart......... 314 18
1848, Aug. 9......| Swansea...... ..... The Marquis of Northampton ,, 149 3
1849, Sept. 12 Birmingham .| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D... 227 12
1850, July 21 ...... Edinburgh Sir David Brewster, K.H. ........ 235 8
1851, July 2......... Ipswich ...... ... | GB. Airy, Astronomer Réyal .. aly} 8
1852, Sept.1 ...... Belfast ....{ Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. .. 164 10
1853, Sept. 3. ...... ols 3s ....| William Hopkins, F.R.S............ 141 13
1854, Sept. 20 ...... Liverpool .| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238 23
1855, Sept. 12...... Glasgow...... .| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. . 194 33
1856, Aug.6 ...... Cheltenham .| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D...... 182 14
1857, Aug. 26 ...... Dublin ... .| The Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D 236 15
1858, Sept. 22 ...... Leeds)... .| Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. ..... 222 42
1859, Sept. 14...... Aberdeen .| H.R.H. The Prince Consort .. 184 27
1860, June 27...,..) Oxford ...... .| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. .. 286 21
1861, Sept. 4 ...... Manchester .. ..| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R. 321 113
1862, Oot. aks a, Cambridge ........... The Rey. Professor Willis, M.A. ...... 239 15
1863, Aug. 26 ...... Newcastle-on-Tyne..,| Sir William G. Armstrong, O.B. ...... 203 36
1864, Sept. 13...... ao: 11 lh a ee a cae Ry Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. .. 287 40
1865, Sept.6 ...... Birmingham.. ..| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292 44
1866, Aug. 22 ......| Nottingham.. ..| William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207 31
1867, Sept.4 ...... Dundee ...... .| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167 25
1868, Aug. 19...... Norwich ..| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196 18
1869, Aug. 18...... Exeter ..... ..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L. ..... 204 21
1870, Sept. Liverpool .. ..| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D...... 314 39
1871, Aug. Edinburgh ..| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246 28
1872, Aug. Brighton ..... ..| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. .. 245 36
1873, Sept. Bradford .. ..| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S 212 27
1874, Aug. Belfast ... ..| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. .. 162 13
1875, Aug. Bristol .., ..| Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F. aS S 239 36
1876, Sept.6 ...... Glasgow ..| Prof. T. Andrews, M. D., F.R eescnes 221 35
1877, Aug. 15...... Plymouth .. «| Prof. A. Thomson, M. iy me. a <li 173 19
1878, Aug. 14...... Doblin ... ..| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., WRS: eo) 201 18
1879, Aug. 20......| Sheffield... "| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F. heh oaks 184 16
1880, Aug. ...| Swansea... ..| An ©. Ramsay, Tul D) RS. ..c..: 000s 144 il
1881, Aug. Peo Pens. ..| Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F. RS. we 272 28
1882, Aug. .| Southampton of OB AVE, Siemens F.R.S. s 178 17
1883, Sept. Southport ..... ..| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., PRS. 203 60
1884, Aug. 27......| Montreal .. ..| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. .. 235 20
1885, Sept.9 ..,...)| Aberdeen .. ..| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R 225 18
1886, Sept.1 ...... Birmingham .| Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R 314 25
1887, Aug. 31...... Manchester .. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. 428 86
1888, Sept. 5 NeRathliemseest: os. ctor Sir F. J. Bramwell, RS. ......... 266 36
1889, Sept. 11...... Newcastle-on-Tyne..,.| Prof. W. H. Flower, ©.B., F.R.S 277 20
1890, Sept. 3 ...... ghecdsh ee eA... Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S. 259 21
1891, Aug.19......| Cardiff ..... "| Dr. W. Huggins, ERS 189 24
1892; Augi3 oc. Edinburgh ..| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F. RS. on = 280 14
1893, Sept. 13...... Nottingham . ..| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson 201 V7
1894, Aug. 8 ...... Oxford .. .| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F.R.S. 327 21
1895, Sept. 11...... | Ipswich ..| Sir Douglas Galton, F.R.S............... 214 13
1896, Sept.16...... } AGLVeXPOOL.< ccseer. 2-2. Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R.S. ... 330 31
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843,
+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. lxxix
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
Attended by
Amount Sums paid
received | on Account
Old New eco: | during the | of Grants Year
Annual | Annual iat Zl Ladies |Foreigners, Total Meeting for Scientific
Members | Members de: Purposes
| es.
= = — — — 353 _ _ 1831
ae — — — —_— —_— = — 1832
= = 900 -- — 1833
=. = == — — 1298 _ £20 0 0 1834
= — —_ — _ — = 167 0 0 1835
= = — — — 1350 — 435 0 0 1836
a — — — — 1840 — 922 12 6 1837
ae =—! —_— 1100* —_— 2400 932 2 2 1838
a — — — 34 1438 — 1595 11 0 1839
1 AES eas — 40 1353 _ 1546 16 4 1840
46 317 —_— 60* — 891 — 1235 10 11 1841
75 376 33F 331* 28 1315 _ 1449 17 8 1842
vel 185 —_— 160 -- _ = 1565 10 2 1843
45 190 9t 260 — — = 98112 8 1844
94 22 407 172 35 1079 — 831 9 9 1845
65 39 270 196 36 857 _— 685 16 0 1846
197 40 495 203 53 1320 | =_— 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 819 £10c 0 6 tn te eS 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 159 19 6 1849
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0| 34518 0 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0 391 9 7 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 O 0 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0} 38019 7 1854
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 O 480 16 4 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0| 61818 2 1858
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859
177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0} 76619 6 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0/1111 510 1861
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 O|'| 1293 16 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0} 1608 310 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0} 128915 8 1864
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0.0] 1591 710 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0| 175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0/1739 4 0 1867
226 117 720 682 45f 2004 2042 0 0| 1940 0 0 1868
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 O/| 1622 0 0 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0! 1572 0 0 1870
811 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 O/| 1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0 | 1285 0 0 1872
237 99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 O|} 168 0 0 1873
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 O/} 115116 0 1874
307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397-0 0 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0); 1092 4 2 1876
238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0/| 1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 72516 6 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 O | 1080 11 11 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 899) 700 i FBLU. f7, 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0) 476 8 1 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0; 1126 111 1882
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0/1083 3 3 1883
317 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0} 13885 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0 | 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0/1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0/1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0 789 16 8 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 O | 102910 0 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892
328 57 773 268 17. 166L 1653 0 0 907 15 6 1893
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0} 58315 6 1894
290 31 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5 1895
383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0/1104 6 1 1896
¢ Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Eon, Members for this Meeting.
Ixxx REPORT—1896.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL,
Report of the Council for the Year 1895-96, presented to the General
Committee at Liverpool on Wednesday, September 16, 1896.
Tue Councit have received reports from the General Treasurer during
the past year, and his accounts from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896,
which have been audited, will be presented to the General Committee.
Of the Auditors appointed last year, Dr. Ludwig Mond alone was able
to act. Dr. Thorpe was incapacitated by a severe accident, and Mr. J.
Head was in America at the time of the audit. The President therefore
requested Dr. Frankland to act in conjunction with Dr. Mond, which he
consented to do.
The Council received an invitation from the Committee charged with
the arrangements for celebrating the Jubilee of the appointment of the
Right Hon. Lord Kelvin as Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Glasgow, to appoint two representatives to take part in
the celebration.
They appointed Sir Douglas Galton, President, and Professor A. W.
Ricker, General Treasurer, to be their representatives, and asked them to
convey to Lord Kelvin the following letter of congratulation :—
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
BURLINGTON House, LONDON, W.
To THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD KELVIN, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &c. &c.
My Lorp,—The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science desire to offer to you their sincere congratulations on your attainment of
the fiftieth year of your tenure of the Professorship of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Glasgow.
It is unnecessary to recount the triumphs you have won during the last half-
century in mastering the difficulties which beset the advance of scientific theory and
experiment, and in applying scientific principles to the practical service of man.
The record of your achievements is fresh in the minds of those who address you, and
can never be effaced from the history of the development of Mathematical and
Experimental Physics, of Engineering, and of Navigation.
We would rather, therefore, recall to your recollection the long and close connec-
tion which has existed between the British Association and yourself.
As a regular attendant at our meetings, you have not only enriched our Trans-
actions with many important papers, but have encouraged the efforts of younger men
by never-failing sympathy ard interest in their work.
You have been President of the Mathematical and Physical Section of the Asso-
ciation no less than five times. You were President of the Association at Edinburgh
in 1871, and are now a Life-Member of our Council.
As colleagues, then, we wish to tell you of the pride with which we, in common
with all your fellow-countrymen, regard your distinguished career, and of the feelings
of personal attachment with which we express the hope that you may long be spared
to enjoy, in health and strength, the honours you have so nobly won.
Signed on behalf of the Council,
DovuGLas GALTON, President.
June, 1896,
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxi
The Council have nominated Mr. T. H. Ismay, J.P., D.L., and Pro-
fessor Archibald Liversidge, F.R.S., Vice-Presidents of the Association ;
and Mr. C. Booth, jun., Assistant Local Treasurer.
The Council had also nominated as a Vice-President of the Association
Mr. George Holt. They deeply regret the loss which the Association has
sustained by the death of Mr. Holt, one of the most munificent of the
promoters of Science in the City of Liverpool.
The Council have elected the following Foreign Men of Science Corre-
sponding Members :—
Professor Dr. Emil C. Hansen, Professor Ira Remsen, Baltimore.
Copenhagen. Professor C. Runge, Hanover.
Professor I’. Paschen, Hanover.
An invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association in 1898
at Bristol has been received. An invitation has also been received to
hold the Annual Meeting of the Association at Glasgow in 1898. These
invitations will be presented to the General Committee on Monday.
The Council received a proposal from M. Gariel, Secretary of the
Council of the Association Francaise pour ]|’Avancement des Sciences, that
in 1898 or 1899 the French Association should meet at Boulogne, and
our Association at some town on the opposite coast, such as would allow
an interchange of visits between the two Associations. This proposal was
cordially welcomed by the Council, and inquiries were instituted as to the
possibility of a meeting of our Association at Dover, which seemed to be
the most suitable town on the English side of the Straits. A favourable
report was received of the accommodation at Dover, and of the welcome
which the Associaticn might expect ; and a reply was sent to M. Gariel
thanking him for his suggestion, and expressing a hope that we should be
able to do our part towards its accomplishment. Since then an invitation
has been received from the Corporation of Dover to hold our meeting in
1899 in that town. The Council of the French Association, which ordi-
narily meets earlier than ours, wish to settle their place of meeting in
1899 before the date of our meeting at Toronto. It thus becomes expe-
dient for the General Committee to consider the invitation from Dover at
their meeting on Monday next; and, to enable them to do so, the Council
propose that, in the rule for fixing the place of meeting, the words ‘ not
less than two years in advance’ be substituted for the words ‘two years
in advance.’ If this proposal be adopted, the invitation from Dover will
come before the General Committee on Monday next.
The President has received from the Mayor of San Francisco the
following resolution, which had been passed by the Board of Supervisors
of that city :—
‘Resolved that his honour the Mayor be, and is hereby empowered and
requested to invite the American and Australasian Associations for the
Advancement of Science to meet in this city in 1897 ; also, to invite the
British Association of the same character to meet said Associations in
this city as invited guests, and to that end to take such action as may
be proper to arrange for their comfort and accommodation on that
occasion.
‘And the clerk is hereby directed to advertise this resolution as
required by law.
‘ Board of Supervisors, San Francisco, October 28, 1895.’
The President was requested by the Council to inform the Mavor of
1896. e
Ixxxii REPORT—1896.
San Francisco that his communication would be laid before the General
Committee at Liverpool.
Since the above resolution was adopted the Council have been informed
that it has been decided to hold the meeting of the American Association
in 1897 at Detroit. It is not, therefore, possible, to make arrangements
for a joint meeting in San Francisco, or for the Association to visit that
city. It is proposed, therefore, to reply in this sense to the invitation of
the Mayor of San Francisco, and to request him to convey to the Board
of Supervisors the best thanks of the Association for their cordial in-
vitation.
The Council recommend that on the occasion of the Meeting of the
Association at Toronto, the President, Vice-Presidents, and Officers of
the American Association be invited to attend as Honorary Members for
the year ; and further that all Fellows and Members of the American
Association be admitted Members of the British Association on the same
terms as old Annual Members, namely, on payment of 1/., without the
payment of an admission fee.
The Council recommend that the arrangements made for the Meetings
of the General Committee at Montreal, in 1884, be adopted for the
Meeting next year—viz.: Thati two Meetings be held at Toronto, and
that an adjourned Meeting be held in London at the beginning of the
month of November, for the election of the President and Officers for
1898, and for fixing the date of the Meeting in that year.
The Council have received the following communication from the’
Secretary of the Corporation of the McGill University, Montreal :—
To THE PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL OF THE
British ASSOCIATION,
McGill University, Montreal,
January 11, 1896.
GENTLEMEN,—I have been directed by the Corporation of the University to lay
before the Council of the British Association a proposal giving the Faculty of
Applied Science the liberty of substituting for the British Association Gold Medal
one or more Bronze Medals, together with an exhibition or prizes in such cases as
the Faculty might recommend.
The British Association Gold Medal was generously founded by the members of
the British Association in the year 1885, and, apart from its intrinsic value, the
medal has always been regarded as the highest prize obtainable in the Faculty of
Applied Science.
The desire of the Faculty has been to require a very high standard from those
who are candidates for the medal. A difficulty has, however, often arisen, owing to
the fact that there are five distinct departments in the Faculty, namely, the
departments of Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
Mining, and Chemistry. The practice has been to award the medal in the several
departments in rotation; but of course it often happens that in more than one
department there are to be found students worthy of the medal. It hasalso happened
ex the best student is not in the department in which the medal falls in order of
rotation.
After long consideration, and after the experience of the ten years which have
passed since the foundation of the medal, the Faculty is of the opinion that it would
be advisable to ask the permission of the Council to substitute for the Gold Medal a,
B.A. Exhibition, or B.A. Prizes, together with one or more B.A. Bronze Medals. The
Faculty is convinced that the change would rather add to than diminish the value of
the foundation.
2
——————————
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxiik .
The Council informed. the Corporation. of the McGill University that
they were willing to advise the General Committee to accept the proposed
changes, and they have asked for information as to the number of Prizes
and Bronze Medals which would probably be awarded annually under the
revised regulations.
The following resolutions referred to the Council by the General
Committee for consideration and action if desirable were dealt with as
follows :—
(1) That the Council be requested to consider whether it be desirable
to take steps in order to bring the following resolution under the notice
of H.M. Government and the Trustees of the British Museum :—
‘That in view of the importance of preserving the remains of the
various civilisations of this Empire which are fast disappearing, and in
order to prevent the loss and dispersion of collections of ancient and
modern Anthropology which may be offered to the nation, it is highly
desirable to acquire less costly and far more extended storehouse space
than can be provided in London.’
The Council appointed a Committee to report on this resolution, and
were informed that, in accordance with the suggestion made by Mr.
Charles Read, Keeper of Antiquities and Ethnography at the British
Museum, and with the concurrence of Professor Flinders Petrie, the
proposal to establish a Repository for preserving Anthropological or other
objects will be again discussed at the Liverpool Meeting ; and that there-
fore no further action need be taken by the Council at present.
(2) That the Council be requested to bring before the Government the
importance of securing for the National Collections the type collection of
preparations of Fossil Plants left by the late Professor W. C. Williamson.
This resolution was communicated by the President, Sir Douglas
Galton, to the Trustees of the British Museum, and the Council have
been informed that the Collection of Fossils has been purchased by them
for the Musevm.
(3) That it is desirable to reprint collections of the Addresses delivered
by the Presidents of Sections in separate volumes for sale.
The Council, having considered this proposal, resolved that no action
be taken.
(4) That the Council be requested to provide the Geological Survey
Maps and Sections of the district in which the Association meets each
year, to be placed in a conspicuous position in the Meeting Room of
Section C.
The Officers have been empowered to carry out this proposal.
The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year, consisting of the list of the Corresponding Societies and the titles
of the more important papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those Societies during the year
ending June 1, 1896, has been received.
The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola, Sir Douglas Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Professor
E. B. Poulton, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, is hereby
nominated for reappointment by the General Committee.
The Council nominate Dr. J. G. Garson, Chairman, and Mr. T. V.
e2
lxxxiv REPORT—1896.
Holmes, Secretary, to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding
Societies to be held during the Meeting at Liverpool.
In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be :-—
Professor W. E. Ayrton. Sir Clements R. Markham.
Sir Benjamin Baker. Mr. W. Whitaker.
Sir John Evans.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—
Anderson, Dr. W., C.B., F.R.S. *Preece, W. H., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
Boys, Professor C. Vernon, F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor W., F.R.S.
*Creak, Captain E. W., F.R.S. Reynolds, Professor J. Emerson, M.D.,
Edgeworth, Professor F. Y., M.A. : F.RS.
Foxwell, Professor H. 8., M.A. Shaw, W. N., Esq., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. Vernon, M.A., Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
M.Inst.C.E. Teall, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Herdman, Professor W. A., F.R.S. Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Esq., C.MG.,
*Hopkinson, Dr. J., F.R.S. F.R.S.
Horsley, Victor, Esq., F.R.S. Thomson, Professor J. M., F.R.S.E.
Lodge, Professor Oliver J., F.B.S. *Tylor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
*Marr, J. H., Esq., F.B.S. Unwin, Professor W. C., F.R.S8.
Meldola, Professor R., F.R.S. Vines, Professor S. H., F.R.S.
Poulton, Professor E. B., F.R.8. Ward, Professor Marshall, F.R.S
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxv
CoMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
“LIVERPOOL MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1896.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee Grants
Making Experiments for improv- | Chairman.—Professor G. Carey 4 0 ;
ing the Construction of Practical Foster.
Standards for use in Electrical | Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Measurements. Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E.
[Last year’s grant renewed, and Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
the unexpended balance in the and Oliver J. Lodge, Lord Ray-
hands of the Chairman. ] leigh, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Muirhead, Messrs. W. H.
Preece and~ Herbert Taylor,
Professors J. D. Everett and A.
Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming,
Professors G. F. FitzGerald,
G. Chrystal, and J. J. Thomson,
Mr. W. N. Shaw, Dr. J. T.
Bottomley, Rev. T. C. Fitz-
patrick, Professor J. Viriamu
Jones, Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney,
Professor S. P. Thompson, Mr.
G. Forbes, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr.
E. H. Griffiths, and Professor
A. W. Riicker.
The Application of Photography | Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons. 10 00
to the Elucidation of Meteoro- | Secretary.—Mr. A. W. Clayden.
logical Phenomena. Professor R. Meldola, Mr. John
Hopkinson, and Mr. H. N.
Dickson.
For Calculating Tables of certain | Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh. 25 00
Mathematical Functions, and, | Secretary.—Lieut.-Colonel Allan
if necessary, for taking steps to Cunningham.
carry out the Calculations, and | Lord Kelvin, Professor B. Price,
to publish the results in an Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor
accessible form. A. G. Greenhill, Professor W. M.
Hicks, Major P. A. Macmahon,
and Professor A. Lodge.
Seismological Observations. Chairman.—Mz. G. J. Symons. 100 00
Secretaries —Mr. C. Davison and
Professor J. Milne.
Lord Kelvin, Professor W. G.
Adams, Dr. J. T. Bottomley, Sir
F. J. Bramwell, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin,
Major L. Darwin, Mr, G. F.
Deacon, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Professor C. G. Knott, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Professor R. Mel-
dola, Professor J. Perry, Pro-
fessor J. H. Poynting, and Dr,
Isaac Roberts.
Ixxxvi
REPORT—1896.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To assist the Physical Society in
bringing out Abstracts of Phy-
sical Papers.
To co-operate with Professor Karl
Pearson in the Calculation of
certain Integrals.
[5/. renewed. ]
Considering the best Methods of
Recording the Direct Intensity
of Solar Radiation.
The present state of our Know-
ledge in Electrolysis and Elec-
tro-chemistry.
Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements.
To inquire into the Proximate
Chemical Constituents of the
various kinds of Coal.
The Electrolytic Methods of Quan-
titative Analysis.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.
To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles and to take
measures for their preservation.
Chairman.—Dr. E. Atkinson.
Secretary. — Professor A. W.
Riicker.
Chairman.—Rev. Robert Harley.
Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Forsyth.
Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A.
Lodge, and Professor Kar] Pear-
son.
Chairman.—Sir G. G. Stokes.
Scéretary.—Professor H. McLeod.
Professor A. Schuster, Dr. G. John-
stone Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Captain W. de W. Abney, Dr. C.
Chree, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr.
W. E. Wilson, and Professor
A. A. Rambaut.
Chairman.—Mr. W. N. Shaw.
Secretary.—Mr. W. C. D. Whet-
ham.
Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick and Mr.
E. H. Griffiths.
Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.
Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A.
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and
Wolcott Gibbs, and Captain
Abney.
Chairman.—Sir I. Lowthian Bell.
Secretary.— Professor P. Phillips
Bedson.
Professor F. Clowes, Dr. Ludwig
Mond, Professors Vivian B.
Lewes and E. Hull, and Messrs.
J. W. Thomas and H. Bauerman.
Chairxman.—Professor J. Emerson
Reynolds.
Secretary —Dr. C. A. Kohn.
Professor Frankland, Professor F.
Clowes, Dr. Hugh Marshall, Mr.
A. E. Fletcher, and Professor W.
Carleton Williams.
Chairman.—-Professor W.A.Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. EK, Arm-
strong.
Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.
Secretary.—Mr, P. F. Kendall.
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E.
De Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Rev. 8. N.
Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, Mr.
Dugald Bell, Mr. F. M. Burton,
and Mr. J. Lomas.
10.
50
10
10
10
50
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,
1. Receiving Grants of Voney—continued.
Ixxxvil
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Grants
The Investigation of the Eury-
pterid-bearing Deposits of the
Pentland Hills.
[The unexpended balance in the
hands of the Chairman renewed. ]
To consider a project for investi-
gating the Structure of a Coral
Reef by Boring and Sounding.
To examine the ground from which
the remains of Cetiosaurus in
the Oxford Museum were ob-
tained, with a view to deter-
mining whether other parts of
the same animal remain in the
rock,
[Unexpended balance. ]
To explore certain Caves in the
Neighbourhood of Singapore,
and to collect their living and
extinct Fauna.
[Last year’s grant of 407. unex-
pended. ]
The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological In-
terest.
To study Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous Rocks.
Chairman.—Dr. R. H. Traquair.
Secretary.—Mr. M. Laurie.
Professor T, Rupert Jones.
Chairman.—Professor T. G. Bon-
ney.
Secretary.— Professor W. J. Sollas.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Professors
J. W. Judd, C. Lapworth, A. C.
Haddon, Boyd Dawkins, G. H.
Darwin, 8. J. Hickson, and A.
Stewart, Admiral W. J. L. Whar-
ton, Drs. H. Hicks, J. Murray,
W. T. Blanford, Le Neve Foster,
and H. B. Guppy, Messrs. F.
Darwin, H. O. Forbes, G. C.
Bourne, A. R. Binnie, J. W.
Gregory, and J. C. Hawkshaw,
and Hon. P. Fawcett.
Chairman.—Professor H.G.Seeley.
Secretary.—Mr. James Parker.
Earl of Ducie, Professor HE. Ray
Lankester, and Lord Valentia.
Chairman.—Sir W. H. Fluwer.
Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Ridley.
Dr. R. Hanitsch, Mr. Clement
Reid, and Mr. A. Russel Wal-
lace.
Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.
Secretary.—Mr. W. W. Watts.
Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. An-
derson, and Messrs. A. S. Reid,
E. J. Garwood, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, J. E. Bedford, R.
Kidston, R. H. Tiddeman, J. J.
H. Teall, J. G. Goodchild, and
O. W. Jetts.
Chairman.—Mr. ‘J. E. Marr.
Secretary.—Mr. E. J. Garwood.
Mr. F. A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr. A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox,
Dr. Wheelton Hind, Dr. G. J.
Hinde, Mr. P. F. Kendall, Mr.
J. W. Kirkley, Mr. R. Kidston,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Mr. G. H. Morton,
Professor H. A. Nicholson, Mr,
B. N. Peach, Mr. A. Strahan,
and Dr. H. Woodward.
t&
40
15
15
00
00
00
]xx <vilil
REPORT—1896.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To examine the Conditions under
which remains of the Irish E)k
are found in the Isle of Man.
To enable Professor W. F. R.
Weldon to investigate the phe-
nomena of variation in Crus-
tacea, or, failing this, to ap-
point some other competent in-
vestigator to carry on a defi-
nite piece of work at the Zoo-
logical Station at Naples.
To enable Mr. Walter Garstang
to occupy a Table at the Labo-
ratory of the Marine Biological
Association at Plymouth, for an
experimental investigation as
to the extent and character of
selection occurring among cer-
tain crabs and fishes, and to
cover the cost of certain appa-
ratus.
Zoological Bibliography and Pub-
lication.
Compilation of an Index Generum
et Specierum Animalium.
To report on the present state of |
our Knowledge of the Zoology
and Botany of the West India
Islands, and to take steps to
investigate ascertained defi-
ciencies in the Fauna and Flora.
To work out the details of the
Observations on the Migration
of Birds at Lighthouses and
Lightships, 1880-87.
Climatology of Tropical Africa.
Chairman.—Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins.
Secretary.—My. P. C. Kermode..
His Honour Deemster Gill, Mz.
G. W. Lamplugh, and Mr.
W. B. Savage.
Chairman.— Professor
Herdman.,
Secretary.—Mr. Percy Sladen.
Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
fessor, 8. J. Hickson, Mr. A.
Sedgwick, Professor W. C.
M‘Intosh, and Mr. W. E. Hoyle.
Chairman.—Mr. G, C. Bourne.
Secretary. — Professor E. Ray
Lankester.
Professor Sydney H. Vines, Mr.
A. Sedgwick, and Professor
W. F. R, Weldon.
Vier enputae
Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
Secretary.—Myr. F, A. Bather.
Professor W. A. Herdman, Mr.
W. EH. Hoyle, Dr. P. Lutley
Sclater, Mr. Adam Sedgwick, Dr.
D. Sharp, Mr. C. D. Sherborn,
Rey. T. R. R. Stebbing, and Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon.
Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
Secretary.—Mr. ¥, A. Bather.
Dr. P. L. Sclater, Dr. H. Wood-
ward, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
and Mr. R. McLachlan.
Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.
Secretary.—My. G. Murray.
Mr. W, Carruthers, Dr. A. C. Giin-
ther, Dr. D. Sharp, Mr. F. Du
Cane Godman, and Professor A.
Newton.
Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.
Seeretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.
Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr.
R. M. Barrington, Mr. W. E.
Clarke, Rev. E. P. Knubley, and
Dr. H. O. Forbes.
Chairman.—Mr. E. G. Ravenstein.
Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Dickson.
Sir John Kirk, Dr. H. R. Mill,
and Mr. G. J. Symons.
100 00
40 00
00
cu
100 00
40 00:
40 00
20 00
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
lxxxix
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
State Monopolies in other
Countries.
Future Dealings in Raw Produce.
To consider means by which better
practical effect can be given to
the Introduction of the Screw
Gauge proposed by the Associa-
tion in 1884.
The Physical Characters, Lan-
guages, and Industrial and So-
cial Condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.
[And unexpended balance in hands
of Chairman. |
The Lake Village at Glastonbury.
To organise an Ethnographical
Survey of the United Kingdom.
Chairman.—
Secretary.—Mr. H. Higgs.
Mr. W. M. Acworth, the Rt. Hon.
L. H Courtney, Professor H. 8.
Foxwell, and Professor H. Sidg-
wick.
[The Chairman to be appointed
by the Council.]
Chairman.—Mr. L. L. Price.
Secretaries—FProfessor Gonner
and Mr. E. Helm.,
Mr. Hugh Bell, Major P. G.
Craigie, Professor W. Cunning-
ham, Professor Edgeworth, Mr.
R. H. Hooker, and Mr. H. R.
Rathbone.
Chairman.—Mr. W. H. Preece.
Secretary.—Mr. Conrad W. Cooke.
Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Sir H. Trueman Wood, Maj.-
Gen. Webber, Mr. R, E. Cromp-
ton, Mr. A. Stroh, Mr. A. Le
Neve Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt,
Mr. G. K. B. Elphinstone, Mr.
T. Buckney, Col. Watkin, Mr.
KE. Rigg, and Mr. W. A. Price.
Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.
Secretary.—Mr. Cuthbert E. Peek.
Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. Hali-
burton, and Mr. H. Hale.
Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.
Secretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Gene-
ral Pitt-Rivers, Sir John Evans,
and Mr. Arthur J. Evans.
Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook.
Secretary.—Mr. EK. Sidney Hart-
land.
Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Dr. Joseph Anderson, Mr. J.
Romilly Allen, Dr. J. Beddoe,
Professor D. J. Cunningham,
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins,
Mr. Arthur J. Evans, Mr .F. G.
Hilton Price, Sir H. Howorth,
Professor R. Meldola, General
Pitt-Rivers, and Mr. E. G.
Ravenstein.
Grants
Oise. id,
15 00
10 00
10 00
75 00
30 00
40 00
xc
REPORT—1896.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To co-operate with the Committee
appointed by the International
Congress of Hygiene and Demo-
graphy in the investigation of
the Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children.
Linguistic and Anthropological
Characteristics of the North
Dravidians—the Ura-ons.
To co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in
their Explorations.
Physiological Applications of the
Phonograph.
Oysters and Typhoid: the infec-
tivity of the Oyster, and the
diseases of the Oyster.
To investigate the changes which
are associated with the func-
tional activity of Nerve Cells
and their peripheral extensions.
The physiological effects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors.
Fertilisation in Pheophycez.
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee for the preparation of
their Report.
Chairman.—Sir Douglas Galton.
Secretary.—Dr. Francis Warner.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Dr. J. G.
Garson, and Mr. White Wallis.
Chairmon.—Myr. E. Sidney Hart-
land.
Seeretary.—Mr. Hugh Raynbird,
jun.
Professor A. C. Haddon and Mr.
~ J. L. Myres.
Chairman.—Mr. A. J. Evans.
Secretary.—Mr. John L. Myres.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook.
Chairman.—Professor J. G. Me-
Kendrick.
Secretary.—Professor J. G. Me-
Kendrick.
Professor G. G. Murray and Mr.
David S. Wingate.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man.
Secretary.-—Professor R. Boyce.
Mr. G. C. Bourne and Professor
C. S. Sherrington.
Chairman.— Dr. W. H. Gaskell.
Secretary.—Dr. W. H. Gaskell.
Professor Burdon Sanderson, Pro-
fessor E. A. Schiifer, Professor
J. G. MckKendrick, Professor
W. D. Halliburton, Professor
J. B. Haycraft, Professor F.
Gotch, Dr. A. Waller, Dr. J. N.
Langley, and Dr. Mann.
Chairman.-—Professor E.A.Schifer.
Secretary.—Professor W. 4H.
Thompson.
Professor R. Boyce and Professor
C. §. Sherrington.
Chairman.—Professor J.B.Farmer.
Secretary.—ProfessorR.W Phillips.
Professor F. O. Bowerand Professor
Harvey Gibson.
Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.
Secretary.—Mr. T. V. Holmes.
Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Douglas
Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr.
G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson,
Sir John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkin-
son, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
W. Whitaker, Professor E. B.
Poulton, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, and
Rey. Canon H. B. Tristram.
co
20
15
30
190
20
25
00
00
00
00
0.0
00
00
SS — ——
2 eee. 6 ee
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,
xcl
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To confer with British and Foreign
Societies publishing Mathematical
and Physical Papers as to the desir-
ability of securing Uniformity in the
size of the pages of their Transactions
and Proceedings.
Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.
“To confer with the Astronomer Royal
and the Superintendents of other
Observatories with reference to the
Comparison of Magnetic Standards
with a view of carrying out such
comparison.
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.
The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.
The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.
That Mr. John Brill be requested to
draw up a Report on Non-commuta-
tive Algebras.
That Professor S. P. Thompson and Pro-
fessor A. W. Riicker be requested to
draw up a Report on the State of our
Knowledge concerning Resultant
Tones,
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Professor 8. P. Thompson,
Secretary.—Mr. J. Swinburne.
Mr. G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V. Burton, Mr.
R. T. Glazebrook, Professor A. W.,
Riicker, and Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.
Chairman.—Lord McLaren.
Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown.
Mr. John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, Pro-
fessor R. Copeland, and Hon. R.
Abercromby.
Chairman.—Professor A. W. Riicker.
Secretary.—Mr. W. Watson.
Professor A. Schuster and Professor H.
H. Turner.
Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Secretary.—Dr. C. Chree.
Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A.
Schuster, Captain E. W. Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis,
and Professor A. W. Riicker.
Chairman.—Mr. John Murray.
Secretary.—Mr. John Murray.
Professor A. Schuster, Lord Kelvin, the
Abbé Renard, Dr. A. Buchan, the Hon,
R. Abercromby, Dr. M. Grabham, Mr,
John Aitken, Mr. lL. Fletcher, and
Mr. A. Ritchie Scott.
Chairman.——Professor J. D. Everett.
Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.
Professor Lord Kelvin, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor
Edward Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster,
Professor A. §. Herschel, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr.
W. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered,
Mr. A. Strahan, and Professor Michie
Smith.
Xcli
REPORT—1896.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
The mode of Teaching Geometrical
Drawing in Schools.
The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.
The Investigation of the direct Forma-
tion of Haloids from pure Materials.
The Properties of Solutions.
Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
The Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the MHalogens in presence of
Oxygen.
The Carbohydrates of Barley Straw.
The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools.
The Description and Illustration of the
Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palxozoic
Rocks.
To ascertain the Age and Relations of
the Rocks in which Secondary Fos-
sils have been found near Moreseat, |
Aberdeenshire.
To consider the best Methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.
Chairman.—Professor O. Henrici.
Secretary.—Professor O. Henrici.
Captain Abney, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Mr.
R. B. Hayward, Professor Karl Pear-
son, and Professor W. Cawthorne
Unwin.
Chairman.—Dr. T. E. Thorpe.
Secretary.—Professor J. J. Hummel. —
Dr. W. H. Perkin, Professor W. J.
Russell, Captain Abney, Professor
W. Stroud, and Professor R. Meldola.
Chairman.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr. C. H.
Bothamley.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor W. Ramsay.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professors H. McLeod, 8. U. Pickering,
W. Ramsay, and 8S. Young.
Chairman.— Professor H. McLeod.
Seeretary.— Professor Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan and Mr. D. H. Nagel.
Chairman.—Dr. W. J. Russell.
Secretary.—Dr. A. Richardson.
Captain Abney, Professor W. Noel Hart-
ley and Professor W. Ramsay.
Chairman.—Professor R. Warington.
Secretary.—Mr. C. F. Cross.
Mr. Manning Prentice.
Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.
Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Mr. George Gladstone, Mr. W. R, Dun-
stan, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. E. Roscoe, and Dr,
Silvanus P, Thompson.
Chairman.—Rey. Professor T. Wiltshire.
Secretary.—Yrofessor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman.—Mr. T. F. Jamieson.
Secretary.—My. J. Milne.
Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne.
Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.
Rev. G. F.Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston, Pro-
fessor H. G. Seeley, and Mr. H. Woods.
7
:
{
RESOLUTIONS REFERRED TO THE COUNCIL,
Xclil
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
The Investigation of the African Lake
Fauna by Mr. J. E. Moore.
To continue the investigation of the
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, with
power to co-operate with the Com-
mittee appointed for the purpose by
the Royal Society, and to avail them-
selves of such assistance in their in-
vestigations as may be offered by the
Hawaiian Government or the Trus-
tees of the Museumat Honolulu. The
Committee to have power to dispose
of specimens where advisable.
The Necessity for the immediate inves-
tigation of the Biology of Oceanic
Islands.
The position of Geography in the Edu-
cational System of the Country.
| To organise an Ethnological Survey of
Canada.
Anthropometric Measurements in
Schools.
The best methods of preserving Vege-
table Specimens for Exhibition in
Museums.
Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.
Secretary.—Professor G. B. Howes.
Dr. John Murray, Professor E. Ray
Lankester, and Professor W. A. Herd-
man.
Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.
Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.
Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor S. J. Hick-
son, Mr. O. Salvin, Dr. P. L. Sclater, and
Mr. Edgar A. Smith.
Chairman.—Sir W. HH. Flower.
Secretary.—Professor A. C. Haddon.
Mr. G. C. Bourne, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Pro-
fessor W. A. Herdman, Professor §8. J.
Hickson, Dr. John Murray, Professor
A. Newton, and Mr. A. E. Shipley.
Chairman.—Mr. H. J. Mackinder.
Secretary.—Mr. A. J. Herbertson,
Mr. J. S. Keltie, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr. E.G.
Ravenstein, and Mr. Eli Sowerbutts.
Chairman.—Dr. George Dawson.
Secretary.—Dr. George Dawson.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Professor A. C.
Haddon, Mr. E. 8. Hartland, Mr.
Horatio Hale, Dr. J. G. Bourinot, Abbé
Cuoq, Mr. B. Sullé, Abbé Tanquay, Mr.
C. Hill-Tout, Mr. David Boyle, Rev.
Dr. Scadding, Rev. Dr. J. Maclean,
Dr. Merée Beauchemin, Rev. Dr. G.
Patterson, Professor D. P. Penhallow,
and Mr. C. M. Bell.
Chairman.—Professor A. Macalister.
Secretary.—Professor B. Windle.
Mr. EK. W. Brabrook, Professor J. Cle-
land, and Dr, J. G. Garson.
Chairman.—Dr. D. H. Scott.
Secretary.—Professor J. B, Farmer.
Professor Bayley Balfour, Professor
Errera, Mr. W. Gardiner, Professor J.
R. Green, Professor M. C. Potter,
Professor J. W. H. Trail, and Pro-
fessor F. E. Weiss.
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.
Mr. G. F. Lyster’s paper on ‘The Physical and Engineering Features of the River
‘Mersey and the Port of Liverpool.’
Mr. Francis Darwin’s paper on ‘ The Ascent of Sap.’
xciv’ REPORT—1896.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
af desirable.
That the Council be requested to take such steps as they think best to bring
before the Government the question of the establishment of a National Physical
Laboratory in general accordance with the recommendations contained in the Report
appended hereto,* and to invite the co-operation of the Royal Society of London,
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Astronomical Society, the Physical
Society, and other kindred Societies, in securing its foundation.
That it is of urgent importance to press upon the Government the necessity of
establishing a Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain, which, by collecting informa-
tion with regard to the native races within, and on the borders of, the Empire, will
prove of immense value to science and to the Government itself.
Pesee Report, p: 82.
XCV
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
General Committee at the Liverpool Meeting, September 1896. The
Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer
Sor the respective Grants are prefixed.
* Reappointed,
f Mathematics and Physics.
£
*Foster, Professor Carey—Electrical Standards (Last year’s
grant renewed) ........., PSE Oee Ee ee aN Serene 5
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Photographs of Meteorological Phe-
3 LLTTTIGTIED - CaS aia ae ar ele heen ea ¢ ron el a 10
*Rayleigh, Lord—Mathematical Tables ...............0ccccceeceee 25
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Seismological Observations ............... 100
* Atkinson, Dr. E.— Abstracts of Physical Papers ............... 100
*Harley, Rev. R.—-Calculation of Certain Integrals (5/. re-
RSL) en eluca.) Do. woiliad’ sions othidalncdb ath ead 20
» *Stokes, Sir G. G.—Solar Radiation ..............c ccc cco cceecesce 10
_ *Shaw, Mr. W. N.—Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ...... 50
Chemistry.
*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of
BENE ENES cis sac sie nnn vein nes wom. Solddiis)! Js IA aed 10
*Bell, Sir I. Lowthian.—Chemical Constituents of Coal ...... 10
*Reynolds, Professor J. Emerson.—Electrolytic Quantitative
ESM ic furs an sictne 41M she IM ts cag cine ee Wen ine 10
*Tilden, Professor W. A.—Isometric Naphthalene Derivatives 50
' Geology.
*Hull, Professor E.—Erratic Blocks 22... .0....e0eccccececeeeeee. 10
Bonney, Professor T. G.—Investigation of a Coral Reef ......... 40
Seeley, Professor H. G.—Examination of Locality where the
Cetiosaurus in the Oxford Museum was found (Unex-
pended balance in hand)..................ccccceseeceseeeceseseces
Flower, Sir W. H.—Fauna of Singapore Caves (Unexpended
Memes orien, 400) esc a aniee .ccdeas eee obs a.
Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest 15
Marr, Mr. J. E.—Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks 15
Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd.—Remains of the Irish Elk in
Beret Of Man oo .ic.. sduesciestl dan seedderneroan Yes Par: Seer 15
Zoology.
Herdman, Professor W. A.—Table at the Zoological Station,
7 MN 2 ITS fae soon MRT AT OTT ese ce coaie 100
*Bourne, Mr. G. C.—Table at the Biological Laboratory, Ply-
‘ MERLE otha as totee |. Peet Baits See oe wad totes cases 40
*Flower, Sir W. H.—Zoological Bibliography and Publication 5
*Flower, Sir W. H.—Index Generum et Specierum Animalium 100
Carried forward...6........sceccccescceeenass BRAVES . £740
5S
ooo oo°o°o Oo
=) oo
(2) (=)
oo
SOO COCO co &
(SV le)
oO
ol oso ©
xcvl REPORT—1896.
as
Brought forward................ comgse (OFG
*Sclater, Dr. P. at an and Basen se the West India
I AE Mh ook oes gk YE de be bees oe 40 0 0
*Newton, Professor.—To work out Details of Observations on
tie Migration Of Birds ...5.00- ccs cccsagen-eoaceslandsecs eves = iceman a ane
Geography.
*Ravenstein, Mr. E. G.—Climatology of Tropical Africa ...... 20 0 0
Economic Science and Statistics.
.—State Monopolies in other Countries ... 15 0 O
Price, Mr. L. L.—Future Dealings in Raw Produce ......... 10 0 0
Mechanical Science.
*Preece, Mr."W: H.—Small Screw Gauge 20 oc iscsccenpss.. LOO ONEO
Anthropology.
*Tylor, Professor E. B.—North-Western Tribes of Canada ... 75 0 0
*Munro, Dr. R.—Lake Village at Glastonbury ................+8 30 0 O
*Brabrook, Mr. E. W.—Ethnographical PUBV EY Rn. nate 40 0 0
*Galton, Sir Douglas.—Mental and Physical Condition of
OI cos, Se eee as LO Oe
*Hartland, Mr. E. S.—Linguistic and ao eae Charac-
teristics of the North Drav idians . se 1 319 220
Evans, Mr. A. J.—Silchester Excavation — SHLD. wwe deca ch, Uideveud Rees ae
Physiology.
*McKendrick, Professor J. G. bellies Appiestions of
the Phonograph one 15. Org
Herdman, Professor W. A.— —Oysters under Normal and
Abnormal Conditions of Environment................0000006+ 30 0 O
Gaskell, Dr. W. H.—Investigation of Changes associated
with the Functional Activity of Nerve Cells and their
Peripneral Partensions ..., .0<sxcyeebee Uiereeack' > a Aer- etree 190 0 0
Schafer, Professor. ae va logical Effects of PPERPR and its
Precursors ....... ’ : = 20 0 0
oS
Farmer, Professor J. B.—Fertilisation in Pheophycee ...... 20 -0 0
Corresponding Sozieties.
*Meldola, Professor R.—Preparation of Report ............0080+ 25 0 0
£1,355 0 0
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1897.
The Meeting at Toronto, Canada, will commence on Wednesday,
August 18.
The Annual Meeting in 1898.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1898 will be held at Bristol.
The Annual Meeting in 1899.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1899 will be held at Dover. ~
xevli
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on acocunt of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
1834.
£ 8. d.
Tide Discussions ......- spaces 20 0 0
1835
Tide Discussions .........+0++++ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Zot OFr0
1836.
Tide Discussions .........++++++ 163 0 O
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,
Raed en we cet aaddedesaterctecesse 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-
tintled Heat .2......cecesveees WGA (0)
Rain-gauges ..........s.s00 Rama S! 0
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation...............+6+ 60 0 0
Thermometers ........2...00000 15 6 0
£435 O O
1837.
Tide Discussions .............4. 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation.................. 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol .....,....2.......' 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
IBSAROIMELETS yu Jet'sse se Usvssiveccecs 1118 6
£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ............... 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 O
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
PHDED actrubesswe Neh ctseetts vets 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
BVIStol Tides ....siacsvcoscsse -embOIgO 0
Growth of Plants ............... 750 «0
Mud in Rivers ............00008 3 6 6
Education Committee ......... 50 0 9
Heart Experiments ........., so Bred 10
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8 7
Steam-vessels............s.c0ce008 100 0 O
Meteorological Committee 31 9 56
£932 2 2
1896.
1839.
£ / 8.
Fossil Ichthyology .........+8. 110 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &C. ......00.+0. 63 10
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2
BrIshOl) Tides .2..cecssseessepneoss 35 18
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature........,..+ 21 11
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0
Railway Constants .........:.. 28 7
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18
Stars in Lacaille .............:. ll 0
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16
Animal Secretions.........+... . 1010
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0
Atmospheric Air) .......s006+es awed
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
Kane uSsiejjeasc-pencesscseee sass 49 7
Fossil Reptiles .......00s0-+.:-+ 118 2
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0
£1595 11
1840.
Bristol Wiles eecacdssacersuceese- 100 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13
Heart Experiments ............ 18 19
Lungs Experiments ............ 8 13
Tide Discussions ............+0« 50 O
Land and Sea Level....... carers para
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10
Stars @lacaille) 7 c..ss+..ssrosee 415
Stars (Catalogue) ............06 264 0
Atmospheric Air ............... 15 15
Water on ItOn earusassa:-seencss 10 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... T 10
Meteorological Observations. 52 17
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1
Working Population............ 100 0
School Statistics ............... 50 0
Forms of Vessels ..........00.++ 184 7
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOMGHAL te daevasnocereste sates aes 40 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ........ssessseee - 80 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13
£1546 16
coofscomosoRNSONOSO aco Of
o1owvn
jm] Ooo © COOOSSBeooococrooosanco
f
REPORT—1896.
XcVill
1841.
£3) Aa:
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 O
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature..........+- 8 8 Q
ACHINOMETETS)...0220002cese0s00e = LOO 0
Earthquake Shocks ..... 50 0h eh MY)
PNCTIG SE OLSOU Sere tase caters on eecls or OO
Veins and Absorbents ......... De OmO
GT cEnVETS i irra. seisassecestses em OPEN)
Marine Zoology .......ssceesseeee 1512 8
Skeleton Maps ..........sseesees 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille)...............00« 79 56 O
Stars (Nomenclature of)..... pe wele(ait).
Stars (Catalogue of) ...........6 40 0 0
VEEL OMUITON cmascodacteasn sss 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
SUP PAVETIESS tireratmsccaresee es 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations
@eduction Ob) <....0..c.c.s-- 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles’ ........ssecs.csee 50 0 O
Foreign Memoirs ........ ss... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ..........06. 2) S850
Forms of Vessels <...tsesecsoss 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations
BME lyINGUU! oy stestasecteesse es 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
ALONE Mirerenesletvedse ascsin amis sorees LOOP IO) 20
AGES tat CI LY Yocs aes ceces tees 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... 90 iGianes
IRACESTOLAMCN «<2. <scccessceess's a > ORO
Radiate Animals ............... 2 O40
£1235 10 11
1842,
Dynamometric Instruments... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ................. be Ja 0)
Gases on Light ...............006 30 14 7
Chronometers.......00....ssse0e as) 20) L416
Marine Zoology.........ceececeee 15 RO
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 O
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-
CAN GS Oh arvsesschpanieseccrrsevsss sic 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections .............6. i61 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O
Fossil Reptiles (publication
GEAREPOND) i ccscsersssedseavsencs 210 0 0
HORMSLODe VESBEIS wesseut secure es 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on
IM GIOES) Aiadsne SCALE Ceecereeen 5 8 6
Meteorological, Experiments
AUC NGTIOUUM) sparaesaceseree ace 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments...... 90 0 0O
£ 8. de
Force of Wind ..........+0+ Totes 31009 (0540
Light on Growth of Seeds .... 8 O O
Vital Statistics .............0. awe OO 6) 10
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
ORISHONSE cs aecssceaesecsvsas secs 2-0 0
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
HOPG ay ccc cbisetes och toeaces .. 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
IMVEINESS) .scccseasccecscvenees Ih 1208
Meteorological Observations
at) Plymouth | ..:.0s0.5s Pena. 55 0. 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10. 70%40
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
POM Maw sc.'c.soescssensccvcsrese 20 0 O
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations ...........seee0s . 80 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities .......... 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
At IMVerness, «s.scsseesnsscues 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ....... eceonnan 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 183 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
UGOMS ews .-.sesscascarteciued 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails "of
Rall WAY S.e..ncdcessetesccaseae 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles .............05 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .........s0ss0 « 14718 3
Registration of Earthquake
SOCKS). janice sce ees seeker cree 30 0 0
Report on Zoological ‘Nomen-
GIALUEC. pe aaccueeatcamecrenecees 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 44 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .......ssseeseee. . 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .........++ seecese’) 02 MEL
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0
Vital Statistics .....00000 36 5 8
eon
ae
<a
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials aieane
Beene eee erennne
£1565 10 2
£
69
60
§. ds
0 0;
0 0
0 0
14 10 |
0 0
1844.
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at
UPI OUGMI NS sor cccteacescssases 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation. .............6006 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
RISE SM Mte rice salesecssesaens seuss 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature
ESUALSN.cscearestecesres 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
fOry....... oasaocooee sccroaoneeee Te Li 3S
{nstruments for ‘Kew Obser-
“CIN Gag Gene PRE SRE A REBESeOAne 66° 7 38
{nfluence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous ‘l'emperature
OMTCIATIC, veescecssepsecss drone B00
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
PIBWAMECHIONS ..0..c.cncsc ron ncn 15 17 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of
‘Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall ..........cscsecsssceene 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 O
Experiments on the Vitality
BEISCEGS 5550500000025 500cebe ve 9 0 0
{xperiments on the Vitality
ISSCECS' 52... 002000 sheecns 1842 8 7 38
Exotic Anoplura .........0..006 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
‘Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 O
Constant Indicator and Mo-
_ tin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 0
#981 12 8&8
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCIX
1845.
Bea ae
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
ab, Inverness! iiscdctanvacteass 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation’ 6. i5.2isi..s000ee. 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh................ 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0O
The Actinograph ............... 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of
HEI Sh. ct.uasesersecse tere: 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1848 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CIES memeceasseteteeteonc sess 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OLGStanS pier. stesssscrseese 1844 211 15 O
Fossil Fishes of the London
Cla yieeiatinaccccts senaresne: coc be> 100 0 O
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... BUA OO
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 215 10
Vitality of Seeds .........1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Comwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 O
Expenses attending Anemo-
MU BLOTA te dacinvicscaics cease desea so
| Anemometers’ Repairs ebeemenne 23 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 3
Captive Balloons ......... 18¢4, 8 19 S
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3
S‘atistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0 0
£685 16 O
¢c
1847.
£ 8s. a
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829....,....++. 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
PINGS) creseateessseceoessavene ss 20). 0. 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ........++++ Ging Oh fads
Vitality of Seeds .........-...-+ BA el
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 ith
Atmospheric Waves ........-... 3) 10 29
Vitality of Seeds ............... 9, 15; 10
Completion of Catalogue of
SEATS a pecodeaaess s sacs sa taacarses 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... D0, 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 1d, Oe 0
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 O
Maintaining the Establish-
MEMO Ab ATELY. cose snceaeenses% G6! 2) 15
Vitality of Seeds ............... be Beall
On Growth of Plants ......... 5! OPO
Registration of Periodical
ANS MOM EMA ccsiceosue tomes erie 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... ib S970
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0
Periodical Phenomena......... 5s 10neO
Meteorological Instruments,
PAZOVES Pesce eipiee saclenewreecicians 25 0 0
£345 18 O
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
RAD) Re esharcsessenngasasssey es 309
Mheory of Heati.............00. 20)
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
INAS ANCE LAS ce cccecenness 5 0 0
Witality.of Seeds ...........2... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12) 0) 0
Researches or Annelida ...... 107-0720
£391 9 7
REPORT—1896.
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
TOT USHO) cece avrncssneneneepapee 2
Experiments on the Conduc-
tion of Heat
Influence of Solar Radiations
Geological Map of Ireland ...
Researches on the British An-
—
~~
—
o
oafo oob
syiowe Sco0 o@
NGM GA Beencsecasecnestvaneessree 10
Vitality of Sceds ...........0006 10
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10
£304 6
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 @
Experiments onthe Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 1b. 50% OF
Researches on the British
Anneli dan scctetagecsaetaeeicaae 10 0 O
Dredging on the East Coast
|) “o£ (Scotlandises.carcc.s.sh ose 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... BOs 10
£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance _ of
formeniprTant)) .snasacasse- saarh 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 1 07"
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron..............6008 LON ONO
Registration of Periodical
Phenomend....c...sssccascsneas 10) 0) 50.
British Annelida ...........s0«« 10 0 @
Vitality of Seeds ..... Renee es
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the HEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... HOMO SEG
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... LOMO aT:
Map of the World............... 15 0 ©
Ethnological Queries ......... BOM 'O
Dredging near Belfast......... 4.0: 30)
£480 16 &
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854... vaneeup Or O
18BBscsesese: £500 0 oy O1 al
t
Eee
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ 3.4
Strickland’s Ornithological
EVHOMYINS. occ ussncasasescavesce 100 0 @
Dredging and Dredging
MICRIIEIS arstacisiiosiie ass oxe'e ses 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10° 10) 0
Registration of Periodical
PPRCNOMENA os 02 .2c02ce0cese0ese 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-
PP ESPUL SIs cfeciawa seikictanienstoeedeacle 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
PSIPSCOMLAN cn aciecscacnc-soce 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California ......... 10 0 O
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Natural History of Mada-
DiGdietreta cass scdessaliclavasese 20 0 0
esearches on British Anne-
RI AMMee a rancirccssapaistscanseeses 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
PRS EMMateevaalssio dees wacedneteres LODO 20
Temperature of Mines......... a8. 10
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations............ Dind),
MUMCSDDBIUS ..socesdvcccdecssssocseece ya ak)
£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Harthquake Wave Experi-
LL ELIE cont onooconenpeaes, Seoere nae 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
DHISCOUANG .....ccacsseveesveses 10),,,05, 0
Dredging near Dublin......... Dive. Oke O
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-
may lida)...... Anes ianesao hss Seeane ane 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
ARIATAS. .chassasdessavandieaaneuse 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
PENN e ei, vvnsccasiceue mba rcearataaasd 10 0 0
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... LD Oia)
QO
me
£8. de
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0
Irish Donic ta sie.s ae vescovoare i000
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Medusidee ............+6. 5 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland............... 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents......... adsouer se SILI O
£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 145 0 0
| Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels ........... 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
IPIAMIGS | foc ssees na teptiesssedaastae's 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility
GEG GHIULS wesnasssanaccosepaceeeeds 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents
OLMMANUTES scsseaiectscncnses 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon
ACCOUNUGSS asec Nace aeces eases 113 6
£766 19 6
Chie A ells
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 500 0 O
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 O
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 O
Dredging Committee :—
1860...... £50 0 0 a
1861......£22 0 e, TBO. 0
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 O
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 O
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 145 0 O
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ....... emcees 5 20° 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-
ACUIOUS seneseoesatcdcesaacses seas 100 0 O
Dredging in the Mersey and
INGO PZ. secccet tor doadeenssachidp ca 5 00
I OILCl OW caectdanckdes canasase= 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-
PIONS ease ge tide sesiacansecxesccer ss 50 0 O
PRISON, waccesccccetsndtecas= 208 Oe
Gauging of Water............+- aa LOD Ola
Alpine ‘Ascents Sotheisemenesess 6 5 10
Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0
£1111 5 10
ell
cli
1862.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
Pater GAGAWS) veces veces esses says
Mollusca of N.-W. of America
Natural History by Mercantile
Mariner Pinca. cs ideceesstbiescneny
Tidal Observations ............
Photoheliometer at Kew ......
Photographic Pictures of the
HET COPE S. «os cneiacicasiassagebenmemn
Rocks of Donegal...............
Dredging Durbam and North-
umberland Coasts ............
Connection of Storms ...,.....
Dredging North-east Coast
Oi PCOUANG. aaccneaewesetaeess
Ravages of Teredo ............
Standards of Electrical Re-
SISUAMEE! enecieccececcccpertentes
Railway Accidents ............
Balloon Committee ............ 200
Dredging Dublin Bay .........
Dredging the Mersey .........
[Biats(ovdh ID S12 rhe wee casnacoaeeces -oeesoG
Ganeine/ Of Water.......cscsc+s
Steamships’ Performance......
Thermo-electric Currents
£1293 1
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory...
Balloon Committee deficiency
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
KO OAIPHOSSIUMBS sheets casesctscuiiers
PT OUDUTO A sat niciewes neva cs ONE
Granites of Donegal............
PTISON DiSti ge sesewte.cssieaces esr c
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
PH EIUS pe soiemernsie ides <anaeleeiacsine
Dredging Shetland ............
Dredging North-east Coast of
DCOUUNG ce ssscueaeessisctasec sg
Dredging Worthumberland
ASG MMT seks cee cceeacnecte
Dredging Committee superin-
HONICLETI COM manecstoii:<e, creer tsar
Steamship Performance
Balloon Committee ..........., 2
Carbon under pressure
Volcanic Temperature .........
Bromide of Ammonium
Electrical Standards............
Electrical Construction and
Distribution se. c.cr..ccecae ks
Luminous Meteors ............
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph
seeeee
er wereerees
0
(
0)
0
0
=~
0
Cc oo ooooco oo
ws
oo ooo ooo
co
for)
oo)
eloooseosoos
‘)
0)
0
0
ct
oo
i=) oo ocooococo
=
o
(=) oo oooocos
oO co oooocoo Ss
REPORT—1896.
£
|
Thermo-electricity ........... 15
Analysis of Rocks. ............ 8
Hy droid a... scc.tsneusies es ea peeeee 10
£1608
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Coal RP OSSUS'icscesecsncescecaesns 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
TO GTUS Seeeeee ree smasaraneseek cet 20
Dredging, Shetland ............ 75
Dredging, Northumberland... 25
Balloon Committee ............ 200
Carbon under pressure ...... 10
Standards of Electric MRe-
SISTANCE: *< ieysascecteucesssstoees 100
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10
Wy droida, > -tesscenccencesseee uence 10
Askham’s|Gitt™ 2.s-ssesshoceees 50
Nitrite’ of Amyle .Aittiscecse 10
Nomenclature Committee ... 5
Rain=CauCes tears ..ckdsa. tavereed 1)
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20
Tidal Observations in the
PUM BEL Gacecnsessscacddeccecse 50
Spectral ayer .css..:deerseteiehie 45
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
£1289 15
1865.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Balloon Committee ............ 100
ECON ees roa cise eecnisanesese see 13
Ralm-Sae es! .cercasessseseseseeae 30
Tidal Observations in the
Ta (ehealle\ sq sagooceeesaeotebooddact 6
Hexylic Compounds ..........++ 20
Amyl Compounds ............... 20
TRISH LOTS soins clecccestacseaaae 25
American Mollusca ............ 3
| OreanieP Acid Sica uesecatcoeee 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
UY PLE RUS) se see ene sted ee aes 50
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Researches ...... Bi)
Oyster Breeding \.c. cies ceee 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100
Moon’s Surface Observations 35
Marine Having tresses cence. 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies
im! Wraberccrencscaseee mete esae 100
| Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8
| Luminous Meteors ............ 40
£1591. 7 1
Soescoo of 11SOO%
Ssiooo®
_
eoo onmooocecse
=
SoC ,OoGeooaocoaSsosaesoonaooonm sooo
_
GENERAL STATEMENT.
4 1866.
£ 8.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50 O
Metrical Committee............ 50 0
British, Rainfall............00000+ 50 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0
_ Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0
Chemical Constitution of
AGBSINUEOTIS hicsessccusssccccees 50 O
_ Amyl Compounds ............... 25 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
_ Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall .......0ss..es0ee 25 0
_ Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0
_ Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0
_ Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
UE WALT sas sacscsscceeetvseseee 50 0
_ Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
| GHIS Rees atitedsecethes sncsteecae 29 0
RIFOL MOTHS -ccccccesecessrescoess 10 0
® trish Annelida ..........0..c.006 15 O
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene
MBIANGS, navies inewvwerresescuees 50 0
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0
; £1750 13 4 |
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,
ERE S DIM Craciescaieienacpisesisiec'sss 50 0 O
Lunar Committee ............... 120 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 0 0
Palestine Explorations......... 50 0 0
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0 0
British Rainfall................. 2 §bO® *0" “0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 0
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Steamship Reports Condensa-
tion ........ arasseneacanesvesctes - 100 0 0
_ Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .............0 25 0 0
Sound under Water ............ 24.4 0
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75 0 0
Do. Plant Beds 100 0 O
- Tronand Steel Manufacture... 25 0 0
Patent Laws ...........06 oe 30 0 O
£1739 4 O
£1940
cil
i=) co cooocooco ooocoococecqooeoo on
oO
— a) oo ocoocoocoooo ecoocoeooocooscoooeso &
1868.
£
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. €00
Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record............++. 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
| British Rainfall .................. 50
Luminous Meteors............... 50
| OYeanICPACIGS, crccsseacccesscese 60
| Fossil Crustacea..........-.sse0-: 25
Methyl Series. ....5.:sccscesee+oas 25
Mercury and Bile ............... 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks ............ toca 2D
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
| Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
| British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-...: 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
IM OSSUIMM OTA). essicnscnasceenae nt «oc 2
Tidal Observations ............ 190
Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30
| British Marine Invertebrate
AUB eae seacenasaceoesiticenen ase, 100
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee.............000. 50
Metrical Committee.............0+ 25
Zoological Record ............00 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
PU VWBEL, aciaee nis sence ex's Se 2p.
British Rainfall.... 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
Sc eieasteacecesenaadaceresacipans« oe ou
| Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150
| Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of
CaSGMiOn, .ctepes-desmaanercone Ste)
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl Series... .:s...---cveewss: « 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
Stone ROCKS. ...5..dsssetslcieedeus 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30
MOSSi MONA, . coe nt Sede ev soem 25
Tidal Observations ......... ..» 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic! ACIGS., ...5..ccdadesadeacs 12
Kiltorcan Fossils .........-.ssas 20
ooo oooocoeoco e090 occ CSO cosOo
ooo gooocoocoo.|U6cSOCcCOCcOCO (—— i) i) oo so
civ
£ 3. d.
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
TEVOUS Mer erire crete psiesasiaeises's 15 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0
£1622 0O
1870.
Maintaining the Ustablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record...........+06 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Ears in Fishes ...... jee LO
Chemical Nature of Cast
Tron teencedacdecttnawesMercateeses 80
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Heat in the Blood............... i153
British Rainfall joc. .cuccedenss 100
Thermal Conductivity of
TEOM OCC Mecuvaeereetectartiwote.s 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthquakes ..,...... 4
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 15
HGOSSUMHIONE: tis ccuscaaveencresden 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... .20
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment ......... 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
16 2 Whecer dann caOrOc ee CCP BERERear 50
oooococso oooo oooco
=
o|o ooco
ole oooocooooocoocoo ocoeo ogoco
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress
TMA CHEMISE Yajewcsmds avec decece 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............... 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
MORSLIULOTA, cecsesdaunstossseise 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood............... if
British Rainfall.................. 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea .............6. 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
PiMAariODCCts,...c.cccsatecepevne 20
oooconwnocooodcoe coo f=)
SCoSoooascocooco coo o
coloocoo
REPORT—1896,
£
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing .......csseree 20
Bagshot Leaf-beds .........6+ 20
Moab Explorations ..........6 100
Gaussian Constants .........+ . 40
£1472
bs ;oocoo
&
at'toooce
1872.
Maintaining the Ustablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 300
| o ofS) oa coocoooces> Smcooes
ol oc cS oO ooCcceooco ooeceo >
Metrical Committee............ 75
Zoological Record............266 100
Tidal Committee ............... 200
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab............ 100
Terato-embryological Inqui-
TUES {Ses acacsabweversssteaseneckia 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
Heat in the Blood.............0s 15
Fossil Crustacea ......:.....006 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
rmmarhO ECS encces-ccsnneeee 20
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20
Britisaekaimtal 7... ssccssencedte 100
Poisonous Substances Anta-
POSTS cascapssecasenssmeesaeare 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
ShILMHIOD, Ks) cds cccseaenwccarve 40
Mathematical Tables ......... 50
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
GUIS teak saeassasesucavaceceetoeass 25
£1285
1873.
Zoological Record............066 100
Chemistry Record............+66 200
Tidal Committee .............45 400
Sewage Committee ......:...6. 100
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Fossil Elephants ............... 25
Wave-lengths ........scseeseces 150
British Rainfall......... .....00« 100
Hissential Oils. ...s0ccessenssenses 30
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Gaussian Constants .........+6 a 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature... 150
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20
Timber Denudation and Rain-
fall igaavessaeeccmeosens cece edss 20
Luminous Meteors.............06 30
£1685
S|oo seoeocococoocoococooco
Sloo SSOSCSoSoCoOCOSCCCOCCCOCOS
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1874.
, £
Zoological Record ............06 100
Chemistry Record.............66 100
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Elliptic Functions............... 100
Lightning Conductors ......... 10
Thermal Conductivity of
EPCS Ue stressct esses sassesessesss 10
Anthropological Instructions 50
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Intestinal Secretions ....,.... 15
iBrpsh RamMtall. f... ic. ..cccceeee 100
Essential Oils..................00. 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20
Marine Organisms............... 30
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
HAUTE Gwante see oce ses aawslvcscccies 2
Physiological Action of Light 20
PETAGESHUMIONS | 5..c.ccns-cvcece 25
Mountain Limestone-corals 25
PITTALIGHBIOCKS \.e.sscccssecceceee 10
Dredging, Durham and York-
a
oooco oooocecooooo ocooocs
C15 SOD COCO O Sooo oOSeCoOOCOOC OO Coo o oO
BMUTEMCOASES © ...adecesecscass+s 28 5
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... She
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
RRR USULCS i wecanadanccrceccacesses 7 15
£1151 16
1875.
Elliptic Functions ............ 109 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 2) 0 0
prapish) Rainfall .......css.0cs-c00 120).0° 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 O
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
. Hstimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid............... 10 0 O
Isometric Cresols .............0. 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Harthquakes in Scotland...... 15.0.0
Underground Waters ......... 10) 10.20
Development of Myxinoid
BISNIS free sivas tesa cece eae cant 20 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0
£960 0 0
————_
1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall,............0.06 100 0 0
Ob SMa Wissivcseessccceereeiel 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
_ Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
o ofo909 909 SoococooN COO
CV
£ s: a.
Isomeric Cresols ..........+248. 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
BCOLAuC tee sen ciseelsansskio eens 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.............+ 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0
Geological Record...........+++ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of
ROCKS iwane caceeactsareusds sears 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record..........0+.4 100 0 0
Close Wimey. 2a sccmessaressancese 5 0 0
Physiological Action of
pstewiiG lieqaancirisceanopeck= ofaoore 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 O
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam-vessels ............ 5 0 0
£1092 4 2
1877
Liquid Carbonic Acid in
Ninerals).cec.seccucersore recent 20 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKS) .ecsnssaescneeeecossecterts 9 11
Zoological Record............06 ‘100 0
Kent's Cavern ctserscsscscestesss 100 0
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 100 0
Dipterocarpex, Report on ... 20 0
Mechanical Equivalent of
Gallas raeeoccrats same ronaeetees se 35 (0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
Ane NT Chel eeereteaxc<ccsesites 8 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ............... TOO
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACE TAC encase taadseseteansceens 10 0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in
WG Teleataacetencsaesccracst as ee: Loe Oro
Development of Light from
Goa B ashy acereccscetcestnes once 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.........-.++6+ 118 0
Geological Record............++ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
DPHOrIGHACIG RC. ceectnc sce ses 15 0 0
£1128 9 7
REPORT—1896.
evi
1878.
£ 38. d.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
HVE COTMETEtecacwves acceneeres sect TOPIO® 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
WVALETSeoceeresscse steele ssescrse Loss OR 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
MSRUCHUTC race sstecosessencdsenss 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million ............... 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of :
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record .............0. 100 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
LIOR ose oiaascnoctaciaqenaeebeusens oe tO" 16
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKS rcsespescessaeececbasateees 416 6
Luminous Meteors............... OS OR 50
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
ot the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ Li, + 0.710
Record of Zoological Litera-
MULE Peperamatiseaeireieccadepentesiee 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 O
Exploration of Caves in
IB OINEO \enwarines veeevesme dt «foc 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
GEOlORY Weececancn eves + Soiecaetist 100 0 O
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts.............0.
Anthropometric Committee...
Natural History of Socotra...
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions ..,
Underground Waters............
Steering of Screw Steamers...
Improvements in Astrono-
TICAINCOCKS Pe FacvevaTaeisvstes
WEY Olahateteee e's siecwe tees: onesies Ssbe
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat
e
or
i=)
i=) i=) ooo ooo
Oo Coo oO SF coo
sed
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum........ - £00 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
CM CHORIES eeciisrenne seater asteaer 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance
SUL VEN. ccsaacsssaveden tan Sepaaee 10 0 0
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 3614 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22,0 0
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships ......... a Wy eae Bas (5,
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ............ 10 0 O
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
BiGVgoccdocntaensescnsssccsttaaaas 10 0 0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
LEHI) geceahoveneens cccasecereeeny 8 5 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8 5 0
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 O
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 O
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines. .............06 Esa fey 6
Report on Carboniferous
IRONYZO8) feeccencseedasds<0seteree 10 0 0
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo- -
BAULUA sn cosiccsoncnciensceaevenaae i0 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 O
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ 1450 0
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations ............ 5 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
DULG eo eonsecemeeee soem eseeenneer 100 0 0
Table at Zoological Station
aieN@ples carsccatwcssnsinsease 75 0 0
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0
Anthropometry ........ssesseee0 50 0 0
Patentiliawsiesenretaccatiuecaseas 5 0 0
7 6
Se
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1881.
£ 8. a.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
Electrical Standards....... $00) 2500010
High Insulation Key............ 0). 0
Tidal Observations ...... Sanat 10 0 O
Specific Refractions ............ Totdt 1
Fossil Polyzo0a .......ceeeeseeeee 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 O
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
Tertiary Flora ..........-s0-.0+ 20 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 O
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and
MQUIGHICS) Sescaceeseesttesteasnvee 9 0 0
Zoological Record............60 100 0 0
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ..........++.+. 30 0 0
£476 3 1
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0
Fundamental Invariants of
’ Algebraical Forms ......... 76 111
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ..........000+. 100 0 O
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
MHAOMELETS 2 -2..cscseevcrescesss 20 0 0
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements.............+- 50 0 0
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra ............+.. 25°00
Geological Record..............+ 100 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
PAP Allecs tssscssectstaesca sess see 25 0 0
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
[CES Bpecdcedeespsbyooacesicaecong 10 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 0
Geological Map of Europe ... 25 0
Circulation of Underground
WVECE Ss cp tetatetcssedscrcseneres 15 0
Tertiary Flora of North of
LOS EAT IeSptno: SoucBagnbochoubed 20 0
British Polyzoa .........se+eeeees 10 0
Exploration of Caves of South
GE MEClLANG! Vinseseacscacasescess 10 0
Explorationof Raygill Fissure 20 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0
Albuminoid Substances of
EME cacsdssrastrasstteseorssas 10 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............... 50 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 100 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
DUG tetess sete dc ae 00005 Soacecs 100 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0
£1126 1 11
oo. oooco °° ooo Sis KUO ooo
evil
1883.
£ 3. d.
Meteorological Observations
On Ben NevViS .....-...esesesees 50 0 O
Isomeric Naphthalene VDeri-
VALIVES...0.2cccceseeser seosss.ee 15 0) 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
GAPAM pacaecouachdseeewenseclacese 50 0 O
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 O
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... TOP Oe 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS .......e.0+-. Sapeeano 25 0 O
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales ........-.....« 1000
Circulation of Underground
NVAUCTSS ccnaaeteemeneadnetencen 1570) 0
Geological Record...,.......+++. 50 0 O
Exploration of Caves in South
Of Ireland ...........+.-c«+e0ss 10 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 20 0 O
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise.........-.+ 38 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
MA-DJATOs..<coccaveasasesesses 500 0 O
Investigation of Loughton
CAM Dp ccstasacccdenceseueecsdarce 10 0 O
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Serew Gauges....c....sc000» ace 400
£1083 3 3
1884.
Meteorological Observations
On) Ben Nevisi.<.2scissuse-scece 50 0 O
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust...............00 20 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
(CHEPStOWeccoce ovececcncsccrceca « 25,0 10
Tidal Observations............... 10 0 O
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8 4 O
Earthquake Phenomena of
“eV afeh8)) Seconcaceecncorcieper: Cone 75 0 O
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 0 0
IHOSSUP OLY ZOA aac sasscn se acacses 10 0 O
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS "2 ..2..: scceccscseree 15 0 0
Circulation of Underground
Waters J oeanaectdllcecssnenete=seos.« ae 0
International Geological Map 20 0 O
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata ......scs.secseees 50 0 O
Natura] History of Timor-laut 50 0 O
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, East Africa ...... 500 0 O
Migration of Birds.............++ 20 0 0
Coagulation of Blood............ 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 10 0 0
£1173 4 O
eviii
1885.
£
Synoptic Chart of Indian
OGEAN cs uwvoentssssscacenescsses 50
Reduction of ‘lidal Observa-
LIL TAS Sohne b asAeBapaaoaaeC One 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
OL ANU DELSs....-peccccseesre er: 100
Meteorological Observations
OOEBen NCVIS)<...n..cessacecces 50
MeteorieDUSt) |. cccsssecsseceess 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
SOMIONS esversscpadéecsacencsnss 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
ONS rcposasleccser czech econ seners 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WVITIS, esenicas decsddnseosvecssansnes 25
Raygill Fissure ...............0+ 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
ABDEINS Ansenternetaccetasscecss. 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic
ROCKS Ue tetcuecccaytece-ceres: 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50
Geological Record ............06+ 50
Circulation of Underground
IWATOTS cs. -cp ees cancaessorsevacses 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
Mi AL OMMe es Soca yidouhscavcseedexes 25
Recent Poly z0n......0..0c.cc0cese 10
Granton Biological Station ... 100
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom ......... 150
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100
3.
Oo; ooo ooo oocoo oo ex o>) oo o o oo j=) fo) (=)
SO SOT oOoo (SoCo, So "Ss oO ao oF So So to Mo me ts
£1385
1886.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Nolan Radiationieca.-..0d8+hexs 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 O
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... b'O. 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
‘Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
RUS n= once crea cadtacaseas “Sale vnc 30 0 O
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and
InvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0 0
REPORT—1896.
£ 8d.
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine............... 10 0 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales .............06 10) :0220
Prehistoric Race in Greek
Telands 10: sicssesiseetedessbceeke 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
MAGA des cte onset aeeee meee 50 0 O
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation .....:.......00.0 18 10
WleGtxOlySisc wean sce se sorsaasasccae 30
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75
Standards of . Light (1886
STADE) | sccsszancceneshsnepieeere 20
Standards of Light (1887
PTA) ccarescssheos seheusemanncehe 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations. svecsscceseet 15
Magnetic Observations......... 26
Electrical Standards............ 50
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra ............ 40
Nature of Solution ............ 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
NIMS Onoda ace ts see tees scscestaret ate 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(E886: orant)) 5. .c0c0.c.ccscenes 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(USB TieTAND) |<: 2-50..emactonett 50
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ...
HrraticiBlocks s.sss.ecsesseseses 10
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20
Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isle of Wight...
Underground Waters
‘Manure’ Gravels of Wexford
Provincial Museums Reports 5
Lymphatic System
Naples Biological Station
Plymouth Biological Station
eee eee weene
Granton Biological Station... 75
Zoological Record ..........00++ 100
Flora/of'China s.asc.thescusesees 75
Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons
Migration of Birds
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles
Regulation of Wages
Prehistoric Race of Greek
IslandsRysiceeesiessisessceseess0 20
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20
eee eee ee eee eee
10
£1186 18
e'oo SSO SS SSOSSCOCOOSCCSC oO eoooo SF FS Sooo CoOoOCO Co oOo ooo
tied i
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1888.
£
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150
Electrical Standards............ 2
Magnetic Observations......... 15
Standards of Light ............ 79
IMLEGUEOLYSIS: vc. sescccscscseccesss 30
Uniform Nomenclature in
ECGAAMIGS|\.sccclsssnoeescts'oes 10
Silent Discharge of Elec-
FUGUE tei decescvscsnceSceace sete 9
Properties of Solutions ...... 25
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
HSU MERR tet cea sacinccisseccucan css 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
BENE SIRM De socs-<csscpessetessies 25
Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
Geological Record .,............. 50
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10
Underground Waters ......... 5
Palzontographical Society ... 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.., 60
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
eashire and West Yorkshire 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
SIMS Wes te Chieu s ss sioddeds asa 20
Zoology and Botany of West
MEMES ee coe ee isige's suelga deena 100
Flora of Bahamas ............... 100
Development of Fishes—st.
PAHOEOWS vcids thc siclédsswaetsnee avs 50.
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
BHOTAIOL CHINA 225.2656 0000000 75
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Biological Station at Granton 50
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50
Development of Teleostei
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
Regions 5
Precious Metals in Circulation 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Effect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development............ 25
North-Western Tribes of
ROBAY IDEN siatetv assis odo vi cedeanennn ses 100
Prehistoric Race in Greek
RBI tease atc iaie SeiyeyesSlns,e di, 0irr 20
£1511
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50
Electrical Standards............ 75
BMLOGUTONGSIS 5, .2jccasscmesoinesreese 20
Surface Water Temperature... 30
Silent Discharge of Electricity
on Oxygen
(==) Ce Mor nd
_
is
(>) fl ie =) of Soo) CS: Oo COS OSS) oo fo) So ooocovoooco OF (Si
ocoococso
oS
—
a1o o>) f=) coos ooocooceceo oo (= o oooococoeocoeso o ooo o oworno®
nan ocoodod
cix
Sars as
Methods of teaching Chemis-
LES” ScocaotinnonlcansanceBOnenere 10 0 0
Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record..........000.s 80 0 0.
Volcanic Phenomena ofJapan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WAUIS! So .wecnnacotneentacaceiack eote 20 0) O
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 O
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of
WASH voes tenn cecwoceven seer ecss 16 0. 0
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
HloraroijChimaiges. vceed eons as 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 @
Physiology of Lymphatic
SMSHEMI Mrbanserecac ldsdeieceeee te 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly
TSE a6 CES parr aansac basccuscicons 100 0 0
Geology and Geography of
Alas hRangesc:) w.kseerateos 100 0 ©
Action of Waves and Currents
|) MRINGHSHUATIES Peace. -pecceeeescs 100 0 ©
North-Western Tribes of
CAITR KG ES cde canner Boccoeeeeretee 150 0 O
Nomad Tribes of Asia Mivor 30 0 ©
| Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 ©
Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100 0 @
£1417 011
1890.
Electrical Standards............ 12 ie
Blectrolysisiv ss istesea ens. ae 5 0 0
Hlectro-optics..........5/.0.00 w= (D0 0; 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 ©
Properties of Solutions ...... LOR IOF 10s
International Standard forthe
Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 ©
Influence of the Silent Dis-
charge of Electricity on
OXVGON es sie cueudes doh kits 5 0.0
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 @
Recording Results of Water
AMAIVSISr ws ceteagegssonkeeoncs, es Ca
Oxidation of Hydracids in
Sunlight swe swetice<sdeache cece: 15 0 ©
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WIS secleeeaatisinna tits Senate ysaes 20 0 ®
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0 O
Circulation of Underground
WAGERS ccc seasanetpoattnch oe- ane a7 0.0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10) 0, 08
Geological Photographs ...... 7.1411
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0
Botanical Station at Perade-
TVA a tore eh aseteew ca dvedsawes 25 0 O
REPORT—1896.
cx
£ 8. da.
Experiments with a Tow-
MIB iicdeps emcees tedmenntssccere. ee Came)
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 100 0 O
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents
TH HSOMATICS “Ge -..srcccsaevsse 150" '0 10
Graphic Methods in Mechani-
CAL PCICUCE’.....ccasncrenssornes L270 40
Anthropometric Calculations 5 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
£799 16 8
1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Wlechrolysis......0sessevvnesss cee 5 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of
ABiayzhels Geen anesasse menace aaa 1060" 10
Temperatures of Lakes......... 20 2100
Photographs of Meteorological
IPHENOMEN Ariss acsoonsenseshels 5240) XO)
Discharge of Electricity from
TROVISIIE) S8cesonncoceneecnc nic pace 10% "0" 10
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar
PRC ULUIN Wictsccccsvecssqevesoss 50 0 0
International Standard for
Analysis of Ironand Steel... 10 0 O
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
LITE s cocnagoce sae ece ane ReISeHOSE 25 0 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 25°0 0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 7 10 9
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VAIS iaeeeee tee cec «one seessossanee 1) O40
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 10° %O""O
Photographs of Geological
UQESSE pooscclsasdonegpseeonucds erie t,
Lias of Northamptonshire 25 0 0
Registration of ‘Type-Speci-
mens of British Fossils...... 5 5 0
Investigation of ElboltonCave 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Pera-
MLETHydy. sees ceseenereneonrceanae 50 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0 O
Marine Biological Association 1210 0
Disappearance of Native
LE BURY, Saobacasdenpanostncopeaacer So Osta 0)
Action of Waves and Currents
DMP MSGUATIES# scccrareros+ose's <0 125 0 0
Anthropometric Calculations 10 0 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0 O
North - Western Tribes of
WAN Atlctoinee caePac ce. dceersecanese 200 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0
£1,029 10 0
| Photographs
1892.
Observations on Ben Nevis ...
Photographs of Meteorological
PHCnOMeNA.....-ccncee sehr rene
Pellian Equation Tables
Discharge of Electricity from
POMUST,« inseess=ccessese oe eeee eee
Seismological Phenomena of
Japan
Formation of Haloids
Properties of Solutions
Action of Light on Dyed
Colours
Erratic Blocks
Peewee ee ee een eae een eeee
ae eeeenee
seeeee
of Geological
UDR Gh poe por ioctoe ebeoue
Underground Waters .........
Investigation of Elbolton
CAV Greens tcscnectsteremncoecermeen
Excavations at Oldbury Hill
Cretaceous Polyzoa
Naples Zoological Station
Marine Biological Association
steer eeeeee
So Oo. 2S pio’ SO .S'e So qoo 2S6of Sco, ooe to. oe sao
a
ow Oe aep OO) SO St On Cis Oo: — Son O.onooce ¢ =sSionmeas
Deep-sea Tow-net ............... 40
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100
Zoology and Botany of West
India Tslands 7! .2s:scss.sseesee 100
Climatology and Hydrography
of Tropical Africa......... «. 50
Anthropometric Laboratory... 5
Anthropological Notes and
Qieries: (irec...3 vcssse deetentes 20
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-
SHONAANG woecce-e ss wes eace «2 60
North-Western Tribes of
Canada \oisstscstassesssseteceee 100
Corresponding Societies ...... 25
£864 10
1893.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 0O
Mathematical Tables ......... 15 0 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Fal-
mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VAbIVES! hivanscsmnpeteseetuerion 20 0 0
Hrratic BlOCKS ..sve...2<.022+0+- 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, &e. ...... 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland
Hills Sesstecs serseeemeneseses sos 1 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 O
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
Zoology and epirsoe of West
India Islands.. : 50 0 0
£ 3. da.
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 0
Physiological Action of
Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 0
Index of Genera and Species
RMATIUNGS.c.5.000csv0cececso= 20°0 0
Exploration of Karakoram
MOUNGaINS .............0cnenace 50 0 O
Scottish Place-names ......... aw r0r 0
Climatology and MHydro-
graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0
Economic Training ............ 3 Soa Ala)
Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 215 ee UEEY)
North-Western ‘Tribes of
CERES GEN gsi aaBHbR saad eRAR eg 100 0 O
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0
£907 15 6
1894.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological
PHENOMENA. <.5. Leovesws-e- Je 10 0 O
Tables of Mathematical Func-
SVQUIS) oy cobs osethieloeedeoselee- «be 15 0 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5 6
Wave-length Tables............ 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed
SPOIOUIS | wanes coccascessecccccece a O80
Hrratic Blocks .......e-.csseceee 15 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at
MOMLVERCCS) Gveuosecesacelescsac 20 0 0
Enurypterids of the Pentland
EMUS ea teexs sees se<vessesaceceyoes 5 0 0
New Sections of Stonestield
(SUPIRD. ocaonnogone? AeneocGeedanoon 14 0 0
Observations on LEarth-tre-
DESHI Ast Valea tstctchivetosleciesdecs eae 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole
OTD ak SEES: dacnicer Ceeeeeer ener 5 30. 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 5 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich
GUAGE | Gai chase ataensbléscaun = 100 0 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0 0
Structure and Function of the
Mammalian Heart............ 10 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0 0
Economic Training ............ S100
Anthropometric Laboratory
Statistics. ......0....eeccccserees 5 0 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0 0
The Lake Village at Glaston-
| STE Vrasdane caconecencbcccseeanceeen 40 0 0
Anthropometrical Measure-
ments in Schools ............ 5 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............... 20 0 O.
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0
£583 15 6
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1895.
£
Electrical Standards............ 25
Photographs of Meteorological
Phenomena :20.52..25.00665 208 10
Earth Tremors . ...........00.. 75
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-
vations made at Falmouth
Observatory *:.2.122. 0000s eeees 50
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-
Cards" ...225 Srsetieerserseereeck 25
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevisie..si.>sceeeseee- 50
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10
Action of Light upon Dyed
COlOUTS: eset citteeativeteleee 4
Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials .............2. 20
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALIVES...250s:2sshisehsocteeck one 30
Electrolytic Quantitative An-
AILYSIS, seth. . Fovee ete acted 30
Brratic RIOCKS se wseweeweesy aot 10
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ....... 5
Photographs of Geological In-
UETESty es dodese= serecess eoaractee 10
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, &eee tee 10
Eurypterids of the Pentland
inl Site csrevs a eesces «teste. deeess 3
New Sections of Stonesfield
Slaterearete. ses. esece=seecanes 50
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10
Nature and Probable Age of
High-level Flint-drifts .... 10
Table atthe Zoological Station
abrNaples: csesccsccsssseauenwes 100
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............ 15
Zovlogy, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea............ 35
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 50
Index of Genera and Species
Of AMIMAIS ~ ess. cd.vecnetsese 50
Climatology of Tropical Africa 5
Exploration cf Hadramut 50
Calibration and Comparisonof _
Measuring Instruments 25
Anthropometric Measure-
ments in Schools ......... 5
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30
Exploration of a Kitchen-
midden at Hastings ......... 10
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph............... 25
Corresponding Societies ..... 30
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Cs oe OO OS ee SS,
oo. oO oo o oo. => SO" © So oo o o o ooo i) f=)
ooo of
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exil REPORT—1896.
1896. £ Ss. ae
s. d. | Paleolithic Depositsat Hoxne 25 0 ©
Photographs of Meteorologi- Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40 0 0
cal Phenomena ........-...+++ 15 0 O | Age and Relation of Rocks
Seismological Observations... 80 0 0 near Moreseat, Aberdeen . 19 0 O
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 O | Table at the Zoological Sta-
Calculation of Certain Inte- tion at Naples .............05 100 0 0
TAINS, ccvcscetnscoseesissvesiess see 10 0 O | Table at the Biological Labo-
Uniformity of Size of Pages of ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0 0
Transactions, KC. .....+..ee0e 5 0 O | Zoology, Botany, and Geology
Wave-length Tables of the of the Irish Sea ............... 50 0 O:
Spectra of the Elements... 10 0 0 | Zoology of the Sandwich Is-
Action of Light upon Dyed NANOS iewsccemcnesanatd + ocaebs tee 100 0 0
(Glolkoyeid Ganoornancesoancserdoa 2 6 1 | African Lake Fauna............ 100 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana- Oysters under Normal and
WSIS tees sesneaeessoeebenss anieriante 10 0 0 Abnormal Environment ... 40 0 0
The Carbohydrates of Barley Climatology of TropicalAfrica 10 0 0O
SID AD) Tp AsaqonaBoosodyDnoseaoere 50 0 O°-| Calibrationand Comparison of
Reprinting Discussion on the Measuring Instruments...... 20 0 0
Relation of Agriculture to Small Screw Gauge ............ 10 0 0
SCIENCE: kepeicscaccesonsesenvuse 5 0 O | North-Western Tribes of
HirrabiCyBlOCKS ccserses.sesessssse 10 0 0 (Cra GVO EI asabensddcpennconpaadas 100 0 06
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5 0 O | Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30 0 0O
Shell-bearing Deposits at Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
CHER ree eneeiconceo aoe 10 0 O | Mental and Physical Condi-
Earypterids of the Pentland tion of Children............... 10 0 0
ELI Si paeseuidee cbs Lakaneleics sdteres 2 0 O | Physiological Applications of
Investigation of a Coral Reef the Phonopraph’.............. 25 0 0
by Boring and Sounding... 10 0 0 | Corresponding Societies Com-
Examination of Locality where TAIGUCRY. 2 cdiecescsecasevcceuneres 30 0 0
the Cetiosaurus in the Ox- £1104 6 1
ford Museum was found... 25 0 0 | sn eles arepe.
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, September 16, at 8 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall,
Liverpool, Captain Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.G.8., resigned the office of President to Sir Joseph Lister,
Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., President of the Royal Society, who took the Chair,
and delivered an Address, for which see page 3.
On Thursday, September 17, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at.
the Town Hall.
On Friday, September 18, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall, Dr.
Francis Elgar, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Safety in Ships.’
On Monday, September 21, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall,
Professor Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., delivered a discourse on ‘Man before
Writing.’
On Tuesday, September 22, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at the
Museum and Art Gallery.
On Wednesday, September 23, at 2.30 p.m., in the small Concert
Room, St. George’s Hall, the concluding General Meeting took place, when
the Proceedings of the General Committee and the Grants of Money for
Scientific Purposes were explained to’ the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Toronto. [The Meeting is ap-
pointed to commence on Wednesday, August 18, 1897.]
Smart hie
PAG MUSe>
for’ wy a7
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Ne ee
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
1896.
—_
ADDRESS
BY
Se JOouPH LISTHR, Bazt.,..D.C.L., OL.D., P.BS.,
PRESIDENT.
My Lord Mayor, my Lords, Ladies, and Gentlemen, I have first to
_ express my deep sense of gratitude for the great honour conferred upon
me by my election to the high office which I occupy to-day. It came
upon me as a great surprise. The engrossing claims of surgery have
prevented me for many years from attending the meetings of the
Association, which excludes from her sections medicine in all its
branches. This severance of the art of healing from the work of the
Association was right and indeed inevitable. Not that medicine has
little in common with science. The surgeon never performs an operation
without the aid of anatomy and physiology; and in what is often the
most difficult part of his duty, the selection of the right course to follow,
he, like the physician, is guided by pathology, the science of the nature
of disease, which, though very difficult from the complexity of its subject
matter, has made during the last half-century astonishing progress ; so
that the practice of medicine in every department is becoming more
and more based on science as distinguished from empiricism. I propose
on the present occasion to bring before you some illustrations of the
interdependence of science and the healing art ; and the first that I will
take is perhaps the most astonishing of all results of purely physical
inquiry—the discovery of the Réntgen rays, so called after the man who
first clearly revealed them to the world. Mysterious as they still are,
there is one of their properties which we can all appreciate—their power
of passing through substances opaque to ordinary light. There seems to
be no relation whatever between transparency in the common sense of
BQ
A REPORT—1896.
the term and penetrability to these emanations. The glasses of a pair of
spectacles may arrest them while their wooden and leathern case allows
them to pass almost unchecked. Yet they produce, whether directly or
indirectly, the same effects as light upon a photographic plate. As a
general rule the denser any object is the greater obstacle does it oppose
to the rays. Hence, as bone is denser than flesh, if the hand or other
part of the body is placed above the sensitive film enclosed in a case of
wood or other light material at a suitable distance from the source of the
rays, while they pass with the utmost facility through the uncovered
parts of the lid of the box and powerfully affect the plate beneath, they
are arrested to a large extent by the bones, so that the plate is little
acted upon in the parts opposite to them, while the portions correspond-
ing to the muscles and other soft parts are influenced in an intermediate
degree. Thus a picture is obtained in which the bones stand out in sharp
relief among the flesh, and anything abnormal in their shape or position
is clearly displayed.
I need hardly point out what important aid this must give to the
surgeon. As an instance, I may mention a case which occurred in the
practice of Mr. Howard Marsh. He was called to see a severe injury of
the elbow, in which the swelling was so great as to make it impossible for
him by ordinary means of examination to decide whether he had to deal
with a fracture or a dislocation. If it were the latter, a cure would be
effected by the exercise of violence which would be not only useless but
most injurious if a bone was broken. By the aid of the Réntgen rays a
photograph was taken in which the bone of the upper arm was clearly
seen displaced forwards on those of theforearm. The diagnosis being thus
established, Mr. Marsh proceeded to reduce the dislocation ; and his suc-
cess was proved by another photograph which showed the bones in their
natural relative position.
The common metals, such as lead, iron, and copper, being still denser
than the osseous structures, these rays can show a bullet embedded in a
bone or a needle lodged about a joint. At the last conversazione of the
Royal Society a picture produced by the new photography displayed
with perfect distinctness through the bony framework of the chest a half-
penny low down in a boy’s gullet. It had been there for six months,
causing uneasiness at the pit of the stomach during swallowing ; but
whether the coin really remained impacted, and if so, what was its position,
was entirely uncertain till the Réntgen rays revealed it. Dr. Macintyre
of Glasgow, who was the photographer, informs me that when the presence
of the halfpenny had been thus demonstrated, the surgeon in charge of the
case made an attempt to extract it, and although this was not successful
in its immediate object, it had the effect of dislodging the coin ; for a sub-
sequent photograph by Dr. Macintyre not only showed that it had disap-
peared from the gullet, but also, thanks to the wonderful penetrating
power which the rays had acquired in his hands, proved that it had not
ADDRESS. 5
lodged further down in the alimentary passage. The boy has since com-
pletely recovered.
The Rontgen rays cause certain chemical compounds to fluoresce, and
emit a faint light plainly visible in the dark ; and if they are made to fall
upon a translucent screen impregnated with such a salt, it becomes
beautifully illuminated. If a part of the human body is interposed
between the screen and the source of the rays, the bones and other
structures are thrown in shadow upon it, and thus a diagnosis can be
made without the delay involved in taking a photograph. It was in fact
in this way that Dr. Macintyre first. detected the coin in the boy’s gullet.
Mr. Herbert Jackson, of King’s College, London, early distinguished
himself in this branch of the subject. There is no reason to suppose that
the limits of the capabilities of the rays in this way have yet been reached.
By virtue of the greater density of the heart than the adjacent lungs
with their contained air, the form and dimensions of that organ in the
living body may be displayed on the fluorescent screen, and even its move-
ments have been lately seen by several different observers.
Such important applications of the new rays to medical practice have
strongly attracted the interest of the public to them, and I venture to.
think that they have even served: to stimulate the investigations of
physicists. The eminent Professor of Physics in the University College:
of this city (Professor Lodge) was one of the first to make such practical
applications, and I was able to show to the Royal Society at a very early
period a photograph, which he had the kindness to send me, of a bullet
embedded in the hand. His interest in the medical aspect of the subject
remains unabated, and at the same time he has been one of the most dis-
tinguished investigators of its purely physical side.
There is another way in which the Réntgen rays connect themselves
with physiology, and’ may possibly influence medicine. It is found that
if the skin is long exposed to their action it becomes very much irritated,
affected with a sort of aggravated sun-burning. This suggests the idea
that the transmission of the rays through the human body may be not
altogether a matter of indifference to internal organs, but may, by long-
continued action, produce, according to the condition of the part con-
cerned, injurious irritation or salutary stimulation.
This is the jubilee of Anesthesia in surgery. That priceless blessing
to mankind came from America. It had, indeed, been foreshadowed in
_ the first year of this century by Sir Humphry Davy, who, having found
a toothache from which he was suffering relieved as he inhaled laughing
gas (nitrous oxide), threw out the suggestion that it might perhaps be
used for preventing pain in surgical operations. But it was not till, on
September 30, 1846, Dr. W. T. G. Morton, of Boston, after a series of
experiments upon himself and the lower animals, extracted a tooth pain-
lessly from a patient whom he had caused to inhale the vapour of sul-
phuric ether, that the idea was fully realised. He soon afterwards publicly
6 REPORT—1896.
exhibited his method at the Massachusetts General Hospital, and after
that event the great discovery spread rapidly over the civilised world. I
witnessed the first operation in England under ether. It was performed by
Robert Liston in University College Hospital, and it was a complete success.
Soon afterwards I saw the same great surgeon amputate the thigh as
painlessly, with less complicated anesthetic apparatus, by aid of another
agent, chloroform, which was being powerfully advocated as a substitute
for ether by Dr. (afterwards Sir James Y.) Simpson, who also had the
great merit of showing that confinements could be conducted painlessly,
yet safely, under its influence. These two agents still hold the field as
general anesthetics for protracted operations, although the gas originally
suggested by Davy, in consequence of its rapid action and other advan-
tages, has taken their place in short operations, such as tooth extraction.
In the birthplace of anesthesia ether has always maintained its ground ;
but in Europe it was to a large’ extent displaced by chloroform till
recently, when many have returned to ether, under the idea that, though less
convenient, it is safer. For my own part, I believe that chloroform, if
carefully administered on right principles, is, on the average, the safer
agent of the two.
The discovery of anesthesia inaugurated a new era in surgery. Not
only was the pain of operations abolished, but the serious and sometimes
mortal shock which they occasioned to the system was averted, while the
patient was saved the terrible ordeal of preparing to endure them. At
the same time the field of surgery became widely extended, since many
procedures in themselves desirable, but before impossible from the pro-
tracted agony they would occasion, became matters of routine practice.
Nor have I by any means exhausted the list of the benefits conferred by
this discovery.
Anesthesia in surgery has been from first to last a gift of science.
Nitrous oxide, sulphuric ether, and chloroform are all artificial products
of chemistry, their employment as anesthetics was the result of scientific
investigation, and their administration, far from being, like the giving of
a dose of medicine, a matter of rule of thumb, imperatively demands the
vigilant exercise of physiological and pathological knowledge.
While rendering such signal service to surgery, anesthetics have
thrown light upon biology generally. It has been found that they exert
their soporific influence not only upon vertebrata, but upon animals so
remote in structure from man as bees and other insects. Even the func-
tions of vegetables are suspended by their agency. They thus afford
strong confirmation of the great generalisation that living matter is of
the same essential nature wherever it is met with on this planet, whether
in the animal or vegetable kingdom. Anzsthetics have also, in ways to
which I need not here refer, pewerrelly promoted the progress of physio-
logy and pathology.
My next illustration may be taken from the work of Pasteur on fer-
ADDRESS. 7
mentation. The prevailing opinion regarding this class of phenomena
when they first engaged his attention was that they were occasioned
primarily by the oxygen of the air acting upon unstable animal or vege-
table products, which, breaking up under its influence, communicated
disturbance to other organic materials in their vicinity, and thus led to
their decomposition. Cagniard-Latour had indeed shown several years
before that yeast consists essentially of the cells of a microscopic fungus
which grows as the sweetwort ferments ; and he had attributed the break-
ing up of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid to the growth of the
micro-organism. In Germany Schwann, who independently discovered
the yeast plant, had published very striking experiments in support of
analogous ideas regarding the putrefaction of meat. Such views had
also found other advocates, but they had become utterly discredited,
largely through the great authority of Liebig, who bitterly opposed
them.
Pasteur, having been appointed as a young man Dean of the Faculty
of Sciences in the University of Lille, a town where the products of
alcoholic fermentation were staple articles of manufacture, determined to
study that process thoroughly ; and as a result he became firmly con-
vinced of the correctness of Cagniard-Latour’s views regarding it. In the
case of other fermentations, however, nothing fairly comparable to the
formation of yeast had till then been observed. This was now done by
Pasteur for that fermentation in which sugar is resolved into lactic acid.
This lactic fermentation was at that time brought about by adding some
animal substance, such as fibrin, to a solution of sugar, together with
chalk that should combine with the acid as it was formed. Pasteur saw,
what had never before been noticed, that a fine grey deposit was formed,
differing little in appearance from the decomposing fibrin, but steadily
increasing as the fermentation proceeded. Struck by the analogy pre-
sented by the increasing deposit to the growth of yeast in sweetwort, he
examined it with the microscope, and found it to consist of minute
particles of uniform size. Pasteur was not a biologist, but although these
particles were of extreme minuteness in comparison with the constituents
of the yeast plant, he felt convinced that they were of an analogous
nature, the cells of a tiny microscopic fungus. This he regarded as the
essential ferment, the fibrin or other so-called ferment serving, as he
believed, merely the purpose of supplying to the growing plant certain
chemical ingredients essential to its nutrition not contained in the
sugar. And the correctness of this view he confirmed in a very striking
manner, by doing away with the fibrin or other animal material altogether,
and substituting for it mineral salts containing the requisite chemical
elements. A trace of the grey deposit being applied to a solution of
sugar containing these salts in addition to the chalk, a brisker lactic
fermentation ensued than could be procured in the ordinary way.
I have referred to this research in some detail because it illustrates
8 REPORT—1896.
Pasteur’s acuteness as an observer and his ingenuity in experiment, as
well as his almost intuitive perception of truth.
A series of other beautiful investigations followed, clearly proving that
all true fermentations, including putrefaction, are caused by the growth
of micro-organisms.
It was natural that Pasteur should desire to know how the microbes
which he showed to be the essential causes of the various fermentations
took their origin. It was at that period a prevalent notion, even among
many eminent naturalists, that such humble and minute beings originated
de novo in decomposing organic substances ; the doctrine of spontaneous
generation, which had been chased successively from various positions
which it once occupied among creatures visible to the naked eye, having
taken its last refuge where the objects of study were of such minuteness
that their habits and history were correspondingly difficult to trace.
Here again Pasteur at once saw, as if by instinct, on which side the truth
lay ; and, perceiving its immense importance, he threw himself with ardour
into its demonstration. J may describe briefly one class of experiments
which he performed with this object. He charged a series of narrow-
necked glass flasks with a decoction of yeast, a liquid peculiarly liable to
alteration on exposure to the air. Having boiled the liquid in each flask,
to kill any living germs it might contain, he sealed its neck with a blow-
pipe during ebullition ; after which, the flask being allowed to cool, the
steam within it condensed, leaving a vacuum above the liquid. If, then,
the neck of the flask were broken in any locality, the air at that particular
place would rush in to fill the vacuum, carrying with it any living microbes
that might be floating in it. The neck of the flask having been again
sealed, any germs so introduced would in due time manifest their presence
by developing in the clear liquid. When any of such a series of flasks
were opened and re-sealed in an inhabited room, or under the trees of a
forest, multitudes of minute living forms made their appearance in them ;
but if this was done in a cellar long unused, where the suspended
organisms, like other dust, might be expected to have all fallen to the
ground, the decoction remained perfectly clear and unaltered. The oxygen
and other gaseous constituents of the atmosphere were thus shown to be of
themselves incapable of inducing any organic development in yeast-water.
Such is a sample of the many well-devised experiments by which he
carried to most minds the conviction that, as he expressed it, ‘la généra-
tion spontanée est wne chimére,’ and that the humblest and minutest living
organisms can only originate by parentage from beings like themselves,
Pasteur pointed out the enormous importance of these humble
organisms in the economy of nature. It is by their agency that the dead
bodies of plants and animals are resolved into simpler compounds fitted
for assimilation by new living forms. Without their aid the world would
be, as Pasteur said, encombré de cadavres. They are essential not only
to our well-being, but to our very existence. Similar microbes must
ADDRESS. 9
have discharged the same necessary function of removing refuse and
providing food for successive generations of plants and animals during the
past periods of the world’s history ; and it is interesting to think that
organisms as simple as can well be conceived to have existed when life first
appeared upon our globe have, in all probability, propagated the same
lowly but most useful offspring during the ages of geological time.
Pasteur’s labours on fermentation have had a very important influence
upon surgery. I have been often asked to speak on my share in this
matter before a public audience ; but I have hitherto refused to do so,
partly because the details are so entirely technical, but chiefly because E
have felt an invincible repugnance to what might seem to savour of self-
advertisement. The latter objection now no longer exists, since advancing
years have indicated that it is right for me to leave to younger men the
practice of my dearly loved profession. And it will perhaps be expected
that, if I can make myself intelligible, I should say something upon the
subject on the present occasion.
Nothing was formerly more striking in surgical experience than the
difference in the behaviour of injuries according to whether the skin was
implicated or not. Thus, if the bones of the leg were broken and the
skin remained intact, the surgeon applied the necessary apparatus without
any other anxiety than that of maintaining a good position of the fragments,
although the internal injury to bones and soft parts might be very severe.
If, on the other hand, a wound of the skin was present communicating
with the broken bones, although the damage might be in other respects
comparatively slight, the compound fracture, as it was termed, was one of
the most dangerous accidents that could happen. Mr. Syme, who was, I
believe, the safest surgeon of his time, once told me that he was inclined to
think that it would’ be, on the whole, better if all compound fractures of
the leg were subjected to amputation, without any attempt to-save the
limb. What was the cause of this astonishing difference? It was clearly
_ in some way due to the exposure of the injured parts to the externa}
world. One obvious effect of such exposure was indicated by the odour of
the discharge, which showed that the blood in the wound had undergone
putrefactive change by which the bland nutrient liquid had been converted
into highly irritating and poisonous substances. I have seen a man with
compound fracture of the leg die within two days of the accident, as
plainly poisoned by the products of putrefaction as if he had taken a fatal
dose of some potent toxic drug.
An external wound of the soft parts might be healed in one of two
ways. If its surfaces were clean cut and could be brought into accurate
apposition, it might unite rapidly and painlessly ‘by the first intention.’
This, however, was exceptional. Too often the surgeon’s efforts to obtain
primary union were frustrated: the wound inflamed and the retentive
stitches had to be removed, allowing it to gape ; and then, as if it had
been left open from the first, healing had to be effected in the other way
10 REPORT—1896.
which it is necessary for me briefly to describe. An exposed raw surface
became covered in the first instance with a layer of clotted blood or
certain of its constituents, which invariably putrefied ; and the irritation
of the sensitive tissues by the putrid products appeared to me to account
sufficiently for the inflammation which always occurred in and around an
open wound during the three or four days which elapsed before what were
termed ‘ granulations’ had been produced. These constituted a coarsely
granular coating of very imperfect or embryonic structure, destitute of
sensory nerves and prone to throw off matter or pus, rather than absorb,
as freshly divided tissues do, the products of putrefaction. The granula-
tions thus formed a beautiful living plaster, which protected the sensitive
parts beneath from irritation, and the system generally from poisoning
and consequent febrile disturbance. The granulations had other useful
properties of which I may mention their tendency to shrink as they grew,
thus gradually reducing the dimensions of the sore. Meanwhile, another
cause of its diminution was in operation. The cells of the epidermis or
scarf-skin of the cutaneous margins were perpetually producing a crop of
young cells of similar nature, which gradually spread over the granulations
till they covered them entirely, and a complete cicatrix or scar was the
result. Such was the other mode of healing, that by granulation and
cicatrisation ; a process which, when it proceeded unchecked to its
completion, commanded our profound admiration. It was, however, essen-
tially tedious compared with primary union, while, as we have seen, it
was always preceded by more or less inflammation and fever, sometimes
very serious in their effects. It was also liable to unforeseen interruptions.
The sore might become larger instead of smaller, cicatrisation giving place
to ulceration in one of its various forms, or even to the frightful destruction
of tissue which, from the circumstance that it was most frequently met
with in hospitals, was termed hospital gangrene. Other serious and often
fatal complications might arise, which the surgeon could only regard as
untoward accidents and over which he had no efficient control.
It will be readily understood from the above description that the
inflammation which so often frustrated the surgeon’s endeavours after
primary union was in my opinion essentially due to decomposition of
blood within the wound.
These and many other considerations had long impressed me with the
greatness of the evil of putrefaction in surgery. I had done my best to
mitigate it by scrupulous ordinary cleanliness and the use of various
deodorant lotions. But to prevent it altogether appeared hopeless while
we believed with Liebig that its primary cause was the atmospheric
oxygen which, in accordance with the researches of Graham, could not
fail to be perpetually diffused through the porous dressings which
were used to absorb the blood discharged from the wound. But when
Pasteur had shown that putrefaction was a fermentation caused by the
growth of microbes, and that these could not arise de novo in the
ADDRESS. 11
decomposable substance, the problem assumed a more hopeful aspect. If
the wound could be treated with some substance which, without doing too
serious mischief to the human tissues, would kill the microbes already con-
tained in it and prevent the future access of others in the living state,
putrefaction might be prevented, however freely the air with its oxygen
might enter. I had heard of carbolic acid as having a remarkable
deodorising effect upon sewage, and having obtained from my colleague
Dr. Anderson, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, a
sample which he had of this product, then little more than a chemical
curiosity in Scotland, I determined to try it in compound fractures.
Applying it undiluted to the wound, with an arrangement for its
occasional renewal, I had the joy of seeing these formidable injuries follow
the same safe and tranquil course as simple fractures, in which the skin
remains unbroken.
At the same time we had the intense interest of observing in open
wounds what had previously been hidden from human view, the manner
in which subcutaneous injuries are repaired. Of special interest was the
process by which portions of tissue killed by the violence of the accident
were disposed of, as contrasted with what had till then been invariably
witnessed. Dead parts had been always seen to be gradually separated
from the living by an inflammatory process and thrown off as sloughs.
But when protected by the antiseptic dressing from becoming putrid and
therefore irritating, a structure deprived of its life caused no disturbance
in its vicinity ; and, on the contrary, being of a nutritious nature, it served
as pabulum for the growing elements of the neighbouring living structures,
and these became in due time entirely substituted for it. Even dead bone
was seen to be thus replaced by living osseous tissue.
This suggested the idea of using threads of dead animal structures for
tying blood-vessels ; and this was realised by means of catgut, which is
made from the intestine of the sheep. If deprived of living microbes, and
otherwise properly prepared, catgut answers its purpose completely ; the
knot holding securely, while the ligature around the vessel becomes
gradually absorbed and replaced by a ring of living tissue. The threads,
instead of being left long as before, could now be cut short, and the
tedious process of separation of the ligature, with its attendant serious
danger of bleeding, was avoided.
Undiluted carbolic acid is a powerful caustic ; and although it might
be employed in compound fracture, where some loss of tissue was of little
moment in comparison with the tremendous danger to be averted, it was
altogether unsuitable for wounds made by the surgeon. It soon appeared,
however, that the acid would answer the purpose aimed at, though used
in diluted forms devoid of caustic action, and therefore applicable to
operative surgery. According to our then existing knowledge, two essen-
tial points had to be aimed at: to conduct the operation so that on its
completion the wound should contain no living microbes, and to apply a
12 REPORT—1896.
dressing capable of preventing the access of other living organisms till
the time should have arrived for changing it.
Carbolic acid lent itself well to both these objects. Our experience
with this agent brought out what was, I believe, a new principle in
pharmacology—namely, that the energy of action of any substance upon
the human tissues depends not only upon the proportion in which it is
contained in the material used as a vehicle for its administration, but also
upon the degree of tenacity with which it is held by its solvent. Water
dissolves carbolic acid sparingly and holds it extremely lightly, leaving it
free to act energetically on other things for which it has greater affinity,
while various organic substances absorb it greedily and hold it tenaciously.
Hence its watery solution seemed admirably suited for a detergent lotion
to be used for destroying any microbes that might fall upon the wound
during the operation, and for purifying the surrounding skin and also the
surgeon’s hands and instruments. For the last-named purpose it had the
further advantage that it did not act on steel.
For an external dressing the watery solution was not adapted, as it
soon lost the acid it contained, and was irritating while it lasted. For
this purpose some organic substances were found to answer well. Large
proportions of the acid could be blended with them in so bland a form as
to be unirritating ; and such mixtures, while perpetually giving off
enough of the volatile salt to prevent organic development in the dis-
charges that flowed past them, served as a reliable store of the antiseptic
for days together.
The appliances which I first used for carrying out the antiseptic prin-
ciple were both rude and needlessly complicated. The years that have
since passed have witnessed great improvements in both respects. Of
the various materials which have been employed by myself and others,
and their modes of application, I need say nothing except to express my
belief, as a matter of long experience, that carbolic acid, by virtue of its
powerful affinity for the epidermis and oily matters associated with it,
and also its great penetrating power, is still the best agent at our dis-
posal for purifying the skin around the wound. But I must say a
few words regarding a most important simplification of our procedure.
Pasteur, as we have seen, had shown that the air of every inhabited
room teems with microbes ; and for a long time I employed various more
or less elaborate precautions against the living atmospheric dust, not
doubting that, as all wounds except the few which healed completely by
the first intention, underwent putrefactive fermentation, the blood must
be a peculiarly favourable soil for the growth of putrefactive microbes.
But I afterwards learnt that such was by no means the case. I had
performed many experiments in confirmation of Pasteur’s germ theory,
not indeed in order to satisfy myself of its truth, but in the hope of
convincing others. I had observed that uncontaminated milk, which
would remain unaltered for an indefinite time if protected from dust,
ADDRESS. 13
was made to teem with microbes of different kinds by a very brief
exposure to the atmosphere, and that the same effect was produced by
the addition of a drop of ordinary water. But when I came to experi-
ment with blood drawn with antiseptic precautions into sterilised vessels,
I saw to my surprise that it might remain free from microbes in spite of
similar access of air or treatment with water. I even found that if very
putrid blood was largely diluted with sterilised water, so as to diffuse
its microbes widely and wash them of their acrid products, a drop of
such dilution added to pure blood might leave it unchanged for days at
the temperature of the body, although a trace of the septic liquid undi-
luted caused intense putrefaction within twenty-four hours. Hence I
was led to conclude that it was the grosser forms of septic mischief,
rather than microbes in the attenuated condition in which they existed
in the atmosphere, that we had to dread in surgical practice. And at
the London Medical Congress in 1881, I hinted, when describing the
experiments I have alluded to, that it might turn out possible to disre-
gard altogether the atmospheric dust. But greatly as I should have
rejoiced at such a simplification of our procedure, if justifiable, I did not
then venture to test it in practice. I knew that with the safeguards which
we then employed I could ensure the safety of my patients, andI did not
dare to imperil it by relaxing them. There is one golden rule for all
experiments upon our fellow-men. Let the thing tried be that which,
according to our best judgment, is the most likely to promote the welfare
of the patient. In other words, Do as you would be done by.
Nine years later, however, at the Berlin Congress in 1890, I was able
to bring forward what was, I believe, absolute demonstration of the harm-
lessness of the atmospheric dust in surgical operations. This conclusion
has been justified by subsequent experience : the irritation of the wound
by antiseptic irrigation and washing may therefore now be avoided, and
nature left quite undisturbed to carry out her best methods of repair,
while the surgeon may conduct his operations as simply as in former days,
provided always that, deeply impressed with the tremendous importance
of his object, and inspiring the same conviction in all his assistants, he
vigilantly maintains from first to last, with a care that, once learnt,
becomes instinctive, but for the want of which nothing else can compen-
sate, the use of the simple means which will suffice to exclude from the
wound the coarser forms of septic impurity.
Even our earlier and ruder methods of carrying out the antiseptic
principle soon produced a wonderful change in my surgical wards in the
Glasgow Royal Infirmary, which, from being some of the most unhealthy
in the kingdom, became, as I believe I may say without exaggeration, the
healthiest in the world ; while other wards, separated from mine only by
a passage a few feet broad, where former modes of treatment were for a while
continued, retained their former insalubrity. This result, I need hardly
remark, was not in any degree due to special skill on my part, but simply
14 REPORT—1896.
to the strenuous endeavour to carry out strictly what seemed to me a prin-
ciple of supreme importance.
Equally striking changes were afterwards witnessed in other institu-
tions. Of these I may give one example. In the great Allgemeines
Krankenhaus of Munich, hospital gangrene had become more and more
rife from year to year, till at length the frightful condition was reached
that 80 per cent. of all wounds became affected by it. It is only just to
the memory of Professor von Nussbaum, then the head of that establish-
ment, to say that he had done his utmost to check this frightful scourge ;
and that the evil was not caused by anything peculiar in his management
was shown by the fact that in a private hospital under his care there was
no unusual unhealthiness. The larger institution seemed to have become
‘hopelessly infected, and the city authorities were contemplating its demo-
lition and reconstruction. Under these circumstances, Professor von
Nussbaum despatched his chief assistant, Dr. Lindpaintner, to Edinburgh,
where I at that time occupied the chair of clinical surgery, to learn the
details of the antiseptic system as we then practised it. He remained
until he had entirely mastered them, and after his return all the cases
were on a certain day dressed on our plan. From that day forward not
a single case of hospital gangrene occurred in the Krankenhaus. The
fearful disease pyzemia likewise disappeared, and erysipelas soon followed
its example.
But it was by no means only in removing the unhealthiness of hos-
pitals that the antiseptic system showed its benefits. Inflammation being
suppressed, with attendant pain, fever, and wasting discharge, the suffer-
ings of the patient were, of course, immensely lessened ; rapid primary
union being now the rule, convalescence was correspondingly curtailed ;
while as regards safety and the essential nature of the mode of repair, it
became a matter of indifference whether the wound had clean-cut surfaces
which could be closely approximated, or whether the injury inflicted had
been such as to cause destruction of tissue. And operations which had
been regarded from time immemorial as unjustifiable were adopted with
complete safety.
Tt pleases me to think that there is an ever-increasing number of prac-
titioners throughout the world to whom this will not appear the language
of exaggeration. There are cases in which, from the situation of the part
concerned or other unusual circumstances, it is impossible to carry out the
antiseptic system completely. These, however, are quite exceptional; and
even in them much has been done to mitigate the evil which cannot be
altogether avoided.
I ask your indulgence if I have seemed to dwell too long upon matters
in which I have been personally concerned. I now gladly return to the
labours of others.
The striking results of the application of the germ theory to Surgery
acted as a powerful stimulus to the investigation of the nature of the
ADDRESS. 1s
micro-organisms concerned ; and it soon appeared that putrefaction was
by no means the only evil of microbic origin to which wounds were liable.
I had myself very early noticed that hospital gangrene was not necessarily
attended by any unpleasant odour; and I afterwards made a similar
observation regarding the matter formed in a remarkable epidemic of
erysipelas in Edinburgh obviously of infective character. I had also seen
a careless dressing followed by the occurrence of suppuration without
putrefaction. And as these non-putrefactive disorders had the same self-
propagating property as ferments, and were suppressed by the same anti-
septic agencies which were used for combating the putrefactive microbes,
I did not doubt that they were of an analogous origin ; and I ventured
to express the view that, just as the various fermentations had each its
special microbe, so it might be with the various complications of wounds.
This surmise was afterwards amply verified. Professor Ogston, of Aber-
deen, was an early worker in this field, and showed that in acute abscesses,
that is to say those which run a rapid course, the matter, although often
quite free from unpleasant odour, invariably contains micro-organisms
belonging to the group which, from the spherical form of their elements,
are termed micrococci; and these he classed as streptococci or staphylo-
EE —<—— ee Ol
cocci, according as they were arranged in chains or disposed in irregular
clusters like bunches of grapes. The German pathologist, Fehleisen, fol-
lowed with a beautiful research, by which he clearly proved that erysipelas
is caused by a streptococcus. A host of earnest workers in different
countries have cultivated the new science of Bacteriology, and, while
opening up a wide fresh domain of Biology, have demonstrated in so many
eases the causal relation between special micro-organisms and special
diseases, not only in wounds but in the system generally, as to afford
ample confirmation of the induction which had been made by Pasteur
that all infective disorders are of microbic origin.
Not that we can look forward with anything like confidence to being
able ever to see the materies morbi of every disease of this nature. One of
the latest of such discoveries has been that by Pfeiffer of Berlin of the
bacillus of influenza, perhaps the most minute of all micro-organisms ever
yet detected. The bacillus of anthrax, the cause of a plague common
among cattle in some parts of Europe, and often communicated to sorters
of foreign wool in this country, is a giant as compared with this tiny
being ; and supposing the microbe of any infectious fever to be as much
smaller than the influenza bacillus as this is less than that of anthrax, a
by no means unlikely hypothesis, it is probable that it would never be
visible to man. The improvements of the microscope, based on the
principle established by my father in the earlier part of the century,
have apparently nearly reached the limits of what is possible. But that
such parasites are really the causes of all this great class of diseases can
no longer be doubted.
The first rational step towards the prevention or cure of disease is to
16 REPORT—1896.
know its cause ; and it is impossible to over-estimate the practical value
of researches such as those to which I am now referring. Among their
many achievements is what may be fairly regarded as the most important
discovery ever made in pathology, because it revealed the true nature of
the disease which causes more sickness and death in the human race than
any other. It was made by Robert Koch, who greatly distinguished
himself, when a practitioner in an obscure town in Germany, by the
remarkable combination of experimental acuteness and skill, chemical
and optical knowledge and successful micro-photography which he brought
to bear upon the elucidation of infective diseases of wounds in the lower
animals; in recognition of which service the enlightened Prussian
Government at once appointed him to an official position of great impor-
tance in Berlin. There he conducted various important researches; and
at the London Congress in 1881 he showed to us for the first time the
bacillus of tubercle. "Wonderful light was thrown by this discovery upon
a great group of diseases which had before been rather guessed than known
to be of allied nature; a precision and efficacy never before possible
was introduced into their surgical treatment, while the physician became
guided by new and sure light as regards their diagnosis and prevention.
At that same London Congress Koch demonstrated to us his ‘ plate
culture’ of bacteria, which was so important that I must devote a few
words to its description. With a view to the successful study of the
habits and effects of any particular microbe outside the living body, it is
essential that it should be present unmixed in the medium in which it is
cultivated. It can be readily understood how difficult it must have been
to isolate any particular micro-organism when it existed mixed, as was
often the case, with a multitude of other forms. In fact, the various in-
genious attempts made to effect this object had often proved entire failures.
Koch, however, by an ingenious procedure converted what had been before
impossible into a matter of the utmost facility. In the broth or other
nutrient liquid which was to serve as food for the growing microbe he
dissolved, by aid of heat, just enough gelatine to ensure that, while it
should beeome a solid mass when cold, it should remain fluid though re-
duced in temperature so much as to be incapable of killing living germs.
To the medium thus partially cooled was added some liquid containing,
among others, the microbe to be investigated ; and the mixture was
thoroughly shaken so as to diffuse the bacteria and separate them from
each other. Some of the liquid was then poured out in a thin layer upon
a glass plate and allowed to cool so as to assume the solid form. The
various microbes, fixed in the gelatine and so prevented from inter-
mingling, proceeded to develop each its special progeny, which in course
of time showed itself as an opaque speck in the transparent film. Any
one of such specks could now be removed and transferred to another vessel
in which the microbe composing it grew in perfect isolation,
Pasteur was present at this demonstration, and expressed his sense of
' ADDRESS. 17
the great progress effected by the new method. It was soon introduced
into his own institute and other laboratories throughout the world ; and
it has immensely facilitated bacteriological study.
One fruit of it in Koch’s own hands was the discovery of the microbe
of cholera in India, whither he went to study the disease. This organism
was termed by Koch from its curved form the ‘comma bacillus,’ and by
the French the cholera vibrio. Great doubts were for a long time felt
regarding this discovery. Several other kinds of bacteria were found of
the same shape, some of them producing very similar appearances in cul-
ture media. But bacteriologists are now universally agreed that, although
various other conditions are necessary to the production of an attack of
cholera besides the mere presence of the vibrio, yet it is the essential
materies morbi ; and it is by the aid of the diagnosis which its presence in
any case of true cholera enables the bacteriologist to make, that threatened
invasions of this awful disease have of late years been so successfully
repelled from our shores. If bacteriology had done nothing more for us
than this, it might well have earned our gratitude.
I have next to invite your attention to some earlier work of Pasteur.
There is a disease known in France under the name of choléra des poules,
which often produced great havoc among the poultry yards of Paris. It
had been observed that the blood of birds that had died of this disease
was peopled by a multitude of minute bacteria, not very dissimilar in form
and size to the microbe of the lactic ferment to which I have before
referred. And Pasteur found that, if this bacterium was cultivated out-
side the body for a protracted period under certain conditions, it under-
went a remarkable diminution of its virulence ; so that, if inoculated into
_a healthy fowl, it no longer caused the death of the bird, as it would have
done in its original condition, but produced a milder form of the disease
which was not fatal. And this altered character of the microbe, caused
by certain conditions, was found to persist in successive generations culti-
vated in the ordinary way. Thus was discovered the great fact of what
Pasteur termed the atténwation des virus, which at once gave the clue to
understanding what had before been quite mysterious, the difference in
virulence of the same disease in different epidemics.
But he made the further very important observation that a bird which
had gone through the mild form of the complaint had acquired immunity
against it in its most virulent condition. Pasteur afterwards succeeded
in obtaining mitigated varieties of microbes for some other diseases ; and
he applied with great success the principle which he had discovered in
fowl-cholera for protecting the larger domestic animals against the plague
of anthrax. The preparations used for such preventive inoculations he
termed ‘vaccins’ in honour of our great countryman, Edward Jenner.
For Pasteur at once saw the analogy between the immunity to fowl-
cholera produeed by its attenuated virus and the protection afforded
against small-pox by vaccination. And while pathologists still hesitated,
1896. c
18 REPORT—1896.
he had no doubt of the correctness of Jenner’s expression variole vaccine,
or small-pox in the cow.
It is just a hundred years since Jenner made the crucial experiment of
inoculating with small-pox a boy whom he had previously vaccinated, the
result being, as he anticipated, that the boy was quite unaffected. It may
be remarked that this was a perfectly legitimate experiment, involving no
danger to the subject of it. Inoculation was at that time the established
practice ; andif vaccination should prove nugatory, the inoculation would
be only what would have been otherwise called for ; while it would be per-
fectly harmless if the hoped-for effect of vaccination had been produced.
We are a practical people, not much addicted to personal commemora-
tions : although our nation did indeed celebrate with fitting splendour the
jubilee of the reign of our beloved Queen ; and at the invitation of
Glasgow the scientific world has lately marked in a manner, though
different, as imposing, the jubilee of the life-work of a sovereign in science
(Lord Kelvin). But while we cannot be astonished that the centenary of
Jenner’s immortal discovery should have failed to receive general recogni-
tion in this country, it is melancholy to think that this year should, in his
native county, have been distinguished by a terrible illustration of the
results which would sooner or later inevitably follow the general neglect
of his prescriptions.
I have no desire to speak severely of the Gloucester Guardians. They
are not sanitary authorities, and had not the technical knowledge neces-
sary to enable them to judge between the teachings of true science and
the declamations of misguided, though well-meaning, enthusiasts. They
did what they believed to be right ; and when roused to a sense of the
greatness of their mistake, they did their very best to repair it, so that
their city is said to be now the best vaccinated in Her Majesty’s dominions.
But though by their praiseworthy exertions they succeeded in promptly
checking the raging epidemic, they cannot recall the dead to life, or
restore beauty to marred features, or sight to blinded eyes. Would that
the entire country and our Legislature might take duly to heart this
object-lesson !
How completely the medical profession were convinced of the efficacy
of vaccination in the early part of this century was strikingly illustrated
by an account given by Professor Crookshank, in his interesting history of
this subject, of several eminent medical men in Edinburgh meeting to see
the to them unprecedented fact of a vaccinated person having taken small-
pox. Jt has, of course, since become well known that the milder form
of the disease, as modified by passing through the cow, confers a less
permanent protection than the original human disorder. This it was, of
course, impossible for Jenner to foresee. It is, indeed, a question of
degree, since a second attack of ordinary small-pox is occasionally known
to occur, and vaccination, long after it has ceased to give perfect immu-
nity, greatly modifies the character of the disorder and diminishes its
si i ei i ee me
ADDRESS. 19
danger. And, happily, in re-vaccination after a certain number of years
we have the means of making Jenner’s work complete. I understand
that the majority of the Commissioners, who have recently issued their
report upon this subject, while recognising the value and importance of
re-vaccination, are so impressed with the difficulties that would attend
making it compulsory by legislation that they do not recommend that
course ; although it is advocated by two of their number who are of
peculiarly high authority on such a question. I was lately told by a
Berlin professor that no serious difficulty is experienced in carrying out
the compulsory law that prevails in Germany. The masters of the
schools are directed to ascertain in the case of every child attaining the
age of twelve whether re-vaccination has been practised. If not, and
the parents refuse to have it done, they are fined one mark. If this does
not prove effectual, the fine is doubled : and if even the double penalty
should not prove efficacious, a second doubling of it would follow, but, as
my informant remarked, it is very seldom that it is called for. The
result is that small-pox is a matter of extreme rarity in that country ;
while it is almost unknown in the huge German army, in consequence
of the rule that every soldier is re-vaccinated on entering the service.
Whatever view our Legislature may take on this question, one thing
seems to me clear : that it will be the duty of Government to encourage
by every available means the use of calf lymph, so.as to exclude the
possibility of the communication of any human disease to the child, and
to institute such efficient inspection of vaccination institutes as shall
ensure careful antiseptic arrangements, and so prevent contamination
by extraneous microbes. If this were done, ‘conscientious objections’
would cease to have any rational basis. At the same time, the ad-
ministration of the regulations on vaccination should be transferred (as
advised by the Commissioners) to competent sanitary authorities.
But to return to Pasteur. In 1880 he entered upon the study of
that terrible but then most obscure disease, Hydrophobia or Rabies, which
from its infective character he was sure must be of microbic origin,
although no micro-organism could be detected in it. He early demon-
strated the new pathological fact that the virus had its essential seat in
the nervous system. This proved the key to his success in this subject.
One result that flowed from it has been the cause of unspeakable consola-
tion to many. The foolish practice is still too prevalent of killing the dog
that has bitten any one, on the absurd notion that, if it were mad, its
destruction would prevent the occurrence of Hydrophobia in the person
bitten. The idea of the bare possibility of the animal having been so
affected causes an agony of suspense during the long weeks or months of
possible incubation of the disease. Very serious nervous symptoms aping
true Hydrophobia have been known tc result from the terror thus inspired.
Pasteur showed that if a little of the brain or spinal cord of a dog that had
been really mad was inoculated in an appropriate manner into a rabbit, it
c2
20 REPORT—1896.
infallibly caused rabies in that animal in a few days. If therefore such
an experiment was made with a negative result, the conclusion might
be drawn with certainty that the dog had been healthy. It is perhaps
right that I should say that the inoculation is painlessly done under an
anesthetic, and that in the rabbit rabies does not assume the violent form
that it does in the dog, but produces gradual loss of power with little if
any suffering. —
This is the more satisfactory because rabbits in which the disease has
been thus artificially induced are employed in carrying out what was
Pasteur’s greatest triumph, the preventive treatment of Hydrophobia in
the human subject. We have seen that Pasteur discovered that microbes
might under some circumstances undergo mitigation of their virulence.
He afterwards found that under different conditions they might have it
exalted, or, as he expressed it, there might be a renforcement du virus.
Such proved to be the case with rabies in the rabbit ; so that the spinal
cords of animals which had died of it contained the poison in a highly
intensified condition. But he also found that if such a highly virulent
cord was suspended under strict antiseptic precautions in a dry atmosphere
at a certain temperature, it gradually from day to day lost in potency, till
in course of time it became absolutely inert. If now an emulsion of such
a harmless cord was introduced under the skin of an animal, as in the
subcutaneous administration of morphia, it might be followed without harm
another day by a similar dose of a cord still rather poisonous ; and so from
day to day stronger and stronger injections might be used, the system
becoming gradually accustomed to the poison, till a degree of virulence
had been reached far exceeding that of the bite of a mad dog. When this
had been attained, the animal proved incapable of taking the disease in
the ordinary way ; and more than that, if such treatment was adopted
after an animal had already received the poison, provided that too long a
time had not elapsed, the outbreak of the disease was prevented. It was
only after great searching of heart that Pasteur, after consultation with
some trusted medical friends, ventured upon trying this practice upon
man. It has since been extensively adopted in various parts of the world
with increasing success as the details of the method were improved. It is
not of course the case that every one bitten by a really rabid animal takes
the disease ; but the percentage of those who do so, which was formerly
large, has been reduced almost to zero by this treatment, if not too long
delayed.
While the intensity of rabies in the rabbit is undoubtedly due toa
peculiarly virulent form of the microbe concerned, we cannot suppose that
the daily diminishing potency of the cord suspended in dry warm air is
an instance of attenuation of virus, using the term ‘ virus’ as synonymous
with the microbe concerned. In other words, we have no reason to
believe that the special micro-organism of hydrophobia continues to
develop in the dead cord and produce successively a milder and milder
ADDRESS. 21
progeny ; since rabies cannot be cultivated in the nervous system of a dead
animal. We must rather conclude that there must be some chemical
poison present which gradually loses its potency as time passes. And this
leads me to refer to another most important branch of this large subject
of bacteriology, that of the poisonous products of microbes.
It was shown several years ago by Roux and Yersin, working in the
Institut Pasteur, that the crust or false membrane which forms upon the
throats of patients affected with diphtheria contains bacteria which can
be cultivated outside the body in a nutrient liquid, with the result that it
acquires poisonous qualities of astonishing intensity, comparable to that
of the secretion of the poison-glands of the most venomous serpents.
And they also ascertained that the liquid retained this property after the
microbes had been removed from it by filtration, which proved that the
poison must be a chemical substance in solution, as distinguished from the
living element which had produced it. These poisonous products of
bacteria, or toxins as they have been termed, explain the deadly effects of
some microbes, which it would otherwise be impossible to understand.
Thus, in diphtheria itself the special bacillus which was shown by Léffler
to be its cause, does not become propagated in the blood, like the microbe
of chicken cholera, but remains confined to the surface on which it first
appeared : but the toxin which it secretes is absorbed from that surface
into the blood, and so poisons the system. Similar observations have
been made with regard to the microbes of some other diseases, as, for
example, the bacillus of tetanus or lockjaw. This remains localised in
the wound, but forms a special toxin of extreme potency, which becomes
absorbed and diffused through the body.
Wonderful as it seems, each poisonous microbe appears to form its
own peculiar toxin. Koch’s tuberculin was of this nature ; a product of
the growth of the tubercle bacillus in culture media. Here, again, great
effects were produced by extremely minute quantities of the substance ;
but here a new peculiarity showed itself, viz. that patients affected with
tubercular disease, in any of its varied forms, exhibited inflammation in
the affected part and general fever after receiving under the skin an
amount of the material which had no effect whatever upon healthy
persons. I witnessed in Berlin some instances of these effects, which
were simply astounding. Patients affected with a peculiar form of obsti-
nate ulcer of the face showed, after a single injection of the tuberculin,
violent inflammatory redness and swelling of the sore and surrounding
skin ; and, what was equally surprising, when this disturbance subsided
the disease was found to have undergone great improvement. By repeti-
tions of such procedures, ulcers which had previously been steadily
advancing, in spite of ordinary treatment, became greatly reduced in size,
and in some instances apparently cured. Such results led Koch to believe
that he had obtained an effectual means of dealing with tubercular disease
in all its forms. Unhappily, the apparent cure proved to be only of
92 REPORT—1896.
transient duration, and the high hopes which had been inspired by Koch’s
great reputation were dashed. It is but fair to say that he was strongly
urged to publish before he was himself disposed to do so, and we cannot
but regret that he yielded to the pressure put upon him.
But though Koch’s sanguine anticipations were not realised, it would
be a great mistake to suppose that his labours with tuberculin have been
fruitless. Cattle are liable to tubercle, and, when affected with it, may
become a very serious source of infection for human beings, more especially
when the disease affects the udders of cows, and so contaminates the milk.
By virtue of the close affinity that prevails between the lower animals and
ourselves, in disease as well as in health, tuberculin produces fever in tuber-
cular cows in doses which do not affect healthy beasts. Thus, by the
subcutaneous use of a little of the fluid, tubercle latent in internal organs
of an apparently healthy cow can be with certainty revealed, and the
slaughter of the animal after this discovery protects man from infection.
It has been ascertained that glanders presents a precise analogy with
tubercle as regards the effects of its toxic products. If the microbe which
has been found to be the cause of this disease is cultivated in appropriate
media, it produces a poison which has received the name of mallein, and
the subcutaneous injection of a suitable dose of this fluid into a glandered
horse causes striking febrile symptoms which do not occur in a healthy
animal. Glanders, like tubercle, may exist in insidious Jatent forms
which there was formerly no possibility of detecting, but which are at
once disclosed by this means. Ifa glandered horse has been accidentally
introduced into a large stable, this method of diagnosis surely tells if it
has infected others. All receive a little mallein. Those which become
affected with fever are slaughtered, and thus not only is the disease pre-
vented from spreading to other horses, but the grooms are protected from
a mortal disorder.
This valuable resource sprang from Koch’s work on tuberculin, which
has also indirectly done good in other ways. His distinguished pupil,
Behring, has expressly attributed to those researches the inspiration of
the work which Jed him and his since famous collaborateur, the Japanese
Kitasato, to their surprising discovery of anti-toxic serum. They found
that if an animal of a species liable to diphtheria or tetanus received a
quantity of the respective toxin, so small as to be harmless, and after-
wards, at suitable intervals, successively stronger and stronger doses, the
creature, in course of time, acquired such a tolerance for the poison as to
be able to receive with impunity a quantity very much greater than
would at the outset have proved fatal. So far, we have nothing more
than seems to correspond with the effects of the increasingly potent cords
in Pasteur’s treatment of rabies. But what was entirely new in their
results was that, if blood was drawn from an animal which had acquired
this high degree of artificial immunity, and some of the clear fluid or
scrum which exuded from it after it had clotted was introduced under the
ADDRESS. 23
skin of another animal, this second animal acquired a strong, though more
transient, immunity against the particular toxin concerned. The serum
in some way counteracted the toxin or was antitoxic. But, more than
that, if some of the antitoxic serum was applied to an animal after it had
already received a poisonous dose of the toxin, it preserved the life of the
creature, provided that too long a time had not elapsed after the poison
was introduced. In other words, the antitoxin proved to be not only
preventive but curative.
Similar results were afterwards obtained by Ehrlich, of Berlin, with
some poisons not of bacterial origin, but derived from the vegetable
kingdom ; and quite recently the independent labours of Calmette of
Lille and Fraser of Edinburgh have shown that antidotes of wonderful
efficacy against the venom of serpents may be procured on the same prin-
ciple. Calmette has obtained antitoxin so powerful that a quantity of it
only a 200,000th part of the weight of an animal will protect it perfectly
against a dose of the secretion of the poison-glands of the most venomous
serpents known to exist, which without such protection would have proved
fatal in four hours. For curative purposes larger quantities of the remedy are
required, but cases have been already published by Calmette in which death
appears to have been averted in the human subject by this treatment.
Behring’s darling object was to discover means of curing tetanus and
diphtheria in man. In tetanus the conditions are not favourable ; because
the specific bacilli lurk in the depths of the wound, and only declare their
presence by symptoms caused by their toxin having been already in a
greater or less amount diffused through the system ; and in every case of
this disease there must be a fear that the antidote may be applied too late
to be useful. But in diphtheria the bacilli very early manifest their pre-
sence by the false membrane which they cause upon the throat, so that
the antitoxin has a fair chance ; and here we are justified in saying that
Behring’s object has been attained.
The problem, however, was by no means so simple as in the case of
some mere chemical poison. However effectual the antitoxin might be
against the toxin, if it left the bacilli intact, not only would repeated
injections be required to maintain the transient immunity to the poison
perpetually secreted by the microbes, but the bacilli might by their growth
and extension cause obstruction of the respiratory passages.
Roux, however, whose name must always be mentioned with honour
in relation to this subject, effectually disposed of this difficulty. He
showed by experiments on animals that a diphtheritic false membrane,
rapidly extending and accompanied by surrounding inflammation, was
brought to a stand by the use of the antitoxin, and soon dropped off,
leaving a healthy surface. Whatever be the explanation, the fact was
thus established that the antitoxic serum, while it renders the toxin
harmless, causes the microbe to languish and disappear.
No theoretical objection could now be. urged against the treatment ;
24 REPORT—1896.
and it has during the last two years been extensively tested in practice in
various parts of the worid, and it has gradually made its way more and
more into the confidence of the profession. One important piece of evi-
dence in its favour in this country is derived from the report of the six
large hospitals under the management of the London Asylums Board.
The medical officers of these hospitals at first naturally regarded the prac-
tice with scepticism : but as it appeared to be at least harmless, they
gave it a trial ; and during the year 1895 it was very generally employed
upon the 2,182 cases admitted ; and they have all become convinced of
its great value. In the nature of things, if the theory of the treatment
is correct, the best results must be obtained when the patients are
admitted at an early stage of the attack, before there has been time
for much poisoning of the system : and accordingly we learn from the
report that, comparing 1895 with 1894, during which latter year the
ordinary treatment had been used, the percentage of mortality, in all
the six hospitals combined, among the patients admitted on the first day
of the disease, which in 1894 was 22:5, was only 4:6 in 1895; and for
those admitted on the second day the numbers are 27 for 1894 and 14:8
for 1895. Thus for cases admitted on the first day the mortality was
only one-fifth of what it was in the previous year, and for those enter-
ing on the second it was halved. Unfortunately in the low parts of
London which furnish most of these patients the parents too often delay
sending in the children till much later: so that on the average no less
than 67:5 per cent. were admitted on the fourth day of the disease or later.
Hence the aggregate statistics of all cases are not nearly so striking.
Nevertheless, taking it altogether, the mortality in 1895 was less than had
ever before been experienced in those hospitals. I should add that there
was no reason to think that the disease was of a milder type than usual
in 1895 ; and no change whatever was made in the treatment except as
regards the antitoxic injections.
There is one piece of evidence recorded in the report which, though it
is not concerned with high numbers, is well worthy of notice. It relates
to a special institution to which convalescents from scarlet fever are sent
from all the six hospitals. Such patients occasionally contract diphtheria,
and when they do so the added disease has generally proved extremely fatal.
In the five years preceding the introduction of the treatment with anti-
toxin the mortality from this cause had never been less than 50 per cent.,
and averaged on the whole 61:9 per cent. During 1895, under antitoxin,
the deaths among the 119 patients of this class were only 7:5 per cent.,
or one-eighth of what had been previously experienced. This very strik-
ing result seems to be naturally explained by the fact that these patients
being already in hospital when the diphtheria appeared, an unusually
early opportunity was afforded for dealing with it.
There are certain cases of so malignant a character from the first that
no treatment will probably ever be able to cope with them. But taking
ADDRESS. 25
all cases together it seems probable that Behring’s hope that the mortality
may be reduced to 5 per cent. will be fully realised when the public
become alive to the paramount importance of having the treatment com-
menced at the outset of the disease.
There are many able workers in the field of Bacteriology whose names
time does not permit me to mention, and to whose important labours I
cannot refer ; and even those researches of which I have spoken have
been, of course, most inadequately dealt with. I feel this especially with
regard to Pasteur, whose work shines out more brightly the more his
writings are perused.
I have lastly to bring before you a subject which, though not bacterio-
logical, has intimate relations with bacteria. Ifa drop of blood is drawn
from the finger by a prick with a needle and examined microscopically
between two plates of glass, there are seen in it minute solid elements of
two kinds, the one pale orange bi-concave discs, which, seen in mass, give
the red colour to the vital fluid, the other more or less granular spherical
masses of the soft material called protoplasm, destitute of colour, and
therefore called the colourless or white corpuscles. It has been long
known that if the microscope was placed at such a distance from a fire as
to have the temperature of the human body, the white corpuscles might
be seen to put out and retract little processes or pseudopodia, and by their
means crawl over the surface of the glass, just like the extremely low
forms of animal life termed, from this faculty of changing their form,
ameebe. It was a somewhat weird spectacle, that of seeing what had
just before been coursing through our veins moving about like inde-
pendent creatures. Yet there was nothing in this inconsistent with what
we knew of the fixed components of the animal frame. For example, the
surface of a frog’s tongue is covered with a layer of cells, each of which is
provided with two or more lashing filaments or cilia, and those of all the
cells acting in concert cause a constant flow of fluid in a definite direction
over the organ. If we gently scrape the surface of the animal’s tongue,
we can detach some of these ciliated cells; and on examining them with
the microscope in a drop of water, we find that they will contiuue for an
indefinite time their lashing movements, which are just as much living or
vital in their character as the writhings of a worm. And, as I observed
many years ago, these detached cells behave under the influence of a
stimulus just like parts connected with the body, the movements of the
cilia being excited to greater activity by gentle stimulation, and thrown
into a state of temporary inactivity when the irritation was more severe.
Thus each constituent element of our bodies may be regarded as in one
sense an independent living being, though all work together in marvellous
harmony for the good of the body politic. The independent movements
of the white corpuscles outside the body were therefore not astonishing : but
they long remained matters of mere curiosity. Much interest was called to
them by the observation of the German pathologist Cohnheim that in some
26 REPORT—1896.
inflammatory conditions they passed through the pores in the walls of the
finest blood-vessels, and thus escaped into the interstices of the surrounding
tissues. Cohnheim attributed their transit to the pressure of the blood.
But why it was that, though larger than the red corpuscles, and contain-
ing a nucleus which the red ones have not, they alone passed through
the pores of the vessels, or why it was that this emigration of the white
corpuscles occurred abundantly in some inflammations and was absent
in others, was quite unexplained.
These white corpuscles, however, have been invested with extraordi-
nary new interest by the researches of the Russian naturalist and patholo-
gist, Metchnikoff. He observed that, after passing through the walls of
the vessels, they not only crawl about like amebz, but, like them, receive
nutritious materials into their soft bodies and digest them. It is thus that
the effete materials of a tadpole’s tail are got rid of ; so that they play a
most important part in the function of absorption.
But still more interesting observations followed. He found that a
microscopic crustacean, a kind of water-flea, was liable to he infested
by a fungus which had exceedingly sharp-pointed spores. These were
apt to penetrate the coats of the creature’s intestine, and project into
its body-cavity. No sooner did this occur with any spore than it became
surrounded by a group of the cells which are contained in the cavity of
the body and correspond to the white corpuscles of our blood. These
proceeded to attempt to devour the spore; and if they succeeded, in
every such case, the animal was saved from the invasion of the parasite.
But if the spores were more than could be disposed of by the devouring
cells (phagocytes, as Metchnikoff termed them), the water-flea succumbed.
Starting from this fundamental observation, he ascertained that the
microbes of infective diseases are subject to this same process of devouring
and digestion, carried on both by the white corpuscles and by cells that line
the blood-vessels. And by a long series of most beautiful researches he has,
as it appears to me, firmly established the great truth that phagocytosis
is the main defensive means possessed by the living body against the inva-
sions of its microscopic foes. The power of the system to produce anti-
toxic substances to counteract the poisons of microbes is undoubtedly in
its own place of great importance. But in the large class of cases in
which animals are naturally refractory to particular infective diseases the
blood is not found to yield any antitoxic element by which the natural
immunity can be accounted for. Here phagocytosis seems to be the sole
defensive agency. And even in cases in which the serum does possess
antitoxic, or, as it would seem in some cases, germicidal properties, the
bodies of the dead microbes must at last be got rid of by phagocytosis,
and some recent observations would seem to indicate that the useful
elements of the serum may be, in part at least, derived from the digestive
juices of the phagocytes. If ever there was a romantic chapter in
pathology, it has surely been that of the story of phagocytosis.
ADDRESS. PA
I was myself peculiarly interested by these observations of Metchni-
koff’s, because they seemed to me to afford clear explanation of the healing
of wounds by first intention under circumstances before incomprehensible.
Complete primary union was sometimes seen to take place in wounds treated
with water-dressing, that is to say, a piece of wet lint covered with a
layer of oiled-silk to keep it moist. This, though cleanly when applied, was
invariably putrid within twenty-four hours. The layer of blood between the
cut surfaces was thus exposed at the outlet of the wound to a most potent
septic focus. How was it prevented from putrefying, as it would have
done under such influence if, instead of being between divided living
tissues, it had been between plates of glass or other indifferent material ?
Pasteur’s observations pushed the question a step further. It now was,
How were the bacteria of putrefaction kept from propagating in the
decomposable film? Metchnikoff’s phagocytosis supplied the answer.
The blood between the lips of the wound became rapidly peopled with
phagocytes, which kept guard against the putrefactive microbes and
seized them as they endeavoured to enter,
If phagocytosis was ever able to cope with septic microbes in so con-
centrated and intense a form, it could hardly fail to deal effectually with
them in the very mitigated condition in which they are present in the
air. We are thus strongly confirmed in our conclusion that the atmo-
spheric dust may safely be disregarded in our operations : and Metchni-
koff’s researches, while they have illumined the whole pathology of
infective diseases, have beautifully completed the theory of antiseptic
treatment in surgery.
I might have taken equally striking illustrations of my theme from other
departments in which microbes play no part. In fact any attempt to
speak of all that the art of healing has borrowed from science and con-
tributed to it during the past half-century would involve a very extensive
dissertation on pathology and therapeutics. I have culled specimens
from a wide field ; and I only hope that in bringing them before you I
have not overstepped the bounds of what is fitting before a mixed
company. For many of you my remarks can have had little if any
novelty : for others they may perhaps possess some interest as showing
that Medicine is no unworthy ally of the British Association—that, while
her practice is ever more and more based on science, the ceaseless efforts
of her votaries to improve what have been fittingly designated Que
prosunt omnibus artes, are ever adding largely to the sum of abstract
knowledge.
‘te i ed
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- REPORTS |
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
CF iL ORERTST '
Fue May a
Ven TOOT Aas
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EE ———————-_---~
REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
Corresponding Societies.— Report of the Comittee, consisting of
Professor R. MELDOLA (Chairman), Mr. T. V. HOLMES (Secretary),
Mr. Francis GALTON, Sir DotGLas GALTonN, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir JoHn Evans, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, Professor T. G. BonNEy, Mr. W. WuitTaker, Professor
E. B. Poutron, Mr. CuTHBpert PEEK, and Rev. Canon H. B.
TRISTRAM.
Tue Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg
leave to submit the following Report of the Conference held at
Liverpool.
The Council intended to nominate Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., Chairman
of the Liverpool Conference, but, owing to serious illness, Mr. Whitaker
was unable to be present, and Dr. Garson was nominated in his place.
Mr. T. V. Holmes was nominated Secretary to the Conference.
The meetings of the Conference were held in St. George’s Hall, in the
Small Concert Room, on ee September 17, and in the Crown
Court on Tuesday, September 22, at 3.30 p.m. The following Corre-
sponding Societies nominated as delegates to represent them at the Liverpool
meeting :—
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. : William Gray, M.R.1.A.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Alexander Tate, M.Inst.C.E.
Society
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club . ‘ Wm. T. Hindmarsh, F.L.S.
Birmingham Natural History and Philo- Charles Pumphrey.
sophical Society
Bristol Naturalists’ Society : : . Professor 8. Young, F.R.S.
Buchan Field Club . . John Gray, B.Sc.
Burton-on-Trent Natural History and Philip B. Mason, F.L.S.
Archeological Society
Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club . W. W. Watts, M.A., F.G.S.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society , E. W. Small.
Chester Society of Natural Science and Osmund W. Jeffs.
Literature
Chesterfield and Midland Counties Institu- M. H. Mills, F.G.S.
tion of Engineers
REPORT—1896.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club
Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club .
East Kent Natural History Society .
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Societies
Essex Field Club
Federated Institution of Mining Engineers
Glasgow Geological Society .
Glasgow Natural History Society
Glasgow Philosophical Society .
Hampshire Field Club
Hertfordshire Natural History Society
Holmesdale Natural History Club
Treland, Statistical and Social Inqu'‘ry
Society of
Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society
Leeds Geological Association .
Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific
Association .
Leicester Literary and Philosophical
Society
Liverpool Engineering Society . .
Liverpool Geographical Society
Liverpool Geological Society
Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society
Manchester Geographical Society
Manchester Geological Society .
Manchester Microscopical Society 5
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society .
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field
Club
North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society
Perthshire Society of Natural Science
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society .
Scotland, Mining Institute of .
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural
History Society
Tyneside Geographical Society.
Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archzolo-
gists’ Field Club
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union
T. R. Polwhele, F.G.S.
N. M. Richardson.
Professor T. Jchnson, D.Sc.
Henry Coates, F.R.S.E.
A. M. Rodger, M.A.
T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.
M. H. Mills, M.Inst.C.E.
J. Barclay Murdoch.
Professor F. O. Bower, F.R.S.
W. W. Blackie, B.Sc.
Rev. A. G. Joyce.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B.
Miss M. C. Crosfield.
Professor Bastable, M.A.
A. W. Moore, M.A.
Professor P. F. Kendall, F.G.S.
Ilarold Wager, F.L.S.
Montagu Browne, F.L.S.
Arthnr J. Maginnis, M.Inst.N.A.
Horace Walker.
E. Dickson, F.G.S.
Dr. E. Colby, M.A.
Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.
F. W. Hembry.
Clement Reid, F.G.S.
C. E. De Rance, F.G.S.
J. H. Merivale, M.A.
Professor J. W. Carr, M.A.
Sir Robert Pullar.
J. R. Heape.
James Barrowman.
F, T. Elworthy.
G. E. T. Smithson.
Wm. Andrews, F.G.S.
Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
Wm. Cash, F.G.S.
Rev. E. P. Knubley, M.A.
First CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 17, 1896.
The first meeting of the Conference took place in the Crown Court,
adjoining the Reception Room, St. George’s Hall.
The Chairman, Dr. Garson, opened the proceedings by expressing his
regret that serious illness prevented Mr. Whitaker from being present,
though he was glad to be able to add that the latest accounts of ‘him were
that he was progressing satisfactorily. He was pleased to see a larger
number of delegates than usual, as a sign that the connection of the
Corresponding Societies with the British ‘Association was becoming more
ee eee pt i eel
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 33
and more appreciated. He hoped the delegates would attend regularly,
so that they might the better explain to their respective Societies on their
return home the nature of the work in which they were asked to
co-operate.
Mr. George Abbott, M.R.C.S., General Secretary of the South Eastern
Union of Scientific Societies, then read a short paper entitled ‘ District
Unions of Natural History Societies.’ Mr. Abbott remarked that while local
Natural History Societies had done much good work, yet that in many
eases their efforts had been weak, irregular, and desultory. He thought
the chief cause of failure had been want of organisation. A step in the
right direction had been taken by the Unions of Scientific Societies already
existing, such as those of Yorkshire and the East of Scotland, but he
considered that the British Association did not sufliciently foster such
unions. He therefore felt that a plan was necessary which would organise
the local societies under the guidance of the British Association, which
shouid help to bring these unions into being through the agency of an
organising secretary. He submitted the following plan for the consideration
of the Conference :—
Districts—The United Kingdom should be divided into fifteen or
twenty districts, in each of which all Natural History Societies should
be afhliated for mutual aid, counsel, and work. Existing unions should
perhaps be imitated, at any rate not disturbed.
Geographical lines should decide their size, which might vary in extent
and be dependent, in some measure, on railway facilities. From time
to time these areas might be subject to review, and necessary changes
made.
Congress.—Each of such unions would have its annual congress
attended. by delegates and members from its affiliated societies. This
would be held in a fresh town every year, with a new president, somewhat
after the manner of the British Association itself. The congresses would
probably take place in spring, but two should never be held on the same
day.
iohese unions would render important help to local societies, would
bring isolated workers together, assist schools, colleges, and technical
institutes and museums, start new societies, and revive waning ones.
Through these annual meetings local and petty jealousies would Jessen or
turn to friendly rivalries—each society trying to excel in real work,
activity, and good science teaching.
Further, economy of labour would be accomplished by a precise
demarcation of area for each local society. This would be understood as
its sphere of work and influence ; in this portion of country it would
have a certain amount of responsibility in such matters as observation,
research, and vigilance against encroachments on footpaths, commons,
and wayside wastes.
These unions might also, through their Central Committees, bring
about desirable improvements in publication, but it would perhaps not
be desirable, in all cases, to go in for joint publication. In this, as in
other matters connected with the unions, co-operation and not uniformity
must be our aim.
Union Committees.—Each union would need a general secretary and a
committee, all of whom should be intimately acquainted with methods of
work and the best ambitions of local societies.
1896. D
34 REPORT—1896.
Corresponding Members.—This is another necessary development.
Each local society should appoint in every village in its district a corre-
sponding member with some distinctive title, and certain privileges and
advantages.
The work asked of him would be to—
1. Forward surplus Natural History specimens to their Society’s
Museum.
2. Supply prompt information on the following subjects :—
(a) New geological sections.
(b) Details of wells, borings, springs, &c.
(c) Finds of geological and antiquarian interest.
3. Answer such questions as the British Association or the local
society may require.
4. Keep an eye on historic buildings.
5. Assist the Selborne Society in carrying out its objects.
No mean occupation—certainly a useful, attractive, and honourable
post—worthy of any man’s acceptance.
In return he should be offered—
1. Assistance in naming specimens, and with the formation of school
museums.
29. Free admission to lectures and excursions.
3. Copies of transactions.
4. Free use of the Society’s library.
Every village would soon, under this scheme, possess an agent,
registrar, or whatever you like to call him, who would be more and more
able, as he gained experience, to further the aims of this association.
Expenses or Ways and Means.—This cannot be ignored, but would
not form a sufficient barrier to prevent the adoption of the scheme.
The unions would be self-supporting, by means of small contributions
from the affiliated societies. Money is only wanting for the expenses of
an organising secretary. Ido not attempt to estimate the cost of this, but
with objects so desirable and far-reaching in view, the price cannot be
considered excessive, and the British Association would soon be repaid by
obtaining prompt and direct communication with all the towns and
villages in Great Britain, by greater assistance in its research work and
in all other branches which the British Association was established sixty-
five years ago to promote. .
The Chairman was sure that they all felt much obliged to Mr. Abbott
for his paper on this important subject. He invited discussion.
The Rev. E. P. Knubley remarked that he would give briefly the
results of the experience of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union during the
twenty years of its existence. It was, he believed, the largest union of
scientific societies in England, having thirty-six affiliated associations.
There were 500 members and 2,500 associates, making a total of 3,000
workers. He thought they owed much to their geographical position and
to the great variety of rocks, scenery, soil, and climate in Yorkshire. As
to the organisation of the Union, it was based to a considerable extent on
that of the British Association. Their president, a distinguished York-
shireman, was elected annually. There were general secretaries, an
executive of twelve members, and a general committee. Their work
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 35
came under five sections—those of geology, botany, zoology, conchology,
and entomology. In addition, much work was carried on by means of
research committees, which were in direct communication with the British
Association. Eight such committees were then in existence : a Boulder
Committee ; a Sea Coast Erosion Committee ; a Fossil Flora Committee ;
a Geological Photographs Committee ; a Marine Biology Committee ; a
Micro-zoological and Micro-botanical Committee ; a Wild Birds and
Eggs Protection Committee ; and a Mycological Committee. All these
Committees reported annually, and their Reports were presented to the
British Association. An annual meeting of the Union was held in one
of the Yorkshire towns. For excursion purposes Yorkshire was divided
into five parts, and a meeting was held in each of them. One meeting
every year took place on the sea coast. Great care was taken by the
secretaries before each excursion to get all the geological, botanical, and
other information obtainable about the place to be visited, and, when
there, every endeavour was made to get each member to do some special
work. In short, every effort was made to train workers in the various
departments of natural science. It has been found necessary to discourage
the offering of hospitality, on account of the loss of time involved. He
would only add that the success of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union was
largely due to the energy and perseverance of their general secretary,
Mr. W. D. Roebuck.
The Chairman asked Mr. Knubley how many of the Yorkshire
Scientific Associations which were on the list of the Corresponding
Societies of the British Association were also on that of the Yorkshire
Union. Mr. Knubley replied that the Leeds Naturalists’ Club, Leeds
Geological Association, and Malton Naturalists’ Society were affiliated to
the Union, but not the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society, nor
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Mr. M. H. Mills then gave some account of the organisation of the
Federated Institution of Mining Engineers. He said that the rules of the
Federation had been carefully considered by the secretaries and councils
of the various societies composing it, and it had been found that the best
kind of federation was that which touched only the publication of their
papers. ach society did its work independently, as before the existence
of the Federation, but now they had one publication instead of many.
In answer to questions from Sir Douglas Galton, Mr. Mills added that he
thought it would be a good thing that societies doing the same kind of
work should be federated together ; he also stated that members of the
societies composing the Federation paid but one subscription, a portion of
it only being given tu the Federation for printing the publication.
Mr. Montagu Browne gave some details as to the present constitution
of the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society. With regard to
payments for printing, he said that usually each section was self-
supporting, but that in the case of papers of exceptional interest and
expense, the parent society made a special grant, if necessary.
Mr. C. E. De Rance was glad to learn that the Yorkshire Union had
established a Coast Erosion Committee to carry on the work in Yorkshire,
which had been done for so many years by a British Association Com-
mittee for the country generally. As regards Mr. Abbott’s plan, he
fully concurred with him as to the need for an organising secretary,
without whose aid he felt sure that scarcely any federation would be
accomplished. r
D2
36 REPORT—1896.
Mr. W. T. Hindmarsh said that while the Berwickshire Naturalists’
Club had a large area for its field of work, extending not only over
Berwickshire, but over Northumberland, outside Newcastle there was no
large town or University within its boundaries. The district was sparsely
populated, and there was no other Naturalists’ Club in it with which they
could unite.
Mr. J. H. Merivale thought, from some remarks of the last speaker,
that he did not quite realise that federation did not imply the slightest
loss of independence on the part of any local society joining a union.
The great advantage was that the transactions of all the local societies
were to be found in one publication. ,He was certain that if the Natural
History Societies throughout the kingdom would unite as the societies
composing the Federated Mining Engineers had done, the result would
be excellent.
Professor T. Johnson mentioned that in Ireland they had a good:
example of a Union, It comprised four clubs, one in Dublin, another in
Belfast, a third in Cork, and a fourth in Limerick, which combined to
form the Irish Field Club Union. A yearly meeting was held in various
parts of the country, and they had a publication which was common
property—the ‘ Irish Naturalist.’ There was a poll-tax of twopence from
each member to defray the expenses of the Union, and there was a com-
mittee formed of the president and secretaries of the four societies. They
had an arrangement by which a specialist belonging to one club could
have his expenses paid if he lectured to another club. They were also
forming a directory, so that students coming to Ireland would shortly be
able to learn who was working at any given subject and where he might
be found. They made a point of sending their specimens to museums.
In addition, they had short courses of lectures to arouse the interest of
amateurs, with occasional excursions. The Union had been originated by
Mr. Praeger, secretary of the Dublin Club.
In answer to a question from the Chairman, Professor Johnson added
that the fees received from persons attending the lectures were put into a
common fund and used for excursion purposes, the lecturer himself re-
ceiving nothing from the course.
Mr. Eli Sowerbutts thought that while in some respects federation
must commend itself to all, there were some questions of great delicacy
involved in it which made him hesitate to come to any decision at that
meeting. He felt sure that a society would not submit to'be controlled
by another society as regards the publication of its papers. There were
also many other matters needing careful discussion before any decision
could be safely arrived at.
Much discussion then arose as to the possibility of arranging for a
meeting for the further consideration of Mr. Abbott’s paper before the
second meeting of the Conference. In this the Chairman, Sir Douglas
Galton, Professor Johnson, Mr. Abbott, Mr. Watts, Mr. Tate, and others
took part. At length the following motion was proposed by Mr. Abbott,
seconded by the Rev. E. P. Knubley, and carried unanimously :—
‘That Mr. Montagu Browne, Professor Johnson, the Rev. E. P.
Knubley, Mr. Hindmarsh, Mr. W. W. Watts, and Mr. Abbott be nomi-
nated to form a sub-committee (with power to add to their number) to
consider this question, and report to the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies.’
Mr. W. Watts inquired whether anything was being done to preserve
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 37
the publications of the local societies. The Chairman replied that many
pounds had been spent in binding those sent to the British Association
Office, and that it was proposed to index them if funds could be obtained
for that purpose.
The meeting then terminated.
MEETING OF THE SUB-COMMITTEE,
A meeting of the sub-committee was held in the Crown Court on
Monday, September 21. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing and Mr. O. W.
Jeffs were added to the sub-committee.
Report of Sub-committee appointed at Meeting of Delegates of Corre-
sponding Societies, September 17, 1896 (Chairman, Rev. T. R. R.
STEBBING, F.R.S.).
The following resolutions have been unanimously agreed to :—
(1) That Mr. G. Abbott’s paper on ‘District Unions of Natural
History Societies’ be distributed by the Committee of the Corresponding
Societies amongst a// the Natural History Societies in the United King-
dom, with the request that their opinion on the feasibility of the plan
advocated in the paper be communicated as early as possible to the
Corresponding Societies Committee for their report to the next Conference
of Delegates.
(2) That the formation of District Unions of Natural History
Societies is highly desirable, and would be of general advantage.
(3) That the Committee of the Corresponding Societies be requested
to take steps to encourage the formation of District Unions of Natural
History Societies.
(4) That it should be distinctly understood that the formation of
Unions would not in any way prevent the affiliation of individual
Societies of such Unions to the British Association as at present.
LiIvERPOOL, SECOND CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 22, 1896.
The Second Conference was held in the Small Concert Room, St.
George’s Hall, Dr. Garson in the chair.
The Chairman called upon Mr. Abbott to read the Report of the sub-
committee appointed at the last Conference. [Mr, Abbott then read the
resolutions given above. |
Mr. De Rance expressed his satisfaction with the outcome of the Sub-
committee’s deliberation. The more our local societies could combine for
purposes of publication the better. He moved that the Report be
received.
Mr. Hembry seconded the motion.
After some discussion, in which the Chairman, Mr. Sowerbutts, the
Rev. J. O. Bevan, and others took part, the Report was received. Some
further discussion took place as to the adoption of the Report, which was
moved by Mr. Abbott and seconded by Mr. Hembry. The Report was at
length adopted, and a resolution was also passed referring the Report to
the Corresponding Societies Committee.
38 REPORT-—1896.
A delegate having inquired when the next Conference would take
place, the Chairman replied that it would be next year at Toronto.
The following Paper by Professor Flinders Petrie was then read :—
On a Federal Staff for Local Museums.
The present suggestions only affect a distribution of labour, and will
rather economise than require extra expenditure.
In all local museums the main difficulty of the management is that
there is neither money nor work enough fora highly trained and competent
man. It is in any case impossible to get a universal genius who can deal
with every class of object equally well, and hardly any local museum can
afford to pay for a first-class curator on any one subject. These difficulties
are entirely the result of a want of co-operation.
According to the report of the Committee in 1887, there are fifty-six
Ist class, fifty-five 2nd class, sixty-three 3rd class, and thirty 4th class
museums in the kingdom. Setting aside the last two classes as mostly too
poor to pay except for mere caretaking, there are 111 in the other classes ;
and deducting a few of the 1st class museums as being fully provided,
there are 100 museums, all of which endeavour to keep up to the mark by
spending perhaps 30/. to 200/. a year on a curator.
The practical course would seem to be their union, in providing a
federal staff, to circulate for ail purposes requiring skilled knowledge ;
leaving the permanent attention to each place to devolve on a mere
caretaker. If half of these Ist and 2nd class museums combined in
paying 30/. a year each, there would be enough to pay three first-rate
men 500/. a year apiece, and each museum would have a week of atten-
tion in the year from a geologist, and the same from a zoologist and an
archeologist.
The duties of such a stafl’ would be to arrange and label the new
specimens acquired in the past year, taking sometimes a day, or perhaps a
fortnight, at one place ; to advise on alterations and improvements ; tc
recommend purchases required to fill up gaps; to note duplicates and
promote exchanges between museums ; and to deliver a lecture on the
principal novelties of their own subject in the past year. Such visitants,
if well selected, would probably be welcome guests at the houses of some
of those interested in the museum in each place.
The effect at the country museums would be that three times in the
year a visitant would arrive for one of the three sections, would work
everything up to date, stir the local interests by advice and a lecture,
stimulate the caretaker, and: arrange routine work that could be carried
out before the next year’s visit, and yet would rot cost more than having
down three lecturers for the local institution or society, apart from this
work.
To many, perhaps most, museums 30/. for skilled work, and 30/. or
40/. for a caretaker, would be an economy on their present expenditure,
while they would get far better attention. Such a system could not be
suddenly started ; but if there were an official base for it, curators could
interchange work according to their specialities, and as each museum post
fell vacant it might be placed in commission among the best curators in
that district, until by gradual selection the most competent men were
attached to forty or fifty museums to be served in rotation. It is not im-
possible that the highest class of the local museums might be glad to
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 39
subscribe, so as to get special attention on subjects outside of the studies
of their present curators.
The Chairman was sure that the meeting felt much obliged to Professor
Petrie for this very suggestive paper. He hoped that gentlemen
wishing to discuss it would be as brief as possible in their comments, as
they had much business before them.
Mr. W. E. Hoyle said that he had no legal locus standi there, but had
come on the suggestion of the Assistant General Secretary, who had sent
him a copy of Professor Petrie’s paper, and asked him to take part in the
discussion. He hoped no action would be taken in this matter in such a
way as to prevent co-operation with the Museums Association. Professor
Petrie’s scheme seemed to him a most simple and practical one, and he
thought it would be a good thing for those specially interested in it to
confer with the officials of the Museums Association with regard to it.
The chief difficulty which he foresaw in carrying it out was the almost
incredible inertia of museum committees. The Museums Association met
once a year, and everyone who had attended its meetings had admitted
their value in enabling curators to exchange ideas upon all museum
questions. It had been in existence about six years, but hitherto very
few societies had cared to go to the expense of sending their curators to
its meetings. In the museum over which he had the honour to preside
there were four assistant curators who were doing good work. It was
probably not in Professor Petrie’s mind when he drew up his scheme for a
Federal staff. Yet he was quite prepared to urge upon his Committee the
adoption of Professor Petrie’s plan.
Mr. M. H. Mills could testify to the thoroughness with which museum
questions were discussed at meetings of the Museums Association. If his
proposition were in order, he would move that this question be referred to
the Museums Association.
The Chairman thought Mr. Mills’ proposition inadmissible.
Mr. G. Abbott cordially supported Professor Petrie’s suggestions, and
thought that an increase in the number of Unions of Naturalists’ Societies
would greatly tend towards their general adoption.
Mr. N. M. Richardsor did not think there could be any doubt as to
the advantages of Professor Petrie’s scheme, though he was afraid that the
Committee of the Dorset County Museum were hardly in a position to
incur the expense.
Professor Johnson thought it would be a good thing if the Museums
Association could become a Corresponding Society of the British Associa-
tion, so that one or more of its chief officials might be present at discus-
sions of this kind. He had listened with considerable interest to Professor
Petrie’s paper, but he would protest strongly against the suggestion that
the curators of our local museums should be converted into mere care-
takers, as he thought the tendency should be in the opposite direction.
It would be well to urge our local societies to employ as their curator a
specialist of some kind, and to give him a chance of rising above the
position he held at first, rather than to make him feel that he would
always be a mere caretaker dependent wholly on some one who came
down occasionally from some centre of enlightenment. He knew an
admirable curator in the north of Ireland, seventy years of age, and a
specialist in three or four branches, who was then living on a salary of
70. per annum, and had to dust the tables, open the door, and act in
4.0 REPORT—1896.
general as a mere caretaker. This was a disgrace to the great town in
which the museum was situated. Local museums should have a grant of
50/. to 1002, or even 150/. for the payment of specialists.
Professor J. W. Carr was inclined to regret that Professor Petrie’s
paper had not been read before the Museums Association. Mr. Hoyle
(who, like the speaker, was a member of the Council of the Museums
Association) had not mentioned that some years ago a sub-committee was
appointed by that Association to report upon a suggestion much resem-
bling that of Professor Petrie. No definite result had, however, been
arrived at. He thought that if Professor Petrie were now to bring this
paper before the notice of the Museums Association the weight of his
authority might produce more important effects. He regretted the
absence of delegates from the Museums Association to discuss this ques-
tion.
The Chairman remarked that any society might apply to be placed on
the list of Corresponding Societies. He hoped the delegates would give a
full account of this discussion to the societies they represented. He
called upon Professor Petrie to reply.
Professor Petrie said that this was to a great extent a money question.
He did not think that his suggestions necessarily involved additional
expense. He thought it would be better that the money should be divided
between the mere caretaker and the specialists, rather than that an
attempt should be made to combine them by employing one man who
could not posslbly be a specialist on all points. ‘Indeed, those curators
who were more than mere caretakers would by his plan receive a larger
amount of money than before by rendering their services in a number of
places, instead of being confined to one. It would be better to have a
dozen men of science and fifty caretakers than sixty curators, all receiving
a very inadequate salary.
A vote of thanks to Professor Petrie for his paper having been passed,
the Chairman invited remarks from any representatives of the various
sections of the British Association who wished for the co-operation of the
Corresponding Societies in any work.
Section C.
Mr. W. W. Watts said that, though the labours of some of the
Committees nominated by Section C had come to an end, the Geological
Photographs Committee was still in existence. Though much assistance
had been received from Leicestershire and some other places, a very large
area was still unphotographed. The eastern counties had sent very
few photographs. The Erratic Blocks Committee still existed, and their
work was being largely done by the committees of local societies. Some
societies in Yorkshire were doing most admirable work. Those were the
two chief committees of Section C which needed the co-operation of the
local societies.
Mr. C. E. De Rance made some remarks on the labours of the Under-
ground Waters Committee of the British Association. Though the
Committee had ceased to exist, he hoped the delegates of the Corresponding
Societies assembled there would urge on their members to record carefully
in their districts everything bearing on that matter, not only as regards
the geological nature of the strata, but also as to the tempera-
ture of water obtained from considerable depths. As to the Erratic
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Al
Blocks Committee, he wished to point out how much work had been done
in that department by members of the Glacialists’ Association.
Secrion H.
Mr. Sidney Hartland wished to ask for the co-operation of the local
societies in the work of the Ethnographical Survey Committee. Consider-
able progress had been made in the work of the Committee since he had
asked their aid at Ipswich last year. Many measurements of the natives
of Galloway had been taken by Dr. Macgregor. During the present
century the movements of our population had been immensely greater
than in previous centuries. Still there were places where there had been
little change in that respect. As it was the object of the Committee to
acquire a knowledge of the distinguishing characteristics of the various
races of British Isles, it was important that the measurements, &c., of
individuals in any district should be those of persons whose families had
lived there during a considerable period. Dr. Macgregor had accordingly
been careful to select persons whose pedigrees could be traced back a
century or more. He had also collected much of the folklore of the
district. There was no department in which it was more desirable to
have speedy information than that of folklore. Much had been done
with regard to the dialects of the different counties of England by the
publication of the English Dialect Dictionary, but in Scotland and Ireland
there was still much work to be done both in dialect and in folklore.
Education, facilities for railway travelling, and industrial migrations were
rapidly destroying local customs, dialects, and traditions, so that it was
more important that speedy information about them should be obtained
than that there should be an immediate supply of physical measurements.
The historic and prehistoric monuments of a locality should also be noted.
Mr. Hartland concluded by remarking that he would be glad to furnish
any delegates interested in the subject with copies of the Ethnographical
Committee’s Schedules, or with any help in his power.
Mr. John Gray, Buchan Field Club, said that in his district they had
begun to note the physical characteristics of the inhabitants by placing
themselves at the entrance to a field where some sports were being held,
and observing the colour of the eyes and hair, the contour of the nose,
and other characteristics of people entering the field. They also measured
about 200 persons in the grounds, and obtained some very interesting
results. In addition they had obtained measurements, &c., of almost all
the school children of the district.
The Chairman remarked that Mr. Gray’s Society was obtaining
excellent results, and giving an example of the work required. As the
information asked for by the Ethnographic Survey Committee was of so
many different kinds, it appeared to him that the formation of sub-
committees by the local societies would greatly expedite the work. One
sub-committee might confine itself to physical measurements, another to
dialect and folklore, a third to ancient monuments, and so on. Then
photographers were needed for illustrations of people and monuments.
And persons with a turn for history might consider the historical evidence
of continuity of race. Investigations of this kind would at once enrich
the Transactions of a local society, and help the work of the British
Association.
The meeting then adjourned.
REPORT—1896.
42
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70 REPORT—1896.
Calculation of the G (xr, v)-Integrals—Prelininary Report of the
Committee, consisting of Rev. Ropert HarLEy (Chairman), Pro-
fessor A. R. Forsyta (Secretary), Mr. J. W. L. GLaisHEr,
Professor A. LopGer, and Professor Kart PEARSON. (Drawn up by
Professor KARL PEARSON.)
APPENDIX . : . Tables of x-functions, x,, Xx) X53 INA X, - page 75
. . wv ‘° -
Preliminary Report on the Integral G (r, »)=| sin’ v9 dA.
0
l. Tue integral G (7,7) occurs in the determination of frequency
curves and of the probable errors of their constants under the form
e—4”G (r, v), or, what is the same thing, the integral
je cos” 0 e—v8 dé
occurs. The calculation of this integral for the values of r, which most
frequently arise in practice, is for special cases somewhat laborious, and
this much impedes the use of the generalised frequency curves by statisti-
cians and biologists.! It seems desirable, accordingly, to form tables of the
values of the integral for the most usual values of sand». If tan d=r/7,
then r=2 to r=50, and d=0° to ¢=90° are the ranges of values which
experience has shown to be most useful for statistical purposes. For the
same purposes it is not necessary to calculate to a greater degree of
exactitude than 1 in 1,000. Hence, if a table of double entry be formed
proceeding by units from r=1 to r=50, and by degrees from f=0° to
p=90°, intermediate values of 7 and ¢ will be given with sufficient
accuracy by interpolation ; such a table will contain 4,500 entries, and
involves a large amount of labour in its calculation.
The integral G(r, 7) is, however, of considerable interest from the
standpoint of pure mathematics,” and is not unlikely to be required for a
variety of investigations, as it is closely related to the Eulerian integrals.
Hence the formule of this report and the scheme of the proposed tables
are adapted to expansion, should it be found ultimately of service to form
as complete a table for G (7, 1) as exists for T’ (x).
2. The value of the integral may be expressed in terms of Eulerian
integrals with complex arguments (see Forsyth, Quarterly Journal of
Mathematics, 1895). Thus:
2-"r et’T (r+1) ‘
fel ot a9 eer'h GS): S
(0ST ica Grel443) Aad Re
Bie UT. é amv a 1 ; (ii )
r+] Bbrt+l—hui,gr¢ lg hry © 7
Since e 47” is the mid-value of sind e”®, it is very roughly proportional
to the value of G(r,v), and accordingly e—#” G(r, )=F (7,1) will be
found to change more uniformly and gradually than G (7,1), and as this
1 See a paper on ‘Skew Variation in Homogeneous Material,’ Phil. Trans.,
vol. 186 A, pp. 377-380. A further memoir on the probable errors of frequency
constants also largely involves the values of G (7, v).
2 Professor Klein, I am told, has drawn the attention of his students to G (7, vy
in unpublished lectures, and has suggested to them its fuller consideration.
ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 71
is the quantity actually required in statistical problems, it is F (7, v),
which will be tabulated. Interpolation between two values of F (7, 1)
gives better results for G(r, v) than direct interpolation between two
values of G(r, v).
It has been shown by Lipschitz (Cre//e : Bd. 56, S. 20) that the well-
known expansion in terms of Bernoulli’s numbers for log T (7 +1) still
holds when is a complex quantity ; the remainder after B2,,_1 is
- Bom+1 1 -
Li !
ae") (2m+1)(2m+2) n2m+1 Co
where « and «’ are both less than unity.
We can accordingly use this expansion to obtain a semi-convergent
series for F (r, 1).
log F (7, v)=log 27 —r+ 1 log 2+log I (r+1)—log T (47 +1--$17)
—log [ (4r+1+4+ $77).
Let r=2 § cos $, v=2/ sin ¢, and let the [’-function terms be calculated
separately. isis
log T (r+1)=log / 27+(r+4) logr—r
Bom+1 1
S a m
staat (2m+1)(2m+4+2) x2m+1’
log C (474+1—43ri)=log T (fse— +1)
=log V 27+(Be- +4) (log B—ip) —e-*#
Bp 1 ,
4+9(—1)" 2m+1 (2m+1) ip
ES )"Gm+1) (2m+2) Bema?
and
log T ($7 +1+4 }1i)=log I (Ge#+1)
=log J 27+ (Be*+4) (log +i) —Be'*
m Bom 1 1 —(2m t
SP stare ly (PIT at
F (r+1) na
LD ($r+1—$12) C($r+14+422)
—log / 2x—log V7 + log (cos g)"+1+4 79 tan ¢
+(1+7r) log 2
Bom 1 1
+S(—1)” (2m +1) (m2) p2m+l
a — 92m+2 egg 2m+1 cos amelie),
Let x (7, 6)=4 (the Bernoulli number series in this expansion),
en:
Hence : log
log F (7,1)=log co bie? +log (cos ¢)"+1+7r9 tan ¢+ 2x (7, ¢),
or,
EF (7, v)=e-i G(r, v)
=. / 2 (cos ¢)"+1erbt2x(%d) . ‘ . (iii-)
i
Here:
X(e.= P44) 00) 4 (aye rman. Gr)
72 REPORT—1896.
= Bom41
(2m + 1) (2m+ 2)
and the series will be semi-convergent, if 7 >2, as it always is in statistical
problems. Throughout m is tobesummed for all integer values from 0 to
co, and the logarithms are to Napier’s base.
The results (iii.) and (iv.) allow us to calculate F (7,1) and G (7, v) to
any degree of accuracy that may be required. If we stop at the m term
in x (7, #) then the error in the value of y (7, ¢) will be less than
where X2m+1 (¢) {(5)?" +? — cos?” +1 @ cos (2m+1) 9},
(—1)n X2m41 (o)
(fr)2m+1 j
Now, it is easy to show that although y2»41() has several maxima
given by
sr
®= 3 (m+)
where s is an integer, still its absolutely greatest numerical value is given
by ¢=0, and it is then equal to
Bom4i
ee (ante
2m +1) (2m+2) (I=) )
Thus, if we stop the calculation of x (7, ”) at the m term, we shall not:
make an error + or — in its value so great as
Bom+1 ee eel
(2m+1)(2m+ 2) (dr)2m+1
We accordingly obtain the following system of the maximum errors
possible when we stop at successive terms in x (7,7):
Term stopped at : Ist 2nd 3rd
Error less than: + °0625000/(4r) +-0026042/(4r)? +-0007812/(47)°.
Term stopped at : 4th 5th 6th
Error less than : +£-0005929/(3r)7_ +-0008409/(3r)9 +-0019171/(4r)".
Term stopped at : 7th 8th 9th
Error less than :. +-0064099/(47r)!3 +-0295499/(4r)! +-1796437/(4r)"7,
Term stopped at : 10th
Error less than: +1-3933926 /(4r)!9.
Now, if r=2, we ought to stop at x; to get the closest result from our
semi-convergent series. We shall then make an error of less than 6 in
the 10,000. Such a result is generally close enough for statistical
practice, but is hardly sufficient for the purposes of pure mathematics.
However, if we start with r=4, and proceed only to the fourth term,
X7 we should obtain results only showing error in the sixth place of
decimals. If we calculate y (7, v) up to yo, we have an error less than
‘000002 for r=4, and less errors for larger values of 7. Finally, if we
limit ourselves to values of r= or < 6, we shall find that by proceeding to y,
only we have errors of. less than -0000003 in our results. As the tables
of logarithms and trigonometrical functions in general use do not go
beyond seven figures, it does not seem necessary for practical purposes to
go beyond x, in the calculation of the y-functions. If we, then, start
our tables with r=6, we shall obtain results for x (7, ») certainly correct to
ON CALCULATION OF THE G (1, v)-INTEGRALS. 73
the sixth figure. The earlier portion of the table may then be calculated
from the formula of reduction :
Bop cc Us 2 ig aie ,
CCl carircays Thee z eee)
and the entire tables will then be correct to the sixth place.
3. It may be observed that the formula (iv.) is of considerable signifi-
cance. It is quite independent of the nature of 7, whether fractional or
integer, and thus shows that there is no abrupt change in the value of
G (r,») when we pass from integer to fractional values. 1t thus justifies
interpolation between integer values of vr, in order to find the value of
the function for x fractional. It might be supposed, if for statistical
purposes it is sufticiently accurate to interpolate between integer values
of r, and as G(r, v) is directly integrable in a terminable series ' when
is integer, that to use this latter series would be the readiest means of
calculating tables of G(r,v). But this is far from being the case, and for
the following reasons :
(i.) We have always as many terms to calculate as in finding x (7, 9),
and often many more.
(ii.) These terms are not the same for all values of ¢, and must be
calculated afresh for each pair of values of ¢ and 7; 2.¢., they cannot be
broken up into ¢-factors and r-factors, and the former and latter calculated
independently and once for all.
Hence, even when 7 is an integer the calculation of G (7, 1) proceeds
best by aid of the x-functions.
4. The process of calculation has accordingly been the following :—
(a) The calculation of a table of y-functions from x, to x; for values
of » from 0° to 90°. This table will be found at the end of this paper, and,
until the complete tables of F (7, ) are ready, will enable the value of
F (r, v) for any value of r and » to be found with a fairly small amount
of labour.
(6) Very considerable progress has been made with the calculation of
F(r, v) from the x-functions for selected values of 7. It is proposed to
fill in the gaps by means of the reduction formula (v.). A test of the
accuracy of the calculations will thus be obtained by the agreement of the
directly calculated values with those obtained by reduction from the last
directly calculated value.
The arithmetic has proved much more laborious than was at all
anticipated at the start. It was originally undertaken by Mr. H. J.
Harris, assistant to Professor M. J. M. Hill at University College,
London, but the whole of the calculations have been again and indepen-
dently worked out by members of the Department of Applied Mathemat‘cs
in that College.
5. It seems desirable to illustrate the method of calculation, and to
show, in one case at any rate, the degree of accuracy obtainable by inter-
polating between integer values of 7 and values of ¢ proceeding by
degrees.
Let it be required to calculate F(r, v), when r=9°35 and r=3-51133.
Tt will be found that ¢=20° 35’, and hence, when the tables are com-
pleted, it will be necessary to interpolate between r=9 and 10 and ¢=20°
1 By expressing sin "@ in cosines or sines of multiple angles.
74 REPORT—1896.
and 21°. The values of x might be taken at once from our table, but the
method of calculation is illustrated by calculating them ab initio. The
following are the logarithmic values of the y’s to base 10 :—
log x, =2-9208188 + log (:250000— cos ¢ cos @)
log x3=3°4436975 + log (062500 — cos * cos 3)
log x;= 48996294 + log (:015625—cos *@ cos 59)
log y;=4'7746907 + log (:003906,(25)—cos “¢ cos 7).
These are obtained by inserting the values of the Bernoulli numbers.! In
the case of the trigonometrical quantity in the argument of the last
logarithm being greater than the numerical constant, care must be taken
to make the corresponding x negative.
We find
= 20° o=21° = 20° 35! =20° 35’
By [ater- Direct
polation Calculation
xX, — 052752 — 051798 —°052196 —-052200
x3 —000979 —-000852 —-000905 —-000905
x, +°000113 +-000158 +:000139 +-000140
X7 +°000297 + 000311 +:000305 -+-000306
x (9, 20°9)=— 0117119 x (9, 21°) =—-0115013 x (9°35, 20° 35’)
x (10, 20°)=—-0105425 x (10, 21°) =—-0103527 ~ = —-011157
F (9, 20°)=1°374821 (9, 21°) = 1-456858
F (10, 20°)=1-394909 F(10, 21°) = 1-488643 F (9-35, 20° 35’)
F (9°35, 20° 35/’) =1-429911
35 is oD by direct
265 91)° “N29 “9 y airec
=F (9, 20°) +5" (-082037) + = (-020088) Pa pecs 4
=1:429707 by interpolation.
Thus we see that if tables of F (7, »), proceeding by units and degrees,
are calculated, the value of F (9°35, 20° 35’), as found by interpolation
from the tables or direct calculation, would only differ by two units in the
fifth place of figures. Such a degree of approximation is more than
sufficient for practical purposes in statistics. Had we used values of the
x’s correct to the seventh place of figures and used second differences, our
results would have agreed to the sixth place of figures. Should this not
suffice for the more exact purposes of pure mathematics, our table would
still serve as a skeleton to be filled in at smaller intervals of the
variables, when necessity arises.
So far as the value of F (7, ¢) we have selected is concerned, x; and x;
contribute no sensible portion up to the sixth place of decimals. They
have been included above, however, to indicate how their values for
1 Higher values of x are given by
log x= 4°9251836 + log (-000976(56) — cos ° cos 99)
log x), = 3°2827414 + log (-000244(14) —cos "9 cos 11)
log x), = 3°8068754 + log (:000061(04) — cos '¥p cos 139)
log x,, = 2°4705670 + log (-000015(26)—cos'°9 cos 15¢)
log x,,= 1:2544136 + log (-000003(82) — cos "p cos 17)
log X,,= °1440741+ log (-000000(96) — cos *p cos 19).
Still higher values of x may be found almost exactly from
2 2n
Xan+1= — (Bx jansa 08 2n+1h cos (2n+ 1).
ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 75
@=20° 35’ are sensibly identical with those obtained by interpola-
tion from a table of y’s proceeding by degrees. The tables of the
x-functions will thus, till the F(r, ») tables are completed, save a great
deal of calculation in the finding of any series of y-functions ; the inter-
polated values must then be substituted in equation (iv.) to find x (7, 9),
and this value substituted in (iii.) will give F (rv, 7). It will be found that
this needs only a moderate amount of arithmetic, but if it nas to be done
for a considerable number of frequency curves, the statistician may still
reasonably demand the completion of the F (7, 7) tables themselves.
APPENDIX.
Tables of x-functions (x1) X39 X51 and x7):
These tables have been calculated by Miss A. Lee, Mr. G. U. Yule,
Dr. C. E. Cullis, and Mr. Karl Pearson, and the independent values
thus obtained used for the verification and correction of the tables
originally provided by Mr. H. F. Harris.
The figures in brackets will generally only be required to determine
the accurate seventh figure in the value of the y-function or its differences.
The differences in the higher values of y have been found by calculating
x to eleven figures and then dropping the last two. On this account it
will be found that the tabulated differences do not in the bracketed figures
always agree in the last place with the results obtained by subtracting
the tabulated y’s.
Two differences will always suffice to calculate y3, x;, and y, to seven
places, and even with x, two differences will very rarely give a unit error
in the last place of figures, while the use of the third difference would
amply suftice for all seven places.
TABLE OF VALUES OF y.
% log (4X1) X1 Ay As
o
0 2°7958800 —-0625000(00) = --
1 2°7957037 — -0624746(30) + 253(70) =
2 2°7951742 —-0623985(00) + 761(30) + 507(60)
3 2-7942911 — ‘0622717(57) + 1267(43) + 606(13)
4 27930532 —-0620945(14) + 1772(48) +505(00)
5 2-7914590 —+0618670(00) + 2275(14) + 502(71)
6 27895066 —-0615894(84) + 2775(16) + 500(02)
7 27871935 —:0612623(30) + 3271(54) + 496(38)
8 27845168 —-0608859(00) + 38764(30) +492(76) -
9 27814731 —+0604607(00) + 4252(00) + 487(70)
10 27780586 —+0599872(00) + °4735(00) + 483(00)
11 27742688 —-0594660(14) + 5211(86) +476(86)
12 27700986 —-0588977(27) + 5682(87) +471(01)
13 2°7655426 — -0582831(00) + 6146(27) + 463(40)
14 27605945 —0576228(13) + 6602(87) + 456(60)
15 27552476 —-056917 7(40) + 7050(73) +447(86)
16 27494942 —-0561686(64) + 7490(76) + 440(03)
17 2°7433260 — -0553765(50) + 7921(14) + 430(38)
18 27367341 —-0545423(75) + 8341(75) + 420(61)
19 2-7297083 —+0536671(25) + 8752(50) + 410(75)
20 27222378 —*0527518(61) + 9152(64) + 400(14)
76
REPORT—-1896.
TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued.
p log (+ x1) x1
°
21 27143105 —°'0517977(00)
22 2-7059136 —-0508058(35 )
23 2 6970325 —°0497774(35)
24 2°6876518 —-0487137(80)
25 26677543 — ‘0476161(54)
26 26673213 — '0464859(11)
27 2-6563320 — -0453244(00)
28 2-6447639 —°0441330(40)
29 26325919 —°0429133(00)
30 2°6197888 —'0416666(77)
31 26063238 —*0403946(47)
32 2°5921635 — ‘0390988(09)
33 25772700 — -0377806(95)
34 2-5616016 —-0364419(50)
35 2-5451113 —‘0350841(81)
36 2-5277464 --°0337090(39)
37 25094475 —-0323182(22)
38 24901470 —-0309134(14)
39 24697679 —-0294963(27)
40 24482220 — *0280686(85)
41 2°4254073 — ‘0266322(12)
42 24012056 —‘0251886(87)
43 2-3754780 — °0237398(54)
44 23480610 — -0222874(82)
45 2-3187588 —-0208333(40)
46 2-2873356 —-0193791(90)
47 2-2535031 —-0179268(12)
48 wis 2169040 —°0164779(84)
49 21770877 —:0150344(60)
50 2:1334748 —0135979(94)
51 2:0853029 —°01217038(45)
52 2-0315400 —-0107532(57)
53 39707394 —:0093484(50)
54 39007836 — '0079576(27)
55 38183905 ~—°'0065824(95)
56 3-7180635 — -0052247(25)
57. 35894999 —-0038859(74)
58 34095729 —-0025678(69)
59 31044934 —-0012720(19)
60 —oo 0
61 30957397 +:0012466(36)
62 B+3920585 + 0024663(72)
63 35632104 + °0036577(19)
64 36829775 + :0048192(28)
65 3°T744793 + °0059494(84)
66 3°8480110 + °0070471(10)
67 3°9090619 + 0081107(67)
68 39609062 + 0091391(60)
69 2-0056538 + 0101310(38)
70 20447430 + °0110851(87)
71 2°0791975 + °0120004(50)
72 21997712 + °0128757(12)
73 2°1370343 +°0137099(00)
74 21614281 + -0145020(07)
75 '2-1833000 +°0152510(60)
76 2-2029282 + °0159561(55)
{ith 2-2205374 +°0166164(19)
78 2-2363121 + °0172310(64)
Ai
+ 9541(61)
+ 9918(65)
+ 10284(00)
+ 10636(55)
+ 10976(26)
+11302(43)
+11615(11)
+11913(60)
+ 12197(40)
+ 12466(23)
12720(30)
+12958(38)
+13181(14)
+ 13387(45)
+13577(69)
+13751(42)
+ 13908(17)
+ 14048(08)
+ 14170(87)
+ 14276(42)
+ 14364(73)
+ 14435(25)
+ 14488(33)
+14523(72)
+14541(42)
+ 14541(50)
+ 14523(78)
+ 14488(28)
“+ 14435(24)
+ 14364(66)
+ 14276(49)
+14170(88)
+ 14048(07)
+ 13908(23)
+13751(32)
+13577(70)
+ 13387(51)
+ 13181(05)
+12958(50)
+12720(19)
+ 12466(36)
+12197(36)
+11913(47)
+ 11615(09)
+11302(56)
+ 10976(26)
+ 10636(57)
+ 10283(93)
9918(78)
9541(49)
9152(63)
8752(62)
$341(88)
7921(07)
7490(53)
7050(95)
6692(64)
6146(45)
++
tettti+s
Ae
+ 888(97)
+377(04)
+365(35)
+ 352(55)
+339(71)
+ 326(17)
+312(68)
+ 298(49)
«+ 283(80)
+ 268(83)
+ 254(07)
+ 238(08)
+ 222(76)
+ 206(31)
+190(24)
+173(73)
+ 156(75)
+139(91)
+122(79)
+105(55)
+ 88(31)
+ 70(52)
+ 53(08)
+ 35(39)
+ 17(70)
+ (08)
— 17(72)
— 35(50)
— 53(04)
— 70(58)
— 88(17)
—105(61)
—122(81)
—139(84)
— 156(91)
—173(62) |
—190(19)
— 206(46)
—222(55)
— 238(31)
— 253(83)
—269(00)
—283(89)
— 298(38)
—812(53)
—326(30)
—339(69)
— 352(64)
—365(15)
—377(29)
—388(86)
— 400(01)
—410(74)
— 420(81)
— 430(54)
— 439(58)
—448(31)
— 456(19)
——EO EEO
ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. i i
TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued.
$ log (+ x1) x1 | Ay Ae
°
79 22504036 +:0177993(30) + 5682(66) —463(79)
80 2°2629380 + °0183205(25) + 5211(95) —470(71)
81 22740198 + 0187940(26) + 4735(01) —476(94)
82 2+2837362 +°0192192(40) + 4252(14) — 482(87)
83 22921598 + 0195956(54) + 3764(14) —488(00)
84 22993508 +°0199228(28) | + 3271(69) —492(45)
85 2°3053584 +°0202003(23) | + 2775(00) —496(69)
86 23102225 + 0204278(42) + 2275(19) —499(81)
87 23139744 + 0206050(84) + 1772(42) —502(77)
88 2°3166378 + 0207318(33) + 1267(49) —504(93)
89 2-3182293 + 0208079(48) + 761(15) —506(34)
90 2-3187588 = | + 0208333(43) + 253(85) —507(30)
TABLE OF VALUES OF x3
p log (+xs) Xs Ai Ay
A |
i) 3°4156688 — 0026041 (67) — _
1 B-4148216 —-0025990(91) + 50(76) _
2 34122765 — ‘0025839(05) + 151(86) +101(10)
3 34080198 — -0025587(02) + 252(03) +100(17)
4 34020305 —+0025236(58) + 350(44) + 98(41)
5 33942768 — 0024790(02) + 446(56) + 96(12)
6 33847176 —+0024250(33) + 539(69) + 93(13)
7 3'3732999 —-0023621(09) + -«6 2924) + 89(55)
8 B°3599580 —-0022906(46) + 714(63) + 85(39)
9 33446110 —-0022111(13) + 795(33) + 80(70)
10 3°3271611 — ‘0021240(32) + 870(81) + 75(48)
11 33074892 —-0020299(68) + 940(64) + 69(83)
12 B 2854513 —-0019295(29) + 1004(39) + 63(75)
13 32608723 —-0018233(60) = + 1061(69) + 57(30)
14 32335381 —°0017121(35) +1112(25) + 50(56)
15 3°2031839 — -0015965(55) + 1155/80) + 43(55)
16 31694793 — '0014773(36) +1192(19) + 36(39)
17 3°1320082 —-0013552(15) 4 1221(21) + 29(02)
18 30902342 — °0012309(32) + 1242(83) + 21(62)
19 30434528 —0011052(30) +1257(02) + 14(19)
20 4°9907133 —‘0009788(46) + 1263(84) + 6(82)
21 #'9307004 —-0008525(12) +1263(34) = (60)
22 48614987 —-0007269(40) +1255(72) — 4%(62)
23 4°7801902 —+-0006028(23) + 1241(17) — 14(55)
24 46819914 —-0004808(30) + 1219(93) — 21(23)
25 45582220 —*0003615(95) +1192(35) — 27(58)
26 #3904405 —-0002457(20) +1158(75) — 33(60)
27 1263481 —+0001337(67) + 1119(53) — 39(22)
28 54191943 — *0000262(54) + 1075(14) — 44(39)
29 58827886 + -0000763(46) + 1026(00) — 49(14)
30 F-2395775 +-0001736(11) + 972(65) — 53(35)
31 4°4235223 + 0002651(69) + 915(58) — 57(07)
32 45449269 | + °0003507(01) + 855(32) — 60(26)
33 #6324118 + 0004299(44) + 792(43) — 62(89)
34 4°7012995 + °V005026(89) + 727(45) — 65(02)
35 4°7549475 + 0005687(84) + 660(95) ~ 66(50)
36 #7980501 + °0006281(31) + 593(47) — 67(48)
37 ¥-8329471 +°0006806(86) | + 625(55) — 67(91)
78 REPORT—1896,
TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued.
$ log (+xs) Xs At Ae
°
38 4°8612122 + °0007264(61) + 457(74) — 67(81)
39 4°8839544 + °0007655(16) + 390(55) — 67(19)
40 4:9019828 + °0007979(63) + 324(47) — 66(08)
41 4°9159058 + *0008239(59) + 259(96) — 64(51)
42 49261915 + °0008437(07) + 197(48) — 62(49)
43 4°9332071 +°0008574(47) + 137(40) — 60(08)
44 4°9372466 +°0008654(59) + 80(13) — 57(27)
45 49385475 + ‘0008680(56) + 25(96) — 54 (16)
46 4°9373057 + °0008655(77) — 24(79) — 60(75)
AT 49336844 + 0008583(89) — 71(88) — 47(09)
48 49278214 + °0008468(79) — 115(10) — 43(23)
49 4°9198345 + °0008314(47) — 154(32) — 39(22)
50 4:9098275 +°0008125(08) — 189(89) — 35(07)
51 4°8978917 + °0007904(81) — 220(26) |; — 380(87)
52 4°8841103 + °0007657(91) — 246(90) |; — 26(64)
53 4°8685611 + °0007388(58) — 269(33) | — 22(42)
54 4°8513188 +:0007100(99) — 287(59) | — 18(26)
55 4°8324575 + -0006799(20) — 301(79) | — 14(20)
56 48120529 +°0006487(13) — 312(06) | — 10(27)
57 4°7901839 +0006168(56) — 318(57) — 6(61)
58 4.7669366 +°0005847(05) — 321(51) | — °2(94)
59 47424064 +°0005525(94) | — 8217010) | + (41)
60 47166988 +°0005208(33) | — 317(61) | + 8(50)
61 46899344 +°0004897(05) | — 311(29) | +. 6(32)
62 46622497 + °0004594(62) | — 802(43) | + 8(87)
63 46338018 + 0004303: 30) =— 291(382) 9) +) 111)
64 46047677 + 0004025(02) — 278(29) | + 13(03)
65 4°5753491 +-0603761(40) | — 263(62) | + 14(67)
66 4°5457711 +:0003513(75) | — 247(64) + 15(98)
67 4°5162823 + 0003283(09) | — 230(67) + 16(98)
68 4°4871534 4 :0003070(11) | — 212(98) + 17(69)
69 4°4586715 + °0002875(22) | 194(88) + 18(10)
70 44311341 +:0002698(57) | — 176(65) | + 18(28)
71 4:4048397 | +°0002540(03) |= — 158(54) | + 18(11)
72 4°3800749 + °0002399(25) — 140(79) | + 17(75)
73 4°3571014 +°0002275(63) — 123(62) + 17(17)
74 43361417 +°0002168(41) — 107(22) + 16(40)
75 4'3173648 +°0002076(64) — 91(76) / + 15(46)
76 4'3008735 | + °0001999(28) = SRI) | grt eae)
Dis 42867038 +°0001935(10) — 64(18) | + 13019)
78 4°2748163 +°0001882(85) — 52(25) | + 11(93)
79 4°2651037 | +°0001841(21) — 41(64) + 10(61)
80 42573990 | +°0001808(83) | — 82738) | + 9(26)
81 42514896 | + °0001784(39) | — 24(45) | + 798)
82 4 2471302 | + °0001766(57) | — 17(82) + 6(63)
83 42440616 +°0001754(13) — 12¢43) | + 5(88)
84 4'2420230 | + 000174591) — §8(22 + 4(21)
85 4°2407665 +:°0001740(87) - 504) + 3(€7)
86 4°2400676 +°0001738(07) — 2(80) + 2(24)
87 42397333 + °0001736(73) — 1(84) + 1(46)
88 42396084 +'0001736(23) - (50) + (84)
89 42395795 +-0001736(12) = (12) + (88)
90 4°2395775 +:°0001736(11) = (1) + (11)
()
WOONAAPWHEHO OC
ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.
log (Xs) Xs
4 8927900 —‘0007812(50)
4°8907716 —°0007776(28)
4°8846906 —‘0007668(15)
48744634 —+-0007489(68)
4°8599470 —°0007243(47)
4°8409266 —0006933(09)
48171020 —-0006562(99)
4°7880613 —0006138(49)
4°7532440 —°0005665(57)
47118821 —-0005150(89)
4°6629054 — '0004601(56)
4°6047756 — *0004025(09)
4°5351936 —‘0003429(21)
4°4505186 —°0002821(75)
4:3444970 —'0002210(53)
F-2049877 —+-0001603(20)
4-0030767 —-0001007(11)
36326875 —+-0000429(23)
30934494 +0000124(01)
58107272 +-0000646(74)
40545335 + 0001133(79)
4:1988645 + *0001580(75)
4°2975411 + 0001984(00)
4-3693484 + °0002340(71)
4°4230728 + *0002648(94)
44635286 + -0002907(56)
4-4936239 +°0003116(19)
4°5152802 +°0003275(52)
4°5297595 +°0003386(57)
4°5379822 + °0003451(30)
4°5405975 + *0003472(14)
45381198 +0003452(39)
4°5308763 + °0003395(29)
4°5191401 + °0003304(76)
4-5030997 + °0003184(93)
4°4828826 +°0003040(06)
4:-4585690 + ‘0002874(54)
4:4301924 + °0002692(73)
4°3977466 +°0002498(89)
4°'3611876 + °0002297(14)
4-3204315 +°0002091(37)
4:°2753479 +°0001885(16)
4°2257891 +°0001681(86)
4°1715210 +°0001484(30)
4°1122697 + 000129500)
40476919 ++0001116(07)
3 °9773563 + °0000949(20)
39007216 +°0000795(65)
5°8171055 +- (0000656(30)
3°7256634 + 0000531(70)
5 6251809 +°0000421(87)
3°5149314 + -0000326(76)
5°3907754 +-0000245(91)
B-2519153 +0000178(61)
30934494 + °0000124(01)
69088385 + 0000081(07)
6°6871147 + 0000048(65)
64978385 + °0000025(58)
TABLE OF VALUES OF x;.
79
Ai Ao
+ 36(22) =
+ 108(13) +71(90)
+178(47) +70(34)
+ 246(21) +67(74)
4310(39) + 64(18)
+370(09) +59(70)
+ 424(51) +54(42)
+472(91) + 58(40)
_ -+514(69) 4+41(78)
+ 549(32) +34(64)
+576(47) +27(15)
4+ 395(88) +19(41)
+ 607(46) +11(87)
+611(22) + 3(76)
+607(33) — 3(88)
+596(09) —11(24)
+ 577(88) —18(21)
+553(23) — 24(64)
+ 522(73) —30(51)
+487(06) —35(67)
+ 446(96) — 40(09)
+ 403(24) — 43(72)
+356(72) — 46(53)
+ 308(23) — 48(49)
+258(62) —49(61)
+ 208(63) —49(99)
+ 159(33) —49(30)
+111(05) —48(28)
+ 64(73) —46(31)
+ 20(85) ~ 43(88)
— 19(75) —40(60)
— 57(10) —37(35)
— 90(53) —33(42)
—119(83) —29(30)
— 144(87) — 25(04)
~165(52) ~20(65)
—181(82) —16(30)
—193(84) ~12(02)
—201(75) = Wok)
—205(77) — 4(02)
— 206(21) — (45)
—203(30) + 2091)
—197(56) + 5(74)
~189(30) + 8(26)
—178(93) +10(37)
~166(87) +12(05)
—153(55) +13(33)
—139(34) + 14(20)
—124(61) +14(74)
—109(82) +14(78)
— 96(11) + 14(71)
— 80(85) +14(26)
— 67(30) +13(56)
— 54(61) + 12(69)
— 42(94) +11(66)
— 32(41) + 10(53)
— 23(08) + 9(34)
80 REPORT—1896.
TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—<continued.
p log (4X5) Xs Ai Ao
°
58 6 0243944 +°0000010(58) — 15(00) + 8(08)
59 73896300 + 0000002(45) — 8(13) + 6(87)
60 —c 0 — 2(45) + 5(67)
61 73196347 + 0000002(09) + 2(09) + 4(54)
62 78844716 + 0000007(66) + 5(58) + 3(49)
63 61980458 +0000015(78) + 8(11) + 2(54)
64 64079975 + °0000025(59) + 9(81) + 1(69)
65 65606390 + 0000036(36) + 10(78) + (97)
66 66766617 + 0000047(50) + 11(14) + (36)
67 676715435 + °0000058(50) + 11(00) = (3)
68 68387661 + 0000068(99) + 10(49) = 62)
69 68959488 + 0000078(70) + 9(71) = SCTE)
70 69416395 + '0000087(43) + 8(73) — (98)
71 69781301 + 0000095(09) + 1%(66) — 1(07)
72 50070832 + *0000101(64) + 6(56) = 10
73 50298592 + *0000107(12) + 5(47) — 1(08)
74 30475559 + 0000111(57) + 4(46) — 1(02)
75 3 -0610926 +0000115(10) + 8(53) — (92)
76 50712481 + 0000117(83) + 2(72) = ((8t)
47 5-0786911 +-0000119(86) + 1(04) — (69)
78 30839956 + 0000121(34) + 2(47) — (56)
79 B-0876523 + -0000122(36) + 1(03) = (a)
80 B 0900732 + 0000123(05) + (68) — (34)
81 5-0916043 + -0000123(48) + (48) — (25)
82 30925156 + -0000123(74) + (26) = “ID
83 3 -0930207 + 00001 23(89) + Sees =+ (13
84 50932759 ++0000123(96) +2 pte 22 X0g
85 50933903 + 0000123(99) + (03) — (04)
86 5 -0934338 + 0000124(00) + (01) —- (02)
87 50934466 +-0000124(01) + (00) — (01)
88 50934492 + 0000124(0) ) + (00) — (00)
89 50934493 + -0000124(01) + (00) = GD
90 50934494 + °0000124(01) + (00) = (00)
TABLE OF VALUES OF x;.
C7) log (+x7) x7 Ai Ae
te}
0 4°7729909 —°0005929(13) -— _
1 47692636 —-0005878(46) + 50(67) =
2 4°7579831 -- 0005727(74) + 150(72) +100(06)
3 4-7388346 —-0005480(68) +247(05) + 96(33)
4 4-7112524 —-0005143(42) +337(26) + 90(20)
5 4 6743324 — -0004724(24) +419(18) + 81(92)
6 46266854 — -0004233(36) + 490(88) + 71(70)
7 45661551 —-0003682(60) + 550(76) + 59(87)
8 4°4892611 — °0003085(04) + 597(56) + 46(81)
9 4°3899824 —-0002454(61) + 630(43) + 32(87)
10 4°2566463 —°0001805(70) +648(91) + 18(47)
11 4-0617321 —-0001152(74) + 652(96) + 4(05)
12 37073862 —-0000509(78) + 642(96) — 10(00)
13 50408812 + 0000109(87) +619(65) — 23(30)
14 8413740 + -0000694(02) +584(15) ~— 35(50)
15 40905690 + '0001231(88) + 537(86) — 46(29)
16 4-2340881 + 9001714(30) + 482(42) — 55(44)
ON CALCULATION OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.
TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued.
1896
$ log (4X7) x7
°
ilv4 4°3291940 + '0002134(00)
18 4°3954352 + °'0002485(62)
19 4°4418311 + °0002765(87)
20 4°4732548 + °0002973(41)
21 4°4926043 + '0003108(88)
22 45017047 + 0003174(71)
23 4°5017357 + °0003174(94)
24 44934603 + 0003115(02)
25 4°4773422 + °0003001(53)
26 4°4536153 + 0002841(94)
27 44223126 + °0002644(32)
28 43832747 + *0002416(99)
29 43361339 + °0002168(37)
30 4°2802643 + '0001906(62)
31 4:2147019 +°0001639(46)
32 4°1379807 + 000137398)
33 #0478425 + -0001116(46)
34 59406535 + °0000872(27)
35 58101146 + °0000645(82)
36 56439284 + °0000440(48)
37 54126451 +°0000258(61)
38 50068700 + -0000101(59)
39 4783225 —-0000030(08)
40 51359447 —°0000136(75)
41 53413499 —°0000219(46)
2 54468500 — -0000279(80)
43 55049463 — -0000319(85)
44 55340041 —'00003841(98)
45 55425420 —‘0000348(77)
46 55351259 —-0000342(87)
aT 3'5143971 —-0000326(89)
48 34819215 — -0000303(33)
49 54385785 —*0000274(52)
50 3°3847545 —*0000242(52)
51 9°3204121 —°0000209(13)
52 32450869 —-0000175(83)
53 51577914 —-9000143(81)
54 5-0567973 —-0000113(97)
55 69391658 — ‘0000086(93)
56 67997191 —-0000063(05)
57 6-6284650 ~-0000042(51)
58 64025971 — -0000025(27)
59 60486660 —-0000011(19)
60 —o 0
61 7-9350331 +°0000008(61)
62 61762223 + -0000015(00)
63 6°2911520 +°0000019(55)
64 6°3542091 + °0000022(60)
65 6°3891777 + *0000024(50)
66 6 °4070609 +°0000025(53)
67 6°4140706 + ‘0000025(95)
68 64141831 + 0000025(95)
69 4101432 + 0000025(71)
70 4039127 + *0000025(35)
71 6 °3968830 + °0000024(94)
72 6°3900030 + 0000024(55)
73 63838549 + °0000024(20)
74 6°3787363 + -0000023(92)
81
At 42
+ 419(69) — 62(73)
+ 351(62) — 68(07)
+ 280(24) — 71(38)
+ 207(54) — 72(70)
+ 135(47) — 72(07)
+ 65(83) — 69(64)
+ (23) — 65(61)
— 59(92) — 60(15)
—113(49) — 53(56)
-- 159(58) — 46(10)
—197(62) — 38(04)
— 227(33) — 29(71)
— 248(62) — 21(28)
--261(75) = 19G04)
—267(16) — 5(40)
— 265(48) + 1067)
—257(52) + 7(96)
—244(18) + 13(34)
—226(45) + 17(73)
— 205(34) + 21(11)
-. 181(87) + 23(47)
—157(02) + 24(86)
—131(68) + 25(34)
— 106(67) + 25(00)
— 82(70) + 23(97)
— 60(34) + 22(36)
— 39(95) + 20(40)
— 22(13) + 17(81)
— 6(79) + 15(34)
+ 5(90) + 12(69)
+ 15°98) + 10(07)
+ 23(55) OL)
+ 28(81) + 5(26)
+ 32(00) + 3(19)
+ 33(40) + 1(40)
+ 33(30) =r yr Gn)
+ 32(02) — 1(28)
+ 29(84) — 2(18)
+ 27(04) — 2(80)
+ 23(87) — 3(17)
+ 20(55) — 8(33)
+ 17(24) — 38(31)
+ 14(08) — 3(15)
+ 11(19) — 2(90)
+ 8(61) — 2(57)
+ 6(39) Eni 9690)
+ 4(54) — 1(85)
+ 38(05) — 1(49)
+ 1(90) =a TGLG)
+ 1(03) — (87)
+ (41) — (61)
EM (:) wet Mat ay
— (24) — (2%)
=the) =a
er 8) Lea ic
ao) ee COl)
(Se) 4+ (05)
— (28) + (06)
G
82 REPORT—1896.
TABLE OF VALUES OF x,—continued.
p | log (+x7) X7 Ay As
| ° |
by 75 63747265 | + 0000023(70) — (22 | + (06)
76 63717581 +-0000022(54) | — (16) | + (06)
77 63696785 + '0000023(42) —- (11) + (05) |
| | 78 63683035 + 0000023(35) — (07) + (04)
79 63674469 + °0000023(30) — OS) +) (8)
80 | 6:3669474 | + 0000023(28) — (03) +) (02
Sie | 6°3666778 + °0000023(26) —- (1) + (OL)
82 63665439 + 0000023(26) — (01) +) (OD)
83 6 3664842 +°00009232(25) — (00) + (00)
84 6°3664609 + °0000023(25) — (00) + (00)
85 G°3KG1532 + °0000023(25) = 8(00) + (00)
86 6 3664512 +°0000923(25) — (00) + (00)
87 63664508 + *0000023(25) — 1(00) + (00)
$8 63664508 + °0000023( 25) — (00) a (00)
80) 6 3664508 + °0000023(25) — (00) + (00)
6 + + (00)
90 | 63664508
“0000028(25) — (00)
On the Establishment of w National Physical Laboratory.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Sir DouGias Gatton (Chairman),
Lord RayueicH, Lord Ketyin, Sir H. E. Roscor, Professors
A. W. Ricker, R. B. Ciirron, CarEy Foster, A. SCHUSTER,
and W. EK. Ayrton, Dr. W. Anperson, Dr. T. E. THorpe,
Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. R. T. Guazesroox, and Professor
O. J. LopGE (Secretary).
APPENDIX.—On the Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt . " e « page 86
At the Ipswich Meeting of the British Association held in September
1895 the Committee were reappointed for the purpose of reporting on ‘ the
establishment of a National Physical Laboratory for the more accurate
determination of physical constants, and for other quantitative research,
and to confer with the Council of the Association.’
It will be convenient in the first place briefly to enumerate the present
facilities afforded by the Government, by educational establishments, and
by private societies for aiding research in Great Britain, independently of
that direct aid which Government Departments are continually furnishing
for their own purposes.
The most direct sources of aid given to research are the 4,000/. a year
given by the Government for research purposes and administered by the
Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society ; the Donation Fund
of the Royal Society derived from its surplus income ; the contributions
made to research by the British Association ; the investigations carried
on.at the Royal Institution which afford magnificent examples of private
munificence in aiding science ; the City and Guilds of London Institute ;
the Royal Commission of the Exhibition of 1851, which devotes 6,000/. a
year to research scholarships ; research committees of various scientific
societies ; the Clarendon Laboratory at the University of Oxford and
the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge ; the laboratories at Glasgow,
Edinburgh, and Aberdeen ; the Victoria University ; and the larger
Colleges not yet incorporated into universities. |
The facilities which the laboratories of the Universities and of the
ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY, 3
University Colleges afford for research are much reduced by the large
demands usually made upon the time and energy of the Professor and the
staff for elementary teaching. Nor is a thorough appreciation of the
essential connection between research and all higher scientific education
so widely diffused in England as it is in Germany, in the United States,
and elsewhere.
Tt must be manifest that the cure for this latter evil is not to be
found in the establishment of a National Laboratory, but in such a
change of public opinion as will make it possible to reproduce in England
the conditions which have long obtained elsewhere. It is to be hoped
that the research work now conducted at educational establishments in
this country will largely increase in the future. We should earnestly
deprecate any divorce between higher teaching and investigation, and
should regard anything tending in that direction as a retrograde step.
There are, however, investigations of particular types which have
been recognised both in this country and abroad as lying outside the
range of effort possible either to an individual or to a great teaching
institution.
These may be divided into three principal classes, viz.—
(1) The observations of natural phenomena, the study of which must be
prolonged through periods of time longer than the average duration of life ;
(2) The testing and verification of instruments for physical investi-
gation, and the preservation of standards for reference ; and
(3) The systematic accurate determination of physical constants and
of numerical data which may be useful either for scientific or industrial
purposes.
A laboratory for such purposes would aid and would not compete with
laboratories maintained by individuals or institutions for more general
physical research, and the reasons for establishing it as a National Insti-
tution are much of the same kind as those for maintaining a National
Astronomical Observatory.
If England is to keep pace with other countries in scientific progress,
it is essential that such an institution should be provided ; and this can
scarcely be maintained continuously on an adequate scale, except as a
national laboratory supported mainly by Government.
In a paper read at Ipswich on the Reichsanstalt, it was suggested
that the Kew Observatory might be extended so as to afford a satisfac-
tory nucleus for a national physical laboratory.
The Kew Observatory, endowed by the late Mr. Gassiot with an
income that is now somewhat less than 500/. a year, is under the control
and management of an unpaid committee appointed by the Council of
the Royal Society. It is the central observatory of the Meteorological
Office, from which it receives 400/. a year ; and it has gradually become
an important standardising institution, as well as a recognised base station
for observations in meteorology and terrestrial magnetism. Its gross
income from these various sources is now somewhat less than 3,000/. a year ;
but the greater part of this is derived from testing fees, and is almost
entirely absorbed in working expenses. The Observatory is, however, at
the present time in a thoroughly sound financial position.
The building of the Observatory! stands in the Old Deer Park at
1 See the ‘ History of Kew Observatory,’ by Mr. R. H. Scott, in Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 1885, vol. xxxix. pp 27 86
G2
84 . REPORT—1896.
Richmond, and is the property of the Government, from whom the Com-
mittee hold it at a small rent. They have latterly been permitted to add
about five acres to their holding.
The work of the Observatory is very varied, but may be roughly
divided into
(1) Routine observation—magnetic, meteorological, and solar.
(2) Experimental work connected with the routine observations and
research work generally.
(3) Standardising of between thirty and forty different kinds of
instruments, whose number in the gross amounted to 23,000 last year.
The general heads under which most of these instruments fall are
(a) Thermometers of all kinds.
(5) Barometers, anemometers, and all sorts of meteorological apparatus.
(c) Theodolites, sextants, artificial horizons, compasses, and telescopes.
(d) Watches and chronometers.
(e) Photographic lenses.
Particulars will be found in the annual reports, printed in the
‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society.’.
The present work of the Observatory is therefore of a character which
is strictly consistent with a large portion of the work which would find
a place in a national physical laboratory.
Having thus briefly shown what the Kew Observatory now performs,
it will be convenient to consider what would be—
(a) The function which a national laboratory should fulfil.
(6) The system which should be adopted for its control and management.
(a) Functions.—In addition to the special research work, the scope of
which we have already partially indicated, the work of the proposed
institution would include an extension of certain branches of work now
performed by the Kew Observatory. This work has now for its object
the verification of standards for instruments of utility in scientific investi-
gation, but it hardly attempts investigation into the properties of the
materials of which they are, or should be, composed. An enlargement
of this work to its proper extent would in the case of many delicate
standards relieve British investigators from their present dependence
upon foreign laboratories. Indeed, in the prosecution of research the
necessity for accurate standards is being daily more and more felt. This
class of work, as recognised in the Reichsanstalt, comprises, not only com-
parisons of length, weight, capacity, gravity, sound, light, &c., but varia-
tions of conditions due to temperature, vibrations, or other causes, as well
as quality of materials in regard to their uses. It is a class of work.
which is not touched by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade,
for this department is restricted by Act of Parliament to the work of
making standards of length, weight, and capacity, and of such electrical
quantities as may be of use for trade.
(6) Management.—The present form of government of the Kew
Observatory affords a basis upon which the management of the extended
laboratories might be safely founded. The present government is by a
paid superintendent, who is controlled by an unpaid committee appointed
under the Council of the Royal Society. The Committee consists of the
eading authorities on the special subjects which form the present work
ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY 85
of the laboratory, and they lay down the general lines on which investi-
gations are to goon. It would appear to be desirable that the government
of the enlarged Institution should be in the hands of a Committee
appointed either as now by the Royal Society alone or in conjunction
with one or more of the chief scientific bodies in the country. But it is
to be hoped that in addition to this Council of Advice the immediate
executive and initiative power would vest in a paid chief or Director of
the utmost eminence attainable. Unless such an appointment were
made, either an altogether unfair amount of work would be thrown upon
some members of the governing committee, of the institution would fail
to rise to the highest usefulness.
The present accommodation at Kew Observatory is quite insufficient
for the proposed extension of its work ; and to carry out the idea suggested
will require increased space, increased buildings, and increased staff.
There would probably be no difficulty in obtaining from the Govern-
ment an extension of space out of the park at Richmond ; but the pro-
posal would entail an expenditure of money for new buildings. It would
be unfortunate if such expenditure had to be taken from the small fund
which Parliament allots to scientific research under the Royal Society, but
there can be little doubt that when a satisfactory scheme has been
elaborated it will not be unreasonable to ask the Government to assist
in providing the necessary buildings.
Additions to buildings require much consideration, and, therefore, as
a preliminary to any action a small committee might be asked to draw up
a detailed scheme, with the aid of an architect, for an extension of Kew
Observatory, having regard to the site and to utilising the present
erections upon it.
Since it is difficult to foresee the direction in which a rapidly growing
subject like Physics may develop, it is probably wisest to begin with
buildings of an adaptable and not too elaborate character, and to stock
them with but a moderate supply of the best available apparatus. In
such a subject as Physics a large annual maintenance grant is more
useful than an extravagant initial equipment which might speedily
become antiquated. We would suggest to those whose business it may
be hereafter to approach the Government that some such sum as 20,0000.
or 25,0007. would serve to erect a building sufficient for all immediate
necessities, and that posterity may be left to increase it as need arises.
A sum of 5,000/. would provide a fair amount of initial instrumental
equipment of a permanent kind, and the rest should be met out of an
annual grant.
The commercial testing department may be considered self-supporting,
but for secular research and the determination of constants considerable
expense would be entailed. This would fall under the heads of salaries,
new apparatus, maintenance, warming, lighting, and taxes.
We propose that the head of this National Laboratory should receive
1,200/. a year, and we estimate that an annual grant, in addition to the
sum at present expended, of 5,000/. per annum, and an initial expenditure
of 30,0007. for buildings and equipment, would do all that is essential to
carry out the scheme in a wise and worthy manner.
86 REPORT—1896.
APPENDIX.
PHYSIKALISCH-TECHNISCHE REICHSANSTALT.
I. Department (Physical).
Marks.
1. Value of land (originally presented by W. S. ae asi : 500,000
2, Buildings, &c.:(a@) Laboratory building . i . 387,000
(b) Engine house , : - : 50,000
(c) Administrat building : < - 100,000
(d) President’s house. . : . Be ee
(e) Gardens, drainage, kc. . : -, Oei2
(f) Paving adjacent streets . , 5 30,274
(g) Accumulator house . : : 5 8,500
685.000
3. Furniture, &c., for (a), (6), and (c) s 5 F c . . 68,000
4. Machines, engines, apparatus of allsorts . ; . ; - 82,310
IT. Department (Technical).
Marks.
1. Value of land. . 4 s ; 5 373,106
2, Buildings: (a) Principal laboratory building - - 922,000
(d) Smaller ditto : - . 218,000
(c) Engine house oo - - - 180,000
(d) House for officials . F Fi é - 140,000
(e) Additional structures, kc. . 4 . 348,000
1,808,000
In budget 1895-96 reduced by . ; 5 47,500
—=-—— * 1760;500
3. Furniture, &c., for these buildings ‘ ; A 5 , 5 81,000
4. Engines, machines, instruments, &c. . - A : 6 0 363,690
3,904,106
In round numbers—£200,000 sterling capital expenditure.
Yearly Expenses.
. Personal: Salaries, remunerations, &c. ¥ 172,557
a Repairs to buildings, cost of administration, experimental work . 115,000
287,000
In round numbers —£15,000 sterling a year.
Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientifie Societies’ Publications —
Report of the Committee, consisting q of Professor Sitvanus P.
THompson (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Bryan, Dr. C. V. Burton,
Mr. R. T. GLazEsroox, Professor A. W. RUCKER, Dr. G. JoHn-
STONE Sroney, Mr. James SwINBURNE (Secretary).
Your Committee has prepared a circular for distribution to the various
learned societies and academies, pointing out the desirability of all pro-
ceedings and transactions being issued in one or other of the standard
sizes recommended in the British Association report of last year.
Upon the printing and postage of this circular, which will be dis-
tributed early in the winter session, the balance of the Association’s
grant will be expended.
A proposal having been made by the Council of the Royal Society last
year to change the sizes of its ‘Proceedings’ and ‘ Transactions’ to royal
8vo, thus not only spoiling the historic continuity of its publications, but
UNIFORMITY OF SIZE OF PAGES OF SOCIETIES’ PUBLICATIONS. 87
departing from the already existing uniformity of the majority of British
publications, the Chairman of your Committee addressed a remonstrance
against the taking of such a step. Happily any further action was
rendered needless by the resolve of the Council not to persist in the
suggested change.
Of the publications which at the present time depart from the
standard sizes proposed in the report of last year, the most important are
the ‘Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften’ and the
‘ Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei,’ which cannot be bound with
either quarto or octavo publications of the ordinary size.
Your Committee desires reappointment without further grant.
Comparison of Magnetic Instruments.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. W. RUCKER (Chairman), Mr. W. Watson
(Secretary), Professor A. SCHUSTER, and Professor H. H. 'TuRNER,
appointed to confer with the Astronomer Royal and the Superin-
tendents of other Observatories with reference to the Comparison
of Magnetic Standards with a view of carrying out such Com-
parison.
Tue work of comparing the magnetic instruments in the different mag-
netic observatories of the United Kingdom was carried out by Professor
Ricker and Mr. Watson during the summer of 1895.
Unfortunately, however, nothing could be done at Greenwich. The
peculiar form of the declination needle in use there makes it impossible
to place another instrument on the same site. A good deal of iron and
a dynamo (carefully shielded by a triple iron case) have recently been
introduced into the Observatory, and it is doubtful whether, if another
position were chosen in the Observatory grounds, the differences measured
might not include some errors due to the presence of these causes of
magnetic disturbance.
The authorities of the Observatory hope that it may be possible to
arrange for the establishment of a new magnetic Observatory in the
Park, and it is most desirable that when this is done the instruments in
use at Greenwich and at Kew should be compared.
The work of the Committee has therefore been limited to the com-
parison of the Kew standards with the instruments in use at Falmouth,
Stonyhurst, and Valentia. The Committee have learned with mych regret
that the magnetic observations at Valentia have now been discontinued.
The extreme westerly position of that station makes it one of the most
important in Europe for determining the relation between the rate of
secular change and geographical position. It is much to be desired that
funds may be forthcoming by means of which the work may be resumed
and placed on a more permanent footing.
The work of the Falmouth Observatory is also hampered by want of
funds. Other buildings are now being erected near to it, and the
purchase of a small plot of land, to maintain the isolation which is
desirable, is an urgent need. The vertical force-recording instrument
has never worked properly, and appears to want expensive alterations.
The observations made by the superintendent, Mr. E. Kitto, are of a
very high order of excellence, and it is to be hoped that the Royal
Cornwall Polytechnic Society, by which the Observatory was founded,
88 REPORT—1896.
will be able to ensure the maintenance of the magnetic observations
under the best conditions.
The instruments used in the comparisons which have been carried out:
are magnetometer No. 70, by Messrs. Elliott Brothers, and dip circle
No. 94, by Dover. They had been used in the recent magnetic survey
of the United Kingdom, and are indicated hereafter, as in the published
account of that survey, by the letter S.
They were in the first place compared again with the Kew standards
at Kew by Professor Riicker. Some changes had been made in No. 70,
so that the differences with Kew are not strictly comparable with those
which have previously been published. In the case of the dip circle the
results were in satisfactory accord with earlier measurements.
The method of comparison of the instruments was altered, so as to
diminish the risk of error from variation in the zeros of the self-recording
instruments. To this end alternate sets of observations were made with
the instruments to be compared at short intervals on the same day, so
that the zero lines of the self-recording instruments, by which these
observations were reduced to the same time, could not have appreciably
altered (see ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1896, 188, p. 11).
After the instruments had been compared with those used in the
other observatories they were brought back to Kew, and a similar set of
comparisons to that above described Were made, chiefly by Mr. Watson.
The results of the two sets of experiments are entered in the following
tables.
As it was desirable to show that the Kew standard instruments
gave normal results when used hy Professor Riicker and Mr. Watson,
observations were made with them by the Observatory officials on days
near those on which the comparisons were carried out, and the readings
for the zero lines of the self-registering instruments were determined so
as to serve as a check on the corresponding values obtained when the
survey instruments were compared with the standards. These observa-
tions are indicated by an asterisk.
The most convenient way of making the comparison is as follows :—
Let Cy) and C be the readings of the self-registering instruments at:
the time when the value of the element was determined by the Kew
standard (K) and No. 70 (S’) respectively. Then K—C,)=Z,) and
8’—C=Z are the values of the zero line of the self-registering instrument
according to the two observations. But if the observation with No. 70
had been made at the same instant as that with the Kew standard, and if
the zero line remained unaltered in the interval which actually occurred
between the two experiments, the simultaneous values of the element
given by the two instruments would have been K and S8=8’+C,)—C.
“. K—S=K—C,—(8’—C)=Z)—Z.
On October 12 the self-registering instruments at Kew were disturbed,
owing to some work which was being done in the room in which they are
placed.
The Astronomer Royal was therefore good enough to supply us with
the values of the elements given by the Greenwich instruments at the
time of our observations at Kew, and by using these instead of Cy and C
the proper allowance for diurnal variation and disturbance could be
made.
In the following tables the number of whole degrees in the values of
Z, ana Z is omitted :—
Oa SS
ON COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS 89
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Kew Standard Instrument.
Declination. Observer : Professor Ricker.
Date Time ir ie Declination O Bane S'-C=Z E re
H. M. ° Ul / U , ee
July 6* |12295| K 17 251 | 544 | (307) | — is
fee i210} K 21:3 | 500 | 313 pet
3 16 13 12 S 21°3 49:2 — 32:1 —0'8
op ol KD 14 45 K 20°3 50°1 30°2 — —
a LG 15 2 S 20°7 49°5 -— 31-2 —10
my LG 15 54 K 18°5 48:0 30°5 | _
cy all 16 36 S 19-0 47-5 —_ 31:5 —1:0
yy es 16 20 K 18°4 47-0 (31:4) —_
ely 11 42 K 22°2 515 30°7 — =
20 13 9 S 22°8 51:7 — 311 —0-4
Pe 1091-49 |. K 21-1 51:0 | 301 a a
ose.) 19 565. |:58 240 | 52:3 eae 31-7 —16
ee | 144} gs 23-4 | 52-0 ve 30-4
ee 15 2 K 218 51:0 30°8 — +04
pea) | 1230|.. K 250 | 531 | (319) | — =
Mean 5 — — — — 30°6 313 —07
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Kew Standard Instrument.
Declination. Observers: Professor Ritcker and Mr. Watson.
Date Time ole Declination oe. valle S'-C=Z i see
H. M. (e} Li ' fi f !
Oct. 5* 12 32 K 17 201 50:2 (29:9) _— —
oases |i¢ 9| °K 139 | 470 | (319) | — pe
ay ee Tae 5 K 21:9 50°9 31:0
Hs 9 11 40 S 21°8 51:0 — 30:8 +02
nee LO 10 41 K 156 43:7 319
we 0 Il 27 S 18:2 46:7 — 315 +04
“4, Maat 15 44 K 18:3 48-1 30°2 —
ee LL 16 0 5 18°6 48-0 — 30°6 —O-+4
a 2 10 54 8 18°6 3 17°3
we 2 12 43 K 21:7 5:2 16°5 —_ —0°8
i 2be 12 29 K 18°7 49°0 (29:7) — —
Mean — — — — — — -—O1
In the case of the horizontal force the two necessary observations—
the vibration and the deflection—are indicated by the letters V and D.
If H’ be the value of the horizontal force deduced from these observa-
tions, and if » and y are the total increments of the horizontal force due
to diurnal variation and disturbance at the time when the deflection and
vibration experiments are made,
H=H'—(9+¥)/2
If C, and C, are the curve readings of the self-registering instrument
at these times,
H+¢=Z+C,, H+V=Z+4, ;
Hythe pre zips 1+Cy
90 REPORT—1896.
Hence the difference between the uncorrected value of the force, taken
without reference to diurnal variation, &c., and the mean of the curve
readings at the times of the two observations gives the reading corre-
sponding to the zero line of the instrument.
If, then, we write K and 8’ for H’, and C, and C for the correspond-
ing means of the curve readings, we have as before :
K=Z,+C), S'=Z+C;
~.Z) —Z=K—C,—(S8’—C).
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Kew Standard Instrument.
Horizontal Force. Observer: Professor RUcKeEr,
i} |
Instrument ol | ’ e =
Date | Time and’ elie FEL Curve rina Me priaaa T hy ed =
Giectention urve x10 x16 Z,—Z=pB
H. M. | | |
July 18] 12 4 | KV) 0:18280 | 0-18180) | 018196 +84 ia
m4 14 89) =k DJ | 0-18213 J - | 000010
< 12s37t\. SiaVi) 018290 | 018200) | 018196 +94) |
_ 15 0 Ss Ds 0718193 f |
ss 1550 | KD) 0:18292 | 0-18206) | 018208 +84 | ee
z 1632 | K VJ | Q18211 f 000000
x tient |e eS) aD) 018295 | 0-18207 018211 +84) |
: 17°38) US “Vif o-isaic} | |
July 20} 1232 | KV) 0:18289 | 018200) | 018204 +85
¥ 1539 | kK Df 0:18208 f +0°00007
* 1335 | S V) 0-18282 | 018209) | 018204 Werrene
= 14 44 § Df | 0718200 f ; | —0:00013
3 1646 | KD) 018286 | 0-18220) | O-lg221 +65 )
e 1729 | KV} | 0°18222 j
July 22] 16 0 | K ra. 0°18301 | 018230) | 0-18298 +73
. 1636 | KD 018227 j |
= 17235 | 78°) 0:18297 | 0-18221) | 018290 +77 | —0-00004
18°07). |L oS 018219 j
| —
Mean . _— _ | _ — — — — —0°00004
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Kew Standard Instrument.
Horizontal Force. Observers: Professor Ricker and Mr. Watson.
| Instrument } / <7 5 |
Date Time and | H Curve ne K—G,—2,8 aCe Le
Observation | urve | x10 | x10 io —L=B
| |
H. M | |
Oct 9 14 14 K V | 0718256 0°18190 ) 018195 +61
_ 14 52 K D 0718200 f
Oct. 10) 1224 | K D) 018178) |
a 15 30) K Vj 018263 | 0:18200- | 018189 +74 —
a 15 56 J 018200) | |
ss 14 18 S$ D) 0°18286 0°18193 ) 0°18196 | +90 | —0°00016
te 14 51 s vf 018199) |
* 16 18) Si) Vi). 018283 018206) | 018200 +83 —0°00022
A 14 18) s D) 0718193 )
Oct. 12 ELC Saal iat = Balak Yh | 018290 0°18200 ) 0718203 +87 —0°00018
Re 11 51 Ss Dj 0°18206 5 |
= 13 14 K V) 018296 0718223) | 0718227 +69 |
¥ 14 52 K Dj 0718232; |
x 14 10 IN AT 0718288 0.18212 ) 0718222 +66 —
‘s 14 52 K Dieu | 0°18232j | |
Re 1151 } S D} | 0°18300 0718206 ) 0718216 | +84 —0:00018
= 15 46 Ss Vj 0°18227 f
|
|
Mean . — _ | — — } -—— — | — —0°00018
As no observation was made with No. 70 on October 9, and as the
earlier observations on October 10 were arranged so that the experiments
a
ON COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS. 91
with No. 70 were interpolated between those made with the Kew instru-
ment, that with No. 70 on October 9 has been combined with the second
result obtained on October 10 with the Kew instrument.
These observations indicate that a small change took place in mag-
netometer No. 70 during the journeys to the other observatories. The
differences are not very great, and if we take the mean of the results
obtained in July and October, viz. — 0':4, for the difference in declination,
and —0-00011 for that in horizontal force, the final results will only be
affected with an uncertainty of +0'-3 and +0-00007 respectively.
In the case of the dip observations, experiments were either made
with each instrument alternately, or so that the mean time of two
observations made with one instrument was nearly the same as the mean
time of two corresponding observations made with the other. In this
way the effects of diurnal variation, &c., were nearly eliminated. We also,
however, determined the dip at the time of each observation from the
self-registering records of the horizontal and vertical force.
Comparison of Dip Circle, Dover, No. 94 with the Kew Standard.
Observers: Professor RickER and Mr. Watson.
k=c=7,
Instru- SSS SSS S'-—C=Z
' Date Time |ment and) Dip Curve (C) | Needle
Needle
1 2 3 4
H. M. ° ' ° ,
July 14 12 6 S 3 | 67 266 | 67 25:9 = +0°7 —
r+ 12 42 Kl 23°8 255 | —1"°7 — —- _
a 13 16 S84 23°7 24-7 — =— — —1"0
‘a 14 46 K 2 23°2 24°9 == —l'7 —
a 15 16 $3 22°8 24:3 — —1'5 23
i 1545| K1 24-9 ED ame =
% 16 21 84 23:7 24-7 = — —1'0
a 16 48 K2 | 2171 24:3 — = BID —— ARs
July 25 11 38 K1 24:9 25°2 || —O"3 — —
A 12 14 S83 22°6 24-6 = = —2'0 —
a 12 34 S4 23:7 24-7 = — ai. —1"0
A 12 55 K 2 23'8 24-7 — —0"9 = -—-
Mean = —0'5 | —1"9 | —0"9 | —1"0
4 ——__ —— —_F —— |
(K—-S=-—0"3) — —1''2 —0''9
H. M. f e) U
October9 | 15 29 $3 67 24:4 | 67 25:2 — — —0'8 ae
: _ 15 55 Ke 20:8 24-7 | —2'"4 — = —
Octoberll | 10 39 K, 2 iy 23°2 25°4 —- —2'-2 — —_—
“4 ll 24 8S 4 24:0 25:3 — — — —1'3
+ 1l 51 Scan 23:7 25:0 — — —1'3 —_—
* 12-22 K 1 209 24-7 | —3'8 — — _—
ee 14 2 KL 22:3 23°8 | —1%5 — — —
ar 14 33 8 4 22:0 24:0 == — —2"0
9 14 51 Seo 21:7 23°5 — _— —L "8 _
“i 15 20 Ko 2 21°5 23-7 — —2'2 —
Mean — —2'6 | —2'2 | —1'3 | —1°6
——_-—— —\—_—_-_———"
(K-S= -0'9) ee aBtea 15
92 REPORT—1896.
The means of six experiments made in July by the first method with
No. 94, and of a like number with the Kew instrument, were 67° 23’°8 and
67° 23/6, so that the average result with No. 94 was 0'2 higher.
The means of five experiments with each instrument in October were
67° 23'-2 with No. 94 and 67° 22/0 with the Kew standard, so that the
difference had apparently increased bya minute. It will be seen from the
above table that these results do not differ much from those obtained
when the comparison was made with the recording instruments, and that
therefore the method by which they were obtained, which was perforce
adopted at Falmouth, Stonyhurst, and Valentia, is sufficiently good for
the purpose in view.
In the table each needle is treated separately. The mean of the
two differences obtained in July and October, viz.: B=—0O'6, is in
close accord with the values obtained in February and October, 1892,
when No. 94 was last compared with Kew. They were —0'*4 and —0'5
respectively.
Summing up the results obtained at Kew we get the following table :—
wt K-S=8
Declination . C A —O0"4
Horizontal Force . , —0:00011 (C.G.8.)
Dip. ‘ : : ° —0'6
Falmouth Observatory.
The observations at Falmouth were made by Professor Riicker, using
the survey instruments, and by the superintendent, Mr. E. Kitto, who used
the Falmouth instruments.
On the first day Professor Riicker also used the Falmouth magneto-
meter to make sure that no personal equation of importance affected the
results.
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Instrument used in the
Falmouth Observatory. . Declination.
Instru- | |
Date Time | mentand | Declination | Carve F—C=Z,S'—C=Z | t-B- fo=8
Observer | ae) | wy
. : Or, 7, ° ! ! | Ul '
August 6 ) aes sf nhs ce 1853°7 | 1849-9 | 3:8) 4.5 a
be 1033/ F R| 564 Bia idea | 4 ol deo
55 153 Sie aetst alii | 57°8 53:7 | — | aaf
August7 |10 6| F K |} 530 48°5 | 45 7 +02
a 1214; S R UO ie2, 56:9 | — 4:3 | 3;
August 8 OM52))) KG 18 49°6 45:0 | 46 = 0-2
. 125375 98) 4B 58-0 536 | — sa} x
August 9 952) F K 525 48:0 | 4:5 — v1
5 12° 01.8: iB 577 521 | — 56} ee
August 10 | 958) F K 52°2 44-9 | 7-3 — 1-9
= 1237| S BR 59-4 B20 — sat :
August 12 9°53.) EF .K 50:7 44-7 | 6-0 — 1:0
a 1243| S R 57-0 52:0 | — oar =
Mean . -- — | = — |— — +0"4
ON COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS. 93
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Instrument used in the
Falmouth Observatory. Horizontal Force.
Instrument = (he Kg
Date Time and H Curve ween. Pe 8 x10" | é Sai
Observation A
iN | |
H. M. |
Aug. 6] 10 56 FV = 0718572 _— —_ _ +0'00003
a 12 43 FD 0718545 018569 0718571 —26
cA 13 24 FD 0°18537 | 0718560 0°18566 —29 |
i 11 24 F zh 0718578 )
Pe 12 0 FD 0718554 0°18578 | 0°18578 (—44]
5 15 22 8 bt 0°18594 )
- 16 22 sD 0°18555 0°18578; | 0°18586 _ —31
Aug. 7 10 44 EF bf 0718519 0718541 ) 0718542 —23
Fe 11 32 FD 0718543 f } 6
a 12 27 s ut 0°18520 | 018549) | 0°18549 —_ —29
ss 13 15 sD 018549 }
Aug. 8 he 3% FV } 0718521 0718542 } 0718545 —24
© 11 49 FD 0718548 13
i 12 50 iS) ai 0°18523 0°18564 ) 0°18565 - -37
4 13 34 sD 0°18566 J
Aug. 9 10 45 F a 0°18536 018558 ) 018553 -17
‘J aay FD 0°18548 j | 9
os ll 44 Ss yi 0718529 | 0°18555) | 018557 —- —28
As 12 50 sD 0718559 | |
Aug. 10} 10 55 FV 018468 | 0°18490) | 0718492 —24
x 11 43 Fr p} 018494 f | 6
ea 12 50 SV 018487 | 0718514) | 018517 — —30
as 13 31 Ss p} 0°18521
Aug. 12} 10 53 FV 0°18500 | 0°18519) | 0°18525 —25
a 11 37 F p} 0718530} | 5
- 12 50 Sv) 0°18520 | 0718548) | 018550 _ —30
33 13 31 8s Dj) 0718552 ) |
ee | | |
Mean . _ _ _ = SS _ =_ +0:00007
Comparison of Dip Circle No. 94 with the Instrument in use in the
Falmouth Observatory.
Date Time Instrument Dip | F—S=B
H. M, | Cinipal f
August6 . . 17 32 | S 66 588 Bins
iS = 7 18 46 } F 66 58-0
August 7 . 0 16 14 5 66 57:1 ae
” : 2 14 38 | EF 66 58°6
August 9. ; 15 25 iS) 66 57°8 417
” : e 15 28 | F 66 59°5
é pei v.- 17 35 Ss 66 545
; cae 17 35 F 66 aaa! +19
August 10. ‘ 15 27 ) 67 0-6 :
‘ pasa | 15 24 F 67 ed +05
August i2 . A 15 32 iS) 66 59°8 +403
, bog eee 15 28 Fr 67 O1
5 16 17 S 66 59:0
4 16 42 F 67 ast U8
Mean : c ; ¢ 5 - : 7 3 - | +1:0
The curves used were those obtained from the self-recording instruments
in use in the Observatory ; but as the vertical force instrument was not
working well the dip circles were directly compared with each other, as in
the first method used at Kew. Each of the dips given in the above
table is the mean of the two observations, one of which was made with
each of the two needles employed with the instruments. The individual
94, REPORT—1896.
observations were in close agreement, and it hardly seems necessary
to record them, as the value of (3 is itself a test of the accuracy of the
observations.
Stonyhurst Observatory.
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Instrument in use in the
Stonyhurst Observatory. Declination.
Date | Time | 7S | Dectination | a" s—c-2,s'—-C-2 ar ie-4
H. M. te) / | , Uy t ,
August 17|1646| 8 | 18364) | 494 | — 47-0 Wht: 15.8
5 17,351) 2 342} | 494 | 44-8 I te
August 18) 930) 311] | 468 | 443 tae
: 953| § 35:1 2610 ighsts—= 47-1 |
August19 | 930) & 350] | 481 | 469 ae
10 0| 8 ST1f | 498° | — 47-3
fs 17 50| = 343 47-8 | 465 re
6] 6 34:8 Mee | es 46:6
August 20/10 0) = 312) | 469 | 443 Lait
3 1029) 8 347 480 esheyo-© 46-7 2
August 21| 9 33| § 34-2 age | 2 47-0 TA i
: 956| = 341f 481 | 46:0
‘i 1548) = 358) 510 | 448 Wim ag
: Wit | 8 37-4 nO. | = 466.
August 22} 951) S$ 33-9 re ae 46°8 ee
i TO ree 34-2 484 | 458
Mean é — —_ —_ = — _— —1"5 |
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Instrument in use in
the Stonyhurst Observatory. Horizontal Force.
Date Time are pid / H | Curve | pion >/-—C=Z,| S’/—C=Z =-S = a
| Observation / |
Aug. 16 | Fr a0 SU} og] Oume2 | 000276) | 0:00277 | 016905
s = / [* 278) Uy
pa | 8 al | oars | 284 | | «00289 etesee es
ee | Se, Mota) beg
Ang, 37 io | 8 v1 | 017193 | 0900287 LD
a 12292 | SV) | o-17I198 - 0:00293 | 0-16905 i
ae i 20 | : ¥ | 017162 270} | O-DosG8 | 016894) | cno10
: 12 22 / x x! | 017190 B79) | 000283 | O-god4 )
Ang: 20 | loss | § vat ovat Paty 0-00271 | 016900 ) entes
4 1218 | = V) | 017201 279) | 000298 — o-16908 | )
Aug. 21 10 23 3 4 | 017186 25 | 0-00263 | o-16993 | ) a:
; L
> wid | § ¥} O1nTT 277 0700271 / 016906 }
” 1438 | 3 vi 017206 | 295) 100800 | 016906 | it pentoee
‘3 1628 | 8 BI} oia2 | 300) 0-00297 016915 }
a | 204
Mean = = = == = == — —0:00005 |
—————— lS
ON COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS. 95
Comparison between Dip Circle Dover No, 94 and the Instrument
in use at the Stonyhurst Observatory.
Date Time Instrument Dip =-S=,
H. M. : d
August 18 . - 16 25 = 2 9-9
7 <i 16 27 Ss 6 z
August 19. . 16 1 = 21 \ ee
cs oiwig 16 4 Ss 4:3 aie
August 20 . : 15 23 = 1:2) _ 948
. im < 15 22 Ss 40 | “
August 22 . : 11 20 s | 6-0) 3-2
_ i ae 12 16 = | 2:8 f Fifer
Mean . - : — = — —2'8
In the account of the observations at Stonyhurst the Observatory
instruments are indicated by the letter =. The measurements with
the survey instruments were made by Mr. Watson; those with the
Observatory instruments by Mr. Ronchette, who usually makes the regular
observations.
The dip observations were not very satisfactory. The needles used
at the Observatory were not in good agreement, and after some trials it
was determined to use the needles employed with No. 94 in the experi-
ments with both instruments. Whereas, therefore, the dip observations
elsewhere included any difference between the ‘bias’ of the needles
ordinarily used at the Observatory and of dip circle 94, at Stonyhurst this
element of error was eliminated, and the comparison was between the dip
circles only.
In this as in other cases each dip recorded in the table is the mean of
the results obtained with the two needles.
Valentia Observatory (Caherciveen).
The observations at Caherciveen were made by Mr. Watson, using the
survey instruments, and by the superintendent, Mr. J. E. Cullum, who
used the observatory instruments.
Since there are no self-recording instruments at Caherciveen, the
observations were made in a slightly different manner from that adopted at
the other observatories. A tripod was erected at a distance of about
ten yards from the magnet house, and on the line joining the pillar and
the fixed mark. Observations were then made simultaneously with one
instrument in the magnet house and the other on the tripod outside. The
instruments were then interchanged and the observations repeated. By this
means it was possible to eliminate the effect of any change in the element and
any difference between the value at the two positions. In the case of the
dip observations only one set were performed in the above manner ; the
rest were taken as at the other observatories. The lens of the vibration
magnet was found to be loose, as it had not been screwed ‘ home’ after the
lens and scale were interchanged when the observatory was moved from
Valentia to Caherciveen. It was therefore screwed in as far as it would
go, and the moment of inertia was again determined by Mr. Cullum.
96
REPORT—1896.
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Instrument used in
the Valentia Observatory (Caherciveen). Declination.
as Position of Declina- V-—S vV-S
Date ar Instrument! Tnstrument tion (S outside) |(V outside)
H. M. apa : y
Vv M. H. 21 55:7 —2:2 2
peut Sl) The {g outside | 21 57-9 Ee a
11 38 We M. H. 21 58:5 —2-4 a
i Ss outside 22 0-9 _— I
Vi outside 22 2°6 — +070
” ee {s M. H. 22 26 = as
é V outside 22 39 — —
Bo {'s M. H. 22 38 ae? +01
Vv outside 22 61 —_ —
” ret, {8 M. H. 22 53 cz +08
Vv outside 22 6:3 — —
" iat is M. H. 22 56 Xs +07
V M. H. 22 14 — =
” eee {s outside | 22 20 | —06 Bi,
15 31 {Vv M. H. 22 03 — —
” \s outside 22 e162 —0-9 guns
“e Vv M. H. 21 59-2 = a
” By? S _outside 21 599 | —O-7 oh
16 8 les M. H. 21 58:3 —0°6 a
ge i) outside 21 58°9 — —
16 41 Vi outside 21 56°6 — +0°2
ee 8 M. H. 21 56:4 — —
16 53 V outside 21 56:0 — +01
HY ; Ps) M. H. 21 55:9 — —
Mean a — —— 25 —_12 | +03
B=-0"4.
Comparison of Magnetometer No. 70 with the Instrument used in the
Valentia Observatory (Caherciveen).
Horizontal Force.
" v-s | vs
ae ig "ment | lasrument | |S outaide)|(¥ outside)
« = M. H. M.
Ang. 20;,\1 ) 27 89,00 18.58 0.1. Aeealiieaetart ie gcees| ocx me
idee. (at 17 294d eee HS MAR 2 UGLY ote pe
n | W41to1862 | {fg | Guaide | oure7o| — | =
Beptst (| ,(18 38t0,16.99. | al vt eee ilec een |e nn. tow
Y a7 14 com's ee eae nD tei =
» feapettorsar | 13 1 oataide | ore | — | ea
Dept? [gL lO fo 12 0 oh den ella giee wlagendcgsl han: ve
| weisiows s | 4 | Sua | o1eR) = | ae
Mean . —45 — 36
= —0 00010.
ON COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS.
97
Comparison of Dip Circle No. 94 with the Instrument in use in the
Valentia Observatory (Caherciveen).
: Instru- | Position of .
Date Time ment | Instrument Dip art tes
We M. sage L
s (V M.H. 68 39-7) :
Aug. 28 16 57 is outside 39:2) +05
- Vi outside 42°] :
” 18:63 is MH. 386) +35
(11 43 V é 41:9
Aug. 29 37 | 8 3 41-0} +09
(13 29 Vv if 41-9 18
” 113 23 Ss _ 40-7} iT sky
12 15 Vv x 425 (
Sept. 1 {4211 S 4 49-5} +00
Mean +1'2
Summary.
The following is a summary of the results obtained at the different
observatories :—
— K-S r_-s =-S vV-s
Declination —O'4 +04 —1"5 —O'4
Horizontal Force —0-:00011 + 0:00007 —0:00005 —0:00040
Dip. —0'6 +1"0 —2'8 +1"2
By subtraction we eliminate the instruments used in the comparisons,
and get the following relations among the instruments of the observatories :
The three figures refer to declination, horizontal force, and dip—in
order—the differences of H being expressed in terins of 0:00001 C.G.S.
units.
The table is to be read from left to right, thus :—
The declination given by the Kew standard=that given by the
Falmouth instrument — 08.
— Kew | Falmouth Stony hurst | Valentia
. { — —0'8 +11 0''0
RCS Gat el Seis ale — | —18 —6 +29
| ane dM +2"2 ~1'8
| +0'8 | — +1'9 +0'8
| Falmouth . . - | +18 —_ +12 +47
{ +16 = +318 —0"2
(| aay UE | | —1'9 a= ier
Stonyhurst . : : | +6 —12 _ +35
; —2"2 —3'8 — —4'0
{| 00 -0'8 +1'1 —
Valentia 5 4 —29 —47 —35 =
| +1°8 +0°2 +40 =
1896. Sheet ¢ H
98 REPORT— 1896.
Mathematical Functions—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Lord RayLEIGH (Chairman), Lord KeEtvin, Professor B. PRICE,
Mr. J. W. L. GuaisHEeR, Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor
W. M. Hicks, Professor P. A. MacManon, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN
CuNNINGHAM, and Professor A. LODGE (Secretary), appointed for
the purpose of calculating Tables of certain Mathematical Functions,
and, if necessary, of taking steps to carry out the Calculations, and
to publish the results in an accessible form.
Tue first report of the Committee was made in 1889, when they pub-
lished tables of the Bessel Functions, I(x), for integral values of » fron»
0 to 11, from ~=0 to 6:0, at intervals of 0:2. The original intention had
been a calculate jails, of J,(x) for various values a n, but in 1889
extensive tables of J,(w) and J,(x) were published by Dr. Meissel of Kiel,
and it was therefore considered advisable to work at tables of I,(z),
which had not previously been calculated, the two classes of functions
being connected by the equation—
ia) 0-7 (rr)
In 1893 the report of the Committee contained a detailed table of
T(z) from «=0 to 5100, at intervals of 001, to nine decimal places, of
which the last figure was approximate. A short table of J o(a/ 2) was
also given, to nine decimal places, from «=0 to 6-0 at intervals of 0:2.
The present table of I,() is from «=0 to 5-100, at intervals of -001,
to nine decimal places, the last figure being approximate, being exactly om
the lines of the 1893 table of L,(2).
The Committee desire to recommend that tables of the Bessel Functions
be published by the Association to six decimal places, with a preface
giving some of their chief properties.
The Committee have considered a proposition made at the Ipswich
meeting last year by Colonel Cunningham, viz. that the British Asso-
ciation “should be asked to undertake the publication of a ‘New Canom
Arithmeticus’ which he had already nearly computed. Colonel Cunning-
ham undertook to prepare one copy at his own expense, and asked that
the British Association should pay the expense (about 25/.) of preparing
a second copy and of having the two copies compared and checked ; one
copy to be Colonel Cunningham’s property, one copy to be the property
of the Association ; the British Association to be asked also to pay the
whole cost of printing and publication of the work in. a separate 4to.
volume (which would be of about same size as Jacobi’s ‘Canon Arith-
meticus’). Colonel Cunningham would undertake to superintend the
whole work to completion, and to provide a preface descriptive of the
tables.
The Committee propose to recommend the Association ultimately to
undertake the publication of Colonel Cunningham’s ‘ New Canon Arith-
meticus’ as proposed by the author. They desire to be reappointed with
a grant of 25/. for the purpose of preparing a second copy of Colonel
Cunningham’s table and of comparing and checking the two copies.
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
99
Difference
Igor io Ior
1-000 000 000 | 0-050 | 1-000 625 098 25,258 |
1-000 000 250 0051 | 1:000 650 356_ 25,769 |
1:000 001 000 0052 | 1:000 676 26,259
1:000 002 250 | 0-053 | 1-000 702 : 760
1:000 004 000 0-054 | 1-000 729 27,260 |
1:000 006 250 0:055 | 1-000 756 § 761 |
1:000 009 000 | 0-056 | 1-000 784 28,261 |
1-000 012 250 0:057 | 1-000 812 762
' 1-000 016 000 0058 | 1-000 841 29,262
1:000 020 250 0059 | 1-000 870 763
1-000 025 000 0-060 | 1-000 900 30,264
1-000 030 250 0-061 | 1-000 930 30,764
1:000 036 000 0-062 | 1-000 961 31,264
1-000 042 251 0:063 | 1-000 992 766
1:000 049 001 0:064 | 1-001 024 32,268
1-000 056 251 0-065 | 1-001 056 767
1:000 064 001 0-066 | 1-001 089 33,269 |
1-000 072 251 0-067 | 1-001 122 770
1:000 081 001 0-068 | 1:001 156: 34,269
1:000 090 252 0-069 | 1-001 190 TT |
1-000 100 003 0-070 | 1:001 225 35,273
1:000 110 254 0-071 | 1-001 260 35,772
1:000 121 005 0-072 | 1-001 296 36,274
1:000 132 255 0-073 | 1-001 332 775
1:000 144 006 0-074 | 1-001 369 37,276
1-000 156 257 0-075 1:C01 406 117 |
1-000 169 008 0-076 | 1-001 444 : 38,277
1:000 182 259 0-077 | 1-001 482 779
1-000 196 010 0-078 | 1-001 521 39,281 |
1:000 210 261 | 0-079 | 1-001 560 § 781 |
1-000 225 013 , 0-080 | 1-001 600 6 40,283 |
1:000 240 265 15,752 || 0-081 | 1-001 640 40,784 |
1:000 256 017 16,252 || 0-082 | 1-001 681 41,285 |
1:000 272 269 752 || 0-083 | 1-001 722 786
1-000 289 021 17,253 || 0-084 | 1-001 764 42,288
1:000 306 274 753 |} 0-085 | 1-001 807 789:
1-000 324 027 18,253 || 0-086 | 1-001 849 43,291
1:000 342 280 753 || 0-087 | 1-001 893 791
1-000 361 033 19,253 || 0-088 | 1-001 936 44,294
1:000 380 286 754 || 0-089 | 1-001 981 794 |,
1-000 400 040 0-090 | 1-002 026 45.297 |
1-000 420 294 | 754 || 0-091 | 1-002 071 45,798 |
1-000 441 048 21,255 || 0092 | 1:002 117 46,299 |
1:000 462 303 755 || 0-093 | 1-002 163 801
1000 484 058 22.256 || 0-094 | 1-002 210 47,303
1:000 506 314 756 || 0-095 | 1-002 257 805
1:000 529 070 23.256 | 0-096 | 1-002 305 48,306
1:000 552 326 737 || 0-097 | 1-002 353 808
1-000 576 083 24.257 | 0-098 | 1-002 402 49,309
1-000 600 340 758 || 0-099 | 1-002 451 7 812
1-000 625 098 258 | 0100 | 1-002 501 56: 50,313 |
een
1 o
H 2
100 REPORT—1896.
a Jov Difference x Ipr Difference
0-100 | 1-002 501 563 50,313 | 0-150 | 1-005 632 915 75,463
0101 | 1:002 551 876 50,816 | 0151 | 1-005 708 378 75,969
0102 | 1-002 602 692 51,317 | 0-152 | 1-005 784 347 76,471
0103 | 1-002 654 009 820 | 0-153 | 1:005 860 818 976
0104 | 1-002 705 829 52,321 | 0-154 | 1:005 937 794 77,481
0-105 | 1-002 758 150 823 | 0155 | 1-006 015 275 984
0:106 | 1-002 810 973 53,325 | 0-156 | 1:006 093 259 78,491
0-107 | 1-002 864 298 828 | 0-157 | 1-006 171 750 995
0-108 | 1-002 918 126 54,330 | 0158 | 1,006 250 745 79,498
0109 | 1:002 972 456 832 | 0-159 | 1-006 330 243 80,004
0110 | 1:003 027 288 55,335 || 0-160 | 1-006 410 247 80,510
0-111 1-003 082 623 55,836 | 0-161 | 1-006 490 757 81,013
0-112 | 1-003 138 459 56,340 || 0-162 | 1:006 571 770 518
0-113 | 1:003 194 799 842 || 0-163 | 1:006 653 288 $2,024
0-114 | 1-003 251 641 57,343 || 0-164 | 1-006 735 312 528
0-115 | 1-003 208 984 847. | 0165 | 1-006 817 840 $3,034
0116 | 1-003 366 831 58,349 | 6166. | 1-006 900 874 538
0-117 | 1-008 425 180 851 | 0-167 | 1-006 984 412 $4,045
O118 | 1-003 484 031 59,354 || 0-168 | 1-007 068 457 549
0-119 | 1:003 543 385 856 -| 0169 | 1-007 153 006 $5,055
0120 | 1-003 603 241 60,360 | 0-170 | 1:007 238 061 85.560
0121 | 1-003 663 601 60,862 | O-17L | 1-007 323 621 86,065
0-122 | 1-003 724 463 61,365 | 0172 | 1-007 409 686 572
0123 | 1:003 785 828 868 | 0173 | 1-007 496 258 87,076
0-124 | 1-003 847 696 62,370 | 0174 | 1-007 583 334 583
0-125 | 1-003 910 066 874 | 0-175 | 1-007 670 917 88,089
0-126 | 1-003 972 940 63,377. | 0176 | 1-007 759 006 593
0-127 | 1-004 036 317 880 | 0177 | 1-007 847 599 89,100
0-128 | 1-004 100 197 64,382 | 0178 | 1-007 936 699 607
0-129 | 1-004 164 579 886 | 0179 | 1-008 026 306 90,111
0-130 | 1-004 229 465 65,389 | 0180 | 1-008 116 417 90.618
0-131 | 1-004 294 854 65,893 | 0181 | 1-008 207 035 91,125
0-132 | 1-004 360 747 66,394 | 0-182 | 1-008 298 160 630
0-133 | 1-004 497 141 899 | 0-183 | 1-008 389 790 92,13
0-134 | 1-004 494 040 67,402 | 0-184 | 1:008 481 928 642
0135 | 1-004 561 442 906 || 0:185 | 1-008 574 570 93.150
0-136 | 1-004 629 348 68,409 | 0-186 | 1:008 667 720 655
0:137 | 1-004 697. 757 914 | 0-187 | 1-008 761 375 94.163
0:138 | 1:004.766 671 69,415 | 0-188 | 1-008 855 538 669
0139 | 1-004 836 086 920 | 0-189 | 1:008 950 207 95,176
0-140 | 1:004 906 006 70,424 | 0190 | 1-009 045 383 95,683
0-141 | 1-004 976 430 70,927 | 0-191 | 1:009 141 066 96,190
0-142 | 1:005 047 357 71.431 || 0-192 | 1-009 237 256 697
0:143 | 1-005 118 788 934 | 0193 | 1-009 333 953 97,203
0-144 | 1-005 190 722 72,439 | 0-194 | 1:009 431 156 710
0:145 | 1-005 263.161 942 | 0-195 | 1-009 528 866 98,218
0146 | 1-005 336 103 73,448 | 0-196 | 1:009 627 084 724
0-147 | 1:005 409 551 950 | 0-197 | 1-009 725 808 99,233
0-148 | 1:005 483 501 74,455 | 0-198 | 1:009 825 041 739
0-149 | 1:005 557 956 959 | 0-199 | 1-009 924 780 | 100,248
0:150 | 1-005 632 915 5,463. | 0-200 | 1-010 025 028 100,755
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
101
iz Tor | Difference Er Toa Difference
0200 | 1-010 025 028 | 100,755 | 0-250 | 1-015 686 141 | 126,235
0-201 | 1-010 125 783 | 101,262 | 0-251 | 1-015 812 376°| _ 126. 747
0202 | 1-010 227 045 | 770 | 0-252 | 1-015 939 123 127,259
0-203 | 1010 328 815 | 102,277 | 0-253 | 1-016 066 382 771
0204 1010 431 092 785 | 0-254 | 1-016 194 153 128,283
0:205 | 1:010 533 877 103.294 | 0255 | 1-016 322 436 795
0-206 | 1-010 637 171 | 802 | 0256 | 1-016 451 231 129,308
0:207 | 1:010 740973 | 105,309 | 0-257 | 1-016 580 53! 820
0-208 | 1-010 845 282 | 817 || 0-258 | 1-016 710 359 130,333
0209 | 1-010 950 099 105,326 | 0259 | 1016 840 692 845
0-210 | 1-011 055 425 105,834 | 0-260 | 1-016 971 537 131,358
0-211 | 1-011 161 259 106,342 | 0-261 | 1-017 102 895 | 131,871
0212 | 1-011 267 601 851 | 0-262 | 1-017 234 766 132,384
0-213 | 1011 374 452 107,360 | 0-263 | 1-017 367 150 896
0-214 | 1-011 481 812 867 | 0-264 | 1-017 500 046 133,410
0-215 | 1-011 589 679 108,378 || 0-265 | 1-017 633 456 923
0-216 | 1-011 698 057 885 || 0-266 | 1-017 767 379 134,437
0-217 | 1-011 806 942 109,394 | 0-267 | 1-017 901 816 949
0-218 | 1-011 916 336 903 || 0-268 | 1-018 036 765 135,464
0-219 | 1-012 026 239 | 110,413 || 0-269 | 1-018 172 229 977
0-220 | 1-012 136 652 | 110,922 ||.0-270 | 1-018 308 206 | 136,491
0-221 | 1-012 247574 | 111,429 || 0-271 |. 1-018 444 697 | 137,005
0-222 | 1-012 359 003 940 | 0-272 | 1-018 581 702 518
0-223 | 1-012 470 943 112,450 || 0-273 | 1-018 719 220 138,033
0-224 | 1-012 583 393 | 959 || 0:274 | 1-018 857 253 | 547
0-225 | 1-012 696 352 113,467 || 0-275 | 1-018 995 800 139,061
0-226 | 1-012 809 819 978 || 0-276 | 1-019 134 861 575
0-227 | 1-012 923 797 114,488 || 0-277 | 1-019 274 436 140,090
0-228 | 1-013 038 285 997 || 0-278 | 1-019 414 526 604
0-229 | 1-013 153 282 115,507 || 0-279 | 1-019 555 130 141,119
0-230 | 1-013 268 789 116,018 || 0280 | 1-019 696 249 141,635
0-231 | 1-013 384 807 116,527 || 0-281 | 1-019 837 884 142,148
0-232 | 1-013 501 334 117,037 || 0-282 | 1-019 980 032 664
0-233 | 1:013 618 371 548 | 0-283 | 1-020 122 696 143,179
0-234 | 1-013 735 919 118,057 || 0-284 | 1-020 265 875 694
0-235 | 1-013 853 976 569 || 0-285 | 1-020 409 569 144,209
0-236 | 1-013 972 545 119,078 | 0-286 | 1-020 553 778 725
0-237 | 1-014 091 623 589 | 0-287 | 1-020 698 503 145,241
0-238 | 1-014 211 212 120,100 | 0-288 | 1-020 843 744 756
0-239 | 1-014 331 312 611 | 0-289 | 1:020 989 500 | 146,271
0-240 | 1-014 451 923 121,122 | 0-290 | 1-021 135 771 146,788
0-241 | 1-014 573 045 121,632 | 0-291 | 1-021 282 559 147,304
0242 | 1-014 694 677 122,144 | 0-292 | 1-021 429 863 820
0-243 | 1-014 816 821 654 || 0293 | 1-021 577 683 148,334
0-244 | 1-014 939 475 123,166 || 0-294 | 1-021 726 017 853
0245 | 1-015 062 641 677 | 0-295 | 1-021 874 870 149,368
0-246 | 1-015 186 318 124,189 | 0-296 | 1-022.024 238 886
0-247 | 1-015 310 507 700 | 0-297 | 1-022 174 124 150,402
0-248 | 1-015 435 207 125,211 || 0-298 | 1-022 324 526 919
0-249 | 1-015 560 418 723 || 0-299 | 1-022 475 445 151,434
0250 | 1-015 686 141 126,235 | 0300 | 1-022 626 879 | 151,952
REPORT— 1896.
x fez: Difference |, Tor Difference
—— oa if he — —_—_—___—— —
0300 | 1-022 626 879 151,952 | 0350 | 1-030 860 272 177,956
0301 | 1-022 778 $31 152,471 | 0351 | 1-031 038 228 178,478
0:302 | 1-022 931 302 986 || 0:352 | 1-031 216 706 179,001
0°303 | 1-023 084 288 153,504 || 0-353 | 1-031 395 707 525
0:304 | 1-023 237 792 154,021 || 0354 | 1-031 575 232 180,049
0:305 | 1-023 391 813 539 | 0355 | 1-031 755 281 573
0:306 | 1-023 546 352 155,057 || 0:356 | 1-031 935 854 181,097
0:307 | 1-023 701 409 575 |; 0357 | 1-032 116 951 621
0308 | 1-023 856 984 156,091 | 0358 | 1-032 298 572 182,145
0-309 | 1-024 013 075 | 611 | 0-359 | 1-032 480 717 670
0-310 | 1:024 169 686 | 157,129 | 0360 | 1-032 663 387 183,193
0311 | 1-024 326 815 | 157,646 || 0-361 | 1-032 846 580 | 183,720
0-312 | 1-024 484 461 158,165 | 0:362 | 1-033 030 300 184,244
0313 | 1-024 642 626 684 || 0363 | 1-033 214 544 767
0314 | 1-024 801 310 159,202 | 0364 | 1-033 399 311 185,294
0315 | 1-024 960 512 721 || 0365 | 1-033 584 605 819
0316 | 1-025 120 233 160,241 || 0-366 | 1-033 770 424 186,345
0317 | 1:025 280 474 758 || 0367 | 1-033 956 769 869
0318 | 1-025 441 232 161,278 || 0368 | 1-034 143 638 187,394
0319 | 1-025 602 510 797 | 0369 | 1-034 331 032 922
0320 | 1-025 764 307 162,316 || 0-370 | 1-034 518 954 | 188,447
0-321 | - 025 926 623 162,836 || 0371 | 1-034 707 401 188,972
0322 | 1:026 089 459 | 163,356 | 0372 | 1-034 896 373 189,500
0:323 | 1-026 252 815 875 || 0-373 | 1-035 085 873 190,025
0324 | 1-026 416 690 164,395 || 0374 | 1-035 275 898 552
0325 | 1-026 581 085 | 915 || 0-375 | 1-035 466 450 191,079
0326 | 1-026 746 000 165,435 || 0376 | 1-035 657 529 606
0:327 | 1-026 911 435 955 || 0:377 | 1-035 849 135 192,132
0:328 | 1:027 077 390 166,475 || 0-378 | 1-036 041 267 658
0:329 | 1-027 243 865 997 || 0379 | 1:036 233 925 193,187
0330 | 1-027 410 862 167,517 || 0380 | 1-036 427 112 193,714
0331 | 1:027 578 379 | 168,036 || 0-381 | 1-036 620 826 194,241
0332 | 1-027 746 415 559 || 0382 | 1-036 815 067 769
0:333 | 1-027 914 974 169,079 || 0383 | 1-037 009 836 195,298
0334 | 1-028 084 053 600 || O384 | 1-037 205 184 824
0°335 | 1:028 253 653 170,121 || 0-385 | 1-037 400 958 196,353
0336 | 1-028 423 774 643 || 0-386 | 1-037 597 811 881
0:337 | 1-028 694 417 171,164 || 0387 | 1-037 794 192 197,409
0:338 | 1-028 765 581 686 || 0-388 | 1-037 991 6OL 938
0:339 | 1-028 937 267 172,207 || 0:389 | 1-038 189 539 198,467
0:340 | 1-026 109 474 172,730 || 0-390 | 1-038 388 006 198,996
0341 | 1-029 282 204 | 173,252 || 0391 | 1-038 587 002 199,524
0342 | 1-029 455 456 773 || 0392 | 1-038 786 526 200,053
0:343 | 1-029 629 229 174,295 || 0393 | 1-038 986 579 583
0:344 | 1-029 803 624 817 || 0:394 | 1-039 187 162 201,113
0:345 | 1-029 978 341 175,342 || 0395 | 1-039 388 276 642
0:346 | 1-030 153 683 863 || 0:396 | 1-039 589 917 202,171
0:347 | 1-030 329 546 176,385 || 0:397 | 1-039 792 088 701
0:348 | 1-030 505 931 909 || 0398 | 1-039 994 789 203,232
0:349 | 1-030 682 840 177,432 | 0399 | 1-040 198 021 76L
0:350 | 1-030 860 272 177,956 |! 0-400 | 1-040 401 782 204,292
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
103
Tox Difference | x | Ior Difference
1-040 401 782 | 204,292 | 0-450 | 1-051 269 338 | 231,013
1-040 606 074 204,823 | 0-451 | 1-051 500 351 231,552,
1:040 810 897 205,352 || 0-452 | 1-051 731 903 232,090
1-041 016 249 gsi || 0-453 | 1-051 963 993 629
1-041 222 133 206,415 | 0-454 | 1-052 196 622 233,169
1-041 428 548 946 | 0-455 | 1-052 429 791 708
1-041 635 494 907,477 | 0-456 | 1-052 663 499 234,247
1-041 842 971 208,009 | 0-457 | 1:052 897 746 788
1:042 050 980 540 || 0-458 | 1-053 132 534 235,327
1-042 259 520 209,072 0-459 1:053 367 861 867
1-042 468 592 209,604 | 0-460 | 1-053 603 728 236,408
1-042 678 196 210,136 _| 0-461 | 1-053 840 136 236,948
1:042 888 332 668 | 0-462 1-054 077 084 237,488
1-043 099 000 211,200 | 0-463 | 1-054 314 572 238,030
1-043 310 200 733° || 0-464 | 1-054 552 602 570
1:043 521 933 212.266 0-465 | 1-054 791 172 239,112
1-043 734 199 798 | 0-466 | 1-055 030 284 653
1-043 946 997 213,382 | 0-467 | 1-055 269 937 240,194
1-044 160 329 865 | 0-468 | 1-055 510 131 736
1-044 374 194 214,397 |; 0-469 | 1-055 750 867 241,278
1-044 588 591 214,932 | 0470 | 1-055 992 145 241,820
1-044 803 523 215,465 || 0-471 | 1-056 233 965 242,362
1:045 018 988 999 | 0-472 | “1-056 476 327 905
1-045 234 987 216,533 | 0473 | 1-056 719 232 243,447
1-045 451 520 217,067 | 0-474 | 1-056 962 679 990
1-045 668 587 601 | 0-475 | 1-057 206 669 244,533
1-045 886 188 218,136 | 0-476 | 1057 451 202 245,076
1-046 104 324 670 || 0-477 | 1°057 696 278 620
1-046 322 994 219,205 | C478 | 1-057 941 898 246,163
1-046 542 199 740 | 0-479 | 1-058 188 061 707
1-046 761 939 220,275 | 0-480 | 1-058 434 768 247,250
1-046 982 214 220,811 | 0-481 1-058 682 018 247,795
1-047 203 025 221.346 | 0-482 | 1-058 929 813 248,339
1-047 424 371 881 | 0-483 | 1-059 178 152 884
1-047 646 252 222,418 0-484 | 1:059 427 036 249,428
1:047 868 670 953 || 0-485 | 1-059 676 464 973
1:048 091 623 223, 490 | 0-486 1:059 926 437 250,518
1-048 315 113 224,025 | 0-487 | 1-060 176 955 251,063
1:048 539 138 562 | 0-488 | 1-060 428 018 608
1-048 763 700 225,099 |' 0-489 | 1-060 679 626 252,154
1:048 988 799 225,636 | 0-490 | 1-060 931 780 252,700
1049 214 435 226,172 || 0-491 | 1-061 184 480 253,246
1-049 440 607 710 || 0-492 | 1-061 437 726 792
1:049 667 317 297,247 | 0-493 | 1-061 691 518 254,339
1-049 894 564 785 || 0-494 | 1-061 945 857 884
1-050 122 349 228,322 | 0-495 | 1-062 200 741 255,432
1-050 350 671 360 || 0-496 | 1-062 456 173 979
1:050 579 531 229,398 | 0-497 | 1:062 712 152 256,525
1:050 808 929 936 | 0-498 | 1-062 968 677 257,073
1-051 038 865 230,473 |, 0-499 | 1-063 225 750 621
s 5. } a =
1051 269 338 231,013 || 0500 | 1-063 483 371 258,169
REPORT—1896.
x Ior Difference x Difference
0:500 | 1:063 483 371 258,169 | 0°550 | 1-077 066 856 285,810
0501 | 1-063 741 540 258,716 | 0-551 | 1-077 352 666 286,367
0502 | 1-064 000 256 259,264 | 0:552 | 1-077 639 033 926
0503 | 1-064 259 520 812 | 0553 | 1-077 925 959 987,484
0504 | 1:064 519 332 260,361 | 0:554 ‘| 1-078 213 443 288,044
0-505 | 1-064 779 693 909 | 0:555 | 1-078 501 487 602
0506 | 1:065 040 602 261,459 | 0556 | 1-078 790 089 289,161
0507 | 1-065 302 061 262,007 | 0:557 | 1-079 079 250 721
0508 | 1-065 564 068 557 ~+| 0558 | 1-079 368 971 290,281
0509 | 1:065 826 625 263,106 | 0:559 | 1-079 659 252 840
0510 | 1-066 089 731 263,657 | 0-560 | 1-079 950 092 291,400
0511 | 1-066 353 388 264,205 | 0561 | 1-080 241 492 291,962
0512 | 1-066 617 593 756 | 0562 | 1-080 533 454 292,520
0513 | 1-066 882 349 265,306 | 0563 | 1-080 825 974 293,082
0-514. | 1-067 147 655 856 | 0:564 | 1-081 119 056 643
0-515 | 1-067 413 511 266,407 | 0565 | 1-081 412 699 294,204
0516 | 1-067 679 918 958 | 0566 | 1-081 706 903 766
0°517 | 1-067 946 876 267,510 | 0-567 | 1:082 001 669 295,328
0518 | 1-068 214 386 268,060- | 0568 | 1-082 296 997 889
0519 | 1-068 482 446 611 | 0569 | 1-082 592 886 296,451
0520 | 1-068 751 057 269,164 | 0570 | 1-082 889 337 297,013
0-521 1-069 020 221. 269,715 || 0571 | 1-083 186 350 297,576
0-522 | 1:069 289 936 270,267 | 0572 | 1-083 483 926 298,139
0523 | 1-069 560 203 820 | 0573 | 1-083 782 065 702
0-524 | 1-069 831 023 271,373 | 0574 | 1-084 080 767 299,265
0525 | 1-070 102 396 925 | 0575 | 1-084 380 032 823
0526 | 1-070 374 321 272,476 | 0576 | 1-084 679 860 300,392
0527 | 1:070 646 797 273,031 | 0577 | 1-084 980 252 955
0528 | 1-070 919 828 584 | 0578 | 1-085 281 207 301,521
0529 | 1-071 193 412 274,138 | 0579 | 1-085 582 728 302,085
0530 | 1-071 467 550 | 274,691 | 0-580 | 1-085 884 813 302,649
0531 | 1:071 742 241 275,246 | 0-581 | 1-086 187 462 303,213
0532 | 1-072 O17 487 799 | 0582 -| 1:086 490 675 7719
0533 | 1-072 293 286 276,353 | 0583 | 1-086 794 454 304,345
0-534 | 1-072 569 639 909 | 0584 | 1-087 098 799 909
0535 | 1:072 846 548 277,462 | 0585 | 1:087 403 708 305,475
0536 | 1-073 124 010 278,018 | 0586 | 1-087 709 183 306,041
0°537 | 1-073 402 028 574 | 0587 | 1-088 015 224 607
0538 | 1-073 680 602 279,128 | 0588 | 1-088 321 831 307,174
0539 | 1-073 959 730 683 | 0589 | 1:088 629 005 740
0540 | 1-074 239 413 280,240 | 0:590 | 1-088 936 745 308,308
0541 | 1074 519 653 280,796 | 0591 | 1:089 245 053 308,873
0-542 | 1074 800 449 281.352 | 0:592 | 1-089 553 926 309,442
0543 | 1-075 081 801 909 | 0:593 | 1-089 863 368 310,009
0-544 | 1-075 363 710 282,465 | 0-594 | 1-090 173 377 578
0545 -| 1-075 646 175 283,021 | 0:595 | 1-090 483 955 311,144
0546 | 1-075 929 196 579 | 0596 | 1-090 795 099 714
0547 | 1-076 212 775 284,137 | 0597 | 1-091 106 813 312,281
0548 | 1-076 496 912 693 | 0598 | 1-091 419 094 851
0549 | 1-076 781 605 285,251 || 0599 | 1-091 731 945 313,419
0550 | 1:077 066 856 285,810 045 364 313,989
ON
MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
10
s)
z Jor Difference Jor Difference
0-600 | 1-092 045 364 313,989 | 0-650 | 1-108 447 111 342,760
0-601 | 1-092 359 353 | 314,558 || 0-651 | 1-108 789 871 343,342
0602 | 1:092 673 911 315,127 | 0-652 | 1-109 133 213 923
0603 | 1-092 989 038 699 | 0653 | 1-109 477 136 344,506
0604 | 1-093 304 737 316,267 | 0-654 | 1-109 821 642 345,089
0-605 | 1-093 621 004 839 || 0-655 | 1-110 166 731 672
0606 | 1:093 937 843 317,408 | 0656 | 1-110 512 403 346,254
0-607 | 1:094 255 251 980 || 6657 | 1110 858 657 838
0-608 | 1:094 573 231 318,551 | 0-658 | 1111 205 495 347,421
0609 | 1-094 891 782 319,122 || 0-659 | 1-111 552 916 348,006
0610 | 1-095 210 904 319,694 || 0660 | 1-111 900 922 348,590
0-611 | 1-095 530 598 320,266 | 0661 | 1-112 249 512 349,174
O-61z | 1:095 850 864 838 | 0-662 | 1112 598 686 759
0613 | 1-096 171 702 321,410 || 0663 | 1-112 948 445 350,343
0-614 | 1-096 493 112 982 | 0-664 | 1-113 298 788 930
0615 | 1-096 815 094 322,556 || 0-665 | 1:113 649 718 351,514
0616 | 1-097 137 650 323,128 | 0-666 | 1-114 001 232 352,100
0617 | 1-097 460 778 702 || 0-667 | 1-114 353 332 687
0618 | 1-097 784 480 324,275 || 0668 | 1-114 706 019 353,272
0619 | 1-098 108 755 849 || 0669 | 1-115 059 291 860
0620 | 1-098 433 604 325,423 | 0-670 | 1115 413 151 354,446
0621 | 1-098 759 027 325,997 || 0-671 | 4115 767 597 355,033
0°622 | 1-099 085 024 326,573 || 0672 | 1:116 122 630 620
0623 | 1-099 411 597 327,146 || 0673 | 1:116 478 250 356,210
0624 | 1-099 738 743 721 || 0-674 | 1-116 834 460 795
0625 | 1-100 066 464 328,297 | 0-675 | 1117 191 255 357,384
0626 | 1:100 394 761 873 || 0676 | 1-117 548 639 972
0627 | 1-100 723 634 329,448 || 0-677 | 1-117 906 611 358,562
0628 | 1-101 053 082 330,024 || 0-678 | 1-118 265 173 359,151
0629 | 1-101 383 106 600 || 0-679 | 1:118 624 324 739
0630 | 1101 713 706 331,176 | 0-680 | 1-118 984 063 360,329
0°631 | 1102 044 882 331,754 || 0681 | 1-119 344 392 360,919
0°632 | 1192 376 636 332,331 || 0-682 | 1-119 705 311 361,509
0°633 | 1-102 708 967 908 || 0-683 | 1-120 066 820 362,100
0634 | 1-103 041 875 333,485 || 0-684 | 1-120 428 920 689
0°635 | 1-103 375 360 334,063 | 0-685 | 1-120 791 609 363,281
0636 | 1-103 709 423 641 || 0-686 | 1-121 154 890 872
0-637 | 1-104 044 064 335,220 || 0-687 | 1-121 518 762 364,463
0638 | 1-104 379 284 797 || 0-688 | 1-121 883 225 365,056
0639 | 1104 715 O81 336,377 || 0-689 | 1-122 248 281 646
0640 | 1-105 051 458 336,955 || 0-690 | 1122 613 927 366,239
0-641 | 1-105 388 413 337,535 || 0-691 | 1-122 980 166 366,832
0642 | 1-105 725 948 338,114 || 0-692 | 1123 346 998 367,426
0643 | 1-106 064 062 695 || 0693 | 1:123°714 424 368,017
0-644 | 1:106 402 757 339,273 || 0-694 | 1124 082 441 612
0645 | 1-106 742 030 856 || 0-695 | 1-124 451 053 369,204
0646 | 1-107 081 886 340,434 | 0-696 | 1:124 820 257 799
0647 | 1-107 422 320 341,015 || 0-697 | 1:125 190 056 370,393
0648 | 1:107 763 335 598 | 0-698 | 1-125 560 449 987
0-649 | 1108 104 933 342,178 | 0699 | 1:125 931 436 371,582
0650 | 1:108 447 111 342,760 || 0-700 | 1-126 303 018 372,178
106 REPORT—1896.
x | Tor Difference adie b Sox Difference
0-700 | 1-126 303 018 372,178 || 0-750. | 1-145 646.778 402,298
0-701 | 1:126 675 196 372,773 | O75L | 1-146 049 076 402,907
0-702 | 1-127 047 969 373,367 | 0-752 | 1:146 451 983 403,517
0-703 | 1:127 421 336 964 | 0-753 | 1-146 855 500 404,128
0-704 | 1-127 795 300 374,560 || 0-754 | 1:147 259 628 739
0:705 | 1:128 169 860 375,157 || 0755 | 1147 664 367 405,350
0-706 | 1128 545 017 | 754 | 0756 | 1-148 069 717 962
0-707 | 1:128 920771 | 376,350 || 0-757 | 1:148 475.679 | 406,574
0-708 -| 1-129 297 121 949 || 0758 | 1148 882 253 407,186
0-709 | 1:129 674 070 377,544 || 0-759 | 1-149 289 439 797
0:710 | 1-130 051 614 378,144 || 0-760 | 1-149 697 236 | 408,411 |
0-711 | 1:130 429 758 | 378,741 || 0-761 | 1-150 105 647 | 409,098 .
0-712 | 1-130 808 499 379,340 || 0762 | 1-150 514 670 | 638
0-713 | 1:131 187 839 939 || 0-763 | 1:150 924 308 | 410,251
O-714\ | 1131 567 778 | 380,537 || 0-764 | 1:151.334 559 865
O715 -| 1131 948 316; 381,137 || 0-765 | 1-151 745 424 411,479
0-716 | 1132 329 452 | 736 | 0-766 | 1152 156 903 412,094
O-717 | 1:132 711 188 | 382,837 || 0-767 | 1-152 568 997 | 707
0-718 | 1:133 093 525 | 937_-|| 0-768 | 1:152 981 704 | 413,324
0-719 | 1:133 476 462 | 383,6537°-|| 0-769 | 1-183 395 028 | 939
0-720 | 1:133 859 999 | 384,136 || 0-770 | 1-153 808 967 414,555
O-721 | 1-134 244135 | 384,740 || O-771 | 1:154 223 522 | 415,170
0-722 | 1:134 628 875 385,340 || 0-772 | 1-154 638 692 | 789
0-723 | 1-135 014 216: | 942 || 0-773 | 1:155 054 481 416,403
0-724 | 1:135 400 157 | 386,544 || o-774 | 1155 470 884 417,022
0-725 | 1:135 786 701 387,146 || 0-775 | 1:155 887 906 639
0-726 | 1:136 173 847 | 748 || 0-776 | 17156 305 545 418,257 >
0-727 | 1:136 561 595 | 388,351 || 0-777 | 1:156 723 802 874
0-728 | 1136 949 946 954 | 0-778 | 1:157 142 676 419,493
0-729 | 1-137 338 900 | 389,558 || 0-779 | 1:157 562 169 420,111
0-730 | 1:137 728 458 390,162 || 0-780 | 1:157 982 280 420,730
0-731 | 1:138 118 620 | 390,765 || 0-781 | 1158 403 010 421,351
0732 | 1:138 509 385 | 391,370 || 0-782 | 1-158 824 361 969
0-733 | 1138 900 755 | 973 || 0-783 | 1:159 246 330 429,590
0-734 | 1:139 292 728 | 292,580 || 0-784 | 1:159 668 920 423,209
0:735 | 1:139 685 308 393,184 || 0-785 | 1:160 092 129 | 830
0-736 | 1:140 078 492 790 || 0-786 | 1:160 515 959 494,452
0-737 | 1-140 472 289 394,395 || 0-787 | 1:160 940 411 495,071
0738 | 1-140 866 677 | 395,001 || 0-788 | 1-161 365 482 694
0-739 | 1-141 261 678 | 608 || 0-789. | 1-161 791 176 426,316
= = ! = - a
0-740 | 1-141 657 286 396,215 || 0-790 | 1:162 217 492 426,938
0-741 | 1-142 053 501 396,821 || 0-791 | 1:162 644 430 427,560
0-742 | 1:142 450 322 397,429 || 0-792 | 1-163 071 990 428,183
0-743 | 1:142 847 751) 398,036 || 0-793 | 1:63 500 173 807
0-744 | 1-143 245 787 643 | 0-794 | 1-163 928. 980 429,430
0745 | 1143 644 430 | 399,252 || 0-795 | 1:164 358 410 430,054
0-746 | 1-144 043 682 861 | 0-796 | 1-164 788 464 678
0-747 | 1144 443 543 400,470 || 0-797 | 1165 219 142 431,301
0748 | 1144 844 013 401,078 || 0:798 | 1:165 650 443 928
0-749 | 1-145 245 091! | 687 | 0-799. | 1:166 082 371 439,552
0-750 | 1145 646 778 | 402,298 | o-800 | 1-166 514 923 433,178
— SPS Noose ee ee
ty
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
Difterence
‘107
‘Differe isa |
x Tor | x Iyr
| 0800 | 1166 514 923 | 433,178 || 0-850 | 1188 946 902 | 464,878
‘| O80L | 1:166 948 101 433,803 |, 0851 | 1:189 411 780 | 465,520
0:802 | 1-167 381 904 434,429 | 0852 | 1-189 877 300 | 466,163
0803, | 1:167 816 333 | 435,057 | 0:853 | 1-190 343 463 | 806
| 0-804 | 1-168 251 390 682 | 0-854 | 1-190 810 269 467,450
0805. | 1-168 687 072 | 436,310 || 0-855 | 1:191 277 719 | 468,095
0806 | 1:169 123 382 936 | 0-856 | 1-191 745 814 739
0807 | 1:169 560 318 437,565 | 0857 | 1-192 214 553 | 469,384
0808 | 1:169 997 883 | 438,194 | 0-858 | 1-192 683 937 | 470,029
0809 | 1-170 436 077 820 | 0859 | 1-193 153 966 674
| 0810 | 1170 874 897 | 439,451 | 0860 | 1-193 624 640 | 471,321
0811 | 1:171 314 348 | 440,078 | 0-861 | 1-:194 095 961 | 471,967
0812 | 1171 754 426 709 || 0-862 | 1-194 567 998 472,614
0813 | 1-172 195 135 441,339 | 0863 | 1-195 040 542 473,260
0814 | 1-172 636 474 967 | 0-864 | 1-195 513 802 908
0815 | 1-173 078 441 442,599 | 0-865 | 1:195 987 710 | 474,556
| 0816 | 1173 521 040 | 443,229 | 0-866 | 1-196 462 266 475,204
0817 | 1:173 964 269 861 | 0-867 | 1-196 937 470 | 852
0818 | 1174 408 13¢ | 444,493 | o-s68 | 1-197 413 322 | 476,501
0819 | 1-174 852 623 445,122 || 0-869 | 1-197 889 823 | 477,151
0820 | 1:175 297 745 | 445,756 || 0870 | 1-198 366 974 | 477,800
0821 | 1175 743 501 446,388 || 0871 | 1:198 844 774 | 478,450
0:822 | 1-176 189 889 447,021 || 0-872 | 1-199 323 224 479,100
0:823 | 1-176 636 910 654 || 0873 | 1:199 802 324 750
0824 | 1-177 084 564 | 448,288 || 0-874 | 1-200 282 O74 480,402
0825 | 1:177 532 852 921 | 0875 | 1-200 762 476 | 481,053
0:826 | 1:177 981 773 449,555 | 0-876 | 1-201 243 529 705
0827 | 1178 431 328 | 450,190 | 0-877 | 1-201 725 234 482,357
0828 | 1178 881 518 824 | 0-878 | 1-202 207 591 483,009
0829 | 1-179 332 342 451,460 | 0:879 | 1-202 690 600 662
0830 | 1179 783 802 | 452,095 | 0-880 | 1-203 174 262 484,316
0831 | 1-180 235 897 | 452,731 || 0-881 | 1-203 658 578 484,969
0832 | 1-180 688 628 | 453,367 | 0°882 | 1-204 143 547 | 485,622
0°833 | 1-181 141 995 454,004 | 0-883 | 1-204 629 169 486,277
0°834 | 1-181 595 999 640 0-884 | 1-205 115 446 | 932
0835 | 1-182 050 639 | 455,278 || 0-885 | 1-203 602 378 | 487,587
0836 | 1-182 505 917 915 | 0886 | 1-206 089965 | 488,242
0837 | 1-182 961 $32 456,553 | 0887 | 1-206 578 207 898
0838 | 1-183 418 385 457,191 | 0-888 | 1-207 067 105 489,554
0839 | 1-183 875 576 830 | 0889 | 1-207 556 659 | 490,211
0840 | 1184 333 406 | 458,469 | 0-890 | 1-208 046 870 | 490,867
0841 | 1-184 791 875 | 459,108 || 0-891 | 1-208 537 737 | 491,525
0842 | 1-185 250 983 748 | 0892 | 1-209 029 262 | 492,183
0843 | 1-185 710 731 460,387 | 0-893 | 1-209 521 445 840
0844 | 1-186 171 118 461,028 | 0-894 | 1-210 014 285 493,499
0845 | 1-186 632 146 669 | 0895 | 1-210 507 784 | 494,157
0846 | 1187 093 815-| 462,309 | 0-896 | 1-211 001 941 817
0847 | 1187 556 124 951 | 0897 | 1-211 496 758 495,476
0848 | 1188019075 | 463,593 | 0898 | 1-211 992 234 | 496,136
0849 | 1-188 482 668 464,234 || 0-899 | 1-212 488 370 796
0-850 | 1-188 946 902 464,878 || 0-900 | 1-212 985 166 | 497,457
REPORT—1896.
x Ir Difference Gy Tor Difference
0900 | 1-212 985 166 497,457 | 0:950 | 1-238 675 250 | 530,980
0901 | 1-213 482 623 498,117 || 0-951 | 1-239 206 230 531,661
0-902 | 1-213 980 740 780 || 0952 | 1-239 737 891 532,339
0-903 | 1-214 479 520 499,441 | 0°953 | 1-240 270 230 533,023
0-904 | 1-214 978 961 500,103 | 0-954 | 1:240 803 253 704
0-905 | 1-215 479 064 766 || 0-955 | 1-241 336 957 534,386
0:906 | 1-215 979 830 501,428 | 0-956 | 1-241 871 343 535,068
0:907 | 1-216 481 258 502,092 | 0-957 | 1:242 406 411 7152
0:908 | 1-216 983 350 754 | 0-958 | 1-242 942 163 536,435
0-909 | 1-217 486 104 503,420 || 0:959 | 1-243 478 598 537,118
0-910 | 1-217 989 524 504,084 | 0-960 | 1-244 015 716 537,803
———————- ns ee
0-911 1:218 493 608 504,748 || 0-961 1:244 553 519 538,488
0-912 | 1-218 998 356 505,415 | 0-962 | 1-245 092 007 539,172
0913 | 1-219 503 771 506,080 | 0-963 | 1-245 631 179 858
0-914 | 1-220 009 851 745 || 0964 | 1-246 171 037 540,543
0915 | 1-220 516 596 507,412 | 0-965 | 1-246 711 580 541,230
0-916 | 1-221 024 008 508,077 | 0-966 | 1-247 252 810 916
0917 | 1-221 532 085 746 || 0-967 | 1-247 794 726 542,603
0:918 | 1-222 040 831 509,413 | 0-968 | 1-248 337 329 543,291
0-919 | 1-292 550 244 510,081 | 0-969 | 1-248 880 620 979
0920 | 1-223 060 325 510,749 || 0-970 | 1:249 424 599 544,667
0-921 | 1-223 571 074 511,419 | O-971 | 1:249 969 266 545,355
0-922 | 1-224 082 493 512,086 | 0-972 | 1-250 514 621 546,045
0923 | 1-224 594 579 757 || 0-973. | 1-251 060 666 734
0924 | 1-225 107 336 513,426 || 0974 | 1:251 607 400 547,424
0925 | 1-225 620 762 514,095 || 0-975 | 1-252 154 824 548,115
0926 | 1:226 134 857 767 || 0-976 | 1-252 702 939 805
0:927 | 1-226 649 624 515,439 || 0977 | 1-253 251 744 549,496
0:928 | 1-227 165 063 516,109 | 0-978 | 1-253 801 240 550,188
0-929 | 1-227 681 172 780 | 0-979 | 1-254 351 428 880
0-930 | 1-228 197 952 517,453 || 0-980 | 1-254 902 308 551,573
0-931 | 1-228 715 405 | 518,126 | 0-981 | 1-255 453 881 552,265
0932 | 1-229 233 531 799 | 0-982 | 1-256 006 146 958
0933 | 1-229 752 330 519,473 || 0-983 | 1:256 559 104 553,652
0-934 | 1-230 271 803 520,145 || 0-984 | 1:257 112 756 554,347
0935 | 1-230 791 948 819 | 0-985 | 1-257 667 103 555,041
0-936 | 1-231 312 767 521,495 | 0-986 | 1-258 292 144 736
0-937 | 1-231 834 262 522,169 | 0-987 | 1-258 777 880 556,431
0-938 | 1-232 356 431 844 || 0988 | 1:259 334 311 557,127
0-939 | 1-232 879 275 523,521 || 0-989 | 1-259 891 438 823
0940 | 1-233 402 796 524,196 | 0:990 | 1:260 449 261 558,520
0-941 | 1-233 926 992 524,873 || 0-991 | 1-261 007 781 559,217
0-942 | 1-234 451 865 525,550 | 0-992 | 1-261 565 998 914
0943 | 1-234 977 415 526,228 | 0-993 | 1:262 126 912 560,612
0-944 | 1-235 503 643 905 | 0-994 | 1:262 687 524 561,311
0945 | 1-236 030 548 527,583 || 0-995 | 1:263 248 835.| 562,009
0-946 | 1-236 558 131 528,260 | 0-996 | 1:263 810 844 709
0947 | 1-237 086 391 940 || 0-997 | 1-264 373 553 563,408
0948 | 1-237 615 331 529,620 | 0-998 | 1:264 936 961 564,108
0-949 | 1-238 144 951 530,299 | 0-999 | 1-265 501 069 809
0-950 | 1238 675 250 | 530,980 || 1-000 | 1-266 065 878 | 565,509
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 109
Iov | Difference | x Jor Difference
1-266 065 878 | 565,509 | 1050 | 1-295 209 055 | 601,113
1-266 631 387 | 566,211 | 1-051 | 1-295 810 168 601,839
1-267 197 598 big, || 1one 1-296 412 007 602,562
1-267 764 511 567,615 | 1:053 | 1-297 014 569 603,286
1-268 332 126 568,318 | 1-054 | 1-297 617 855 604,011
1-268 900 444 |* 569,020 | 1055 | 1-298 921 866 736
1-269 469 464 724 | 1-056 | 1-298 826 602 605,462
1-270 039 188 570,428 | 1-057 | 1-299 432 064 606,189
1-270 609 616 571,133 | 1:058 | 1-300 038 253 915
1-271 180 749 837 | 1:059 | 1-300 645 168 607,643
1-271 752 586 572,542 | 1-060 | 1-301 252 811 | 608,370
1-272 325 128 573,248 | 1061 | 1-301 861 181 609,097
1-272 898 376 954 | 1-062 | 1-302 470 278 828
1-273 472 330 574,661 | 1-063 | 1-303 080 106 610,556
1-274 046 991 575,368 | 1-064 | 1-303 690 662 611,285
1-274 622 359 576,075 | 1-065 | 1-304 301 947 612,015
1-275 198 43 783 | 1-066 | 1-304 913 962 746
1-275 775 217 577,491 | 1-067 | 1-305 526 708 613,476
1-276 352 708 578,200 | 1-068 | 1-306 140 184 614.210
1-276 930 908 909 | 1-069 | 1-306 754 394 939
1-277 509 817 579,620 | 1-070 | 1-307 369 333 615,672
1-278 089 437 | 580,329 || 1-071 | 1-307 985 005 616,405
1-278 669 766 581,039 | 1-072 | 1-308 601 410 | 617,137
1-279 250 805 750 || 1073 | 1-309 218 547 872
1-279 832 555 582,461 | 1-074 | 1-309 836 419 618,607
1-280 415 016 583,174 | 1-075 | 1-310 455 026 619,341
1-280 998 190 885 | 1076 | 1-311 074:367 620,076
1-281 582 075 584,598 | 1077 | 1311 694 443 812
1-282 166 673 585,311 || 1-078 | 1-312 315 255 621,548
1-282 751 984 586,026 | 1-079 | 1-312 936 803 | 622/285
1-283 338 010 | 586,739 | 1-080 | 1-313 559 088 623,021
1-283 924 749 587,454 | 1-081 | 1314 182 109 623,759
1-284 512 203 588,168 | 1-082 | 1-314 805 868 624,497
1-285 100 371 884 | 1-083 | 1315 430 365 625,234
1-285 689 255 589,599 | 1-084 | 1-316 055 599 975
1-286 278 854 590,316 | 1-085 | 1-316 wat 574 626,713
1-286 869 170 | 591,033 | 1-086 | 1-317 308 287 627,454
1-287 460 203 751 || 1-087 | 1-317 935 741 |. , 628,194
1-288 051 954 592,466 | 1-088 |- 1-318 563 935 935
1-288 644 420 593,186 | 1-089 | 1:319 192 870 | 629,775
1-289 237 606 | 593,904 | 1-090 | 1310 822 545 | 63041,
1-289 831 510 594,623 | 1:091 | 1-320 452 963 631,160 ©
1-290 426 133 595,343 | 1-092 | 1-321 O84 123 903
1-291 021 476 596,062 | 1-093 | 1-321 716 026 632,646
1-291 617 538 783 | 1-094 | 1-322 348 672 633,390
1-292 214 321 597,503 | 1-095 | 1:322 982 062 | 634/133
1-292 811 824 598,225 | 1-096 | 1-323 616 195 879
1-293 410 049 946 | 1-097 | 1-394 951 O74 635,625
1-294 008 995 599,669 | 1:098 | 1-324 886 699 636,369
1-294 GOS 664 600,391 || 1-099 | 1-395 523 068 637,116
1-295 209 055 601,113 | 1100 | 1326 160 184 637,862
110 REPORT—1896.
r Tor | Difference ia Tov Difference
1100 | 1326 160 184 | 637,862 || 1-150 | 1-358 978 177 675,826
1101 | 1-326 798 046 638,609 || 1151 | 1°359 654 0u3 676,597
1:102 | 1:327 436 655 639,357 || 1152 | 1-360 330 600 677,370
1103 | 1:328 076 012 640,105 || 1-153 | 1-361 007 970 678,143
1:104 | 1-328 716 117 854 || 1154 | 1-361 686 113 918
1105 | 1:329 356971 | 641,603 || 1:155 | 1362 365 031 679,690
1160 | 1:329 998 574 642,352 || 1156 | 1-363 044 721 680,466
1107 | 1-330 640 926 643,102 || 1:157 | 1:363 725 187 681,242 |
1108 | 1:331 284 028 853 | 1158 | 1-364 406 429 682,017 |
1109 | 1:331 927 881 644,604 | 1159 | 1:365 088 446 | 793
1110 | 1:332 572 485 | 645,355 || 1-160 | 1-365 771 239 683,570
1-111 | 1:333 217 840 | 646,107 || 1:161 | 1-366 454 809 684,347
1-112 | 1-333 863 947 860 | 1:162 | 1:367 139 156 685,125
1113 |. 1-334 510 807 | 647,613 || 1163 | 1-367 824 281 904
1114) | 1-335 158 420 | 648,366 || 1-164 | 1-368 510 185 686,683
1115 | 1:335 806 786 649,121 | 1165 | 1-369 196 868 687,461
1116 | 1:336 455 907 ' 875 | 1166 | 1-369 884 329 688,243
1117 | 1:337 105 782 650,629 || 1:167 | 1-370 572 572 689,022
1118 | 1-337 756 411 651,385. || 1-168 | 1-371 261 594 804
1119 | 1-338 407 796 652,142 | 1469 | 1:371 951 398 690,585 |
1120 | 1:339 059 938 652,897 || 1170 | 1-372 641 983 691,367 —
1121 | 1-339 712 835 | 653,655 || 1171 | 1:373 333 350 692,150
1122 | 1-340 366 490 654,412 || 1172 | 1:374 025 500 933
1123 | 1-341 020 902 655,170 || 1173 | 1:374 718 433 693,716
1124 | 1:341 676 072 928 || 1174 | 1:375 412 149 694,500
1125 | 1-342 332 000 | 656,687 || 1175 |: 1:376 106 649 695,286
1126 | 1-342 988 687 | 657,447 || 1176 | 1:376 801 935 696,071
1127 | 1:343 646134 | 658,207 || 1177 | 1:377 498 006 856
1128 | 1-344 304 341 | 967 | 1178 | 1378 194 862 697,643
1:344
963
659,728
1378 892 505
698, 429
1°345
23
1:346
1°346
1:347
ils 348
1:350
283
944
606
269
933
597
262
928
594
660,490
1379 590 934
. 66s 251 |
662, 014
77
663.540 |
664,305 ||
665,069 |
8 |
666,599 |
667,366 |
380 290 151
380 990 1
1381 690 948
1:382 392 530
1:383 094 902
1383 798 O64
384 502 017
1:385 206 760
385 91
699,2 217
700,004
793,
701,582
702,372,
703,162
953
704,743
705,535
706,327
262
668,132 |
386 618 6
orci oe
MAD Solem Hob
OrSeSt Sroecr
930
599
268
939
610
289
_
rs
Oo
ee
Wi www www www
Or
nm
668,899
669,667
670,433 |)
671,203 |!
973
741
673,512 |
674,283
675,053 || +1199
\
1387 325 742
1388 033 655
1:388 742 363
1:389 451 864
1390 162 160
1:390 873 252
391 585 140
1:392 297 824
1393 O11 305
707, 120
707,913
708,708
709,501
710,296
711,092
888
712,684
713,481
714,279
675,826
1393 725 584
715,078
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
112
Difference
2 Jor i z Ir Difference
1200 | 1393 725 584 | 715,078 |) 1-260 | 1-430 468 718 | 755,695
1201 | 1:394 440 662 715,875 || 1251 | 1-431 224 413 | 756,521
1-202 | 1:395 156 537 716,676 | 1°252 | 1-431 980 934 757,349
1-203 | 1:395 873 213 717,474 || 1-253 | 1-432 738 283 758,176
1-204 | 1-396 590 687 718,274 | 1:254 | 1-433 496 459 759,005
1:205 | 1-397 308 961 719,077 || 1:255 | 1-434 255 464 835
1:206 | 1-398 028 038 878 || 1-256 | 1-435 015 299 760,665
1:207 | 1:398 747 916 720,680 || 1:257 | 1-435 775 964 761,495
1:208 | 1-399 468 596 721,482 || 1-258 | 1-436 537 459 762,325
1:209 | 1-400 190 078 722,285 || 1:259 | 1-487 299 784 763,157
1-210 | 1-400 912 363 723,089 || 1260 | 1-438 062 941 763,989 |
1-211 | 1-401 635 452 723,893 || 1-261 | 1-438 826 930 764,821 |
1-212 | 1-402 359 345 724,697 || 1-262 | 1-439 591 751 765,655 _ |
1-213 | 1-403 084 042 725,505 | 1263 | 1-440 357 406 766,489
1-214 | 1-403 809 547 726,308 | 1-264 | 1-441 123 895 767,323
1:215 | 1-404 535 855 727,115 || 1-265 | 1-441 891 218 768,158
1:216 | 1-405 262 970 922 | 1-266 | 1-442 659 376 ay
1-217 | 1-405 990 892 728,730 | 1267 | 1-443 428 370 769,830
1-218 | 1-406 719 622 729,539 || 1-268 | 1-444 198 200 770,665
1:219 | 1-407 449 161 730,346 || 1-269 | 1-444 968 865 771,504
1-220 | 1-408 179 507 731,156 || 1-270 | 1-445 740 369 772,343
1:221 | 1-408 910 663 731,965 || 1-271 | 1-446 512 712 773,180
1:222 | 1-409 642 628 732,777 || 1:272 | 1-447 285 892 774,018
1:223 | 1-410 375 405 733,586 || 1:273 | 1-448 059 910 860
1224 | 1-411 108 991 734,399 || 1-274 | 1-448 834 770 775,699
1-225 | 1-411 843 390 735,210 | 1275 | 1-449 610 469 776,541
1-226 | 1-412 578 600 736,023 || 1-276 | 1-450 387 O10 777,381
1:227 | 1-413 314 623 835 || 1-277 | 1-451 164 391 778,224
1-228 | 1-414 051 458 737,650 || 1-278 | 1-451 942 615 779,067
1-229 | 1-414 789 108 738,464 | 1279 | 1-452 721 682 909
| 1-230 | 1-415 597 572 739,279 || 1-280 | 1-453 501 591 | 780,754
1-231 | 1-416 266 851 740,094 | 1-281 | 1-454 982 345 781,598
1-232 | 1-417 006 945 910 | 1-282 | 1-455 063 943 782,443
11-233 | 1-417 747 855 741,726 | 1-283 | 1-455 $46 386 783,289
1-234 | 1-418 489 581 742,545 | 1-284 | 1-456 629 675 784,135
| 1-235 | 1-419 232 126 743,361 | 1:25 .| 1-457 413 810 982
1:236 | 1-419 975 487 744,179 || 1-286 | 1-458 198 792 785,829
1:237 1:420 719 666 998 || 1-287 1-458 984 621 786,678
1-288 | 1-421 464 664 745,818 || 1-288 | 1-459 771 299 787,527
1-239 | 1-422 210 482 746,638 | 1-289 | 1-460 558 826 788,375
1-240 | 1-422 957 120 747,458 ||.1-290 | 1-461 347 201 | 789,224
1-241 | 1-493 704 578 748,279 | 1291 | 1-462 136 425 | 790,076
1:242 | 1-494 452 857 749,100 | 1-292 | 1-462 926 501 | 927
1243 | 1-425 201 957 924 || 1-293 | 1-463 717 428 | 791,780
1244 | 1-425 951 881 750,746 || 1-294 | 1-464 509 208 792,630
1245 | 1-426 702 627 751,569 || 1295 | 1-465 301 838 793.484
1-246 | 1-427 454 196 752,392 | 1-296 | 1-466 095 322 794,338
1247 | 1-428 206 588 758,218 | 1-297 | 1-466 889 660 795,191
1248 | 1-428 959 806 754.044 || 1:298 | 1-467 684 851 796,045
1:249 | 1-499 713 850 868 || 1-299 | 1-468 480 896 902
1430 468 718 755,695 || 1:300 | 1-469 277 798 | 797,768
1:250
142 REPORT— 1896.
x Ipr Difference | x Iyvr Difference
300 | 1:469 277 798 797,758 || 1:350 | 1-510 227 098 841,348
1301 | 1-470 075 556 798,613 || 1351 | 1-511 068 446 842,235
1302 | 1-470 874 169 799,471 || 1352 | 1-511 910 681 843,126
1:303 | 1-471 673 640 800,329 || 1:353 | 1:512 753 807 844,014
1:304 | 1-472 473 969 801,188 || 1:354 | 1-513 597 821 903
1:305 | 1-473 275 157 802,047 || 1355 | 1-614 442 724 845,794
1306 | 1-474 077 204 905 || 1:356 | 1-515 288 618 846,687
1:307 | 1-474 880 109 803,766 || 1:357 | 1°516 135. 205 847,576
1:308 | 1-475 683 875 804.627 || 1358 | 1:516 982 781 848,471
1:309 | 1-476 488 502 805,489 || 1:359 | 1:517 831 252 849,363
1310 | 1-477 293 991 806,351 || 1360 | 1518 680 615 850,257
1311 | 1-478 100 342 807,213 || 136L | 1-519 530 872 851,150
1312 | 1-478 907 555 808,076 || 1:362 | 1-520 382 022 852,047
1:313 | 1-479 715 631 940 | 1363 | 1-521 234 069 942
1314 | 1480 524 571 809,806 || 1-364 | 1:522 087 011 853,839
1:315 | 1-481 334 377 810,670 || 1-365 | 1-522 940 850 $54,736
1316 | 1-482 145 047 811,536 | 1366 | 1523 795 586 855,634
1317 | 1-482 956 583 812,408. || 1367 | 1:524 651 220 856,532
1318 | 1-483 768 986 813,269 || 1:368 | 1:525 507 752 857,431
1319 | 1-484 582 255 814,138 || 1:369 | 1-526 365 183 858,331
1:320 | 1-485 396 393 815,005 || 1370 | 1:527 223 514 859,231
1321 | 1-486 211 398 815,874 || 1-371 | 1-528 082 7 860,133
1:222 | 1-487 027 272 816,744 || 1:372 | 1-528 942 a 861,033
1:323 | 1-487 844 016 $17,614 || 1:373 | 1:529 803 911 937
1:324 | 1-488 661 630 818,486 || 1-374 | 1-530 665 848 862,839
1325 | 1:489 480 116 819,356 || 1375 | 1:531 528 687 863,743
1:326 | 1-490 299 472 820,229 || 1376 | 1-532 392 430 864,646
1:327 | 1-491 119 701 821,100 || 1377 | 1:533 257 076 865.553
1328 | 1-491 940 S801 975 || 1:378 | 1-534 122 629 866,458
1:329 | 1-492 762 776 822,849 || 1379 | 1/534 989 087 867,365
1:330 | 1-493 585 625 823,723 || 1380 | 1:5385 856 452 868,271
1331 | 1-494 409 348 824,598 | 1381 | 1536 724 723 869,179
1332 | 1-495 233 946 825,474 || 1:382 | 1°537 593 902 870,087
1333 | 1-496 059 420 826,351 || 1:383 | 1:538 463 989 997
|
1:334 | 1-496 885 771 827,227 || 1384 | 1:589 334 986 871,906
1:335 | 1-497 712 998 828.106 || 1:385 | 1:540 206 892 872.817
| 1336 | 1-498 541 104 983 || 1386 | 1:541 079 709 873,727
1:337 | 1-499 370 087 829,863 || 1387 | 1:541 953 436 874,639
1:338 | 1-500 199 950 830,743 || 1388 | 1542 828 075 875,551
1:339 | 1:501 030 693 831,622 || 1389 | 1:543 703 626 876,464
1340 | 1-501 862 315 832,503 | 1:390 | 1:544 580 090 877,378
1341 | 1-502 694 818 833,386 || 1391 | 1545 457 468 878,293
1:342 | 1:503 528 204 $34,267 || 1392 | 1546 335 761 879,207
1:343 | 1-504 362 471 835,150 || 1:393 | 1:547 214 968 880,124
1:344 | 1-505 197 621 $36,038 |. 1394 | 1:548 095 092 881,039
1345 | 1-506 033 654 919 | 1:395 | 1548 976 131 957
1:346 1:506 870 573 837,802 | 1:396 1549 858 088 882,875
1:347 | 1-507 708 375 838,688 || 1397 | 1/550 740 963 883,793
1:348 | 1-508 547 063 39.575 || 1398 | 1561 624 756 884,712
1:349 | 1-509 386 638 840.460 | 1399 | 1:552 509 468 885.632
1:350 | 1510 227 098 | 841,348 | 1-400 | 1:553 395 100 886,552
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 1138
a Igor Difference x Jor Difference
1400 | 1553 395 100 | 886,552 | 1-450 | 1598 864 661 | 933,460
1-401 1554 281 652 887,473 || 1-451 | 1:599 798 121 | 934,416
1-402 | 1-555 169 125 888,396 || 1-452 | 1-600 732 537 935,372
1403 | 1:556 057 521 889,318 || 1453 | 1-601 667 909 936,330
1-404 | 1:556 946 839 890,240 || 1-454 | 1-602 604 239 937,289
1-405 | 1:557 837 079 891,165 | 1-455 | 1-603 541 528 938,248
1-406 | 1:558 728 244 892,090 | 1-456 | 1-604 479 776 939,207
1-407 | 1:559 620 334 893,014 | 1-457 | 1-605 418 983 940,168
1:408 | 1-560 513 348 941 || 1-458 | 1-606 359 151 |, 941,129
1:409 | 1:561 407 289 894,868 |) 1-459 | 1-607 300 280 942,091
1-410 | 1-562 302 157 895,795 || 1-460 | 1-608 242 371 943,053
1-411 | 1:563 197 952 896,723 || 1-461 | 1-609 185 424 944,017
1-412 | 1:564 094 675 897,651 || 1-462 | 1-610 129 441 981
| 1-413 | 1:564 992 326.| 898,580 || 1-463 | 1-611 074 422 915,946
1-414 | 1-565 890 906 899,511 | 1-464 | 1-612 020 368 946,912
1-415 | 1-566 790 417 900,442 | 1-465 | 1-612 967 280 947,877
1416 | 1:567 690 859 901,373 || 1-466 | 1-613 915 157 948,845
1-417 "| 1:568 692 232 902,304 | 1-467 | 1-614 864 002 949,811
1-418 | 1:569 494 536 903,238 | 1-468 | 1-615 813 813 950,781
1-419 | 1-570 397 774 904,172 || 1-469 | 1-616 764 594 951,751
1-420 | 1-571 301 946 905,106 || 1-470 | 1-617 716 345 952,720
1-421 | 1°572 207 052 906,041 | 1-471 | 1-618 669 065 953,691
1:422 | 1-573 113 093 976 || 1-472 | 1-619 622 756 954,662
1:423 | 1-574 020 069 907,913 || 1-473 | 1-620 577 418 955,634
1-424 | 1-574 927 982 908,850 | 1-474 | 1-621 533 052 956,607
1425 | 1:575 836 832 909,787 || 1-475 | 1-622 489 659 957,580
1-426 | 1-576 746 619 910,726 || 1-476 | 1-623 447 239 958,556
1-427. | 1-577 657 345 911,664 | 1-477 | 1-624 405 795 959,530
1:428 | 1:578 569 009 912,605 || 1-478 | 1-625 365 325 960,606
1-429 | 1:579 481 614 913,546 | 1-479 | 1-626 325 831 961,483
1-430 | 1:580 395 160 914,486 || 1-480 | 1-627 287 314 962,460
1-431 | 1-581 309 646 915,429 | 1-481 | 1-628 249 774 963,438
1-432 | 1:582 225 075 916,370 || 1-482 | 1-629 213 212 964,417
1-433 | 1:583 141 445 917,314 || 1-483 | 1-630 177 629 965,396
1-434 | 1-584 058 759 918,259 || 1-484 | 1-631 143 025 966,376
1-435 | 1-584 977 018 919,203 | 1-485 | 1-632 109 401 967,358
1:436 | 1:585 896 221 920,149 || 1-486 | 1-633 076 759 968,339
1:437 | 1:586 816 370 921,095 || 1-487 | 1-634 045 098 969,322
1-438 | 1-587 737 465 922,042 || 1-488 | 1-635 014 420 970,305
1-439 | 1-588 659 507 989 || 1-489 | 1-635 984 725 971,289
1-440 | 1-589 582 496 923,937 || 1-490 | 1°636 956 014 972,274
1441 | 1:590 506 433 924,887 || 1-491 | 1-637 928 288 973,259
1-442 | «1-591 431 320 925,836 | 1492 | 1-638 901 547 974,246
1-443 «| «=1:592 357 156 926,787 || 1-493 | 1-639 875 793 975,232
/ 1-444 | 1593 283 943 927)738 || 1-494 | 1-640 851 025 976,220
21-445 «| #1:594 211 681 928,689 || 1-495 | 1-641 827 245 977,209
1-446 | 1-595 140 370 929,642 || 1-496 | 1-642 804 454 978,198
1-447 | 1-596 070 012 930,596 || 1-497 | 1-643 782 652 §79,189
1-448 | 1-597 000 608 931,550 || 1498 | 1-644 761 841 980,178
1-449 | 1/597 932 158 932,503 || 1-499 | 1-645 742 019 981,171
1-450 | 1-598 864 661 933,460 || 1:500 | 1-646 723 190 982,163
1896. i
REPORT—1896.
1
Ee Tor Difference | x Iqvr Difference |
1:500 | 1646 723 190 982,163 | 1550 | 1-697 062 826 | 1,032,758 |
1501 | 1-647 705 353 983,156 || 1551 | 1-698 095 584 | 1,033,791 |
1:502 | 1°648 688 509 984,149 | 1:552 | 1-699 129 375 34,822
1:503 | 1-649 672 658 985,144 || 1-553 | 1-700 164 197 35,856
1504 | 1:650 657 802 986,139 | 1554 | 1-701 200 053 36,891
1:505 | 1:651 643 941 987,136 | 1:555 | 1-702 236 944 37,926
1:506 | 1-652 631 077 988,132 | 1:556 | 1-703 274 870 38,962
1507 | 1-653 619 209 989,130 || 1557 | 1-704 313 832 39,998
1:508 | 1-654 608 339 990,128 || 1:558 | 1-705 358 830 41,035
1509 | 1-655 598 467 991,127 | 1:559 | 1-706 394 865 42,074
1510 | 1-656 589 594 | 992,127 | 1-560 | 1-707 436 939 | 1,043,113
sobad wie ete Yeap iel fh | 7 Be ee
1511 | 1-657 681 721 993,128 | 1:561 | 1-708 480 052 | 1,044,153
1512 | 1-658 674 349 994,129 | 1362 | 1-709 524 205 45,194
1513 || 1-659 568 978 995,132 | 1:563 | 1-710 569 399 46,236
1:514 | 1-660 564 110 996,134 | 1:564 | 1-711 615 635 47,278
1516 | 1-661 560 244 997,139 || 1:565 | 1-712 662 913 48,321
1:516 | 1-662 557 383 998,142 | 1:566 | 1-713 711 234 49,364
15617 | 1-663 555 525 | 999,148. |] 1-567 | 1-714 760 598 50,409
1:518 | 1-664°554 673 | 1,000,155 ~|| 1:568 | 1-715 811 007 51,455
1519 | 1-665 554 828 1,160 || 1:°569 | 1-716 862 462 52,502
1520 | 1-666 555 988 | 1,002,168 | 1:570 | 1-717 914 964 | 1,053,549
1521 | 1-667 558 156 | 1,003,176 || 1571 | 1:718 968 513 | 1,054,596
1:522 | 1-668 561 332 | 4,186 | 1572 | 1:720 023 109 55,646
1523 | 1-669 565 518 | 5,196 || 1573 | 1-721 078 755 56,695
1524 | 1-670 570 714 6,206 || 1574 | 1-722 135 450 57,745
1525 | 1-671 576 920 | 7,218 || 1:575 | 1-723 193 195 58,797
1526 | 1-672 584 138 8,230 | 1576 | 1:724 251 992 59,849
1527 | 1-673 592 368 | 9,243 ||. 1577 | 1-725 811 841 60,902
1528 | 1-674 601 611 10,257 | 1578 | 1:726 372 743 61,956
1529 | 1-675 611 868 271 | 1579 | 1-727 434 699 63,010
| 1530 | 1-676 623 139 | 1,012,287 | 1580 | 1-728 497 709 | 1,064,067
1:53 1677 635 426 | 1,013,303 | 1:581 | 1-729 561 776 | 1,065,121
1532 | 1-678 648 729 14,319 | 1-582 | 1-730 626 897 66,178
1:533 | 1-679 663 048 15,337 | 1583 | 1-731 693 075 67,237
1:534 | 1-680 678 385 | 16,356 | 1:584 | 1-782 760 312 68,296
1:535 | 1-681 694 741 | 17,375 || 1:585 | 1-733 828 608 69,355
1536 | 1-682 712116 | 18,395 || 1386 | 1:734 897 963 70,415
1537 | 1-683 730 511 | 19,415 |) 1-587 | 1-735 968 378 71,476
1538 | 1-684 749 996 | 20,487. ||:1-588. | 1-737 039 854 72,538
1539 | 1-685 770 363 | 21,460 | 1589 | 1-738 112 392 73,601
1540 | 1-686 791 823 | 1,02 22,483 | 1590 | 1-739 185 993 | 1,074,664
1541 | 1687 814 306 | 1,023,507 || 1591 | 1-740 260 657 | 1,075,729
1542 | 1-688 837 813 24,532 || 1592 | 1-741 336 386 76,795
1:543 | 1-689 862 345 25,557 || 1:593 | 1-742 413 181 77,860
1544 | 1-690 887 902 26,584 || 1594 | 1-743 491 O41 78,927
1545 | 1-691 914 486 27,611 | 1:595 | 1-744 569 968 79,996
1546 | 1-692 942 097 28,638 | 1596 | 1-745 649 964 81,064
1547 | 1-693 970 735 29,668 | 1597 | 1:746,73L 028 82,133
1:548 | 1-695 000°403 30,696 | 1:598 | 1-747 813 161 83,204
1549 | 1-696 031 099 31.727 || 1599 | 1-748 896 365 84,275
1550 | 1-697 062 826 | 1,032,768 | 1-600 | 1:749 980 640 | 1,085,347
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 115
Tox Difference | up | Tov Difference
1-749 980 640 | 1,085,347 | 1-650 | 1-805 578 834 | 1,140,033
“1-751 065 987 | 1,086,419 | 1-651 | 1-806 718 867 | 1,141,149
1-752 152 406 87,493 || 1:652 | 1-807 860 016 142,266
1:753 239 899 88,568 | 1653 | 1-809 002 282 143,384
1-754 328 467 89,643 || 1:654 | 1-810 145 666 144,502
1755 418 110 90,719 | 1655 | 1-811 290 168 145,621
1:756 508 829 91,796 | 1656 | 1:812 435 789 146,741
1:757 600 625 92,874 || 1657 | 1-813 582 530 147,863
1:758 693 499 93,953 | 1658 | 1-814 730 393 148,986
1:759 787 452 95,033 | 1659 | 1-815 879 379 150,108
1-760 882 485 | 1,096,113 | 1-660 | 1-817 029 487 | 1,161,231
1-761 978 598 | 1,097,194 | 1661 | 1-818 180 718 | 1,152,356
1:763 075 792 98,276 || 1:662 | 1-819 333 074 153,482
1:764 174 068 99,359 || 1-663 | 1-820 486 556 | 154,610
1-765 273 427 100,443 | 1-664 | 1-821 G41 166 155,736
1:766 373 870 101,528 | 1°665 | 1:822 796 902 156,864
1:767 475 398 102,613 | 1666 | 1:823 953 766 157,994
1-768 578 O11 103,699 || 1-667 | 1-825 111 760 159,124
1:769 681 710 104,786 | 1-668 1 826 270 884 160,255
1:770 786 496 105,875 || 1-669 | 1-827 431 139 161,386
1-771 892 371 | 1,106,964 | 1-670 | 1-828 592 525 | 1,162,520
1-772 999 335 | 1,108,053 |} 1-671 | 1-829 755 045 | 1,163,654
1:774 107 388 109,144 | 1672, | 1830 918 699 164,787
1:775 216 532 110,236 || 1-673 | 1-832 083 486 165,924
1:776 326 768 111,327 | 1-674 | 1-833 249 410 167,060
1:777 438 095 112,421 || 1-675 | 1-834 416 470 168,197
1:778 550 516 113,515 || 1-676 | 1-835 584 667 169,334
1-779 664 031 114,610 || 1-677 | 1-836 754 001 170,475
1:780 778 641 115,706 | 1-678 | 1-837 924 476 171,615
1:781 894 347 116,803 | 1-679 | 1-839 096 091 172,755
1:783 011 150 | 1,117,900 | 1680 | 1840 268 846 | 1,173,897
1-784 129 050 | 1,118,998 || 1-681 | 1-841 442 743 | 1,175,040
1:785 248 048 120,097 || 1-682 | 1-842 617 783 176,184
1:786 368 145 121,198 || 1-683 | 1-843 793 967 177,328
1:787 489 343 122,299 | 1684 | 1-844 971 295 178,474
1:788 611 642 123,401 || 1685 | 1-846 149 769 179,621
1:789 735 043 124,504 | 1686 | 1-847 329 390 180,767
1:790 859 547 125,606 | 1-687 | 1-848 510 157 181,916
1:791 985 153 126,711 | 1688 | 1-849 692 073 183,065
1:793 111 864 127,817 | 1-689 | 1-850 875 138 184,216
1-794 239 681 | 1,128,923 || 1-690 | 1-852 059 354 | 1,185,366
| | =
1-795 368 604 | 1,130,030 |- 1-691 | 1-853 244 720 | 1,186,517
1:796 498 634 131,138 || 1:692 | 1-854 431 237 187,671
1-797 629 772 132,246 || 1693 | 1-855 618 908 188,825
1:798 762 018 133,357. || 1-694 | 1-856 807 733 189,980
1:799 895 375 134,467 || 1-695 | 1-857 997 713 191,135
1:801 029 842 135,579 || 1:696 | 1-859 188 848 192,291
1/802 165 421 136,691 | 1:697 | 1-860 381 139 193,449
1-803 302 112 137,804 || 1698 | 1-861 574 588 194,607
1:804 439 916 138,918 | 1699 | 1-862 769 195 195,767
1805 578 834 | 1,140,033 | 1-700 | 1863 964 962 | 1,196,997
12
116 REPORT—1896.
x Ipr Difference | xr | Ipz Difference
1:700 | 1-863 964 962 | 1,196,927 |! 1-750 | 1:925 252 154 | 1,256,142
1-701 | 1:865 161 889 | 1,198,088 || 1-751 | 1-926 608 296 | 1,257,350
1:702 | 1-866 359 977 199,251 || 1:752 | 1:927 765 646 258,560
1:703 | 1/867 559 228 200,412 || 1:753 | 1-929 024 206 259,771
1:704 | 1-868 759 640 201,577 || 1-754 | 1-930 283 977 260,982
1-705 | 1-869 961 217 202,742 || 1:755 | 1-931 544 959 262,196
1-706 | 1:87! 163 959 203,908 || 1:756 | 1-932 807 155 263,409
1:707 | 1-872 367 867 205,074 || 1:757 |. 1:934 070 564 264,623
1-708 | 1-873 572 941 206,242 || 1:758 | 1-935 335 187 265,839
1709 | 1/874 779 183 207,411 || 1:759 | 1-936 601 026 267,056
1:710 | 1:875 986 594 | 1,208,581 || 1-760 | 1-937 868 082 | 1,268,273
1711 1:877 195 175 1,209,751 1-761 1:939 136 355 1,269,493
1712 | 1-878 404 926 210,922 || 1-762 | 1-940 405 848 270,712
1713 | 1/879 615 848 212,094 || 1-763 | 1-941 676 560 271,932
1-714 | 1-880 827 942 213,269 || 1-764 | 1-942 948 492 273,153
1-715 | 1-882 041 211 214,442 || 1:765 | 1-944 221 645 274,376
1:716 | 1/883 255 653 215,617 || 1-766 | 1-945 496 021 275,600
1-717 | 1-884 471 270 216,793 || 1-767 | 1-946 771 621 276,825
1:718 | 1-885 688 063 217,971 || 1-768 | 1-948 048 446 278,049
1:719 | 1-886 906 034 219,149 "|| 1-769 | 1-949 326 495 279,276
1:720 | 1-888 125 183 | 1,220,328 || 1-770 | 1-950 605 771 | 1,280,504
1:721 | 1-889 345 511 | 1,221,507 || 1-771 1951 886 275 | 1,281,733
1:722 | 1-890 567 018 22,689 || 1-772 | 1-953 168 008 282,962
1-723 | 1/891 789 707 223,870 || 1-773 | 1-954 450 970 284,192
1-724 | 1/898 013 577 225,053 || 1:774 | 1-955 735 162 285,424
1:725 | 1-894 238 630 226,236 || 1:775 |° 1-957 020 586 286,656
1-726 | 1-895 464 866 227,422 || 1-776 | 1-958 307 242 287,890
1:727 | 1:896 692 288 228,608 || 1-777 | 1-959 595 132 289,124
1:728 | 1:897 920 896 229,793 || 1-778 | 1-960 884 2656 290,360
1-729 | 1-899 150 689 230,981 || 1:779 | 1-962 174 616 291,596
1730 | 1-900 381 670 | 1,232,170 || 1-780 | 1-963 466 212 | 1,292,834
1-731 1-901 613 840 | 1,233,359 || 1:781 | 1-964 759 046 | 1,294,072
1-732 | 1:902 847 199 234,549 || 1-782 | 1-966 053 118 295,312
1-733 | 1-904 081 748 235,741 || 1:783 | 1-967 348 430 296,552
1-734 | 1-905 317 489 236,933 || 1:784 | 1-968 644 982 297,794
1-735 | 1-906 554 422 238,127 || 1:785 | 1-969 942 776 299,036
1-736 | 1-907 792 549 239,321 || 1:786 | 1-971 241 812 300,280
1:737 | 1-909 031 870 240,516 || 1:787 | 1-972 542 092 301,525
1:738 | 1-910 272 386 241,712 || 1:788 | 1:973 843 617 302,771
1:739 | 1-911 514 098 249.909 |) 1-789 | 1:975 146 388 304,016
1-740 | 1-912 757 007 | 1,244,107 || 1-790 | 1-976 450 404 | 1,305,264
1-741 | 1-914 001 114 | 1,245,307 || 1-791 | 1-977 755 668 | 1,306,513
1-742 | 1-915 246 421 246,506 || 1:792 | 1-979 062 181 307,763
1:743 | 1-916 492 927 247,707 || 1:793 | 1-980 369 944 309,012
1:744 | 1-917 740 634 248,909 | 1:794 | 1-981 678 956 310,265
1:745 | 1-918 989 543 250,113 | 1:795 | 1:982 989 221 311,518
1:746 | 1-920 239 656 251,316 | 1:796 | 1-984 300 739 312,772
1:747 | 1:921 490 972 252,521 || 1-797 | 1-985 613 511 314,026
1-748 | 1-922 743 493 253,727 || 1:798 | 1:986 927 537 315,282
1:749 | 1-923 997 220 254,934 || 1:799 | 1-988 242 819 316,538
1-750 | 1:925 252 154 | 1,256,142 || 1-800 | 1-989 659 367 | 1,317,796
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
117
x Ipr Difference Sh Igor Difference
1-800 1-989 559 357 | 1,317,796 1:850 2°057 O11 587 1,382,015
1:801 1:990 877 153 1,319,055 1851 2:058 393 602 1,383,326
1-802 1992 196 208 320,315 1°852 2°059 776 928 384,639
1:803 1993 516 523 321,576 1°853 2°061 161 567 385,952
1804 1:994 838 099 322,838 1854 2062 547 519 387,267
1:805 1:996 160 937 324,101 1855 2°063 934 786 388,583
1-806 1:997 485 038 325,364 1°856 2:065 323 369 389,900
1:807 1:998 810 402 326,629 1-857 2:066 713 269 391,218
1-808 2-000 137 031 327,896 1:858 2:068 104 487 392,537
1:809 2001 464 927 329,163 1°859 2069 497 024 393,856
1810 2002 794 090 1,330,431 1:860 2070 890 880 1,395,178
1811 2:004 124 521 1,331,700 1861 2:072 286 058 1,396,500
1812 2:005 456 221 332,970 1-862 2°073 682 558 397,823
1813 2:006 789 191 334,242 1:863 2:075 080 381 399,148
1814 2-008 123 433 335,513 1-864 2:076 479 529 400,474
1815 2:009 468 946 336,787 1:865 2077 880 003 401,799
1-816 2:010 795 733 338,062 1-866 2:079 281 802 403,128
1817 2:012 133 795 339,336 1-867 2080 684 930 404,456
1818 2:013 473 131 340,613 1-868 2:082 089 386 405,786
1819 2014 813 744 341,891 1-869 2083 495 172 407,117
1-820 2016 155 635 it, 343, 169 1-870 2-084 902 289 1,408,450
1-821 2-017 498 804 1,344,448 1871 2:086 310 739 1,409,782
1822 2018 843 252 345,729 1:872 2087 720 521 411,117
1:823 2:020 188 981 347,011 1873 | 2-089 131 638 412,452
1:824 2:021 535 992 348,294 1874 2:090 544 090 413,788
1825 2:022 884 286 349,577 1875 2:091 957 878 415,127
1:826 2:024 233 863 350,862 1-876 2:093 373 005 416,464
1-827 2°025 584 725 352,147 1877 2-094 789 469 417,805
1828 2°026 936 872 353,435 1:878 2:096 207 274 419,146
1:829 2°028 290 307 354,723 1:879 2°C97 626 420 420,488
1:830 2029 645 030 1,356,012 1-880 2:099 046 908 1,421,831
1831 2:031 001 042 1,357,301 1°881 2°100 468 739 1,423,175
1832 2°032 558 343 358,593 1:882 2°101 891 914 424,520
1833 2:033 716 936 359,885 1:883 27103 316 434 425,867
1834 2035 076 821 361,179 “884 2104 742 301 427,214
1:835 2°036 438 000 362,472 1-885 2°106 169 515 428,563
1:836 2:037 800 472 363,768 1:886 2107 598 078 429,912
1837 2039 164 240 365,065 1-887 2°109 027 990 431,264
1838 2:040 529 305 366,362 1-888 27110 459 254 432,615
1-839 2041 895 667 367,660 1-889 2-111 891 869 433,969
1-840 2°043 263 327 1,368,960 1-890 2-113 325 838 1,435,322
1841 2°044 632 287 1,370,261 1:891 2°114 761 160 1,436,679
1842 2046 002 548 371,562 1-892 2°116 197 839 438,035
1843 2047 374 110 372,866 1:893 2°117 635 874 439,392
1-844 2048 746 976 374,169 1894 2°119 075 266 440,752
1845 2°050° 121 145 375,474 1°895 2°120 516 0J8 442,110
1846 2-051 496 619 376,780 1-896 2°121 958 128 443,472
1847 2052 873 399 378,087 1897 2°123 401 600 444,835
1-848 2054 251 486 379,396 1-898 27124 846 435 446,197
1-849 2°055 630 882 380,705 1-899 2°126 292 632 447,562
| 2.
1-850 | 2057 O11 587 1,382,015 194 1,448,927
2127 740
|
118
REPORT—1896.
a Ior Difference | x Toa Difference
“1-900 | 2127 740 194 | 1,448,927 | 1-950 | 2-201 883 143 | 1,518,668)
1-901 | 2129 189 121 | 1,450,295 | 1:951 | 2-203 401 811 | 1,520,093
1902 | 2-130 639 416 451,661 | 1-952 | 2-204 921 904 521,518
1903 | 2132 091-077 453,030: || 1953 | 2-206 443 422 522,946
1904 | 2133 544 107 454,401 | 1:954 | 2-207 966 368 524,374
1905 | 2:134 998 508 455,772 | 1:955 | 2-209 490 742 525,803
1906 | 2136 454 280 | 457,144 | 1-956 | 2-211 016 545 527,234
1907 | 2137 911 424 | 458,518 || 1957 | 9-212 543 779 28,666
1908 | 2139 369 942 459,892 | 1-958 | 2-214 072 445 530,099
1:909 | 2-140 829 834 461,268 || 1959 | 2215 602 544 531,533
1910 | 2142 291 102 1,462,645 | 1-960 | 2217 134 077 | 1,532,968
“yo | 2443 753 747 | 1,464,022 || 1-961 | 2-218 667 045 | 1,534,405
1:912 | 2145 217 769 465,403 || 1:962 | 2-220 201 450 535,843
1913 | 2146 683 172 466,782 || 1:963 | 2221 737 293 537,281
1-914 | 2148 149 954 468,164 || 1:964 | 2-293 274 574 538,722
1915 | 2149 618 118 469,546 | 1:965 | 2-224 813 296 540,163
1916 | 2151 O87 664 470,930 || 1:966 | 2226 353 4 541,606
1917 | 2152 558 594 472,315 || 1:967 | 2-227 895 065 543,050
1918 | 2154 030 909 473,701 | 1-968 | 2229 438 115 544,494
1919 | 2155 504 610 475,088 | 1:969 | 2-230 982 609 545,941
| 1920 | 2156 979 698 | 1,476,476 | 1-970 | 2-232 598 550 | 1,547,388
1921 | 2158 456 174 | -1,477,866 || 1-971 | 2-234 075 938 | 1,548,837
1:922 | 2-159 934 040 479.957 || 1972 | 2-235 624 775 550,286
1923 | 2161 413 297 480,648 |, 1973 | 2-237 175 061 551,737
| 1-924 | 2162 893 945 482,042 | 1:974 | 2-238 726 798 553,190
1925 | 2-164 375 987 483,436 || 1:975 | 2-240 279 988 554,644
1:926 | 2165 859 423 484,831 || 1976 | 2:241 834 632 556,098
1:927 | 2:167 344 254 486,226 | 1-977 | 2-243 390 730 | 557,554
1:928 | 2-168 830 480 487,625 || 1978 | 2:244 948 284 559,011
1929 | 2170 318 105 489,024 | 1:979 | 2246 507 295 560,470
1-930 | 2-171 807 129 | 1,490,423 || 1-980 | 2-248 067 765 | 1,561,929
1931 | 2173 297 552 | 1,491,825 | 1-981 | 2249 629 694 | 1,563,390
1:932 | 2174 789 377 493,227 || 1:982 | 2-251 193 084 564,852
1933 | 2-176 282 604 494,630 || 1983 | 2252 757 936 | 566,315
1-934 | 2:177 777 234 496,035 | 1:984 | 2:254 324 251 567,780
1:935 | 2179 273 269 497,441 || 1-986 | 2-255 892 O31 569,245
1:936 | 2-180 770 710 498.847 || 1-986 | 2-257 461 276 570,712
1:937 | 2-182 269 557 500,256 || 1:987 | 2-259 031 988 572,181
1938 | 2-183 769 813 501,665 | 1:988 | 2-260 604 169 573,650
1:939 | 2-185 271 478 503,076 || 1:989 | 2262 177 819 575,121
1:940 | 2186 774 554 | 1,504,487 | 1:990 | 2:263 752 940 | 1,576,592
|
1941 | 2-188 279 041 | 1,505,900 | 1:991 | 2-265 329 532 | 1,578,066
1:942 | 2189 784 941 507,314 || 1:992 | 2-266 907 598 579,540
1943 | 25191 292 255 508,729" || 1:993 | 2-268 487 138 581,016
1:944 | 2-192 800 984 510,145 || 1-994 | 2-270 068 154 582,492
1945 | 2194 311 129 511,563 || 1:995 | 2-271 650 646 583,970
1:946 | 25195 822 692 512,982 || 1:996 | 2-273 234 616 585,450
1:947 | 2197 335 674 514,401 || 1-997 | 2-274 820 066 586,930
1:948 | 2198 850 075 515,823 || 1:998 | 2-276 406 996 588,412
1:949 | 2-200 365 898 517,245 || 1-999 | 2277 995 408 589,894
1:950 | 2-201 883 143 | 1,518,668 || 2-000 | 2-279 585 302 | 1,591,379
|
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
119
Difference
x Tox Difference || © @ I,v }
2000 | 2279 585 302 | 1,591,379 || 2050 | 2-360 998 757 | 1,667,207
2-001 | 2-281 176 681 | 1,592,865 | 2-051 | 2:362 665 964 | 1,668,757
2002 | 2-282 769 546 594,352 || 2052 | 2364 334 721 670,308
2003 | 2-284 363 898 595,839 | 2053 | 2-366 005 029 671,860
2004 2:285 959 737 597,329 || 2054 | 2-367 676 889 673,413
2005 | 2-287 557 066 598,819 || 2055 | 2-369 350 302 674,968
2-006 | 2:289 155 885 600,311 || 2056 | 2-371 025 270 676,524
2007 | 2:290 756 196 601,804 | 2057 | 2-372 701 794 678,081
2-008 | 2:292 358 000 603,298 | 2058 | 2374 379 875 679,639
2-009 | 2:293 961 298 604,794 || 2059 | 2-376 059 514 681,200
2010 | 2:295 566 092 | 1,606,291 | 2060 | 2-377 740 714 | 1,682,761
2011 | 2-297 172 383 | 1,607,788 | 2:061 | 2-379 423 475 | 1,684,323
2012 | 2298 780 171 609,288 || 2062 | 2-381 107 798 685,887
2013 | 2300 389 459 610,789 || 2063 | 2382 793 685 687,453
2-014 | 2-302 000 248 612,290 | 2-064 | 2-384 481 138 689,019
2-015. | 2:303 612 538 613,794 || 2065 | 2:386 170 157 690,587
2016 | 2:305 226 332 615,298 | 2066 | 2387 860 744 692,156
2:017 | 2:306 841 630 616,803 | 2067 | 2:389 552 900 | 693,727
2-018 | 2-308 458 433 618.311 | 2-068 | 2:391 246 627 695,298
2-019 | 2-310 676 744 619,818 || 2069 | 2392 941 925 | 696,871
2020 | 2311 696 562 | 1,621,328 } 2-070 | 2-394 638 796 | 1,698,446 _
2-021 | 2-313 317 890 | 1,622,839 || 2071 | 2:396 337 242. | 1,700,023
2-022 2-314 940 729 624,350 || 2072 2:398 037 265 701,599
2023 | 2°316 565 079 625,864 || 2073 | 2-399 738 864 703,177
2-024 2:318 190 943 627,379 || 2-074 2°401 442 041 704,758
2025 | 2-319 818 322 628.394 | 2075 | 2-403 146 799 706,338
2026 | 2:321 447 216 630,411 | 2076 | 2-404 853 137 707,921
2027 | 2:323 O77 627 631,930 | 2:077 | 2-406 561 058 709,506
2028 | 2-324 709 557 633,449 | 2078 | 2-408 270 564 711,090
2029 | 2:326 343 006 634,971 | 2-079 | 2-409 981 654 712,677
2030. | 2:327 977 977 | 1,636,492 || 2080 | 2-411 694 331 | 1,714,265
2-031 | 2:329 614 469 | 1,638,016 | 2081 | 2-413 408 596 | 1,715,854
2032 | 2-331 252 485 639,541 || 2082 | 2-415 124 450 717,445
2-033 | 2-332 892 026 641,067 || 2-083 | 2-416 841 895 719,037
2-034 | 2°334 533 093 642,594 || 2084 | 2-418 560 932 720,629
2035 | 2:336 175 687 644,122 | 2-085 | 2-420 281 561 722,225
2:036 | 2:337 819 809 645,652 || 2086 | 2-422 003 786 723,821
2037 | 2:339 465 461 647,184 || 2087 | 2-423 727 607 725,416
2038 | 2-341 112 645 648,717 || 2-088 | 2-425 453 023 727,017
2-039 | 2:342 761 362 650,250 || 2089 | 2-427 180 040 728,618
2040 | 2344 411 612 | 1,651,785 || 2090 | 2-428 908 658 | 1,730,219
2-041 | 2346 063 397 | 1,653,322 | 2091 | 2-430 638 877 | 1,731,821
9:042 | 2-347 716 719 654,859 || 2092 | 2-432 370 698 | 733,425
2043 | 2:349 371 578 656,399 || 2093 | 2-434 104 123 735,031
2044 | 2-351 027 977 657,939 | 2094 | 2-435 839 154 736,638
2045 | 2:352 685 916 659,479 || 2095 | 2-437 575 792 738,246
2-046 | 2:354 345 395 661,023 || 2-096 | 2-439 314 038 739,855
2-047 | 2:356 006 418 662,567 || 2097 | 2-441 053 893 741,466
2-048 | 2:357 668 985 664,113 | 2098 | 2-442 795 359 743,078
2-049 | 2°359 333 098 665,659 || 2-099 | 2-444 538 437 744,692
2050 | 2-360 998 757 -| 1,667,207 || 2100 | 2-446 283 129 | 1,746,308
REPORT—1896.
zr Ipr Difference x Iov Difference
2100 | 2-446 283 129 | 1,746,308 || 2-150 | 2535 605 920 | 1,828,840
2101 | 2-448 029 437 | 1,747,924 || 2151 | 2537 434 760 | 1,830,527
2102 | 2-449 777 361 749,542 || 25152 | 2539 265 287 832,216
2103 | 2-451 526 903 751,161 || 2:153 | 2-541 097 503 833,905
2104 | 2-453 278 064 752,781 || 2154 | 2542 931 408 | 835,696
2105 | 2-455 030 845 754,404 || 2:155 | 2-544 767 004 837,289
2106 | 2-456 785 249 756,027 || 2156 | 2-546 604 293 838,983
2107 | 2-458 541 276 757,652 || 2157 | 2-548 443 276 840,678
2108 | 2-460 298 928 759,278 || 2158 | 2-550 283 954 842,376
2109 | 2-462 058 206 760,905 || 2:159 | 92-552 126 330 844,074
2110 | 2-463 819 111 | 1,762,534 || 2:160 | 92-553 970 404 | 1,845,773
2111 | 2-465 581 645 | 1,764,165 || 2-161 | 4-555 816 177 | 1,847,474
2112 | 2467 345 810 765,796 || 2162 | 92-557 663 651 849,178
2113 | 2-469 111 606 767,429 || 2163 | 9-559 512 829 850,882
2114. | 2-470 879 035 769,064 || 2164 | 2-561 363 711 852,588
2115 | 2-472 648 099 770,699 || 2165 | 2-568 216 299 854,295
2116 | 2-474 418 798 772,337 || 2:166 | 9:565 070 594 856,003
2117 | 2-476 191 135 773,975 || 2167 | 2-566 926 597 857,713
2118 | 2-477 965 110 775,615 || 2168 | 2-568 784 310 859,424
2119 | 2-479 740 725 777,258 || 2169 | 2-570 643 734 861,138
2120 | 2-481 517 983 | 1,778,899 || 2170 | 2-572 504 872 | 1,862,852
2121 | 2:483 296 882 | 1,780,544 || 2171 | 2-574 367 724 | 1,864,568
2-122 | 2-485 077 426 782,189 || 2172 | 9:576 232 292 866,286
2123 | 2-486 859 615 783,836 || 2173 | 2:578 098 578 868,005
2124 | 2-488 643 451 785,485 || 2:174 | 2-579 966 583 869,724
2125 | 2-490 428 936 787,135 || 2175 | 2-581 836 307 871,446
2126 | 2-492 216 O71 788,786 || 2°176 | 92-583 707 753 873,169
2127 | 2-494 004 857 790,438 || 2177 | 92-585 580 922 874,895
2:128 | 2495 795 295 792,092 || 2178 | 92-587 455 817 876,621
9:129 | 2-497 587 387 793,748 || 2179 | 2-589 332 438 878,349
2130 | 2°499 381 135 | 1,795,405 || 2-180 | 92-591 210 787 | 1,880,078
2131 | 2501 176 540 | 1,797,063 || 2181 | 2-593 090 865. | 1,881,808
2132 | 2°502 973 603 798,722 || 2182 | 2-594 972 673 883,540
2133 | 2:504 772 325 800,384 || 2:183 | 9:596 856 213 885,274
2:134 | 2:506 572 709 802,047 || 2184 | 2598 741 487 887,009
2135 | 2:508 374 756 803,710 || 2185 | 2600 628 496 888,746
2136 | 2510 178 466 805,376 || 2186 | 2-602 517 242 890,484
2:137 | 2511 983 812 807,042 || 2:187 | 92-604 407 726 892,223
9:138 | 2:513 790 884 808,710 || 2188 | 2-606 299 949 893,965
2:139 | 2:515 599 594 810,380 || 2189 | 2-608 193 914 895,707
2140 | 2517 409 974 | 1,812,051 || 2:190 | 2-610 089 621 | 1,897,451
2141 | 2519 222 025 | 1,813,724 || 2191 | 2611 987 072 | 1,899,197
2142 | 2521 035 749 815,398 || 2192 | 9-613 886 269 900,944
2143 | 2:522 851 147 817,073 || 2193 | 2-615 787 213 902,693
2144 | 2524 668 220 818,750 || 2194 | 2-617 689 906 904,442
2145 | 2:526 486 970 820,427 || 25195 | 9-619 594 348 906,194
2146 | 2°528 307 397 $22,108 || 2:196 | 2-621 500 542 907,947
2147 | 2:530 129 505 823,789 || 2197 | 2-623 408 489 909,701
2148 | 2531 953 294 825,471 || 2198 | 9-625 318 190 911,458
2149 | 2-583 778 765 | 827,155 || 2199 | 92-627 229 648 913,216
2150 | 2:535 605 920 | 1,828,840 || 2-200 | 2629 142 864 | 1,914,974
»
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
121
2 Tor Difference x Tor Difference
2200 | 2°629 142 864 | 1,914,974 | 2250 | 2-727 078 307 | 2,004,886
2-201 | 2-631 057 888 | 1,916,735 || 2-251 | 2-729 083 193 | 2,006,724
2202 | 2°632 974 573 918,497 || 2:252 | 2731 089 917 8,563
2:203 | 2°634 893 070 920,261 || 2:253 | 2-733 098 480 10,405
2204 | 2-636 813 331 922,026 || 2:254 | 2-735 108 885 12,248
2:205 | 2-638 735 357 923,792 || 2-255 | 2-737 121 133 14,091
2206 | 2°640 659 149 925,56L || 2-256 | 2-739 135 224 15,938
2:207 | 2:642 584 710 927,332 || 2257 | 2-741 151 162 17,786
2208 | 2644 512 042 929,101 || 2-258 | 2-743 168 948 19,634
9209 | 2-646 441 143 930,874 || 2:259 | 2-745 188 582 21,486
2210 | 2-648 372 017 | 1,932,649 || 2260 | 2-747 210 068 | 2,023,337
2211 | 2-650 304 666 | 1,934,425 || 2-261 | 2-749 233 405 | 2,025,192
2212 | 2°652 239 091 936,201 || 2262 | 4-751 258 597 27,047
2213 | 2654 175 292 937,981 || 2-263 | 2-753 285 644 28,904
9:214 | 2-656 113 273 939,761 || 2:°°64 | 2-755 314 548 30,763
2215 | 2658 053 034 941.544 || 2-265 | 2-757 345 311 32,623
2216 | 2°659 994 578 943,326 || 2:°266 | 2-759 377 934 34,485
2:217 | 2:661 937 904 945.111 || 2:267 | 2-761 412 419 36,350 |
2-218 | 2:663 883 015 946,898 || 2-268 | 2-763 448 769 38,214
2-219 | 2°665 829 913 948.686 | 2-269 | 2-765 486 983 40,080
2-290 | 2°667 778 599 | 1,950,476 || 2.270 | 2-767 527 063 | 2,041,949
2-221 | 2-669 729 075 | 1,952,266 || 2-271 | 2-769 569 012 | 2,043,819
2:292 | 2-671 681 341 954,060 || 2:272 | 2-771 612 831 45,691
9:223 | 2:673 635 401 955,854 || 2273 | 92-773 658 522 47,564
2224 | 2-675 591 255 957,649 || 2274 | 2-775 706 086 49,439
2:295 | 2-677 548 904 959,447 || 2:275 | 2-777 765 625 51,315
2-296 | 2°679 508 351 961,246 || 2276 | 2-779 806 840 53,194
2:297 | 2-681 469 597 963,045 || 2-277 | 2-781 860 034 55,074
2298 | 2°683 432 642 964,848 || 2278 | 2-783 915 108 56,954
2299 | 2:685 397 490 966,652 || 2279 | 2-785 972 062 58,838
2230 | 2°687 364 142 | 1,968,457 | 2280 | 2-788 030 900 | 2,060,722
2-231 | 2689 332 599 | 1,970,263 || 2281 | 2-790 091 622 | 2,062,609
9-232 | 2691 302 862 972,070 || 2282 | 2-792 154 231 64,496
2233 | 2°693 274 932 973,881 || 2283 | 2-794 218 727 66,386
9-234 | 2695 248 813 975,693 || 2284 | 2-796 285 113 68,277
2235 | 2-697 224 506 977,505 || 2:285 | 2-798 353 390 70,170
2-236 | 2°699 202 011 979,318 || 2:286 | 2-800 423 560 72,064
2237 | 2-701 181 329 981,137 || 2:287 | 2-802 495 624 73,961
2:238 | 2-703 162 466 982,953 | 2:°288 | 2-804 569 585 75,858
2:239 | 2-705 145 419 984,772 | 2289 | 2806 645 443 77,167
2:240 | 2-707 130 191 | 1,986,592 | 2-290 | 2-808 723 200 | 2,079,658 -
2241 | 2-709 116 783 | 1,988,415 || 2291 | 2-810 802 858 | 2,081,562
2242 | 2-711 105 198 990,239 | 2:292 | 2-812 884 420 83,465
2-243 | 2713 095 437 992,064 | 2-293 | 2814 967 885 85,371
2244 | 2-715 O87 501 993,892 || 2294 | 2-817 053 256 87,279
2245 | 2-717 081 393 995,720 || 2-295 | 2819 140 536 89,188
2246 | 2719 077 113 997,548 | 2296 | 2-821 229 723 9},098
2247 | 2721 074 661 999,382 | 2-297 | 2-823 320 821 93,012
2248 | 2-793 074 043 | 2,001,215 || 2-298 | 2-825 413 833 94,926
2249 | 2-725 075 258 3,049 || 2-299 | 2-827 608 759 96,842
2-250 | 2-727 078 307 | 2,004,886 || 2300 | 2-829 605 601 | 2,098,759
REPORT—1896.
x Ir Difference x Ior Difference
2300 | 2829 605 601 | 2,098,759 || 2:350 | 2-936 927 511 | 2,196,787
2301 2-831 704 360 | 2,100,678 || 2:351 | 2-939 124 298 | 2,198,791
9-302 | 2-833 805 038 102,599 || 2-352 | 2-941 323 089 200,796
2303 | 2°835 907 637 104,521 | 2353 | 2-943 523 885 202,805
2304 | 2838 012 158 106,446 | 2354 | 2-945 726 690 204,814
2305 | 2-840 118 604 108,372 | 2355 | 2-947 931 504 206,825
2306 | 2842 226 976 110,299 || 2356 | 2-950 188 329 208,839
2307 | 2°844 337 275 112,299 | 2-357 | 2-952 347 168 210,854
2308 | 2846 449 504 114,159 | 2-358 | 2:954 558 022 212,870
2309 2-848 563 663 116,091 | 2359 | 2-956 770 892 214,888
“2310 | 2-850 679 754 | 2,118,026 | 2360 | 2-958 985 780 | 2,216,907
2311 | 2°852 797 780 | 2,119,962 | 2-361 | 2-961 202 687 | 2,218,930.
2-312 | 2854 917 742 121,900 | 2362 | 2-963 421 617 220,954
2313 | 2°857 039 642 123,838 || 2°363 | 2-965 642 571 222,979
2314 | 2859 163 480 125,779 || 2364 | 2-967 865 550 225,006
2-315 | 2:861 289 259 127,722 || 2-365 | 2-970 090 556 227,034
2316 | 2°63 416 981 129,667 || 2:366° | 2-972 317 690 229,067
2317 | 2865 546 648 131,613 || 2367 | 2-974 546 657 231,097
2318 | 2-867 678 261 133,559 | 2368 | 2-976 777 754 233,131
2319 | 2:869 811 820 135,510 | 2369 | 2-979 010 885 235,169
— = | aed = =
2-320 | 2°871 947 330 | 2,137,461 || 2370 | 2-981 246 054 | 2,237,206
2321 | 2°874 084 791 | 2,139,413 | 2371 | 2-983 483 260 | 2,939,245
2-322 | 2-876 224 204 141,367 || 2:372 | 2-985 722 505 241.286
2323 | 2-878 365 571 143,323 || 2373 | 2-987 963 791 243,329
2324 | 2880 508 894 145,282 | 2-374 | 2-990 207 120 245,374
9-395 | 2882 654 176 147,242 || 2:375 | 2-992 452 494 247,421
2326 | 2°884 801 418 149,202 || 2376 | 2-994 699 915 249,470
2-327 | 2886 950 620 151,165 || 2377 | 2-996 949 385 251,519
2-328 | 2°89 101 785 153,130 | 2378 | 2-999 200 904 253,571
2-399 | 2-891 254 915 155,096 || 2379 | 3-001 454 475 255,625
2330 | 2°893 410 011 | 2,157,064 || 2°380 | 3-003 710 100 | 2,257,680
2331 | 2°895 567.075 | 2,159,035 || 2381 | 3-005 967 780 | 2,259,739
2333 | 2897 726 110 161,006 | 2382 | 3-008 227 519 261,797
2-333 | 2:899 887 116 162,978 | 2-383 | 3-010 489 316 263,858
2334 | 2-902 050 094 164,954 || 2384 | 3-012 753 174 265,921
2335 | 2-904 215 048 166,930 || 2385 | 3-015 019 095 267,984
2-336 | 2-906 381 978 168,908 || 2°386 | 3-017 287 079 270,052
2°337 | 2-908 550 886 170,889 || 2387 | 3-019 557 131 272,120
2-338 | 2-910 721 775 172,871 | 2-388 | 3-021 829 251 274,189
2-339 | 2:912 894 646 174,854 || 2389 | 3-024 103 440 576,262)
2340 | 2-915 069 500 | 2,176,839 | 2390 | 3-026 379 702 | 2,278,334,
2341 | 2-917 246 339 | 2,178,826 | 2:391 | 3-028 658 036 | 2,280,410)
2342 | 2-919 425 165 180,815 || 2°392 | 3-080 938 446 282,488
2343 | 2921 605 980 182,804 | 2393 | 3-033 220 934 284,566
2344 | 2-993 788 784 184,798 | 2394 | 3-035 505 500 286,647.
2345 | 2:925 973 582 186,792 || 2395 | 3-087 792 147 288,730
2346 | 2-928 160 374 188,786 || 2:396 | 3-040 080 877 290,814
2347 | 2-930 349 160 190,784 || 2:397 | 3-042 371 691 292.900
2348 | 2-932 539 944 192,783 || 2398 | 3-044 664 591 294,988
9349 | 2-934 732 727 194,784 || 2399 | 3-046 959 679 297,079:
2-350 | 2936 927 511 | 2,196,787 || 2-400 | 3-049 256 658 | 2,299,170 |
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
| Difference
123
z Toa Difference | z lor
s se & 3 ee
2-400 | 3:049 256 658 | 2,299,170 | 2-450 | 3-166 815 966 | 2,406,120
2401 | 3051 555 828 | 2,301,263 || 2451 | 3169 222 086 | 2,408,308
9-402 | 3-053 857 091 303,359 | 2-452 | 3-171 630 394 | 410,496
2-403 | 3-056 160 450 305,456 | 2403 | 3174 040 890 | 412,687
2404 | 3-058 465 906 | 307,555 | 2-454 | 3176 453 577 | 414,880
2405 | 3-060 773 461 309,656 | 2455 | 3178 868 457 417,075
2-406 | 3-063 083 117 311,759 | 2-456 | 3-181 285 532 | 419,272
2-407 | 3-065 394 876 313,864 || 2457 | 3-183 704 804 | 421,470
2-408 | 3-067 708 740 | 315,969 || 2-458 | 3-186 126 274 493,671
2-409 | 3:070 024 709 318,077 || 2459 | 3-188 549 945 | 425,873
2410 | 3-072 342 786 | 2,320,188 | 2-460 | 3-190 975 818 | 2,428,077
2411 | 3-074 662 974 | 2,322,300 || 2461 | 3-193 403 895 | 2,430,284
2412 | 3-076 985 274 | 324,413 | 2462 | 3-195 834179 | 432,493
2413 | 3-079 309 687 326,529 || 2-463 | 3-198 266 672 | 434,702
2414 | 3-081 636 216 | 328,646 || 2-464 | 3-200 701 374 436,914
2415 | 3-083 964 862 330,766 || 2465 | 3-203 138 288 439,129
2-416 | 3-086 295 628 332,887 | 2466 | 3205 577 417 | 441,345
2-417 | 3-088 628 515 335,010 | 2467 | 3208 018 762 | 443,562
2418 | 3:090 963 525 | 337,135 || 2468 | 3-210 462 324 | 445,782
2419 | 3-093 300 660 | 339,261 | 2469 | 3212 908 106 448,005
2-420 | 3-095 639 921 | 2,341,389 | 2-470 | 3-215 356 111 | 2,450,298
2421 | 3-097 981 310 | 2,343,521 || 2471 | 3-217 806 339 | 2,452,454
2422 | 3-100 324 831 345,654 || 2-472 | 3-220 258 793 | 454,682
2493 | 3-102 670 485 347,786 || 2473 | 3-222 713 475 | 456,912
2-494 | 3-105 018 271 349,922 || 2474 | 3225170 387 | 459,142
2-495 | 3-107 368 193 352,061 | 2-475 | 3-227 629 529 | 461,377
2426 | 3-109 720 254 354,201 || 2-476 | 3-230 090 906 463,613
2497 | 3112 074 455 | 356,342 || 2-477 | 3-282 554 519 465,849
2-428 | 3-114 430 797 358,485 | 2-478 | 3-235 020 368 | 468,089
2-429 | 3-116 789 282 | 360,631 | 2479 | 3-237 488 457 | 470,330
2-430 | 3-119 149 913 | 2,362,778 || 2-480 | 3-239 958 787 | 4,472,574
2431 | 3-121 512 691 | 2,364,928 | 2-481 | 3-242 431 361 | 2,474,819
2-432 | 3-123 877 619 367,079 || 2-482 | 3-244 906180 | 477,067
2-433 | 3126 244 698 369,230 || 2-483 | 3-247 383 247 479,317
2-434 | 3-128 613 928 371,386 | 2-484 | 3-249 862 564 | 481,567
2435 | 3130 985 314 | 373,543 || 2485 | 3-252 344 131 483,820
2-436 | 3-133 358 857 | 375,702 || 2-486 | 3-254 827 951 486,075
2437 | 3135 734 559 | 377,862 || 2-487 | 3-257 314026 | 488,334
2-438 | 3138 112 421 380,024 || 2-488 | 3-259 802 360 | 490,593
2-439 | 3-140 492 445 | 382,188 || 2-489 | 3-262 292 953 492,853
2440 | 3-142 874 633 | 2,384,354 || 2-490 | 3-264 785 806 | 2,495,116
244; | 3-145 258 987 | 2,386,523 | 2491 | 3-267 280 922 | 2,497,382
2-442 | 3-147 645 510 | 388,693 || 2-492 | 3-269 778 304 499,649
2443 | 3-150 034 203 390,863 || 2-493 | 3-272 277953 | 501,918
2444 | 3-152 425 066 | 393,037 || 2494 | 3-274 779 871 504,189
2445 | 3-154 818 103 395,214 | 2-495 | 3-277 284060 | 506,463
2446 | 3-157 213 317 | 397,392 || 2-496 | 3-279 790 523 508,738
2447 | 3159 610 709 | 399,570 || 2-497 | 3-282 299 261 511,014
2-448 | 3-162 010 279 401,752 || 2-498 | 3-284 810 275 513,294
2-449 | 3-164 412 031 403,935 || 2-499 | 3-287 323 569 | 615,575
2450 | 3-166 815 966 | 2,406,120 || 2-500 | 3-289 839 144 | 2,517,858
124 REPORT—1896.
Jor Difference xr Igor Difference
3289 839 144 2,517,858 | 2°550 3418 671 188 2,634,614
3292 357 002 2,520,143 2551 3-421 205 802 2,637,002
3294 877 145 522,431 . || 2°552 3°423 842 804 639,393
3°297 399 576 524,719 2°553 3°426 482 197 641,786
3:299 924 295 527,011 2°554 3°429 123 983 644,179
3°302 451 306 529,304 2:555 3-431 768 162 646,575
3°304 980 610 531,599 2°556 3-434 414 737 648,973
3307 512 209 533,896 2:557 3°437 063 710 651,575
3°310 046 105 536,197 2°558 3°439 715 085 653,778
3°312 582 302 538,497 ||’ 2°559 3-442 368 863 656,183
3315 120 799 | 2,540,800 || 2560 | 3-445 025 046 | 2,658,589
3°317 661 599 2,543,106 2°561 3-447 683 635 2,660,998
3°320 204 70 545,413 2562 3-450 344 633 663,410
3-322 750 118 547,722 2°563 3°453 008 043 665,823
3°325 297 840 550,034 2°564 3°455 673 866 668,238
3°327 847 874 552,348 2°565 3°458 342 104 670,656
3°330 400 222 554,662 2°566 3°461 012 760 673,076
3°332 954 884 556,981. 2°567 3463 685 836 675,497
3°335 511 865 559,300 2568 3°466 361 333 677,922
3°338 O71 165 561,622 2°569 3469 039 255 680,348
|
|
|
|
3°340 632 787 2,563,945 2°570 3-471 719 603 2,682,776
3°343 196 732 | 2,566,271 || 2571 | 3-474 402 379 | 2,685,207
3°345 763 003 568,599 2572 3°477 087 586 687,639
3°348 331 602 570,928 2573 i 3:479 775 225 690,074
3°350 902 530 573,260 2574 3°482 465 299 692,511
3°353 475 790 575,594 2575 3°485 157 810 694,950
3°356 051 384 577,930 2°576 3°487 852 760 697,391
3°358 629 314 580,268 2577 3°490 550 151 699,835
3°361 209 582 582,609 2578 3:493 249 986 702,281
3363 792 191 584,951 2579 3495 952 267 704,727
3-366 377 142 | 2,587,294 || 2580 | 3-498 656 994 | 2,707,177
3368 964 436 | 2,589,641 | 2:581 | 3-501 364171 | 2,709,629
3°371 554 O77 591,990 2°582 3504 073 800 712,083
3°374 146 067 594,339 2°583 3506 785 883 714,541
3:°376 740 406 596,692 2584 3°509 500 424 716,999
3°379 337 098 599,046 2°585 3°512 217 423 719,459
3°381 936 144 601,403 2°586 3514 936 882 721,922
3°384 537 547 603,762 2°587 3°517 658 804 724,387
3°387 141 309 606,123 2°588 3520 383 191 726,855
3°389 747 432 608,486 2°589 3°523 110 046 729,324
3-392 355 918 | 2,610,851 || 2590 | 3525 839 370 | 2,731,795
3394 966 769 2,613,217 || 2°591 3°528 571 165 2,734,269
3°397 579 986 615,586 2°592 3°531 305 434 736,746
3°400 195 572 617,958 2°593 3°534 042 179 739,223
3402 813 530 620,331 2°594 3°536 781 402 741,703
3405 433 861 622,706 2-595 3°539 523 105 744,186
3°408 056 567 625,083 2°596 3°542 267 291 746,671.
3°410 681 650 627,464 2°597 3545 013 962 749,157
3413 309 114 629,846 2°598 3°547.763 119 751,647
3415 938 960 632,228 2:599 3°550 514 766 754,138
3-418 571 188 | 2,634,614 | 2600 | 3:53 268 904 | 2,756,632
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 125
eS SS OEE
x Tor Difference z Iqv Difference
9-600 | 3°553 268 904 | 2,756,632 | 2-650 | 3-694 201 463 | 2,884,162
2601 | 3556 025 536 | 2,759,127 || 2-651 | 3697 085 625 | 2,886,771
2-602 3°558 784 663 761,625 2°652 3°699 972 396 889,381
2°603 3561 546 288 764,125 2°653 3:702 861 777 891,994
2-604 3°564 310 413 766,628 2°654 3°705 753 771 894,611
2°605 3°567 O77 O41 769,132 | 2°655 3°708 648 382 897,227
2°606 3°569 846 173 771,639 || 2°656 3711 545 609 899,848
2-607 3°572 617 812 774,148 2°657 3-714 445 457 902,471
2:608 3575 391 960 776,659 | 2°658 3717 347 928 905,096
2-609 3578 168 619 779,172 2°659 3:°720 253 024 907,723
2610 | 3680 947 791 | 2,781,688 || 2660 | 3728 160 747 | 2,910,352
2611 | 3583 729 479 | 2,784,206 | 2661 | 3-726 071 099 | 2,912,985 _
2°612 3°586 513 685 786,726 2-662 3°728 984 084 915,619
2°613 3589 300 411 789,248 2°663 3731 899 703 918,255
2°614 3592 089 659 791,774 || 2°664 3°734 817 958 920,894
2615 3°594 881 433 794,299 2-665 3°737 738 852 923,535
2°616 3597 675 732 796,829 2°666 3740 662 387 926,179
2°617 3600 472 561 799,361 2°667 3743 588 566 928,824
2618 3°603 271 922 801,893 2-668 3746 517 390 931,473
2°619 3°606 073 815 804,430 2°669 3749 448 863 934,124
2-620 | 3°608 878 245 | 2,806,966 | 2°670 | 3-752 382 987 | 2,936,777
2-621 | 3-611 685 211 | 2,809,508 | 2-671 3755 319 764 | 2,939,431
2°622 3°614 494 719 812,050 || 2°672 3°758 259 195 942,089
: 2°623 3°617 306 769 814,596 || 2-673 5761 201 284 944,750
2°624 3°620 121 365 817,141 | 2-674 3764 146 034 947,412
2°625 3°622 938 506 819,691 || 2°675 3767 093 446 950,077
2°626 3°625 758 197 822,243 2°676 3770 043 523 952,744
2°627 3628 580 440 824,796 | 2°677 3°772 996 267 955,413
2°628 3°631 405 236 827,352 | 2°678 3:775 951 680 958,085
2°629 3°634 232 588 "829,912 2679 3°778 909 765 960,760
2°630 3°637 062 500 2,832,471 2-680 | 3-781 870 625 2,963,436
2-631 3°639 894 971 2,835,034 || 2-681 3-784 833 961 2,966,115
2°632 3°642 730 005 837,600 2°682 3787 800 076 968,796
2°633 3°645 567 605 840,166 2°683 3°790 768 872 971,480
2°634 3°648 407 771 842,737 2-684 3°793 740 352 974,167
2°635 3°651 250 508 845,308 2°685 3°796 714 519 976,855
'2°636 3°654 095 816 847,882 2°686 3799 691 374 979,546
2°637 3°656 943 698 850,459 2°687 3°802 670 920 982,238
2°638 3°659 794 157 853,038 2°683 3°805 653 158 984,935
2°639 3°662 647 195 855,619 2°689 3°808 638 093 987,633
9640 | 3665 502 814 | 2,858,201 || 2690 | 3-811 625 726 | 2,990,333
72-641 | 3°668 361 015 | 2,860,788 || 2°691 | 3:814 616 059 | 2,993,036
9-642 | 3-671 221 803 863,375 || 2692 | 3817 609 095 995,742
2-643 | 3:674 085 178 865,966 || 2693 | 3:820 604 837 998,449
(2644 3°676 951 144 868,559 2°694 3823 603 286 3,001,159
2°645 3°679 819 703 871,153 2°695 3°826 604 445 3,871
2°646 3°682 690 856 873,750 2°696 3°829 608 316 6,586
2°647 3°685 564 606 876,350 2°697 3°832 614 902 9,304
2°648 3°688 440 956 878,951 2°698 3°835 624 206 12,024
2°649 3°691 319 907 881,556 2°699 3°838 636 230 14,747
2°650 3°694 201 463 2,884,162 2°700 3841 650 977 3,017,471
| eC nec cn ee
REPORT—1896.
a Tor Difference | a Iov Difference
2-700. | 3841 650 977 | 3,017,471 || 2750 | 3-995 913 107 | 3,156,835
2701 | 3844 668 448 | 3,020,197 || 2-751 | 3-999 069 942 159,686
2702 | 3°847 688 645 92.926 || 2752 | 4-002 229 628 162,539
2703 | 3850 711 571 25,659 || 2:753 | 4-005 392 167 165,396
2704 | 3853 737 230 28,393 || 2754 | 4-008 557 563 168,254
2705 | 3856 765 623 31,129 |} 2:755 | 4-011 725 817 171,115
2706 | 3-859 796 752 33,869 || 2:756 | 4-014 896 932 173,979
2-707 | 3862 830 621 36,611 || 2:757 | 4-018 070 911 176,846
2-708 | 3865 867 232 39,354 || 2758 | 4-021 247 757 179,714
2709 | 3868 906 586 42,101 |) 2°759 | 4-024 427 471 182,586
2710 | 3871 948 687 | 3,044,849 || 2-760 | 4-027 610 057 | 3,185,460
2-711 | 3:874 993 536 | 3,047,601 || 2:761 | 4-030 795 517 | 3,188,336
2-712 .| 3878 041 137 50,356 | 2°762 | 4-033 983 853 191,215
2713 | 3881 091 493 53,110 || 2:763 | 4-037 175 068 194,097
2-714 | 3884 144 603 55,870 || 2:764 | 4-040 369 165 196,981
9-715 | 3:887 200 473 58,631 || 2-765 | 4-043 566 146 199,869
2716 | 3890 259 104 61,395 || 2766 | 4-046 766 015 202,757
2717 | 3893 320 499 64,160 || 2:767 | 4-049 968 772 205,650
2-718 | 3896 384 659 66,929 || 2768 | 4-053 174 422 208,544
2-719 | 3899 451 588 69,700 || 2:769 | 4-056 382 966 211,441
2-720 | 3-902 521 288 | 3,072,474 || 2770 | 4-059 594 407 | 3,214,340
2-721 3905 593 762 | 3,075,249 || 2-771 4062 808 747 | 3,217,243
2722 | 3-908 669 O11 78,028 || 2772 | 4-066 025 990 220,148
2-723 | 3-911 747 039 80,808 || 2°773 | 4-069 246 138 223,056
2724 | 3-914 827 847 83,592 || 2774 | 4072 469 194 225,966
2-725 | 3917 911 439 86,378 || 2775 | 4075 695 160 228,878
2726 | 3-920 997 817 89,166 || 2-776 | 4-078 924 038 231,793
2727 | 3-924 086 983 91,957 || 2-777 | 4-082 155 831 234,711
2728 | 3927 178 940 94.750 || 2-778 | 4-085 390 542 237,632
2729 | 3930 273 690 97,546 || 2°79 | 4-088 628 17 240,555
2-730 | 3933 371 236 | 3,100,344 || 2780 | 4-091 868 729 | 3,243,481
2731 | 3936 471 580 | 3,103,145 || 2-781 | 4095 112 210 | 3,246,408
2-732 | 3-939 574 725 105,948 || 2782 | 4-098 358 618 249,339
2733 | 3-942 680 673 108,754 || 2-783 | 4-101 607 957 252,274
2734 | 3945 789 427 111,561 || 2:784 | 4104 860 231 255,209
2735 | 3-948 900 988 114,373 || 2-785 | 4-108 115 440 268,148
2736 | 3-952 015 361 117,186 || 2-786 | 4-111 373 588 261,090
2-737 | 3-955 132 547 120,001 || 2:787 | 4-114 634 678 264,033
2-738 | 3-958 252 548 122,820 || 2-788 | 4117 898 711 266,980
2:739 | 3-961 375 368 125,641 || 2°789 | 4321 165 691 269,930
2-740 | 3-964 501 009 | 3,128,463 || 2-790 | 4124 435 621 | 3,272,881
2741 | 3-967 629 472 | 3,131,290 || 2-791 | 4127 708 502 | 3,275,835
2-742 | 3-970 760 762 134,118 || 2-792 | 4-130 984 337 278,793
2-743 | 3-973 894 880 136,948 || 2:793 | 4134 263 130 281,753
2-744 | 3-977 031 828 139,782 || 2794 | 4137 544 883 284,715
2745 | 3-980 171 610 142,617 || 2:795 | 4-140 829 598 287,681
2746 | 3-983 314 227 145,456 || 2-796 | 4:144 117 279 290,648
2747 | 3:986 459 683 148,297 || 2-797 | 4:147 407 927 293,618
2-748 | 3-989 607 980 151,141 || 2:798 | 4:150 701 545 296,592
2749 | 3992 759 121 153,986 || 2799 | 4-153 998 137 299.567
2-750 | 3995 913 107 | 3,156,835 || 2800 | 4:157 297 704 | 3,302,545
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
127
x Ior Difference || Tov Difference
2300 | 4-157 297 704 | 3,302,645 | 2850 | 4326 126 469 | 3,454,906
2801 | 4160 600 249 | 3,305,527 || 2-851 | 4329 584 375 | 3,458,024
2-802 | 4163 905 776 308,510 | 2-852 | 4-333 042 399 461,143
2803 | 4167 214 286 311,496 | 2853 | 4336 503 542 464,267
2804 | 4170 525 782 314,486 | 2-854 | 4339 967 809 467,393
2805 | 4:173 840 268 317,476 || 2-855 | 4-343 435 202 470,519
2306 | 4:177 157 744 320,472 || 2:856 | 4:346 905 721 473,652
2807 | 4180 478 216 323,469 || 2-857 | 4-350 379 373 476,785
2-808 | 4183 801 685 326,468 || 2:858 | 4:353 856 158 479,922
2-809 | 4-187 128 153 329,470 || 2:869 | 4:357 336 080 483,063
2-810 4:190 457 623 3,332,476 || 2-860 4360 819 143 | 3,486,204
2811 | 4193 790 099 | 3,335,484 || 2-861 | 4:364 305 347 | 3,489,350
9812 | 4-197 125 583 338,493 | 2:862 | 4:367 794 697 492,498
2813 | 4-200 464 076 341,507 || 2:63 | 4:371 287 195 495,648
2-314 | 4-203 805 583 344,523 || 2-864 | 4:374 782 843 498,802
2815 | 4207 150 106 347,542 || 2-865 | 4:378 281 645 501,959
2816 | 4-210 497 648 350,562 || 2-866 | 4381 783 604 505,118
2-817 | 4-213 848 210 353,586 || 2-867 | 4385 288 722 508,280
2818 | 4217 201 796 356,613 | 2-868 | 4:388 797 002 511,446
2-319 | 4-290 558 409 359,642 | 2-869 | 4392 308 448 514,613
2-320 | 4223 918 051 | 3,362,674 || 2-870 | 4395 823 061 | 3,517,784
2821 | 4227 280 725 | 3,365,709 | 2-871 | 4399 340 845 | 3,520,956
2-822 | 4-230 646 434 368,746 || 2-872 | 4-402 861 801 524,134
2823 | 4-234 015 180 371,787 || 2:873 | 4-406 385 935 527,313
2-824 | 4-237 386 967 374,830 | 2-874 | 4-409 913 248 530,495
2-825 | 4-240 761 797 377,875 || 2-875 | 4-413 443 743 533,680
2-826 | 4-244 139 672 380,923 || 2:876 | 4416 977 423 536,867
2827 | 4-247 520 595 383,974 | 2:877 | 4-420 514 290 540,058
2828 | 4-250 904 569 387,029 || 2:878 | 4:424 054 348 543,252
2-829 | 4-254 291 598 390,085 || 2879 | 4-427 597 600 546,448
2-830 | 4-257 681 683 | 3,393,143 || 2-880 | 4-431 144 048 | 3,549,646
72831 | 4-261 074 826 | 3,396,206 || 2-881 | 4-434 693 694 | 3,552,850
2-832 | 4-264 471 032 399.271 || 2:882 | 4-438 246 544 556,054
2-833 | 4267 870 303 402,338 | 2883 | 4-441 802 598 559,261
2-834 | 4-271 272 641 405,408 | 2-884 | 4-445 361 859 562,473
2835 | 4:274.678 049 408,481 || 2:885 | 4448 924 332 565,686
2836 | 4:278 086 530 411,557 | 2886 | 4:452 490 018 568,902
2-837 | 4:281 498 087 414,635 || 2-887 | 4-456 058 920 572,122
2838 | 4-284 912 722 417,717 || 2-888 | 4-459 681 042 575,344
2-839 | 4-288 330 439 420,801 | 2-889 | 4:463 206 386 578,569
9840 | 4-291 751 240 | 3,423,886 || 2890 | 4-466 784 955 | 3,581,797
2841 | 4295 175 126 | 3,426,977 || 2891 | 4-470 366 752 | 3,585,028
2-842 | 4-298 602 103 430,069 | 2:892 | 4-473 951 780 588,261
2-843 | 4:302 032 172 433,163 || 2:893 | 4:477 540 041 591,498
2-844 | 4305 465 335 436,262 | 2:894 | 4-481 131 539 594,738
2845 | 4-308 901 597 439,362 || 2:95 | 4-484 726 277 597,980
2346 | 4:312 340 959 442,466 | 2896 | 4:488 324 257 601,226
2-347 | 4:315 783 425 445,571 || 2:897 | 4-491 925 483 604,474
2348 | 4319 228 996 448,681 | 2:898 | 4-495 529 957 607,725
2-849 | 4:322 677 677 451,792 || 2899 | 4-499 137 682 610,979
2850 | 4326 129 469 | 3,454,906 || 2-900 | 4-502 748 661 | 3,614,236
128 REPORT—1896.
x Igor Ditference 3 Ipr Difference
2900 | 4:502 748 661 | 3,614,236 || 2-950 | 4-687 511 830 | 3,780,869
2901 | 4-506 362 897 | 3,617,496 || 2951 | 4-691 292 699 | 3,784,277
2-902 | 4:509 980 393 620,760 || 2:952 | 4695 076 976 787,690
2903 | 4513 601 153 624,025 || 2-953 | 4-698 864 666 791,107
2904 | 4:517 225 178 627,293 || 2954 | 4-702 655 773 794,525
2-905 | 4520 852 471 630,566 || 2-955 | 4-706 450 298 797,947
2906 | 4524 483 037 633,839 || 2-956 | 4-710 248 245 801,370
2:907 | 4:528 116 876 637,117 || 2957 | 4-714 049 615 804,800
2908 | 4:531 753 993 640,398 || 2:958 | 4-717 854 415 808,231
2:909 | 4:535 394 391 643,681 || 2-959 | 4-721 662 646 811,664
2910 | 4539 038 072 | 3,646,968 || 2-960 | 4-725 474 310 | 3,815,102
2911 | 4:542 685 040 | 3,650,256 || 2961 | 4-729 289 412 | 3,818,541
2912 | 4:546 335 296 653,550 || 2-962 | 4-733 107 953 821,985
2:913 | 4549 988 846 656,844 || 2-963 | 4:736 929 938 825,432
2-914 | 4:553 645 690 660,142 || 2964 | 4-740 755 370 828,881
2-915 | 4:557 305 832 663,443 || 2965 | 4-744 584 251 832,334
2:916 | 4:560 969 275 666,748 || 2-966 | 4-748 416 585 835,790
2917 | 4:564 636 023 670,055 || 2967 | 4-752 252 375 839,248
2-918 | 4568 306 078 673,364. || 2:968 | 4756 091 623 842,710
2919 | 4571 979 442 676,678 || 2:969 | 4-759 934 333 846,176
2920 | 4:575 656 120 | 3,679,994 || 2.970 | 4-763 780 509 | 3,849,643
2-921 | 4:579 336 114 | 3,683,312 || 2-971 |. 4:767 630 152 | 3,853,115
2-922 | 4-583 019 426 686,635 || 2:972 | 4:771 483 267 856,590
2:923 | 4:586 706 061 689,969 || 2:973 | 4:775 339 857 860,066
2924 | 4:590 396 020 693,287 | 2974 | 4-779 199 923 863,548
2925 | 4:594 089 307 696,618 || 2:975 | 4:783 063 471 867,032
2926 | 4:597 785 925 699,952 || 2:976 | 4:786 930 503 870,518
2:997 | 4-601 485 877 703,289 || 2-977 | 4-790 801 021 874,008
2928 | 4605 189 166 706,629 || 2978 | 4-794 675 029 877,502
2929 | 4608 895 795 709,971 || 2:979 | 4:798 552 531 880,998
2930 | 4:612 605 766 | 3,713,317 || 2980 | 4-802 433 529 | 3,884,497
2931 | 4-616 319 083 | 3,716,666 || 2-981 | 4-806 318 026 | 3,888,000
2-932 | 4:620 035 749 720,018 || 2-982 | 4-810 206 026 891,506
2-933 | 4:623 755 767 723,373 || 2-983 | 4-814 097 532 895,015
2-934 | 4-627 479 140 726,731 || 2-984 | 4817 992 547 898,527
2935 | 4631 205 871 730,092 || 2.985 | 4-821 891 074 902,042
2:936 | 4:634 935 963 733,455 || 2-986 | 4825 793 116 905,560
2-937 | 4:638 669 418 736,822 || 2987 | 4829 698 676 909,082
2-938 | 4642 406 240 740,192 || 2-988 | 4-833 607 758 912,608
2-939 | 4646 146 432 743,565 || 2:989 | 4-837 520 366 916,135
2-940 | 4-649 889 997 | 3,746,942 || 2-990 | 4-841 436 501 | 3,919,666
2941 | 4:653 636 939 | 3,750,320 || 2-991 | 4-845 356 167 | 3,923,200
2:942 | 4657 387 259 753,702 || 2-992 | 4-849 279 367 926,738
2-943 | 4661 140 961 757,088 || 2:993 | 4-853 206 105 930,278
2944 | 4-664 898 019 760,475 || 2-994 | 4-857 136 383 933,823
2945 | 4-668 658 524 763,866 || 2:995 | 4-861 070 206 937,369
2946 | 4-672 422 390 767,261 || 2996 | 4:865 007 575 940,919
2947 | 4-676 189 651 770,659 || 2:997 | 4-868 948 494 944,473
2-948 | 4:679 960 310 774,058 || 2-998 | 4-872 892 967 948,029
2-949 | 4-683 734 368 | ° 777,462 || 2999 | 4-876 840 996 951,590
2950 | 4-687 511 830 | 3,780,869 || 3-000 | 4-880 792 586 | 3,965,152
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
129
Zz Ipxr Difference x Tor Difference
3:000 4880 792 586 3,955,152 3°050 5:082 982 407 4,137,453
3001 4-884 747 738 3,958,718 3051 5087 119 860 4,141,184
3002 4888 706 456 962,288 3-052 5091 261 044 144,918
3-003 4°892 668 744 965,861 3:053 5095 405 962 148,656
3:004 4-896 634 605 969,437 3-054 5-099 554 618 152,396
3:005 4:900 604 042 973,015 3:055 5103 707 014 156,139
3-006 4:904 577 057 976,597 3-056 5107 863 153 159,886
3:007 4-908 553 654 980,183 3057 5112 023 039 163,637
3-008 4:912 533 837 983,772 3058 5116 186 676 167,392
3009 4-916 617 609 987,365 3059 5120 354 068 171,149
3010 4:920 504 974 3,990,959 3-060 5124 525 217 4,174,909
3011 4-924 495 933 3,994,557 3061 5-128 700 126 4,178,674
3012 4:928.490 490 998,160 3062 57132 878 800 182,442
3013 4:932 488 650 4,001,764 3:063 5137 O61 242 186,213
3014 4:936 490 414 5,372 3-064 5141 247 455 189,986
3015 4:°940 495 786 8,984 3°065 5°145 437 441 193,764
3016 4944 504 770 12,598 3-066 5149 631 205 197,546
3017 4:948 617. 368 16,216 3:067 57153 828 75L 201,330
3018 4°952 533 584 19,838 3°068 5°158 030 081 205,118
3019 4:956 553 422 23,462 3-069 5162 235 199 208,910
3-020 4960 576 884 4,027,090 3:070 5166 444 109 4,212,704
3021 4964 603 974 4,030,721 3-071 5170 656 813 4,216,503
3:022 4968 634 695 34,354 3-072 5174 873 316 220,304
3:023 4-972 669 049 37,993 3-073 5°179 093 620 224,110
3024 4:976 707 042 41,633 3-074 5183 317 730 227,918
3025 4:980 748 675 45,277 3075 5°187 545 648 231,730
3026 4984 793 952 48,924 3076 5191 777 378 235,546
3-027 4988 842 876 52,575 3:077 5196 012 924 239,364
3 028 4:992 895 451 56,230 3:078 5°200 252 288 243,187
3029 4:996 951 681 59,886 3079 5204 495 475 247,013
3°030 5-001 O11 567 4,063,547 3-080 5°208 742 488 4,250,841
3031 5005 075 114 4,067,211 3:081 5°212 993 329 4,254,675
3°032 5:009 142 325 70,878 3-082 5217 248 004 258,510
3:033 5-013 213 203 74,548 3:083 5:221 506 514 262,351
3-034 | 5-017 287 751 78,222 | 3084 | 5-225 768 865 266,194
3035 5021 365 973 81,899 3085 5°230 035 059 270,039
3°036 5°025 447 872 85,579 3:086 5234 305 098 273,889
3:037 5029 533 451 89,263 3087 5°238 578 987 277,743
3°038 5:033 622 714 92,951 3:088 5242 856 730 281,600
3039 5037 715 665 96,640 3-089 5:247 138 330 285,461
3040 5041 812 305 4,100,333 .|| 3-090 5251 423 791 4,289,325
3-041 5045 912 638 4,104,031 3:091 5255 713 116 4.293, 192
3°042 5050 016 669 107,731 3:092 5260 006 308 297,063
3043 5054 124 400 111,435 3-093 5264 303 371 300,937
3044 | 5:058 235 835 | 115,142 | 3:094 | 5-268 604 208 304,815
3045 5:062 350 977 118,852 3095 5272 909 123 308,697
3046 5066 469 829 122,565 3096 5277 217 820 312,581
3:047 5070 592 394 126,282 3:097 5:281 530 401 316,469
3048 5074 718 676 130,004 3098 5:285 846 870 320,362
3:049 5078 848 680 133,727 3°099 5:290 167 232 324,258
3-050 5082 982 407 4,137,453 3°100 5:294 491 490 4,328,156
K
130 REPORT—1896.
x Ipr Difference || x Tor Difference
3100 | 5-294 491 490 | 4,328,156 | 3-150 5515 749 636 | 4 527,661
3101 | 5-298 819 646 | 4,332,058 || 3151 | 5520 277 297 | 4,531,743
3102 | 5:303 151 704 335,965 || 3152 | 5-524 809 040 535,831
3:103 | 5307 487 669 339,874 | 3153 | 6529 344 871 539,920
3:104 | 5-311 827 543 343,787 || 3:154 | 6-533 884 791 544,014
3:105 | 5316 171 330 347,704 || 3155 | 65-588 428 805 548,111
3106 | 5320 519 034 351,623 || 3156 | 6542 976 916 552,213
3107 | 5324 870 657 355,548 || 3157 | 6547 529 129 556,317
3108 | 5:329 226 205 359,475 || 3158 | 6552 085 446 560,426
3-109 | 5333 585 680 363,405 || 3°159 | 65556 645 872 564,539
3110 | 5337 949 085 | 4,367,340 || 3-160 | 5-561 210 411 | 4,568,655
3-111 | 5:342 316 425 | 4,371,277 || 3-161 | 5-665 779 066 | 4,572,774
3-112 | 5346 687 702 375,219 || 3162 | 5:570 351 840 576,898
3113 | 5°351 062 921 379,164 || 3163 | 5-574 928 738 581,025
3:114\ | 5:355 442 085 383,112 || 3-164 | 5:579 509 763 585,156
3115 | 5°359 825 197 387,064 || 3165 | 5584 094 919 589,292
3:116 | 5364 212 261 391,021 || 3166 | 5588 684 211 593,429
3117 | 5:368 603 282 394,979 || 3-167 | 5-593 277 640 597,572
3118 | 5372 998 261 398,942 || 3168 | 5597 875 212 601,717
3119 | 5377 397 203 402,909" 3169 | 5-602 476 929 605,868
3120 | 5-381 800 112 | 4,406,879 | 3170 | 5-607 082 797 | 4,610,021
3121 | 5386 206 991 | 4,410,851 | 3171 | 5-611 692 818 | 4,614,178
3-122 | 5-390 617 842 414,230 | 3172 | 5:616 306 996 618,339
3:123 | 5:395 032 672 418,810 | 3173 | 5620 925 335 622,504
3-124 | 5-399 451 482 499.795 || 3174 | 5-625 547 839 626,672
3125 | 5403 874 277 426,782 || 3175 | 5630 174 511 630,845
3-126 | 6-408 301 059 430,774 || 3176 | 5634 805 356 635,021
3127 | 5-412 731 833 434,769 || 3-177 | 5-639 440 377 639,200
3128 | 5-417 166 602 438,768 | 3178 | 5-644 079 577 643,384
3:129 | 5-421 605 370 442.769 | 3179 | 68648 722 961 647,572
3-130 | 5-426 048 139 | 4,446,776 | 3-180 | 5-653 370 533 | 4,651,763
3-131 | 5-430 494 915 | 4,450,786 | 3181 | 5-658 022 296 | 4,655,957
3132 | 5-434 945 701 454,799 | 3182 | 6662 678 253 660,157
3133 | 5-439 400 500 458,815 | $183 | 5-667 338 410 664,359
3:134 | 5-443 859 315 462,837 3184 | 5672 002 769 668,566
3135 | 5448 322 152 466,860 | 3185 | 5676 671 336 672,776
3:136 | 5452 789 012 470,889 || 3186 | 5681 344 111 676,990
3:137 | 5457 259 901 474,920 | 3:187 | 5-686 021 101 681,207
3138 | 5-461 734 821 478,954 | 3188 | 5690 702 308 685,430
3139 | 5-466 213 775 482.994 | 3-189 | 5:695 387 738 689,656
3140 | 5-470 696 769 | 4,487,036 || 3:190 | 5-700 077 394 | 4,693,884
3141 | 5-475 183 805 | 4,491,081 | 3191 | 5-704 771 278 | 4,698,117
3:142 | 5-479 674 S86 495,132 | 3192 | 5-709 469 395 702,354
3143 | 5-484 170 018 499,185 || 3193 | 5-714 171 749 706,596
3-144 | 5-488 669 203 503,242 || 3194 | 5-718 878 345 710,839
3145 | 5493 172 445 507,302 || 3195 | 5-723 589 184 715,088
3146 | 5497 679 747 511,367 || 3196 | 5728 304 272 719,341
3147 | 5-502 191 114 515,434 | 3197 | 6-733 023 613 723,597
3148 | 5-506 706 548 519,506 || 3198 | 5737 747 210 727,857
3149 | 5511 226 054 523,582 || 3199 | 5-742 475 067 732,120
3150 | 5°515 749 636 | 4,527,661 | 3-200 | 6747 207 187 | 4,736,388
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
131
3250
5-989
4,954,779
3°300
x 1or Difference & 1px Difference
13-200 5°747 207 187 | 4,736,388 3250 5989 335 998 | 4,954,779
| (3-201 5-751 943 575 | 4,740,661 3251 5-994 290 777 | 4,959,250
3-202 5756 684 236 744,936 3252 5999 250 027 963,723
3-203 5°761 429 172 749,214 3-253 6-004 213 750 968,200
3204 5:766 178 386 753,498 3254. 6:009 181 950 972,682
3-205 5770 931 884 757,785 3255 6014 154 632 977,168
3206 5775 689 669 762,077 3-256 6:019 131 800 981,657
3207 5:780 451 746 766,371 3-257 6:024 113 457 986,151
3-208 5:785 218 117 770,669 3258 6:029 099 608 990,650
3:209 5:789 988 786 774,973 3259 6:034 090 258 995,152
3°210 5794 763 759 | 4,779,279 3-260 6:039 085 410 | 4,999,657
3-211 | 5-799 543 038 | 4,783,590 || 3-261 | 6:044 085 067 | 5,004,168
3-212 5804 326 628 787,904 3-262 6-049 089 235 8,682
3:213 5809 114 532 792,222 3:263 6054 097 917 13,200
3214 5813 906 754 796,545 3264 6:059 111 117 17,724
3215 5818 703 299 800,870 3265 6:064 128 841 22,250
3-216 5'823 504 169 805,200 3266 6-069 151 091 26,780
3:217 5828 309 369 809,535 3267 6074 177 871 31,316
3-218 5833 118 904 813,872 3-268 6-079 209 187 35,855
3219 5:837 932 776 818,214 || 3:269 6084 245 042 40,396
3-220 | 5842 750 990 | 4,822,560 || 3270 | 6089 285 438 | 5,044,944
3-221 5'847 573 6550 | 4,826,910 3271 6:094 330 382 | 5,049,496
3222 5'852 400 460 831,268 3272 6.099 379 878 54,051
3223 5857 231 723 835,621 3-273 6104 433 929 58,611
3224 5862 O87 344 839,982 3-274 6109 492 540 63,175
3225 5866 907 326 844,347 3:275 6G1l4 555 715 67,742
3:226 5871 751 673 848,718 3:276 6119 623 457 72,314
3:227 5876 600 391 853,091 3:277 6124 695 771 76,891
3228 5881 453 482 857,467 3-278 6129 772 662 81,471
3-229 5886 310 949 861,849 3:279 6-134 854 133 86,056
3-230 5°89] 172 798 | 4,866,235 3:280 6139 940 189 | 5,090,644
3231 5°896 039 033 | 4,870,623 3281 6:145 030 833 | 5,095,236
3-232 5:900 909 656 875,017 3-282 6150 126 069 99,834
3-233 5905 784 673 879,414 3-283 6155 225 903 104,435
3234 5910 664 087 883,815 3284 6160 330 338 109,039
3-235 5915 547 902 888,221 3285 6165 439 377 113,650
3/236 5920 436 123 892,630 || 3°286 6170 553 027 118,263 |
3-237 5925 328 753 897,043 3:287 6175 671 290 122,881
3238 5-930 225 796 901,460 3-288 6180 794 171 127,503
3-239 5:935 127 256 905,881 3:289 6185 921 674 132,130
3-240 5940 033 137 | 4,910,306 3-290 6191 053 804 | 5,136,760
3:241 5-944 943 443 | 4,914,736 3-291 6196 190 564 | 5,141,394
3-242 5-949 858 179 | 919,168 3292 6201 331 958 146,033
3243 5954 777 347 923,607 3293 6-206 477 991 150,676
3-244 5959 700 954 928,048 3294 6211 628 667 155,324
3245 5964 629 002 932,493 3295 6216 783 991 159,975
3246 5°969 561 495 936,941 3296 6221 943 966 164,631
3247 5974 498 436 941,395 3297 6227 108 597 169,290
3-248 5:979 439 831 945,858 3:298 6°232 277 887 173,985
3-249 5-984 385 684 950,314 3299 6237 451 842 178,623
6°242
465
5,185,296
K 2
132 REPORT—1896.
x Ior Difference x Tox Difference
3°301 6°247 813 761 5,187,973 3'351 6513 031 022 5,427,315
3°302 6-253 001 734 192,654 3°352 6515 458 337 432,214
3°303 6258 194 388 197,340 3°353 6°523 890 551 437,117
3°304 6:263 391 728 202,028 3°354 6°529 327 668 442,024
3°305 6°268 593 756 206,723 3°355 6°534 769 692 446,936
3°306 6:273 800 479 211,421 3°356 6540 216 628 451,853
3°307 6:279 011 900 216,123 3°357 6545 668 481 456,774
3°308 6°284 228 023 220,830 || 3°358 6551 125 255 461,698
3°309 6289 448 853 225,541 || 3339 | 6556 586 953 466,629
3310 6-294 674 2394
3°311 6°299 904 651
5,230,257 || 3360 | 6562 053 582 | 5,471,564
5,234,976 || 3361 | 6567 525 146 | 5,476,501
3°312 6°305 139 627 239,699 3 362 6573 O01 647 481,445
3°313 6°310 379 326 244,428 | 3:363 6578 483 092 486,394
3°314 6°315 623 754 249,160 | 3°364 6583 969 486 491,346
3315 6°320 872 914 253,897 || 3°365 6589 460 832 496.302
3°316 6°326 126 811 258,638 3°366 6°594 957 134 501,264
3317 6°331 385 449 263,383 3367 6600 458 398 506,230
3°318 6336 648 832 268,133 -|| 3368 6605 964 628 511,200
3°319 6°341 916 965 272,887 3°369 6611 475 828 516,174
3°300 6°242 630 465 5,183,296 3°350 6°507 608 60L 5,422,421
|
3320 | 6-347 189 852 | 5,277,644 || 3370 | 6-616 992 002 | 5,521,154
3321 | 6352 467 496 | 5,282,408 || 3371 | 6622 513 156 | 5,526,138
3322 | 6357 749 904 287,175 || 3:372 | 6628 039 294 531,127
3323 | 6363 037 079 291,946 || 3373 | 6633 570 421 536,119
3324 | 6368 329 025 296,721 || 3:374 | 6639 106 540 541,116
3325 | 6373 625 746 301.501 || 3375 | 6-644 647 656 546,120
3326 | 6378 927 247 306,285 || 3376 | 6650 193 776 551,126
3327 | 6384 233 532 311,074 || 3:377 | 6655 744 902 556,137
3328 | 6389 544 606 315,867 || 3378 | 6-661 301 039 561,152
3329 | 6-394 860 473 320,665 || 3379 | 6:666 862 191 566,174
3°330 6-400 181 138 5,325,466 3°380 6672 428 365 5,571,198
3°331 6:°405 506 604 5,330,272 3381 6677 999 563 5,576,227
3°332 6410 836 876 335,083 3382 6 683 575 790 581,262
3°333 6416 171 959 339,897 3°383 6689 157 052 586,301
3:334 6-421 511 856 344,716 3°384 6°694 743 353 591,343
3°335 6426 856 572 349,539 3°385 6:700 334 696 596,391
3°336 6:432 206 111 354,368 3°386 6705 931 087 601,443
3°337 6437 560 479 359,200 3°387 6711 532 530 606,500
3338 6442 919 679 364,036 3°388 6717 139 030 611,563
3339 6-448 283 715 368,879 3°389 6722 750 593 616,628
3°340 6453 652 594 5,373,723 3°390 6:728 367 221 5,621,699
3°341 6°459 026 317 5,378,573 3°391 6°733 988 920 5,626,775
3°342 6464 404 890 383,428 3 392 6°739 615 695 631,855
3°343 6469 788 318 388,286 3°393 6745 247 550 636,939
3°344 6475 176 604 393,149 3394 6'750 884 489 642,028
3°345 6480 569 753 398,017 3°395 6°756 526 517 647,122
3°346 6485 967 770 402,889 3°396 6 762 173 639 652,221
3°347 6:491 370 659 407,765 3397 6:767 825 860 657,324
3°348 6-496 778 424 412,646 3°398 6:773 483 184 662,432
i 3°349 6°502 191 070 417,531 3 399 6-779 145 616 667,544
3°350 6°507 608 601 5,422,421 3400 6-784 813 160 | 5,672,662
SSS eT
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
133
= Tor Difference x Tor Difference
3-400 | 6784 813 160 | 5,672,662 | 3-450 | 7-074 812 823 | 5,934,549
3-401 | 6790 485 822 | 5,677,783 || 3-451 | 7-080 747 372 | 5,939,908
3-402 | 6796 163 605 682,910 | 3-452 | 7-086 687 280 945,274
3-403 | 6801 846 515 688,041 || 3-453 | 7-092 632 554 950,644
3-404 | 6807 534 556 693,176 || 3454 | 7-098 583 198 956,019
3-405 | 6813 227 732 698,318 || 3-455 | 7-104 539 217 961,399
3-406 | 6-818 926 050 703,463 || 3-456 | 7-110 500 616 966,784
3-407 | 6824 629 513 708,611 || 3-457 | 7:116 467 400 972,173
3-408 | 6830 338 124 713,766 || 3-458 | 7-122 439 573 977,569
3-409 | 6836 051 890 718,927 || 3-459 | 7-128 417 142 982,968
3-410 | 6841 770 817 | 5,724,090 || 3-460 | 7-134 400 110 | 5,988,371
3-411 | 6847 494 907 | 5,729,258 || 3-461 | 7-140 388 481 | 5,993,781
3-412 | 6853 224 165 734,432 || 3-462 | 7-146 382 262 999,197
3-413 | 6853 958 597 739,609 || 3-463 | 7-152 381 459 | 6,004,615
3-414 | 6864 698 206 744,793 || 3-464 | 7-158 386 074 10,039
3-415 | 6870 442 999 749,980 || 3-465 | 7-164 396 113 15,468
3-416 | 6876 192 979 755,173 || 3-466 | 7-170 411 581 20,902
3-417 | 6-881 948 152 760,369 || 3467 | 7-176 432 483 26,341
3-418 | 6887 708 521 765,570 ,|| 3:468 | 7-182 458 824 31,785
3-419 | 6893 474 O91 770,777 || 3-469 | 7-188 490 609 37,235
3-420 | 6899 244 868 | 5,775,988 | 3-470 | 7-194 527 844 | 6,042,689
3-421 | 6-905 020 856 | 5,781,203 || 3-471 | 7-200 570 533 | 6,048,146
3-422 | 6910 802 059 786,425 || 3472 | 7-206 618 679 53,610
3-423 | 6-916 588 484 791,651 || 3473 | 7-212 672 289 59,080
3-424 | 6922 380 135 796,880 || 3-474 | 7-218 731 369 64,554
3425 | 6928 177 015 802,115 || 3-475 | 7-224 795 923 70,032
3426 | 6933 979 130 807,355 || 3-476 | 7-230 865 955 75,516
3-427 | 6939 786 485 812,599 || 3-477 | 7-236 941 471 81,005
3-428 | 6945 599 084 817,848 || 3-478 | 7-243 022 476 86,499
3-429 | 6-951 416 932 823,103 || 3-479 | 7-249 108 975 91,997
3-430 | 6-957 240 035 | 5,828,361 || 3-480 | 7-255 200 972 | 6,097,502
3-431 | 6963 068 396 | 5,833,625 | 3-481 | 7-261 298 474 | 6,103,010
3-432 | 6-968 902 021 838,893 || 3-482 | 7-267 401 484 108,524
3-433 | 6974 740 914 844,166 || 3-483 | 7-273 510 008 114,043
3-434 | 6-980 585 080 849,445 || 3-484 | 7-279 624 051 119,567
3-435 | 6-986 434 525 854,727 || 3-485 | 7-285 743 618 125,096
3-436 | 6:992 289 252 860,014 || 3-486 | 7-291 868 714 130,630
3-437 | 6998 149 266 865,307 || 3-487 | 7-297 999 34t 136,169
3-438 | 7-004 014 573 870,604 || 3-488 | 7-304 135 513 141,714
3-439 | 7-009 885 177 875,906 || 3-489 | 7-310 277 227 147,262
3-440 | 7-015 761 083 | 5,881,213 || 3-490 | 7:316 424 489 | 6,152,816
3-441 | 7-021 642 296 | 5,886,525 || 3491 | 7-322 677 305 | 6,158,376
3-442 | 7-027 528 821 891,842 || 3-492 | 7-328 735 681 163,941
3-443 | 7-033 420 663 897,163 || 3-493 | 7-334 899 622 169,510
3-444 | 7-039 317 826 902,489 || 3494 | 7-341 069 132 175,084
3-445 | 7-045 220 315 907,820 || 3-495 | 7-347 244 216 180,663
3446 | 7-051 128 135 913,156 || 3-496 | 7:353 424 879 186,248
3447 | 7-057 041 291 918,496 || 3-497 | 7359 611 127 191,839
3-448 | 7-062 959 787 923,842 || 3-498 | 7-365 802 966 197,433
3-449 | 7-068 883 629 929,194 || 3-499 | 7:372 000 399 203,033
3450 | 7-074 812 823 | 5,934,549 || 3500 | 7-378 203 432 | 6,208,639
x Tox Difference x Tox Difference
3500 | 7378 203 432 | 6,208,639 | 3550 | 7-695 609 296 | 6,495,512
3501 | 7384 412 071 | 6,214,248 || 3551 | 7-702 104 808 | 6,501,387
3502 | 7-390 626 319 219,864 || 3552 | 7-708 606 195 507,264
3503 | 7-396 846 183 995,484 || 3:558 | 7-715 113 459 513,146
3504 | 7-403 071 667 231,110 | 3554 | 7-721 626 605 519,034
3505 | 7-409 302 777 236,741 | 3555 | 7-728 145 639 524,927
3506 | 7-415 539 518 242,376 || 3:566 | 7-734 670 566 530,828
i}
3507 | 7-421 781 894 248,017 || 3-557 | 7-741 201 394 536,731
3508 | 7-428 029 911 253,665. || 3558 | 7-747 738 125 542,641
3509 | 7-434 283 576 259,315 || 3559 | 7-754 280 766 548,556
3510 | 7-440 542 891 | 6,264,971 || 3660 | 7-760 829 322 | 6,554,476
3511 | 7-446 807 862 | 6,270,632 | 3561 | 7-767 383 798 | 6,560,403
3512 | 7-453 078 494 276,301 | 3562 | 7-773 944 201 566,334
3513 | 7-459 354 795 281,972 || 3563 | 7-780 510 535 572,270
|
3514 | 7-465 636 767 287,649 || 3564 | 7-787 082 803 578,212
3515 | 7-471 924 416 293.331 || 3565 | 7-793 661 017 584,161
3516 | 7-478 217 747 299.019 | 3:566 | 7-800 245 178 590,113
3517 | 7-484 516 766 304,711 || 3567 | 7-806 835 291 596,072 .
3518 | 7-490 821 477 310,410 ||" 3-568 | 7-813 431 363 602,036
3519 | 7-497 131 887 316.112 | 3569 | 7-820 033 399 608,005
3520 | 7-503 447 999 | 6,321,820 || 3570 | 7-826 641 404 | 6,613,980
3521 | 7-509 769 819 | 6,327,534 | 3°571 | 7-833 255 384 | 6,619,960
3522 | 7-516 097 353 333,253 || 3572 | 7-839 875 344 625,946
3523 | 7-522 430 606 338,977 3573 | 7-846 501 290 631,937
3524 | 7-528 769 583 344,706 || 3574 | 7-853 133 297 637,934
3525 | 7-535 114 289 350,440 || 3575 | 7-859 771 161 643,936
3526 | 7-541 464 729 356,180 || 3576 | 7-866 415 097 | 649,943
i} |
3527 | 7-547 820 909 361,926 || 3577 | 7-873 065 040 | 655,957
3528 | 7-554 182 835 367,675 || 3578 | 7-879 720 997 661,976
3529 | 7-560 550 510 373,430 || 3-579 | 7-886 382 973 667,999
| 3530 | 7-566 923 940 | 6,379,190 || 3580 | 7-893 050 972 | 6,674,029
3531 7-573 303 130 | 6,384,967 || 3°58] 7899 725 001 | 6,680,065
3532 | 7-579 G88 087 390,728 || 3582 | 7-906 405 066 | 686,105
35383 | 7586 078 815 396,505 || 3583 | 7-913 091 171 | 692,151
3534 | 7-592 475 320 402,286 || 3584 | 7-919 783 322 698,208
3535 | 7-598 877 606 408,073 || 3585 | 7-926 481 525 | 704,260
3536 | 7-605 285 679 413,865 | 3586 | 7-933 185 785 | 710,323
35387 | 7-611 699 544 419,662 | 3587 | 7-939 896 108 | 716,391
35388 | 7-618 119 206 425,465 || 3588 | 7-946 612 499 | 722,465
3539 | 7-624 544 671 431,274 || 3589 7-953 334 964 | 728,645
3540 | 7-630 975 945 | 6,437,087 || 3-590 | 7-960 063 509 | 6,734,630
3541 | 7-637 413 032 | 6,442,905 || 3591 | 7-966 798 139 | 6,740,720
3-542 7-643 855 937 448,730 || 3592 | 7-973 5388 859 746,816
3543 | 7-650 304 667 454,559 | 3593 | 7-980 285 675 | 752,917
3544 | 7-656 759 226 460,394 || 3:594 | 7-987 038 592 | 759,025
3545 | 7-662 219 620 466,224 | 3595 | 7-993 797 617 | 765,138
3646 | 7-669 685 854 472,078 | 3596 | 8-000 562 755 | 771,257
3547 | 7-676 157 932 477,930 || 3597 | 8-007 384 012 | 777,380
3548 | 7-682 635 862 483,787 || 3598 | 8-014 111 392 783,510
3549 | 7-689 119 649 489,647 || 3599 | 8-020 894 902 789,645
3550 | 7695 609 296 | 6,495,512 || 3-600 | 8-027 684 547 | 6,795,786
REPORT-—1896.
.
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
138
Fa Tov Difference | x Tor Difference
3-600 | 8-027 68 547 | 6,795,786 | 3650 | 8375 114 576 | 7,110,095
3601 | 8-034 480 333 | 6,801,932 || 3651 | 8-382.224 671 | 7,116,528
3602 | 8041 282 265 808,085 | 3°652 | 8-389 341 199 122,968
2603 | 8-048 090 350 814,242 || 3653 | 8396 464 167 129,414
3604 | 8-054 904 592 820,405 || 3:654 | 8-403 593 581 135,866
3605 | 8-061 724 997 826,575 || 3:655 | 8-410 729 447 142,323
3606 | 8-068 551 572 832,749 || 3-656 | 8-417 871 770 148,788
3607 | 8075 384 321 838,929 | 3:657 | 8-425 020 558 155,256
3608 | 8-082 223 250 845,115 || 3658 | 8-432 175 814 161,731
3609 | 8-089 068 365 851,306 || 3:659 | 8-439 337 545 168,212
3610 | 8095 919 671 | 6,857,504 || 3-660 | 8-446 505 757 | 7,174,700
3611 | 8-102 777 175 | 6,863,707 || 3-661 | 8-453 680 457 | 7,181,192
3612 | 8-109 640 882 869,915 || 3:662 | 8-460 861 649 187,692
3613 | 8116 510 797 876,129 || 3:663 | 8468 049 341 194,196
3614 | 8-123 386 926 882,350 || 3-664 | 8-475 243 537 200,707
3615 | 8-130 269 276 888,575 || 3:665 | 8-482 444 244 207,224
3616 | 8-137 157 851 894,806 || 3°666 | 8489 651 468 213,747
3617 | 8-144 052 657 901,043 || 3-667 | 8-496 865 215 220,276
3618 | 8-150 953 700 907,285 || 3668 | 8504 085 491 226,811
3619 | 8-157 860 985 913,534 || 3-669 |. 8511 312 302 233,351
3620 | 8164 774 519 | 6,919,789 || 3-670 | 8518 545 653 | 7,239,898
3-621 | 8-171 694 308 | 6,926,048 || 3-671 | 8525 785 551 | 7,246,450
3622 | $178 620 356 932,313 || 3:672 | 8533 032 001 253,009
3°623 | 8-185 552 669 938,585 || 3673 | 8540 285 010 259,574
3°624 | 8-192 491 254 944,862 || 3674 | 8547 544 584 266,145
3625 | 8-199 436 116 951,145 || 3675 | 8554 810 729 272,722
3626 | 8-206 387 261 957,433 | 3676 | 8-562 083 451 279,304
3°627 | 8-213 344 694 963,727 || 3-677 | 8569 362 755 285,893
3628 | 8-220 308 421 970,027 || 3-678 | 8-576 648 648 292,488
3°629 | 8-227 278 448 976,333 || 3-679 | 8583 941 136 299,088
3630 | 8234 254 781 | 6,982,645 || 3-680 | 8-591 240 224 | 7,305,696
3-631 | 8-241 237 426 | 6,988,962 || 3-681 | 8598 545 920 | 7,312,308
3632 | 8-248 226 388 995,285 || 3682 | 8-605 858 228 318,927
3633 | 8255 221 673 | 7,001,614 || 3-683 | 8-613 177 155 325,553
3634 | 8-262 223 287 7,948 || 3-684 | 8-620 502 708 332,184
3635 | 8-269 231 235 14,289 || 3-685 | 8627 834 892 338,821
3636 | 8-276 245 524 20,636 || 3686 | 8-635 173 713 345,464
3:637 | 8283 266 160 26,987 || 3687 | 8-642 519 177 352,113
3638 | 8290 293 147 33,345 || 3688 | 8649 871 290 358,769
3-639 | 8297 326 492 39,709 || 3689 | 8-657 230 059 365,431
3-640 8-304 366 201 7,046,078 3°690 8:664 595 490 | 7,372,098
3-641 | 8311 412 279 | 7,052,454 || 3691 | 8-67] 967 588 | 7,378,772
3642 | 8-318 464 733 58,835 || 3692 | 8-679 346 360 385,461
3643. | 8325 523 568 65,222 || 3693 | 8686 731 811 392,138
3644 | 8332 588 790 71,614 || 3:694 | 8-694 123 949 398,830
3645 | 8339 660 404 78,014 || 3:695 | 8701 522 779 405,528
3646 | 8346 738 418 84,418 || 3696 | 8-708 928 307 412,232
3647. | 8353 822 836 90,828 || 3:697 | 8-716 340 539 418,943
3°648 | 8-360 913 664 97,245 || 3-698 | 8-723 759 482 425,660
3°649 8-368 010 909 103,667 | 3:699 8-731 185 142 432,382
3650 | 8375 114 576 | 7,110,095 || 3700 | 8738 617 524 | 7,489,112
1386 REPORT—1896.
x Ipr Difference x Tor Difference
3°700 8°738 617 524 | 7,439,112 3°750 9118 945 861 7,783,538
3701 8-746 056 636 7,445,846 3-751 9:°126 729 399 7,790,589
3°702 8753 502 482 452,587 3-752 9134 519 988 797,647
3°703 8:760 955 069 459,335 3°753 9142 317 635 804,710
3°704 8-768 414 404 466,089 3754 9:150 122 345 811,780
3°705 8-775 880 493 472,849 3°755 9°157 934 125 818,857
3°706 8783 353 342 479,615 3°756 9165 752 982 825,940
3°707 8-790 832 957 486,387 3757 9173 578 922 833,029
3°708 8798 319 344 493,165 3758 9°181 411 951 840,126
3°709 8805 812 509 499,950 3°759 9189 252 O77 847,228
3°710 8-813 312 459 7,506,741 3760 9°197 099 305 7,854,337
3711 8-820 819 200 7,513,538 3761 9:204 953 642 7,861,453
3712 8828 332 738 520,341 3762 9°212 815 095 868,576
3°713 8835 853 079 527,151 3°763 9°220 683 671 875,704
3714 8843 380 230 533,966 3764 9°228 559 375 882,839
3°715 8850 914 196 540,789 3°765 9:236 442 214 889,981
3°716 8858 454 985 547,616 3°766 9°244 332 195 897,129
3717 | 8866 002 601 554,452 “3°767 9°252 229 324 904,284
3718 8873 557 053 561,292 3768 9:260 133 608 911,445
3719 8-881 118 345 568,129 3°769 9°268 045 053 918,614
3°720 8888 686 484 7,574,992 3770 9:275 963 667 7,925,788
3-721. | 8896 261 476 | 7,581,852 || 3-771 | 9-283 889 455 | 7,932,970
3°722 8903 843 328 588,718 3-772 9:291 822 425 940,156
3723 8911 432 046 595,590 3773 9:299 762 581 947,351
3°724 8919 027 636 602,468 3774 9°307 709 932 954,553
3:725 8:926 630 104 609,353 3775 9°315 664 485 961,760
3°726 8934 239 457 616,245 3776 9°323 626 245 968,974
3°727 8941 855 702 623,143 3777 9°331 595 219 976,195
3728 8949 478 845 630,045 3778 9°339 571 414 983,423
3°729 8957 108 890 636,955 3°779 9°347 554 837 990,656
3-730 | 8964 745 845 | 7,643,872 || 3°780 | 9-355 545 493 | 7,997,897
3-721 | 8972 389 717 | 7,650,794 || 3-781 | 9-363 643 390 | 8,005,144
3°732 8-980 040 511 657,724 3°782 9°371 548 534 12,398
3°733 8°987 698 235 664,660 3°783 9°379 560 932 19,658
3°734 8995 362 895 671,600 3784 9°387 580 590 26,926
3°735 9°003 034 495 678,549 3°785 9°395 607 516 34,200
3°736 9:010 713 044 685,504 3°786 9°403 641 716 41,480
3737 9°018 398 548 692,464 3°787 9-411 683 196 48,769
3°738 9°026 091 012 699,432 3'788 9-419 731 965 56,062
3°739 9°033 790 444 706,405 3°789 9°427 788 027 63,362
3-740 | 9:041 496 849 | 7,713,385 || 3°790 | 9-435 851 389 | 8,070,670
3°741 9:049 210 234 7,720,372 3791 9°443 922 059 8,077,984
3°742 9:056 930 606 727,364 3°792 9°452 000 043 85,304
3°743 9:064 657 970 734,364 3°793 9°460 085 347 92,632
3-744 9:072 392 334 741,370 3794 9°468 177 979 99,967
3°745 9:080 133 704 748,382 3°795 9°476 277 946 107,307
3°746 9:087 882 086 755,400 3°796 9°484 385 253 114,655
3°747 9:095 637 486 762,424 3°797 9:492 499 908 122,009
3-748 9°103 399 910 769,457 3°798 9°500 621 917 129,371
3749 97111 169 367 776,494 3°799 9°508 751 288 136,738
3°750 9118 945 861 7,783,538 3°800 9516 888 026 8,144,113
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 137
——e
Ir Difference x Ipr Difference
9516 888 026 8,144,113 3°850 9°933 270 161 8,521,607
9°525 032 139 8,151,495 || 3°851 9°941 791 768 8,529,336
9°533 183 634 158,883 3°852 9:950 321 104 537,070
9°541 342 517 166,277 3°853 9°958 858 174 544,812
9°549 508 794 173,680 3°854 9°967 402 986 552,562
9557 682 474 181,088 3855 9975 955 548 560,318
9°565 863 562 188,503 3°856 9°984 515 866 568,081
9574 052 065 195,926 | 3°857 9:993 O83 947 575,853
9°582 247 991 203,354 3°858 10-001 659 800 583,630
9°590 451 345 210,790 3°859 | 10-010 243 430 591,415
9°598 662 135 | 8,218,233 || 3860 | 10-018 834 845 | 8,599,207
9:606 880 368 | 8,225,683 || 3°861 | 10-027 434 052 | 8,607,006
9°615 106 051 233,138 3°862 | 10:036 041 058 614,812
9°623 339 189 240,602 3°863 | 10°044 655 870 622,627
9°631 579 791 248,072 3°864 | 10:053 278 497 630,447
9°639 827 863 255,548 || 3865 | 10°061 908 944 638,274
9°648 083 411 263,033 || 3866 | 10070 547 218 646,110
9°656 346 444 270,523 || 3867 | 10:079 193 328 653,953
9°664 616 967 278,020 || 3868 | 10-087 847 281 661,802
9°672 894 987 285,525 3869 | 10:096 509 083 669,658
9-681 180 512 | 8,293,036 || 3870 | 10-105 178 741 | 8,677,523
9°689 473 548 | 8,300,554 || 3871 | 10-113 856 264 | 8,685,394
9697 774 102 308,079 3°872 | 10°122 541 658 693,271
9°706 082 181 315,611 || 3873 | 10131 234 929 701,158
9-714 397 792 323,150 3°874 | 10139 936 087 709,051
9°722 720 942 330,695 3°875 | 107148 645 138 716,950
9:731 051 637 338,248 || 3876 10°157 362 088 724,858
9°739 389 885 345,808 | 3877 | 10:166 086 946 732,774
9°747 735 693 353,375 | 3878 | 10174 819 720 740,694
9°756 089 068 360,948 || 3°879 | 1U0°183 560 414 748,624
9°764 450 016 8,368,528 3880 | 10:192 309 038 8,756,560
9°72 818 544 8,376,115 3°881 10:201 065 598 8,764,504
9°781 194 659 383,710 3°882 10:209 830 102 772,455
9°789 578 369 391,312 | 3883 10-218 602 557 780,414
9-797 969 681 398,919 || 3884 10°227 382 971 788,379
9°806 368 600 406,535 3°885 10:236 171 350 796,353
9814 775 135 414,158 | 3°886 10°244 967 705 804,332
9823 189 293 421,787 | 3887 10:253 772 035 812,321
9-831 611 080 429,423 | 3°888 10°262 584 356 820,315
9 840 040 503 437,066 3889 10°271 404 671 828,318
9848 477 569 | 8,444,717 || 3890 | 10-280 232 989 | 8,836,327
9°856 922 286 8,452,374 3°891 10:289 069 316 8,844,344
9°865 374 660 460,038 | 3°892 | 10-297 913 660 852,369
9°873 834 698 467,710 || 3°893 | 10-306 766 029 860,401
9°882 302 408 475,388 3894 | 10°315 626 430 868,440
9°890 777 796 483,073 || 3895 | 10:324 494 870 876,487
9°899 260 869 490,766 3896 | 10°333 371 357 884,540
9907 751 635 498,467 3°897 | 10°342 255 897 892,602
9916 250 102 506,173 3°893 | 10°351 148 499 900,671
9°924 756 275 513,886 || 3899 | 10°360 049 170 908,747
9°933 270 161 8,521,607 3900 | 10368 957 917 8,916,830
REPORT—1896.
a Jor Difference Py, Ioxr Difference
3900 | 10368 957 917 | 8,916,830 | 3-950 | 10824 858 358 | 9,330,631
3-901 | 10°377 874 747 | 8,924,922 | 3-951 | 10-834 188 989 | 9,339,102
3-902 | 10°386 799 669 933,020 | 3-952 | 10843 528 091 347,582
3-903 | 10395 732 689 941,126 || 3-953 | 10-852 875 673 356,069
3-904 | 10-404 673 815 949,239 | 3-954 | 10-862 231 742 364,563
3-905 | 10-413 623 054 957,360 || 3955 | 10-871 596 305 373,067
3-906 | 10-422 580 41 965,489 | 3-956 | 10-880 969 372 381,577
3907 | 10-431 545 903 973,625 || 3-957 | 10:890 350 949 390,096
3908 | 10-440 519 528 981,767 || 3:958 | 10899 741 045 398,622
3909 | 10-449 501 295 989,918 | 3-959 | 10-909 139 667 407,156
3910 | 10-458 491 213 | 8,998,077 | 3-960 | 10-918 546 $23 | 9,415,698
3911 | 10-467 489 290 | 9,006,242 | 3-961 | 10-927 962 521 | 9,424,247
3-912 | 10-476 495 532 14,415 || 3-962 | 10-937 386 768 432,806
3913 | 10-485 509 947 22,596 || 3-963 | 10-946 819 574 441,370
3-914 | 10-494 532 543 30,785 | 3964 | 10:956 260 944 449,944
3915 | 10503 563 328 38,981 || 3-965 | 10-965 710 888 458,525
3916 | 10512 602 309 47,183 || 3966. | 10975 169 413 467,115
3-917 | 10521 649 492 55,395 || 3-967 | 10-984 636 528 475,711
3-918 | 10:530 704 887 63,613 || 3968 | 10-994 112 239 484,317
3-919. | 10539 768 500 71,839 || 3969 | 11-003 596 556 492,930
3920 | 10548 840 339 | 9,080,073 || 3-970 | 11-013 089 486 | 9,501,551
3-921 | 10557 920 412 | 9,088,313 | 3971 | 11-022 591 037 | 9,510,179
3-922 | 10:567 008 725 96,562 || 3-972 | 11-032 101 216 518,815
3-923 | 10:576 105 287 104,820 || 3-973 | 11-041 620 031 527,460
3924 | 10:585 210 107 113,082 || 3974 | 11-051 147 491 536,114
3-925 | 10:594 323 189 121,354 || 3975 | 11-060 683 605 544,774
3926 | 10°603 444 543 129,633 || 3-976 | 11-:070 228 379 553,442
3-927 | 10°612 574 176 137,919 || 3-977 | 11-079 781 821 562,119
3-928 | 10621 712 095 146,215 | 3978 | 11-089 343 940 570,803
3929 | 10-6830 858 310 154,516 || 3579 | 11-098 914 743 579,496
3930 | 10-640 012 826 | 9,162,824 | 3-980 | 11108 494 239 | 9,588,197
3-931 | 10649 175 650 | 9,171,148 || 3-981 | 11°118 082 436 | 9,596,904
3932 | 10°658 346 793 179,468 || 3-982 | 11-127 679 340 605,621
3933 | 10 667 526 261 187,800 || 3-983 | 11:137. 284 961 614,346
3-934 |- 10-676 714 061 196,141 || 3-984 | 11:146 899 307 623,078
3-935 | 10°685 910 202 204,488 || 3985 | 11156 522 385 631,819
3936 | 10:695 114 690 212,844 || 3-986 | 11-166 154 204 640,568
3-937 | 10-704 327 534 221,207 | 3-987 | 11-175 794 772 649,325
3°938 | 10°713 548 741 229,577 || 3-988 | 11-185 444 097 658,089
3-939 | 10-722 778 318 237,956 | 3-989 | 11-195 102 186 666,862
3940 | 10-732 016 274 | 9,246,343 || 3-990 | 11-204 769 048 | 9,675,642
3-941 | 10-741 262 617 | 9,254,737 || 3:991 | 11-214 444 690 | 9,684,432
3:942 | 10:750 517 354 263,137 || 3°992 | 11-224 129 122 693,229
3-943 | 10-759 780 491 271,548 || 3-993 | 11-233 822 351 702,034
3:944 | 10-769 052 039 279,965 || 3994 | 11-243 524 385 710,848
3:945 | 10-778 382 004 288,390 || 3-995 | 11:253 235 233 719,669
3°946 | 10°787 620 394 296,823 || 3:996 | 11-262 954 902 728,498
3947 | 10796 917 217 305,263 || 3-997 | 11-272 683 400 737,335
3948 | 10-806 222 480 313,711 || 3-998 | 11-282 420 735 746,182
3:949 | 10-815 536 191 322,167 || 3-999 | 11-292 166 917 755,035
3-950 | 10824 858 358 | 9,330,631 | 4-000 | 11-301 921 952 | 9,763,898
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
139
| 12°323 570 116
as | Tor Difference x Tov Difference
£000 | 11301 921 952 | 9,763,898 || 4-050 | 11-801 144 658. | 10,217,562
4001 | 11°311 685 850 | 9,772,767 || 4051 | 11-811 362 220 | 10,226,850
| 4-002 | 11-321 458 617 781,646 || 4-052 | 11-821 589 070 236,147
| 4-003. | 11-331 240 263 790,533 || 4-053 | 11-831 825 217 245,452
‘| £004 | 11-341 030 796 799,428 || 4054 | 11-842 070 669 | 254,765
| 4:005 | 11-350 830 224 808,330 || 4:055 | 11°852 325 434 264,089
4006 | 11-360 638 554 817,241 || 4:056 | 11-862 589 523 | 273,418
4-007 | 11°370 455 795 826,161 || 4-057 | 11°872 862 941 282,758
4008 | 11-380 281 956 835,089 || 4:058 | 11-883 145 699 292,106
4009 | 11-390 117 045 844,024 || 4059 | 11-893 437 805 301,463
“£010 | 11-399 961 069 | 9,852,968 || 4060 | 11-903 739 268 | 10,310,828
#011 | 11-409 814 037 | 9,861,920 | 4061 | 11-914 050 096 | 10,320,202
4012 | 11-419 675 957 870,881 || 4062 | 11-924 370 298 329,584
4013 | 11-429 546 838 879,849 | 4063 | 11-934 699 882 338,976 —
4014 | 11-439 426 687 888,826 || 4064 | 11-945 038 858 348,375
4015 | 11-449 315 513 897,812 || 4065 | 11-955 387 233 357,185
4:016 | 11-459 213 325 906,805 | 4066 | 11-965 745 018 367,201
4017 | 11-469 120 130 915,807 || 4067 | 11-976 112 219 376,627
4-018 | 11-479 035 937 924.817 || 4068 | 11-986 488 846 386,062
4019 | 11-488 960 754 933,835 | 4069 | 11:996 874 908 395,505
14020 | 11-498 894 589 | 9,942,862 | 4070 | 12-007 270 413 | 10,404,956
} 4021 | 11-508 837451 | 9,951,897 || 4071 | 12:017 675 369 | 10,414,418
11518 789 348 960,940 || 4:072 | 12-028 089 787 423,887
11528 750 288 969,992 || 4073 | 12-038 513 674 433,365
11°538 720 280 979,052 || 4074 | 12-048 947 039 442,852
11548 699 332 988.120 | 4075 | 12-059 389 891 452,347
11:558 687 452 997,197 || 4076 | 12069 842 238 461,852
11568 684 649 | 10,006,282 || 4-077 | 12-080 304 090 471,364
11578 690 931 15,375 || 4078 | 12690 775 454 480,886
11588 706 306 24.477 | 4079 | 12101 256 340 490,418
11-598 730 783°) 10,033,587 | 4080 | 12-111 746 758 | 10,499,956
11-608 764 370 | 10,042,706 || 4081 | 12-122 246 714 | 10,509,505
11618 807 076 51,833 || 4-082 | 12:132 756 219 519,062
11°628 858 909 60,967 || 4:083 | 12143 275 281 528,627
11°638 919 876 70,112 || 4:084 | 12-153 803 908 538,202
11648 989 988 79,264 || 4085 | 12-164 342 110 547,785
11°659 069 252 88.424 || 4086 | 12174 889 895 557,379
11:669 157 676 97,594 || 4-087 | 12-185 447 274 566,979
11679 255 270 106,771 || 4088 | 12:196 014 253 576,588
11°689 362 041 115,957 || 4089 | 12-206 590 841 586,208
11°699 477 998 | 10,125,151 || 4:090 | 12-217 177 049 | 10,595,836
11:709 603 149 | 10,134,354 || 4-091 | 12-227 772 885 | 10,605,471
11:719 737 503 143,565 || 4-092 | 12-238 378 356 615,118
11:729 881 068 152,786 || 4-093 | 12-248 993 474 624,772
11:740 083 854 162,013 || 4-094 | 12-259 618 246 634,435
11:750 195 867 171,251 || 4:095 | 12270 252 681 644,107
11-760 367 118 180,495 || 4:096 | 12-280 896 788 653,788
11:770 547 613 189,750 || 4-097 | 12-291 550 576 663,478
11:780 737 363 199,012 || 4-098 | 12:302 214 054 673,177
11-790 936 375 208,283 || 4-099 | 12312 887 231 682,885
11:801 144 658 | 10,217,562 | 4100 10,692,602
REPORT—1896.
x Ipr Difference | x Ipx Difference
4100 | 12323 570 116 | 10,692,602 || 4-150 | 12870 291 948 | 11,190,039
4101 | 12334 262 718 | 10,702,327 || 4-151 | 12-881 481 987 | 11,200,225
4102 | 12344 965 045 712,062 || 4-152 | 12-892 682 212 210,419
4103 | 12:355 677 107 721,806 | 4153 | 12-903 892 631 220,621
4104 | 12°366 398 913 731,559 || 4-154 | 12-915 113 252 230,834
4105 | 12377 130 472 741,320 | 4155 | 12-926 344 086 241,057
4106 | 12387 871 792 751,091 | 4:156 | 12:937 585 143 251,288
4107 | 12:398 622 883 760,871 | 4157 | 12-948 836 431 261,529
4108 | 12-409 383 754 770,659 | 4:158 | 12-960 097 960 271,779
4109 | 12-420 154 413 780,457 || 4159 | 12-971 369 739 282,039
4110 | 12480 934 870 | 10,790,264 | 4-160 | 12-982 651 778 | 11,292,309
4111 | 12-441 725 134 | 10,800,080 | 4161 | 12-993 944 087 | 11,302,588
4-112 | 12-452 595 214 809,904 | 4162 | 13-005 246 675 312,876
4113 | 12-463 335 118 819,739 || 4163 | 13-016 559 551 323,174
4114 | 12-474 154 857 829,581 | 4164 | 13-027 882 725 333,481
4115 | 12-484 984 438 $39,434 | 4-165 | 13-039 216 206 343,798
4116 | 12495 823 872 849,294 | 4166 | 13-050 560 004 354,124
4117 | 12:506 673 166} 859,165 || 4-167 | 13-061 914 128 364,460
4118 | 12:517 532 331 69,044 || 4168 | 13-073 278 588 374,806
4:119 | 12°528 401 375 878,933 || 4169 | 13-084 653 394 385,161
4120 | 12:539 280 308 | 10,888,830 | 4:170 | 13-096 038 555 | 11,395,525
4121 | 12:550 169 138 | 10,898,737 || 4-171 | 13-107 434 080 | 11,405,899
4-122 | 12°561 067 875 908,652 | 4172 | 13118 839 979 416,283
4123 | 12:571 976 527 918,579 || 4:173 | 13-130 256 262 426,677
4124 | 12-582 895 106 928,511 || 4-174 | 13-141 682 939 437,079
4195 | 12°593 823 617 938,455 || 4175 | 13153 120 018 447,491
4126 | 12-604 762 072 948,407 || 4:176 | 13-164 567 509 457,914
4127 | 12-615 710 479 958,269 || 4177 | 13-176 025 423 468,345
4128 | 12:626 668 848 968,340 || 4178 | 13-187 493 768 478,787
4129 | 12-637 637 188 978,320 || 4:179 | 13198 972 555 489,238
4130 | 12648 615 508 | 10,988,309 | 4:180 | 13-210 461 793 | 11,499,698
4131 | 12°659 603 817 | 10,998,308 || 45181 | 13-221 961 491 | 11,510,168
4132 | 12-670 602 125 | 11,008,315 || 4182 | 13-233 471 659 | -520,649
4133 | 12681 610 440 18,332 || 4183 | 13-244 992 308 531,138
4134 | 12-692 628 772 28,358 || 4184 | 13-256 523 446 541,637
4135 | 12°703 657 130 38,394 || 4°185 | 13-268 065 083 552,146
4-136 | 19-714 695 524 48,439 || 4186 | 13-279 617 229 562,665
4137 | 12-725 743 963 58,492 | 4187 | 13-291 179 894 573,193
4138 | 12:736 802 455 68,555 || 4188 | (13302 753 087 583,731
4139 | 12:747 871 010 78,628 | 4189 | 13314 336 818 594,279
4140 | 12758 949 638 | 11,088,710 | 4190 | 13-325 931 097 | 11,604,837
4-141 | 12°770 038 348 | 11,098,800 || 4-191 | 13-337 535 934 | 11 615,404
4-142 | 12-781 137 148 108,901 || 4192 | 13-349 151 338 625,980
4143 | 12792 246 049 119,011 || 4193 | 13-360 777 318 636,568
4144 | 12-803 365 060 129,129 || 4194 | 13372 413 886 647,165
4145 | 12814 494 189 139,258 || 4-195 | 13°384 061 051 657,770
4146 | 12-825 633 447 149,395 || 4196 | 13-395 718 821 668,386
4:147 | 12836 782 842 159,543 || 4:197 | 13-407 387 207 679,014
4148 | 12847 942 385 169,699 || 4-198 | 13-419 066 221 689,648
4149 | 12859 112 084 179,864 || 4-199 | 13-430 755 869 700,294
4150 | 12-870 291 948 | 11,190,039 || 4-200 | 13-442 456 163 | 11,710,950
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 141
nen EannEEeneeeeeeT
“_ | .
x Tor Difference a Tor Difference
4200 | 13:442 456 163 | 11,710,950 || 4250 | 14041 263 683 | 12,256,456
4-201 13454 167 113 | 11,721,614 4:251 14053 520 139 | 12,267,625
4-202 | 13°465 888 727 732,290 4-252 | 14:065 787 764 278,804
4-203 | 13°477 621 017 742,975 4253 | 14:078 066 568 289,993
4204 | 13-489 363 992 753,670 4254 | 14-090 356 561 301,194
4-205 | 13°501 117 662 764,374 || 4255 | 14:102 657 755 312,404
4206 | 13512 882 036 776,089 | 4:256 | 14:114 970 159 323,625 .
4-207 | 13°524 657 125 785,813 || 4257 | 14:127 293 784 334,857
; 4:208 | 13°536 442 938 796,548 4°258 14:139 628 641 346,097
4:209 | 13°548 239 486 807,291 4°259 14151 974 738 357,348
4-210 | 13560 046 777 | 11,818,047 || 4260 | 14-164 332 086 | 12,368,611
#211 | 13571 864 824 | 11,828,810 | 4261 | 14176 700 697 | 12,379,885
4212 | 13583 693 634 39.584 | 4262 | 14189 080 582 391.167
4213 | 13595 533 218 850,368 || 4263 | 14-201 471 749 402,460
4:214 | 13-607 383 586 861,162 || 4264 | 14-213 874 209 413,764
4-215 | 13619 244 748 871,966 || 4:265 | 14-226 287 973 425,079
4216 | 13631 116 714 842.780 || 4:266 | 14-238 713 052 436,404
4217 | 13642 999 494 893.604 || 4-267 | 14-251 149 456 $47,739
4218 | 13-654 893 098 904,438 || 4268 | 14:263 597 195 459,084
4219 | 13666 797 536 915,282 | 4269 | 14-276 056 279 470,441
4220 | 13°678 712 818 | 11,926,136 | 4:270 | 14-288 526 720 | 12,481,808
4221 | 13-690 638 954 | 11,936,999 | 4271 | 14301 008 528 | 12,493,185
4-229 | 13°702 575 953 947.874 || 4272 | 14313 501 713 504,572
4-293 | 13-714 523 827 958.757 || 4273 | 14°326 606 285 515,970
4-224 | 13:726 482 584 969,651 || 4-274 | 14338 522 255 527,380
4:95 | 13°738 452 235 yg0.556 || 4275 | 14:351 049 635 538,799
4-226 | 13:750 432 791 991.470 || 4276 | 14363 688 434 550,228
4-997 | 13-762 424 261 | 12,002,395 || 4277 | 14-376 138 662 561,670
4-298 | 13-774 426 656 13.328 || 4278 | 14388 700 332 573,120
4-229 | 13-786 439 984 24.973 |) 4279 | 14-401 273 452 584,582
$930 | 13°798 464 257 | 12,035,227 || 4280 | 14-413 858 O34 | 12,596.954
4931 | 13°810 499 484 | 12,046,192 || 4-281 | 14-426 454 088 | 12,607,537
4-932 | 13822 545 676 67.167 || 4-282 | 14-439 O6L 625 619,030
4-233 | 13°834 602 843 68,151 || 4-283 | 14-451 680 655 630,534
4-234 | 13846 670 994 79,147 || 4-284 | 14-464 311 189 642,049
4-235. | 13858 750 141 90,153 || 4-285 | 14476 953 238 653,574
4-236 | 13870 840 294 101,168 | 4-286 | 14-489 606 812 665,110
4937 | 13882 941 462 112,193 || 4-287 | 14:502 271 922 676,657
4-238 | 13895 053 655 123,298 || 4288 | 14514 948 579 688,214
4-239 | 13-907 176 883 134,275 || 4.289 | 14527 636 793 699,782
4240 | 13919 311 158 | 12,145,331 || 4-290 | 14540 336 575 | 12,711,361
#241 | 13-931 456 489 | 12,156,398 || 4-291 | 14°53 047 936 | 12,722,950
4-242 | 13-943 612 887 167,474 || 4:292 | 14°565 770 886 734,550
4-243 | 13-955 780 361 178,560 || 4-293 | 14°578 505 436 746,161
4:244 | 13-967 958 921 189,658 || 4.294 | 14591 251 597 757,783
4-245 | 13-980 148 579 200,765 || 4295 | 14604 009 380 769,415
4246 | 13-992 349 344 211,883 || 4-296 | 14616 778 795 781,058
4-947 | 14-004 561 227 223,010 | 4-297 | 14°629 559 853 792,711
4248 | 14-016 784 237 234.149 || 4-298 | 14-642 352 564 804,376
4249 | 14-029 018 386 245,297 || 4-299 | 14655 156 940 816,052
£250 | 14-041 263 683 | 12,256,456 || 4300 | 14-667 972 992 | 12,827,738 |
142 REPORT—1896.
SS
x Ior Difference ie Igor Difference
4300 | 14667 972 992 | 12,827,738 || 4:350 | 15-323 902 914 | 13,426,031 _
£301 | 14-680 800 730 | 12,839,434 || 4351 | 15°337 328 945 | 13,438,289
4302 | 14693 640 164 851,142 || 4-352 | 15:350 767 227 450,543
4303 | 14-706 491 306 862,861 || 4-353 | 15:364 217 770 462,815
4304 | 14-719 354 167 874,59t || 4-354 | 15-377 680 585 475,100
4305 | 14732 228 758 886,330 || 4-355 | 15:391 155 685 487,396
4306 | 14°745 115 088 898,082 || 4:356 | 15-404 643 O81 499,703
4307 | 14758 013 170 909,844 || 4-357 | 15-418 142 784 512,021
4308 | 14-770 923 014 921.616 || 4-358 | 15-431 654 805 524,350
4-309 | 14-783 844 630 | 938,400 || 4-359 | 15-445 179 155 536,692
4310 | 14-796 778 030 | 12,945,195 || 4360 | 15-458 715 847 | 13,549,045
4311 | 14-809 723 225 | 12,957,000 | 4361 | 15-472 264 892 | 13,561,408
4312 | 14-892 680 295 968,817 || 4362 | 15-485 826 300 573,784
4313 | 14-835 649 042 980,644 | 4:363 | 15-499 400 084 586,170
4314 | 14848 629 686 992,483 364 | 15-512 986 254 598,569
4315 | 14-861 622 169 | 13,004,332 || 4:365 | 15-526 584 823 610,979
4316 | 14-874 626 501 16,192 || 4366 | 15:540 195 802 623,400
4317 | 14-887 642 693 28,063 || 4-367 | 15-558 819 209 635,834
4318 | 14-900 670 756 39.945 || 4-368 | 15-567 455 036 648,276
4319 | 14-913 710 701 51,839 || 4369 | 15-581 103 312 660,733
4320 | 14926 762 540 | 13,063,742 || 4370 | 15594 764 045 | 13,673,200
15°608 437 245 | 13,685,679
4321 | 14939 826 282 | 13,075,658 || 4371
4:322 | 14-952 901 940 87,584 || 4:372 | 15622 122 924 698,170
4323 | 14-965 989 524 | 99,521 || 4373 | 15-635 821 094 710,671
4324 | 14-979 089 045 111,469 || 4:374 | 15-649 531 765 723,185
4-325 | 14-992 200 514 123,428 || 4-375 | 15°663 254 950 735,710
4326 | 15°005 323 942 135,399 || 4:376 | 15°676 990 660 748,247
4-327 | 15-018 459 341 147,380 || 4-377. | 15-690 738 907 760,795
4-328 | 15-031 606 721 159,373 || 4:378 | 15°704 499 702 773,355
4-329 | 15°044 766 094 171,376 || 4:379 | 15-718 273 057 785,926
4330 | 15-057 937 470 | 13,183,391 || 4-380 | 15-732 058 983 | 13,798,510
4331 | 15-071 120 861 | 13,195,417 || 4-381 | 15-745 857 493 | 13,811,104
4332 | 15°084 316 278 207,453 4382 | 15:°759 668 597 823,711
4333 | 15:097 523 731 219,502 4383 | 16°773 492 308 836,329
4:334 | 15°110 743 233 231,561 4384 | 15°787 328 637 848,959
4335 | 15:123 974 794 243,631 4385 | 15801 177 596 861,600
4:336 15137 218 425 255,712 4386 | 15°815 039 196 874,253
4:337 15:150 474 137 267,806 4387 | 15828 913 449 886,918
4°338 15163 741 943 | 279,909 4388 | 15°842 800 367 899,595
4339 15:177 021 852 292,024 4:389 | 15°856 699 962 912,283
4:340 | 15:190 313 876 | 13,304,150 4390 | 15:870 612 245 13,924,984
4-341 | 15-203 618 026 | 13,316,288 4391 15°884 537 229 | 13,937,695
4:342 | 15:216 934 314 328,436 4:392 | 15°898 474 924 950,419
4343 | 15:230 262 750 340,597 4393 15°912 425 343 963,154
4344 | 15:243 603 347 352,767 4:394 | 15:°926 388 497 975,901
4:345 | 15:256 956 114 364,950 4395 15940 364 398 988,660
4:346 | 15°270 321 064 377,144 4396 | 15°954 353 058 | 14,001,431
4:347 | 15:283 698 208 389,348 4397 | 15968 354 489 14,214
4:348 | 15°297 087 556 401,565 4398 | 15°982 368 703 27,008
4349 | 15°310 489 121 413,793 4-399 15996 395 711 39,814
4350 | 15°323 902 914 | 13,426,031 || 4-400 | 16-010 435 525 | 14,052,632
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 143
: ey Tae Differenca | ox Ir Difference
4400 | 16-010 435 525 14,052,632 4-450 | 16-729 019 208 | 14:708,899
4401 | 16024 488 157 | 14,065,462 | 4451 | 16743 728 107 | 14,722,337
4-402 | 16-038 553 619 78,305 || 4-452 | 16-758 450 444 735,787
4-403 | 16-052 631 924 91158 || 4°453 | 16-773 186 231 749,250
| 4-404 | 16-066 723 082 | 104,023 || 4-454 | 16-787 935 481 762,724
| 4-405 | 16-080 827 105 116.901 | 4-455 | 16-802 698 205 776,212
4-406 | 16-094 944 006 129.791 || 4456 | 16-817 474 417 789,711
4-407 | 16109 073 797 142,692 | 4-457 | 16-832 264 128 803,223
4-408 | 16123 216 489 155,605 || 4458 | 16-847 067 351 816,749
4409 | 16137 372 094 168,531 || 4-459 | 16-861 884 100 830,287
| 4410 | 16-151 540 625 | 14,181,468 | 4-460 | 16-876 714 387 | 14,843,837
| 4411 | 16-165 722 093 | 14,194,417 | 4461 | 16-891 558 224 | 14,857,399
| 4-412 | 16-179 916 510 207,378 || 4462 | 16-906 415 623 870.973
| 4-413 | 16-194 123 888 220,352 || 4463 | 16-921 286 596 884.563
| 4-414 | 16-208 344 240 233,337 | 4464 | 16-936 171 159 898,162
> | 4-415 | 16-299 577 577 246,334 | 4465 | 16-951 069 321 911,775
| 4416 | 16-236 823 911 259,343 | 4-466 | 16-965 981 096 925,401
| 4-417 | 16-251 083 254 | 272,365 || 4-467 | 16-980 906 497 939,039
| 4-418 | 16-265 355 619 285,398 || 4-468 | 16-995 845 536 952,689
4419 | 16-279 641 017 298,443 || 4-469 | 17-010 798 295 966,353
4-420 | 16-293 939 460 | 14,311,501 || 4470 | 17-025 764 678 | 14,980,029
4421 | 16-308 250 961 |
4499 | 16-322 575 531 337,653 || 4-472 | 17-055 738 326 | 15,007,419
4493 | 16336 913 184 | 350,746 || 4-473 | 17-070 743 744 21'133
4-494 | 16351 263 930 363,852 || 4-474 | 17-085 766 877 34,860
4-495 | 16365 627 782 376,970 || 4-475 | 17-100 801 737 48,599
4-496 | 16380 004 752 390,100 | 4-476 | 17-115 850 336 62,352
4497 | 16394 394 852 403,243 || 4-477 | 17-130 912 688 76,117
4-498 | 16-408 798 095 416,397 || 4478 | 17-145 988 805 89,895
4429 | 16-423 214 492 | 4291564 || 4-479 | 17-161 078 700 103,685
4430 | 16°437 644 056 | 14,442,743 4480 | 17:176 182 385 | 15,117,488
4431 | 16-452 086 799 | 14,455,934 || 4-481 17-191 299 87 15,131,304
4432 | 16:466 542 733 469,138 4482 | 17-206 431 177 145,134
4433 | 16-481 011 871 482,353 4483 | 17-221 576 311 158,975
4434 | 16-495 494 224 495,581 4484 | 17-236 735 286 172,829
4435 | 16509 989 805 508,820 4485 | 17-251 908 115 186,697
4436 | 16-524 498 625 522,073 4486 | 17:267 094 812 200,577
4437 | 16:°539 020 698 535,338 || 4487 | 17-282 295 389 214,470
4-438 | 16°553 556 036 548,615 || 4488 | 17-297 509 859 228,376
4439 | 16°568 104 651 561,903 4489 | 17:312 738 235 242,295
4440 | 16582 666 554 | 14,575,205 4-490 17°327 980 530 | 15,256,226
| 4-441 | 16597 241 759 | 14,588,519 4491 17-343 236 756 “15,270,171
4442 | 16611 830 278 601,846 4-492 | 17°358 506 927 284,129
4443 | 16°626 432 124 615,183 4493 | 17373 791 056 298,099
4444 | 16°641 047 307 628,534 4494 | 17°389 089 155 312,083
4445 | 16°655 675 841 | 641,898 || 4495 | 17-404 401 238 326,079
4446 | 16670 317 739 655,273 4496 | 17-419 727 317 340,088
4447 | 16°€84 973 012 668,661 4497 | 17-435 067 405 354,110
4-448 | 16°699 641 673 682,061 4-498 17-450 421 515 368,146
4449 | 16-714 323 734 695,474 4499 | 17-465 789 661 382,195
4450 | 16:729 019 208 | 14,708,899 4500 | 17-481 171 856 15,396,256
14,324,570 || 4-471 | 17-040 744 607 | 14,993,718
144 REPORT—1896
x Tor Difference x Tor Difference
4-500 | 17-481 171 856 | 15,396,256 4550 | 18:268 484 229 | 16,116,194
4501 17-496 568 112 | 15,410,330 455] 18-284 600 423 | 16,130,936
4-502 | 17-511 978 442 424,417 4552 | 18300 731 359 145,692
4-503 | 17:°527 402 859 438,517 4553 | 18:316 877 051 160,460
4504 | 17542 841 376 452,632 4554 | 18:333 037 511 175,244
4-505 | 17-558 294 008 466,758 4555 | 18:349 212 755 190,040
4-506 | 17-573 760 766 480,898 4556 | 18°365 402 795 204,850
4507 | 17589 241 664 495,050 4557 | 18:°381 607 645 219,674
4508 | 17604 736 714 509,217 4558 | 18397 827 319 234,512
4509 | 17-620 245 931 523,395 4559 | 18-414 061 831 249,363
4510 | 17635 769 326 | 15,537,587 4560 | 18-430 311 194 | 16,264,229
4-511 17651 306 913 | 15,551,794 4561 18446 575 423 | 16,279,107
4512 | 17:666 858 707 566,012 4-562 | 18°462 854 530 294,000
4513 | 17°682 424 719 580,243 4563 | 18479 148 530 308,907
4-514 | 17-698 004 962 594,488 4-564 | 18-495 457 437 323,828
4515 | 17:713 599 450 608,746 4565 | 18511 781 265 338,761
4516 | 17:729 208 196 623,018 4566 | 18:528 120 026 353,710
4517 | 17744 831 214 637,302 4567 | 18544 473 736 368,672
4518 | 17-760 468 516 651,600 4568 | 18560 842 408 383,647
4519 | 17°776 120 116 665,911 4569 | 18:577 226 055 398,638
4520 | 17°:791 786 027 | 15,680,235 4570 | 18593 624 693 | 16,413,641
4521 | 17-807 466 262 | 15,694,573 | 4571 18°610 038 334 | 16,428,659
4:522 | 17°823 160 835 708,924 4572 | 18°626 466 993 443,690
4523 | 17°838 869 759 723,288 4573 | 18 642 910 683 458,735
4:524 | 17854 593 047 737,665 4574 | 18659 369 418 473,795
4525 | 17:°870 330 712 752,056 4575 | 18675 843 213 488,869
4526 | 17-886 082 768 766,461 4576 | 18692 332 082 503,956
4°527 | 17:901 849 229 780,877 || 4577 | 18708 836 038 519,057
4-528 | 17-917 630 106 795,309 4578 | 18°725 355 095 534,172
4529 | 17:933 425 415 809,753 4579 | 18°741 889 267 549,302
4530 | 17-949 235 168 | 15,824,211 || 4-580 | 18-758 438 569 | 16,564,444
4531 | 17965 059 379 | 15,838,681 || 4581 | 18-775 003 013 | 16,579,603
4°532 | 17-980 898 060 853,166 4582 | 18'791 582 616 594,775
4533 | 17-996 751 226 867,664 4583 | 18808 177 391 609,959
45384 | 18:012 618 890 882,175 4584 | 18824 787 350 625,160
4535 | 18:028 501 065 896,700 4:685 | 18841 412 510 640,373
4536 | 18:044 397 765 911,238 || 4586 | 18°858 052 883 655,601
4:5387 | 18:060 309 003 925,790 4587 | 18874 708 484 670,843
4538 | 18:076 234 793 940,356 4588 | 18891 379 327 686,099
4-539 | 18:092 175 149 954,933 4589 | 18908 065 426 701,370
4540 | 18108 130 082 15,969,526 4590 | 18:924 766 796 | 16,716,654
4-541 18-124 099 608 | 15,984,132 4-591 18-941 483 450 | 16,731,952
4542 | 18140 083 740 998,751 4592 | 18958 215 402 747,265
4543 | 18156 082 491 | 16,013,384 4593 18-974 962 667 762,593
4544 | 18172 095 875 28,030 4594 | 18991 725 260 777,934
4545 18-188 123 905 42,690 4:595 19:008 503 194 793,289
4546 | 18:204 166 595 57,364 4596 | 19:025 296 483 808,659
4547 | 18220 223 959 72,051 || 4597 | 19:042 105 142 824,043
4:548 18-236 296 010 86,752 4598 | 19:058 929 185 839,441
4549 | 18:252 382 762 101,467 4599 | 19°075 768 626 854,854
4:550 | 18268 484 229 | 16,116,194 4-600 | 19:092 623 480 | 16,870,280
ee
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS,
145
Tor Difference oe Tow Difference
19092 623 480 | 16,870,280 4650 | 19°955 336 846 | 17,660,154.
19109 493 760 | 16,885,722 4651 | 19-972 997 000 | 17,676,329
19°126 379 482 901,177 4652 | 19-990 673 329 692,519
19-143 280 659 916,647 4653 | 20008 365 848 708,722
19160 197 306 932,131 4654 | 20:026 074 570 724,942
19177 129 437 947,630 4655 | 20:043 799 512 741,176
19194 077 067 963,143 46566 | 20:061 540 688 757,425
19-211 040 210 978,670 4657 | 20-079 298 113 773,690
19-228 018 880 994,212 4658 | 20:097 071 803 789,969
19:245 013 092 | 17,009,767 4659 | 20114 861 772 806,264
19'262 022 859 | 17,025,339 4660 | 20132 668 036 | 17,822,574
19:279 048 198 | 17,040,923 4661 | 20150 490 610 17,838,899
19296 089 121 56,523 || 4662 | 20:168 329 509 855,239
19313 145 644 72,137 || 4663 | 20186 184 748 871,594
19°330 217 781 87,766 4664 | 20-204 056 342 887,965
19°347 305 547 103,408 4665 | 20:221 944 307 904,351
19-364 408 955 119,066 | 4666 | 20239 848 658 920,751
19381 528 021 134,738 || 4667 | 20-257 769 409 937,168
19°398 662 759 150,424 4668 | 20275 706 577 953,599
19°415 813 183 166,126 4669 | 20-293 660 176 970,045
19:432 979 309 17,181,841 4670 | 20:311 630 221 | 17,986,508
19:450 161 150 | 17,197,571 4671 | 20-329 616-729 | 18,002,984
19:467 358 721 213,317 4672 | 20°347 619 713 19,477
19-484 572 038 229,075 4673 | 20°365 639 190 35,985
19501 801 113 244,850 4674 | 20383 675 175 52,508
19:519 045 963 260,639 4675 | 20-401 727 683 69,046
19°536 306 602 276,441 4676 | 20-419 796 729 85,601
19:553 583 043 292,260 4677 | 20-437 882 330 102,169
19°570 875 303 308,093 4678 | 20-455 984 499 118,754
19°588 183 396 323,940 4679 | 20-474 103 253 135,354
19°605 507 336 | 17,339,802 4-680 | 20-492 238 607 18,151,970
19°622 847 138 | 17,355,679 4681 | 20-510 390 577 | 18,168,600
19°640 202 817 371,571 4-682 | 20528 559 177 185,246
19°657 574 388 387,477 4683 | 20546 744 423 201,908
19674 961 865 403,398 4684 | 20°564 946 331 218,586
19:6$2 365 263 419,334 4685 | 20583 164 917 235,278
19:709 784 597 435,285 4686 | 20°601 400° 195 251,986
19727 219 882 451,250 4687 | 20619 652 181 268,710
19:'744 671 132 467,230 4688 | 20°637 920 891 285,449
| 19°762 138 362 483,225 4689 | 20°656 206 340 302,204
19'779 621 587 | 17,499,236 4690 | 20°674 508 544 | 18,318,973
19°797 120 823 17, 515, 260 4-691 | 20°692 827 517 | 18,335,762
19°814 636 083 531,300 4692 | 20-711 163 279 352,561
19°832 167 383 547,354 4-693 | 20°729 515 840 369,379
| 19849 714 737 563,424 4694 | 20°747 885 219 386,212
19°867 278 161 579,509 4695 | 20°766 271 431 403,059
19-884 857 670 595,608 4696 | 20°784 674 490 419,924
: 19:902 453 278 611,722 4697 | 20°803 094 414 436,804
: 19°920 065 000 627,851 4698 | 20°821 531 218 453,699
; 19°937 692 851 643,995 4699 | 20°839 984 917° 470,610
f 19955 336 846 | 17,660,154 4700 | 20°858 455 527 | 18,487,536
L
REPORT— 1896.
x Tor Differenca | ep, Jor Diff: rence
4700 | 20°58 455 527 | 18,487,536 || 4-750 | 21-803 898 741 | 19,354,230
4701 | 20:876 943 063 | 18,504,479 | 4-751. | 21-823 252 971 | 19,371,977
4-702 | 20895 447 542 521.438 | 4752 | 21-S42 624 948 389,742
4-703 | 20913 963 #80 538,411 | 4-753 | 21-862 014 690 | 407,529
4:704 | 20°932 507.391 555,4(1 || 4-754 | 21-881 422 212 425,320
4:705 | 20-951 062 792 572,406 || 4:755 | 21-900 847 532 443,133
4706 | 20969 635 198 589.428 | 4756 | 21-920 290 665 | 460,963
4707 | 20-988 224 626 606,465 | 4-757 | 21-939 751 628 | 478,811
4-708 | 21-006 831 Ox] 623.518 || 4758 | 21-959 230 439 | 496,674
4-709 | 21-025 454 GO9 640,586 || 4-759 | zi-978 727 113 514,553
4710 | 21-044 095 195 | 18,657,671 | 4:760 | 21-998 241 666 | 19,532,451
471L | 21062 752 866 | 18,674,772 | 4-761 | 22-017 774 117 | 19,550,364
4712 | 21-081 427 G38 | 691,888 | 4762 | 22-037 324 481 588,294
4-713 | 21100 119 526 709,020 | 4763 | 22-056 892 775 | . 586,240
4-714 | 21-118 828 546 | 726.169 | 4-764 | 22-076 479 O15 604,204
4-715 >| 21-137 554 715 | 743,332 || 4-765 | 22-096 083 219 622,183
4716 | 21-156 298 047 | 760,513 | 4766 | 22-115 705 402 640,181
4-717 | 21-175 058 560 |° 777,709 || 4-767 | 29-135 345 583 658,193
4-718 | 21-193 836 269 | 794,92L || 4768 | 22-155 003 776 676,225
4-719 | 21-212 631 190 812,148 | 4:769 | 22-174 G80 COL 694,270
4-720 | 21-231 443 328 | 18,829,393 | 4770 | 22-194 374 271 | 19,712,335
A721 | 21-250 272 731 | 18,846,653 | 4771 | 22-214 086 606 | 19,730,415
4-722 | 21-269 119 B84 863,928 | 4:772 | 22-233 817 021 | 748,513
4-723 | 21987 983 312 881,221 | 4773 | 22-253 565 534 | 766,626
4-794 | 21-306 864 533 898,529 | £774 | 22-273 832 160 784,758
4-725 | 21-225 763 062 915,854 | 4775 | 22293 116 918 | 802,905
4-726 | 21:344 678 916 933193 4776 | 22-312 919 823 || 821,070
4-727 | 21-363 612 109 950.550 | 4:777 | 22332 740 893 | 839,252
4728 | 21-382 562 659 967,923 | 4:778 | 22352 580 145 857,450
4-729 | 21-401 530 582 985,311 | 4:779 | 22:372 437 595 875,665
1730 | 21-420 515 S92 | 19,002,716 | 4780 | 22392 313 260 / 19,893,898
4731 | 21-439 518 609 | 19,020,137 | 4:78L | 22-412 207 158 19,912,147
£732 | 21-458 538 746 37,575 | 4:782 | 29-432 119 305 930,413
4-733 | 21-477 576 321 55,028 | 4783 | 22-452 049 718 948,696
4-734 | 21-496 631 349 72,497 | 4:784 | 22-471 998 414 966,997
4-735 | 21515 703 846 89.984 | 4785 | 22491 965 411 | 985,314
4736 | 21°534 793 830 107,485 | £786 | 22-511 950 725 | 20,003,648
4°73 21:553 901 315 | 125,004 4-787 .| 22-531 954 373° | 22,000
4738 | 21-573 026319 | 142,539 | 4788 | 22551 976 373 | —«-40,367
4-739 | 21-592 168 858 | 160089 | 4:789 | 22572 016 740 58,754
4740 | 21-611 328 947 | 19,177,657 | 4°790 | 22592 075 494 | 20,077,155
4741 | 21-630 506 GOL | 19,195, 241 4.791 22-612 152 649 20,095,576
4-742 | 21-649 701 845 Y12,840 | 4792 | 22-632 248 295 | 114,012
4-743 | 21-668 914 685 230,457 | 4793 | 22652 362 237 | © 182,466
| 4744 | 21-688 145 142 | 248,089 | 4-794 | 22-672 494 703 150,937
4-745 | 21-707 393 231 | 265,738 | 4:795 | 22-692 645 640 169,425
4-746 | 21-726 G58 969 | 283404 4-796 | 22-712 815 065 187,931
4-747 | 21:745 942 373 301,086 | 4797 | 22-733 002 996 206,454
4748 | 21-765 243 459 | 318,783 | 4798 | 22-753 209 450 |. 224,993
4-749 | 21-784 562 242 336.499 4799 | 22°773 434 443 | 243,550
4750 | 21-803 898 741 | 19,354,230 | 4-800 93 677 993 | 20,262,125
|
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
147
L2
'
Ipr Difference x | Difference
22793 677 993 | 20,262,125 | 4850 | 23-829 901 540 | 21,213,203 |
- — — |} = oo os
22-813 940 118 | 20,280,716 | 4851 | 23-851 114 743 | 21,232,679
29'834 220 834 299,325 || 4:852 | 23-872 347 422 252,174
29-854 520 159 317,951 | 4853 | 23-893 599 596 271,686
22:874 838 110 336,595 || 4854 | 23-914 871 282 291,217
22-895 174 705 355,256 || 4855 | 23-936 162 499 310,765
22-915 529 961 373,984 || 4856 | 23-957 473 264 330,333
22-935 903 895 392,629 || 4857 | 23-978 803 597 349,917
22-956 296 524 411,343 || 4:858 | 24-000 153 514 369,521
22-976 707 867 430,073 || 4:859 | 24-021 523 035 389,148
22-997 137 940 | 20,448,821 || 4:860 | 24-042 912 178 | 21,408,782
23-017 586 761 | 20,467,585 | 4°861 | 24-064 320 960 | 21,428,440
23-038 054 346 486,369 | 4:862 | 24-085 749 400 448.117
23-058 540 715 505,168 || 4:863 | 24107 197 517 467,811
23-079 045 883 523,986 || 4:864 | 24-128 665 328 487,525
23-099 569 869 542,822 | 4865 | 24150 152 853 507,256
23-120 112 691 561,674 | 4:866 | 24-171 660 109 527,005
93:140 674 365 580,544 | 4:867 | 24-193 187 114 546.774
23:261 254 909 599,431 | 4:868 | 24-214 733 888 566,560
23-181 854 340 618,337 | 4:869 | 24-236 300 448 586,365
23-202 472 677 | 20,637,260 | 4870 | 24-257 886 813 | 21,606,189
23-223 109 937 | 20,656,201 | 4871 | 24279 493 002 | 21,626,030
23-243 766 138 675,158 | 4-872 | 24:301 119 032 645,890
| 23-264 441 296 694,134 || 4873 | 24322 764 922 665,769
23:285 135 430 713,128 | 4-874 | 24344 430 691 685,667
| 23-305 848 558 732,138 | 4875 | 24366 116 353 705,582
23°326 580 696 751,167 | 4:876 | 24387 821 940 725,516
23-347 331 863 770,214 || 4:877 | 24-409 547 456 745,469
23:368 102 077 789,277 | 4:878 | 24-431 292 925 765,441
23°388 891 354 808,360 | 4:879 | 24-453 058 366 785,431
23-409 699 714 | 20,827,459 | 4880 | 24474 843 797 | 21,805,439
23-430 527 173 | 20,846,576 | 4881 | 24-496 649 236 | 21,825,466
23-451 373 749 865,711 | 4:882 | 24518 474 702~| 845,512
23-472 239 460 884,865 | 4883 | 24-540 320 214 865,577
23:493 124 325 904,035 | 4:884 | 24-562 185 791 885,660
23:514 028 360 923,223 | 4:885 | 24-584 071 451 905,761
23534 951 583 942,481 | 4886 | 24-605 977 212 925,882
23-555 894 014 961,654 | 4887 | 24-627 903 094 | 946,022
23°576 855 668 980,897 | 4888 | 24-649 849 116 | 966,179
23:597 836 565 | 21,000,156 | 4889 | 24-671 815 295 986,356
23°618 836 721 | 21,019,435 | 4890 | 24-693 801 651 | 22,006,552
23639 856 156 | 21,038,730 | 4891 | 24715 808 203 | 22,026,766
23°660 894 886 58,044 | 4892 | 24-737 834 969 46,999
23 681 952 930 77,376 | 4893 | 24-759 881 968 67,252
23-703 030 306 96,726 | 4894 | 24-781 949 290 87,522
23°724 127 032 116,094 | 4895 | 24-804 036 742 107,812
23:745 243 126 135,480 | 4896 | 24-826 144 554 1; 8,120
23-766 378 606 154,883 | 4897 | 24-848 272 674 148,448
23°787 533 489 174,305 | 4898 | 24870 421 122 | 168,794
23-808 707 794 193,746 | 4899 | 24892 589 916 189,160
23°829 901 540 | 21,213,203 | 4-900 | 24-914 779 076 | 22,209,544
148 REPORT—1896.
x Tox Difference | x Ir | Difference
4900 | 24914 779 076 | 22,209,544 | 4-950 | 26-050 626 651 | 23,253,325
4-901 | 24-936 988 620 | 22,299,947 || 4-951 | 26-073 879 976 | 23,274,701
4-902 | 24-959 218 567 250,369 || 4-952 | 26-097 154 677 296,095
4-903 | 24-981 468 936 270,811 4-953 | 26120 450 772 317,510
4-904 | 25-003 739 747 291,271 || 4-954 | 26-143 768 282 338,945
4:905 | 25026 031 018 311,750 || 4-955> | 26-167 107 227 360,400
4:906 | 25-048 342 768 332,249 || 4-956 | 26-190 467 627 381,874
4907 | 25-070 675 017 352,767 || 4:957 | 26-213 849 501 403,370
4-968 25093 027 784 373,303 4:958 26:237 252 871 424,884
4909 | 25°115 401 087 393,858 || 4:959 | 26-260 677 755 446,418
4-910 | 25°137 794 945 | 22,414,433 || 4-960 | 26-284 124 173 | 23,467,974
ra =a | =:
4-911 | 25°160 209 378 | 22,435,028 | 4-961 | 26°307 592 147 | 23,489,549
4-912 | 25182 644 406 455,640 || 4-962 | 26-331 081 696 511,143
4-913 | 25-205 100 046 476,273 || 4-963 | 26354 592 839 532,759
4-914 | 25-227 576 319 496,925 || 4-964 | 26378 125 598 554,394
4-915 | 25°250 073 244 517,595 || 4-965 | 26-401 679 992 576,049
4°916 | 25-272 590 839 | 538,285. || 4-966 | 26-425 256 O41 597,725
4-917 | 25-295 129 124 558,995 || 4-967 | 26-448 853 766 619,421
4918 | 25°317 688 119 579,723 || 4-968 | 26-472 473 187 641,137
4-919 | 25-340 267 842 600,471 || 4-969 | 26-496 114 324 662,872
4-920 | 25°362 868 313 | 22,621,238 || 4970 | 26-519 777 196 | 23,684,630
4-921 | 25°385 489 551 | 22,642,024 || 4-971 | 26-543 461 826 | 23,706.406
4-922 | 25-408 131 575 662,831 || 4-972 | 26-567 168 232 728,203
4-993 | 25430 794 406 683,655 || 4-973 | 26590 896 435 750,020
4-924 | 25-453 478 061 704,501 || 4-974 | 26-614 646 455 771,858
4-925 | 25-476 182 562 725,364 || 4:975 | 26638 418 313 793,716
4-926 | 25-498 907 926 746,248 || 4-976 | 26°662 212 029 815,595
4-927 | 25:521 654 174 767,150 || 4:977 | 26686 027 624 837,493
4-998 | 25°544 421 324 788,073 || 4:978 | 26-709 865 117 859,412
4:929 | 25°567 209 397 809,015 || 4:979 | 26-733 724 529 881,351
4-930 | 25°590 018 412 | 22,829,976 || 4-980 | 26-757 605 880 | 23,903,312
4-931 | 25°612 848 388 | 22,850,957 || 4981 | 26-781 509 192 | 23,925,292
4-932 | 25°635 699 345 871,957 || 4982 | 26-805 434 484 947,293
4-933 | 25°658 571 302 892,978 || 4-983 | 26-829 381 777 969,314
4-934 | 25-681 464 280 914,016 || 4984 | 26-853 351 091 991,356
4:935 | 25°704 378 296 935,076 || 4985 | 26-877 342 447 | 24,013,418
4-936 | 25°727 313 372 956,155 || 4-986 | 26-901 355 865 35,502
4-937 | 25°750 269 527 977,253 || 4987 | 26-925 391 367 57,605
4-938 | 25°773 246 780 998.370 || 4988 | 26-949 448 972 79,729
4-939 | 25796 245 150 | 23,019,509 || 4989 | 26-973 528 701 101,874
4-910 | 25°819 264 659 | 23,040,665 || 4-990 | 26-997 630 575 | 24,124,039
4-941 | 25842 305 324 | 23,061,843 || 4-991 | 27-021 754 G14 | 24,146,226
4-942 | 25865 367 167 83,039 || 4-992 | 27-045 900 840 168,432
4-943 | 25-888 459 206 104,256 || 4993 | 27-070 069 272 190,659
4-944 | 25-911 554 462 125,492 || 4-994 | 27-094 259 931 212,908
4-945 | 25°934 679 954 146,749 || 4-995 | 27-118 472 839 235,176
4-946 | 25°957 826 703 168,023 || 4:996 | 27:142 708 015 257,466
4-947 | 25-980 994 726 189,320 |! 4:997 | 27-166 965 481 279,776
4-948 | 26-004 184 046 210,635 | 4998 | 27-191 245 257 302,108
4-949 | 26027 394 681 231,970 | 4-999 | 27-215 547 365 324,459
4-950 | 26-050 626 651 | 23,253,325 | 5-000 | 27-239 871 824 | 24,346,832
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
149
x Ipxr Difference x Ior Difference
5000 | 27:239 871 824 | 24,346,832 5-050 | 28-485 059 067 25,492,459 .
5001 | 27:264 218 656 | 24,369,225 5051 | 28°510 551 526 | 25,515,920
5002 | 27-288 587 881 391,640 5:052 | 28536 067 446 539,404
5:003 | 27-312 979 521 414,075 5:053 | 28°561 606 850 562,908
5:004 | 27-337 393 596 436,532 5:054 | 28587 169 758 586,436
5005 | 27:361 830 128 459,009 5055 | 28-612 756 194 609,984
5006 | 27:386 289 137 481,507 5056 | 28-638 366 178 633,555
5:007 | 27:-410 770 644 504,026 5:057 | 28°663 999 733 657,147
5008 | 27:435 274 670 526,566 5058 | 28689 656 880 680,763
5-009 | 27-459 801 236 549,127 5-059 | 28:715 337 643 704,399
5010 | 27-484 350 363 | 24,571,709 5060 | 28-741 042 042 | 25,728,058
5-011 | 27508 922 072 | 24,594,312 5-061 | 28-766 770 100 | 26,751,739
5-012 | 27-533 516 384 616,937 5-062 | 28-792 521 839 775,441
5013 | 27-558 133 321 639,581 5-063 | 28-818 297 280 799,167
5-014 | 27:582 772 902 662,248 5-064 | 28:844 096 447 822,914
5015 | 27°607 435 150 684,936 5:065 | 28-869 919 361 846,683
5016 | 27-632 120 086 707,644 5-066 | 28-895 766 044 870,474
5-017 | 27:656 827 730 730,374 5:067 | 28-921 636 518 894,288
5-018 | 27-681 558 104 758,125 5068 | 28-947 530 806 918,124
5019 | 27-706 311 229 775,897 5-069 | 28:973 448 930 941,982
5020 | 27°731 087 126 | 24,798,690 5-070 | 28999 390 912 | 25,965,863
6021 | 27°:755 885 816 | 24,821,505 5-071 | 29:025 356 775 | 25,989,764
5022 | 27-780 707 321 844,341 5-072 | 29:051 346 539 | 26,013,690
5023 | 27-805 551 662 867,198 5:073 | 29:077 360 229 37,637
5024 | 27-830 418 860 890,077 5-074 | 29:103 397 866 61,606
5-025 | 27-855 308 937 912,976 5075 | 29:129 459 472 85,598
5-026 | 27-880 221 913 935,897 5-076 | 29-155 645 070 109,612
5027 | 27-905 157 810 958,840 5077 | 29°181 654 682 133,649
5-028 | 27-930 116 650 981,804 5078 | 29:207 788 331 157,708
5:029 | 27-955 098 454 | 25,004,789 5-079 | 29:233 946 039 181,789
5-030 | 27-980 103 243 | 25,027,796 5-080 | 29-260 127 828 | 26,205,893
5031 | 28-005 131 039 | 25,050,824 5081 | 29-286 333 721 | 26,230,019
6-032 | 28-030 181 863 73,873 5082 | 29:312 563 740 254,168
5033 | 28-055 255 736 96,945 5083 | 29:388 817 908 278,340
5-034 | 28-080 352 681 120,037 5-084 | 29:365 096 248 302,533
5035 | 28105 472 718 143,151 5-085 | 29:391 398 781 326,750
5-036 | 28-130 615 869 166,287 5086 | 29-417 725 531 350,989
5037 | 28-155 782 156 189,444 5087 | 29-444 076 520 375,251
5:038 | 28-180 971 600 212,623 5-088 | 29-470 451 771 399,534
5-039 | 28-206 184 223 235,823 5089 | 29:496 851 305 423,842
5-040 | 28-231 420 046 | 25,259,045 5-090 | 29:523 275 147 | 26,448,171
5-041 | 28-256 679 091 | 25,282,289 5-091 | 29:549 723 318 | 26,472,524
5-042 | 28-281 961 380 305,554 5-092 | 29-576 195 842 496,898
5-043. | 28:307 266 934 328,842 5:093 | 29-602 692 740 521,296
5-044 | 28332 595 776 352,150 5094 | 29-629 214 036 545,717
5045 | 28-357 947 926 375,480 5-095 | 29:655 759 753 570,160
5-046 | 28383 323 406 398,833 5096 | 29:682 329 913 594,626
5-047 | 28-408 722 239 422,206 5097 | 29:708 924 539 619,114
5048 | 28-434 144 445 445,602 || 5-098 | 29-735 543 653 643,626
5049 | 28-459 590 047 469,020 || 5-099 | 29-762 187 279 668,161
5050 | 28-485 059 067 | 25,49: a) 855 441
| 25,492,459 —
29-788.
150 RETORT—1896.
Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor Carey Foster (Chairman), Lord Ketvry, Lord Ray-
LEIGH, Professors AyrRTON, J. PERRY, and W. G. Apams, Drs.
O. J. Lopce, Joon Hopkinson, and A. MurrHEaD, Messrs. W. H.
PREECE and HERBERT TAYLOR, Professor J. D. EVERETT, Professor
A. Scuuster, Dr. J. A. FLEMING, Professors A. W. RUCKER,
G. F. FirzGeratp, G. CarystaL, and J. J. THomson, Messrs.
R. T. GuazEesroox (Secretary) and W. N. Suaw, Rev. T. C.
Firzpatrick, Dr. J.T. BoTromuey, Professor J. VIRIAMU JONES,
Dr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, Professor S. P. THompson, Mr. G.
Forses, Mr. J. RENNIE, and Mr. E. H. Grirrirus.
APPENDIX PAGE
I.— Extracts from Letters received, dealing nith the Question of the Unit of
Heat . 154 «
Il.— The Capacity fi for Meat of Water from 10° to 20° 0. referred to its Capacity
at 10° C.as Unity . 162
Ill.—Reealculation of the Total Heat of W. ater from “the Eeperiments of
Regnault and Ronland. By W.N.SHAW . 5 . « 162
Tue work of testing resistance coils at the Cavendish Laboratory has
been continued, and a table of the values of the coils tested is given.
Ohms.
No. of Coil Resistance of Coilin Ohms} Temperature
Paul, 38 m0) .¢, No. 447 | 100098 11°9
Paul, 35 ab, St tc No. 448 100 (1 —-00179) 11°8
Paul, 40 Ab Tg .¢, No. 449 | 1000 (1—-00188) 12°-5
Hlliott,227. . 0. =. @_ No. 400 ‘99658 12°-4
Paul, 37 ph ah: Pik ¢, No. 451 | -99961 13°4
Nalder, 5324... GF No. 462 / -99881 12°-8
Nalder, 5326. . . C No. 453 “99869 13°5
Nalder, 4939 G, No. 454 ‘99899 13°-6
PURO S254 Kip ne eee ¢, No. 455 | 1:00050 17°-7
ape ed pe VES UO Se ¢, No. 456 | 100067 17°8
Mow 325 as cc woul, Nev a07 | 1-00057 177-8
Elliott, 326 ¢, No. 458 | 1:00060 1728
The comparison between the set of standards ordered from Germany—
referred to in the last report—is not yet completed. The work will be
continued during the current year.
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS.
151
At the Ipswich Meeting of the Association the question of a standard
thermal unit was referred to the Electrical Standards Committee, and has
been under their consideration during the year.
After the Ipswich Meeting Mr. E. H. Griffiths sent the following letter
to a number of physicists in various foreign countries, together with a copy
of the paper! he had communicated to the Association :—
Herewith I forward you a copy of a recent communication to the ‘ Philo-
sophical Magazine, in which I have endeavoured to call attention to the
unsatisfactory nature of our present system of thermal measurements.
At the Ipswich Meeting of the British Association the consideration of the
question of a standard thermal unit was referred to the Electrical Standards
Committee.
As a member of that Committee I now approach you with a request that
you will communicate to me any suggestions which you may regard as calculated
to assist our deliberations on the subject.
I am anxious to lay before the Committee the opinions of the leading
authorities of al! countries; I trust, therefore, that you will favour me with
some expression of your views, particularly as to the nature and magnitude
of the thermal unit (if any) that you would recommend for adoption.
Unless you state that I am to regard your reply as ‘ for Committee only’
or ‘ private,’ I shall conclude that you have no objection to its publication.
The importance of arriving (if possible) at some general agreement regard-
ing the thermal unit will, I hope, be accepted as a sufficient excuse for thus
troubling you.
Copies of the circular letter, and of the paper ' on the Thermal Unit,
were sent to the following :—
Professor Abbe, Washington, U.S.A.
Professor Ames, Baltimore.
Professor Bartoli, Pavia.
Professor Barus, Providence, B.I.
Professor Benoit, Sevres.
Professor Berthelot, Paris.
Professor Boltzmann, Vienna.
Professor Callendar, Montreal. |
Dr. Chappuis, Bureau International, |
Sévres. |
Dr. Curie, Paris.
Professor Dieterici, Hanover.
Professor Dorn, Halle.
Professor Du Bois, U.S.A.
Professor Willard Gibbs, Yale, U.S.A.
Dr. Guillaume, Bureau International,
Sevres.
Professor Hall, Harvard, U.S.A.
Professor Himstedt, Freiburg.
Professor Hittorf, Miinster. |
|
Professor Joubert, Paris.
Professor Kayser, Bonn.
Professor Kohlrausch, Berlin.
Professor de Kowalski, Freiburg, Swit-
zerland.
Dr. S. P. Langley, Washington, U.S.A. |
Professor Landolt, Berlin.
|
Professor Le Chatelier, School of Mines,
Paris.
Professor Lippmann, Paris.
Professor Victor Meyer, Heidelberg.
Professor Nernst, Géttingen.
Professor Nichols, Ithaca, U S.A.
Professor Olszewski, Cracow.
Professor Ostwald, Leipzig.
Professor Overbeck, Tiibingen.
Professor Paschen, Hanover.
Professor Planck, Berlin.
Professor Pellat, Paris.
Professor Pernet, Ziirich.
Professor Potier, Hcole Polytechnique,
Paris.
Professor Quincke, Heidelberg
Professor Remsen, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Professor Rowland, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Professor Runge, Hanover.
Professor Schuller, budapest.
Professor Stohmann, Leipzig.
Professor J. Thomsen, Copenhagen.
Professor Van ’t Hoff, Amsterdam.
Professor Vaschy, Ecole Polytechnique,
Paris.
Professor E. Warburg, Berlin.
Professor Wartha, Budapest.
Professor Weber, Ziirich.
Professor E. Wiedemann, Erlangen.
Professor G. Wiedemann, Leipzig.
Professor Wiillner, Aachen.
1 Phil. Mag., November 1895.
152 REPORT—1896.
Replies were received from the following, and the Committee desire to
thank those who so courteously responded to Mr. Griffiths’ inquiry for their
very valuable assistance.
Professor Ames, Baltimore. Professor Nichols, Ithaca, U.S.A.
Professor Boltzmann, Vienna. Professor Olszewski (and Colleagues},
Professor Callendar, Montreal. Cracow.
Dr. Chappuis, Bureau International, | Professor Ostwald, Leipzig.
Sévres. Professor Paschen, Hanover.
Professor Dieterici, Hanover. Professor Planck, Berlin.
Professor Dorn, Halle. Professor Quincke, Heidelberg.
Dr. Guillaume, Bureau International, Professor Remsen, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Sévres. Professor Rowland, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Professor Le Chatelier, School of Mines, Professor Runge, Hanover.
Paris. Professor Stohmann, Leipzig.
Professor Victor Meyer, Heidelberg. Professor Wiillner, Aachen.
Professor Nernst, Gottingen.
Extracts from such replies as contain definite suggestions bearing on
the question of the unit of heat are printed in Appendix I. ; the letters
have been translated, and those which merely give general approval to
some such scheme as that outlined have not been included. No replies
were received adverse to the suggéstion that an endeavour should be made
to secure common agreement in the matter.
The concluding propositions of Mr. Griffiths’ paper were substantially
as follows :
(I.) To adopt as the theoretical unit of heat a multiple (42 x 10°) of
the erg.
(II.) To adopt as the practical unit of heat, the heat required to raise
1 gramme of water 1° C. of the nitrogen thermometer at some temperature
t° C. as given by that thermometer.
(III.) To adopt provisionally some formula expressing the specific heat
of water in terms of the temperature over a range of, say, 10° C.
If the number, 42 x 10° ergs, be adopted for the theoretical unit, then,
according to the experiments of Rowland, the theoretical and the practical
unit agree, provided that the temperature ¢° C. be 10° C,
Mr. Griffiths, in the paper already referred to, has made a comparison
of the results obtained by Joule, Rowland, Schuster, Micuiescu, and him-
self, for the amount of energy required to raise 1 gramme of water 1° C.
at various temperatures. The results differ according as the readings of
Joule’s mercury thermometer are reduced to the scale of Rowland’s air
thermometer, or to the scale of the nitrogen thermometer, as has been
done by Schuster.
In the first case the mean values are—
At 10° C. (41-971+-023) x10®; and at 15° C. (41:°891+:023) x 106 ;
and in the second —
At 10° C, (41:958-029) x 108 ; and at 15° C. (41°875+-029) x 108.
Tables of the values of the specific heat of water between 10° C.
and 20° C. have been calculated by Mr. Griffiths, and are given in
Appendix IT.
The Committee have made an analysis of those replies which contain
definite suggestions.
a i. en eee
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 153
Most of the writers wish to see some multiple of the erg adopted as
the theoretical unit, but there are differences of opinion as to the mul-
tiple to be chosen,
Thus, Professors Dorn and Wiillner, Dr. Chappuis, and Professor Ames
would prefer 42 x 10° ergs. Professor Ostwald, Professor Olszewski and
his colleagues, and Professor Callendar suggest 10’ ergs. Professor Planck
and M. Le Chatelier suggest 10% ergs, or in the case of the latter, as an
alternative, 5 x 107.
Professors Rowland and Nichols consider the ice unit as theoretically
best ; the latter, however, would be willing to adopt 42 x 10° ergs as the
theoretical unit, while Professor Rowland writes: ‘From a practical stand-
point, however, the unit depending on the specific heat of water is cer-
tainly the most convenient. It has been the one mostly used, and its
value is well known in terms of energy.’
There is fairly general agreement in the view that as a practical unit
the heat required to raise 1 gramme of water 1° C. at some fixed tempera-
ture must be taken, but views differ as to the temperature which it is
most convenient to choose.
Mr. Griffiths suggested the nitrogen thermometer as the standard
of temperature. The French physicists agree in the opinion that the
hydrogen thermometer should be adopted, and reasons are given for this
in the letters of M. Guillaume and M. Chappuis. The Committee concur
in this view.
The Committee are of opinion that Mr. Griffiths’ paper, and the
replies received by him, show clearly that it is desirable to come to an
agreement as to the definition of the unit of heat.
They understand that a Committee of the French Physical Society have
the question at present under consideration, and they hope it may be
possible for the Electrical Standards Committee of the British Association
to co-operate with this Committee and with representatives of other foreign
countries in the matter.
The Standards Committee have provisionally approved the following
propositions, with the view of opening international discussion of the
question. They propose to send the propositions to representative bodies
throughout the world, with a letter stating that they have been provisionally
approved, inviting further discussion, and asking those bodies to take the
steps which seem to them most desirable in order to secure international
agreement on the matter.
Proposition I.—For many purposes heat is most conveniently
measured in units of energy, and the theoretical C.G.S. unit of heat is
lerg. The name Joule has been given by the Electrical Standards
Committee to 107 ergs,
For many practical purposes heat will continue to be measured
in terms of the heat required to raise a measured mass of water through
a definite range of temperature.
If the mass of water be 1 gramme, and the range of temperature 1° C.
of the hydrogen thermometer from 9°-5 C. to 10°-5 C. of the scale of that
thermometer, then, according to the best of the existing determinations,
the amount of heat required is 4:2 Joules.
It will, therefore, be convenient to fix upon this number of Joules as a
secondary unit of heat.
This secondary thermal unit may be called a ‘Calorie.’
154 REPORT—1896.
For the present a second proposition is
Proposition I1.—The amount of heat required to raise the tempera-
ture of 1 gramme of water 1° C. of the scale of the hydrogen ther-
mometer, at a mean temperature which may be taken as 10° C. of that
thermometer, is 4°2 Joules.
If further research should show that the statement in II. is not exact,
the definition could be adjusted by a small alteration in the mean tem-
perature at which the rise of 1° takes place. The definition in I. and
the number (4°2) of Joules in a Calorie would remain unaltered.
In Appendix II. a table is given showing the capacity for heat of
water between 10° C. and 20° C., and in Appendix III. the values of the
total heat of water has been calculated by Mr. Shaw from his experiments
of Regnault and Rowland.
Professor J. V. Jones has, during the year, calculated the correction
to be applied to the value of the international ohm in absolute measure
given by him at the Oxford meeting (1894), in consequence of the ellipticity
of the standard coil used in his experiments. The required correction is
00684 per cent., and the corrected value of the international ohm is
*99983 x 10° absolute units.
In conclusion the Committee recommend that they be reappointed,
with a grant of 5/.; that Professor G. Carey Foster be chairman, and
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook secretary.
APPENDIX I.
Extracts FROM LETTERS RECEIVED, DEALING WITH THE QUESTION OF
THE Unit or Heat.
1.—From Dr. C. Dieterici, Professor of Physics, Hanover.
[This reply has, since it was sent to Mr. Griffiths, been printed in full in
Wiedemann’s Annalen for February 1896. It is therefore not thought necessary
to print it again here. ]
2.—I’rom Dr. Dorn, Professor of Physics, Halle,
December 27, 1895.
[TRANSLATION. |
. . . I quite agree with you that it is very necessary there should be
an improvement in the department of calorimetry, and that the first step
must be the determination of sharply defined units. I agree with you
in the opinion that the new unit ought not to differ in a marked degree
from the present, for it would otherwise cause great inconvenience to
both physicists and chemists, and there would be no hope of introducing
the new unit technically,
I have really no objection to offer to the thermal unit being 42 x 10°
ergs (or rather 41-89 x 10° ergs).
3.—From Dr. W. Ostwald, Professor of Chemistry, Leipzig,
February 12, 1896.
[TRANSLATION. ]
I entirely agree with your proposal to take some multiple of the erg
as unit of heat. Such a step seems to me so undoubtedly necessary that,
in my opinion, the question is when and not if such a change should be
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 155
carried out. I therefore regard your proposition as a welcome oppor-
tunity for going into the neglected question, and I may say that I am
determined to recalculate, in the forthcoming third edition of my text-
book, the whole of the thermo-chemical data in such a manner as to do
my utmost to diminish the difficulties consequent on the transition. I
have already (in 1891) expressed my opinion very clearly, and I now send
you the memoir referring to it.!
I differ from your proposals, however, as regards the magnitude of
the unit to be adopted. I believe that only an erg multiplied by some
integral power of 10 should be chosen. I formerly proposed a Mega-erg,
but have now altered my opinion.
_ As apractical multiple of the erg, we already possess one in electricity,
viz., the Joule = 10’ ergs ; and it appears to me to have the great
advantage that the practical unit of energy in constant use in the
two great departments of electrical and thermal measurements would be
identical ; therefore I do not think that any other choice could be so
advantageous.
4.—From Dr. F. Paschen, Tit. Professor of Physics, Hanover,
November 24, 1895.
. . . We must have an absolute unit simply related to other absolute
units, and that would be your ‘ Rowland’ ; but we must also know how
to realise this unit. For this purpose the specific heat of water must be
fixed for each temperature.
I think, as the different observations on the variability of the specific
heat of water differ so greatly, your statement III. (p. 3) is a very
preliminary one. . . . I think it would be best to propose that a new
determination of the changes in the specific heat of water should be
undertaken by some institute that has the necessary apparatus and
money.
5.—From Dr. M. Planck, Professor of Physics, Berlin,
November 25, 1895.
[ TRANSLATION. ]
If I may venture on giving my opinion on the propositions made by
you, I must emphasise, before all things, that I agree with you as to the
necessity of having a well-defined universal unit of heat, and I should be
very glad if your well-considered plans led to a definite result. As a
theorist [ would make even more radical demands as to the unit to be
defined. The ideal universal unit of heat appears to me to be still more
closely related to the definition of the electrical units ; consequently I
would define :—
I. One ‘ Rowland’ (or ‘ Meyer,’ or ‘ Kelvin’) as that quantity of heat
which is equivalent to 10% ergs.
II. According to the best measurements hitherto obtained 1 ‘Row-
land’ is that quantity of heat which raises 1 gramme of water at 15° C.
through 2°39 C. It would be possible to modify this number in the
light of subsequent experiments. We should thus avoid the arbitrary
character involved in the choice of such numbers as 41:89 x 10° or 42 x 10°.
1 See Studien zur Energetik, p. 577.
156 REPORT—1896.
At the same time I quite acknowledge that the establishment of this unit
will cause a considerable revolution in present thermal calculations which
will be difficult to carry out, and it will therefore probably meet with
energetic opposition from practical physicists and from technical men.
Still, as I have already remarked, I should consider it a great step in
advance if even the value of the equivalent of heat were established.
6.—From Dr. Wiillner, Professor of Physics, Aachen,
February 23, 1896.
[TRANSLATION. ]
I, also, have finally decided on determining the unit of heat by the
work done, inasmuch as I have endeavoured to determine the work which
is equivalent to the mean calorie measured by the ice calorimeter.
I hope I made it evident that I am quite aware of the uncertainty of
this method of calibration. I thus arrived at the value 4175'8 x 104, or, in
whole numbers, 4176 x 104, which, according to Rowland, corresponds to the
heat required to raise the unit weight of water through 1° C. at 22° C.
of the air thermometer.
I am, however, quite willing, if an agreement can be arrived at, to
discard the always uncertain relation to the mean unit of heat, and to
accept your proposed unit 42x 10°. The temperature 15°, at which the
specific heat of water is then unity, is more convenient. The consequence
of such an agreement will be that all thermal measurements in which
absolute values are aimed at will be made with the water calorimeter,
in which case it appears easier to experiment with temperatures about
15°; also we are in better agreement as to the behaviour of water
between 10° C. and 20° C., although, even then, there is not complete
certainty. I should, for example, prefer to make the reductions at 15°
entirely according to the observations of Rowland, as he has directly
measured the equivalent of heat at these temperatures. Finally, as
regards the designation of the new unit, I do not approve of giving it the
name of a physicist ; also the name ‘therm’ is suitable for English
physicists, but not for others.
Why should we not simply preserve the name ‘thermal unit’? Or, if
a distinctive name is used, then, approximating to the long-used ‘calorie,’
call the new unit a ‘calor.’ The definition would then be, ‘ A calor is the
heat value of 41:89 x 10° ergs,’ and, until further notice, the calor will be
equal to the amount of heat which will raise the unit mass of water
at 15° through 1° C.
No especial name has been given to the length of the mercury column
which is equivalent to 1 ohm. In no case would I advocate the adoption
of a second definition for the practical unit (besides ‘ Rowland,’ ‘ calor,’
or simply ‘thermal unit’), as that would lead to confusion.
7.—From Dr. Boltzmann, Professor of Theoretical Physics, Vienna,
November 26, 1895.
The unit ought to be as simple as possible and capable of accurate
determination, as all other qualities are of less importance. It would be
simplest to choose the heat which raises the temperature from 10° to 11° C.
In general I am in accord with all you say in your paper. The most
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 157
important thing is that the same conception should be adopted everywhere,
and for this reason I will fully accept the decision of the majority of the
Committee.
8.—From Dr. K. Olszewski, Professor of Chemistry, Cracow,
December 14, 1895.
Ihave taken the advice of my colleagues in the Cracow University,
Professors Witkowski and Natanson, and I beg to submit to your attention,
as well as to that of the British Association Electrical Standards Com-
mittee, the following suggestions, being the conclusions arrived at con-
jointly by the above-named gentlemen and myself.
1. It would be advisable, on theoretical grounds, to select a Joule, or
107 ergs, as the fundamental theoretical or ideal unit of heat-energy.
Hence the following proposal is brought forward :—
‘That the theoretical or thermo-dynamical, or, say, c.g.s. standard
thermal unit, be defined as the heat equivalent of a Joule or of 107
ergs, and termed a thermal Joule.’
2. That, as a practical thermal wnit, the quantity of heat required to
raise | gramme of pure water through 1° of the thermo-dynamical scale at
15° of that scale be temporarily adopted.
8. That, in view of the exceptional importance of the question, steps be
taken, by international co-operation or otherwise, leading to the deter-
mination of the numerical value of the ratio between the theoretical unit
and the practical unit, defined by 15°, as above stated, by some at least of
the leading physical and metrological laboratories and institutions of the
world, with the highest degree of accuracy nowadays attainable ; and to
the extension (if possible) of such determinations over as great a range of
temperature as practicable. Added to the highly valuable work already
done, such an investigation cannot fail to settle the question of the specific
heat of water ; and if this be done, the subject of thermal units will have
lost nearly all of its present difficulty.
9.—From Dr. Chappuis, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Sevres, February 2, 1896.
[TRANSLATION. ]
. . . Your arguments have led me to accept the propositions given by
you on pp. 452 and 453.
If, however, I may. be allowed to express a wish, it is that the values
may be reduced to the normal scale of temperature, 7z.e., to that of the
hydrogen thermometer, and not to the air or nitrogen.
It is true that the difference between these scales is very small, but
still it is perfectly measurable. Some experiments of the Bureau Inter-
national des Poids et Mesures (not yet published) have led me to the
conclusion that the thermometric scale of hydrogen is independent of the
initial pressure between 0:5 and 2 atmospheres, and that the hydrogen
thermometer at constant pressure gives sensibly the same values as the
thermometer at constant volume. It is not so with the nitrogen or the
air thermometer.
The difference between the nitrogen and hydrogen scales is indicated
both in the original memoir (‘Trav. et Mém. du Bureau International,’
158 REPORT—1896.
Vol. VI.) in the pamphlet on thermometry of precision by M. Guillaume,
as well as in Landolt and Bornstein’s physical tables, 2nd edition, p. 93.
Also a great number of physicists have adopted the decision of the
International Committee of the Poids et Mesures to take, as the normal
seale of temperature, that of the hydrogen thermometer at constant
volume.
10.—From Professor Le Chatelier, School of Mines, Paris.
[TRANSLATION. |
. . . I should like the thermal unit to be a number of ergs chosen
arbitrarily ; either 10° ergs, or, in order to approach more nearly to the
present unit, 5 x 10’ ergs. Then; as practical unit, I should like two :
(1) A unit, of precision analogous to the ohm, which should be the quantity
of heat yielded by a given mass of mercury in passing from one state to
another, the states being defined by volume or electrical conductivity.
(2) The present unit should be the specific heat of water at 15°.
The use of water is indispensable for current researches, but it appears
to me very doubtful for researches of precision.
It is supposed that the condition of water and, consequently, its internal
energy are completely determined when the pressure and temperature are
ascertained. Now, nothing is less probable. Since Ramsay’s researches,
we know decisively that water is formed of a mixture of molecules at
various degrees of association ; it is a system in equilibrium. The state of
equilibrium of analogous systems is in theory eutirely defined when the
pressure and temperature are known. But in practice the state of
equilibrium is only attained with an extreme slowness, and sometimes it is
never reached. The lower the temperature, the more serious are those
delays in reaching the state of equilibrium. It is therefore possible that
the specific heat of water varies with the temperature, and that it differs
according to whether the initial temperature of the experiment has been
reached when ascending or descending.
11.—From Dr, Guillaume, Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures, Sevres, November 19, 1895.
[TRANSLATION. |
I believe that if the French Committee adopt your proposal as to the
fixing of the new unit, they will declare themselves still more decidedly
in favour of the name which you have given them, as it has already been
proposed here to name ‘therm’ the equivalent of heat of the erg or of one
of its decimal multiples.
I do not think, in return, that we could agree with you as to the scale
of the nitrogen thermometer. There appears to be no doubt that the
hydrogen thermometer gives a scale extremely like the thermo-dynamic, and
that it is, at all events, the most analogous we can have. Sooner or Jater
it will be necessary to adopt the thermo-dynamic scale, and it is well
to now approach to it as nearly as possible.
Besides, this scale is one of a certain small number of units on whicha
legal authority has been conferred. It is now included in the decisions
arrived at by the International Committee of Weights and Measures,
which a certain number of States have introduced into their legislation.
In itself the thing is actually of little importance ; but it becomes more’
:
j
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 159
important in proportion as experiments become more exact, and it is best
to have as little as possible to change in the end.
12.—From Professor J. S. Ames, Johns Hopkins University, U.S.A.,
December 10, 1895.
. . . I must say your proposal appeals to me in every way. The
10° unit seems to me to be preferable to the 15° one.
13.—From Professor H. L. Callendar, Professor of Physics, McGill
University, Montreal, December 5, 1895.
I entirely agree that it would be a very great improvement to adopt
an absolute unit in place of the present various and uncertain units based
upon the peculiar properties of water. I think, however, that it would be
better to connect it more simply and directly with the system of electrical
units, and to use only names which are already familiar to all engineers,
than to attempt to retain a close approximation to the value of any of the
old specific heat units, which are essentially arbitrary.
The following are the names of the series of thermal units which I
should be inclined to suggest as being already familiar in practice :—
1. The thermal watt-second, or ‘Joule,’ defined as being equivalent
to 10’ c.g.s. units of work. <A rider might be added to the effect that,
according to the best determinations, this unit is approximately equal to
1 of the gramme degree centigrade at 10° C.
2. The thermal watt-hour, which would be equivalent to 3,600
Joules, and would therefore be of a similar magnitude to the kilogramme
degree centigrade, which is so largely used in the thermo-dynamics of the
steam-engine. The watt-hour, in fact, would be exactly ths of the kilo-
gramme degree centigrade at some temperature in the neighbourhood of
10° C.
3. The thermal kilowatt-hour, or simply kilowatt-hour, which, as
the Board of Trade unit of electrical energy, is already so familiar and
useful for the commercial measurement of large quantities of energy.
In connection with the latter unit it may be remarked that it would
be a great advantage if engineers could be induced to adopt the kilowatt
as their unit of mechanical power in place of the horse power. The latter
unit differs from the ‘cheval-vapeur,’ and being based upon the foot-pound
has different values in different latitudes. For the order of accuracy
generally attainable in steam-engine work, it would, as a rule, be sufficient
to take the horse power as being #ths of the kilowatt power.
For steam-engine work undoubtedly one of the most important units
at present in use is the British thermal unit, or pound degree Fahrenheit.
It happens that the watt-hour is very nearly equal to 3-400 B.T.U.
The reduction of the latter to watt-hours may be very readily effected by
multiplying by 0-3 and then reducing the result by 2 per cent.
It would seem, on the whole, not improbable that the simple adoption
of al) the familiar units of electrical energy, with the prefix ‘thermal,’ if
necessary, as our absolute units of heat, would result in a more general
agreement and a greater simplification of expression than any attempt to
re-define one of the older units in terms of the absolute system. The
160 REPORT—1896.
latter course might readily lead to confusion, and would necessitate the
retention of the constant factor J=4:2x107 in our equations whenever
they involved electrical or mechanical measurements.
To put the question in a brief and concrete form for the consideration
of the Committee, I think that the views above expressed might be
embodied in some such resolutions as the following :—
1. That the thermal equivalents of the practical units of electrical
energy above mentioned may be taken as convenient absolute units of
heat.
2. That when used to denote quantities of heat these units may be
distinguished, if necessary, by prefixing the word ‘ thermal.’
3. That the ‘thermal watt-second,’ which is intended to represent
10’ c.g.s. units of energy, be also called a ‘Joule.’
4. That the heat developed by an electromotive force equal to that of
a standard Clark cell at 15° C., when acting through a resistance equal to
one standard ohm, may be taken as 1-4340 Joule per second.
5. That (pending the results of further investigations) the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gramme of water through
one degree of the centigrade air thermometer in the neighbourhood of
10° C. may be taken as 4-200 Joules.
6. That the thermal watt-hour, which is equal to 3-600 Joules, may
be taken as equal to $ths of the kilogramme degree centigrade at 10° C., or
as equal to 3:4 times the pound degree Fahrenheit at 50° F.
7. That for the reduction of observations to the standard temperature
of 10° C. or 50° F., the temperature coefficient of the diminution of the
specific heat of water may be taken as -00036 per 1° C., or -00020 per
1° F., over the range 10° to 20°.
With regard to the last resolution I do not see that anything would be
gained in the present state of our knowledge by adopting a more compli-
cated or discontinuous formula of reduction, until we are prepared to
extend it to higher ranges of temperature.
The name ‘Joule,’as that of the father of the mechanical measurement
of heat, would not, I think, be open to objection. At the same time I feel
that the choice of a special name for the absolute unit of heat is one com-
paratively of secondary importance. The really essential points to impress
upon the world of science in general, and upon engineers in particular,
are, that the specific heat of water is far from constant, and that 772
foot-pounds are not very accurately equivalent to the B.T.U. Also that
in measuring quantities of heat by the rise in temperature of a mass of
water it is most important to have an accurately verified thermometer,
and to state the limits of temperature between which the observations
were taken. It would certainly be a great advantage for the reduction
and comparison of observations to use always the same standard formule,
such as those which you suggest ; but it would still be necessary in accurate
work to state the limits of temperature for subsequent identification, should
these formule prove on more exact investigation to be not sufficiently
approximate.
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 161
14.—Irom Professor EB. L. Nichols, Professor of Physics, Cornell
University, Ithaca, U.S.A.. January 12, 1896.
The suggestion of defining the heat units by means of the melting of ice
strikes me so favourably that, in spite of the difficulties which have hitherto
been found in determining the precise heat of fusion, I am considering the
question of the redetermination by new methods with a view of finding
whether one can obtain a sufficient degree of accuracy to warrant the
adoption of the heat of fusion of water as the basis for thermal measure-
ment.
15.—From Professor Rowland, Professor of Physics, Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, U.S.A., December 15, 1895.
As to the standard for heat measurement, it is to be considered from
both a theoretical as well as a practical standpoint.
The ideal theoretical unit would be that quantity of heat necessary to
melt one gramme of ice. This is independent of any system of ther-
mometry, and presents to our minds the idea of quantity of heat indepen-
dent of temperature.
Thus the system of thermometry would have no connection whatever
with the heat unit, and the first law of thermodynamics would stand, as it
should, entirely independent of the second.
The idea of a quantity of heat at a high temperature being very dif-
ferent from the same quantity at a low temperature would then be easy
and simple. Likewise we could treat thermodynamics without any refer
ence to temperature until we came to the second law, which would then
introduce temperature and the way of measuring it.
From a practical standpoint, however, the unit depending on the
specific heat of water is at present certainly the most convenient. It has
been the one mostly used, and its value is well known in terms of energy.
Furthermore, the establishment of institutions where it 7s said thermo-
meters can be compared with a standard renders the unit very available
in practice. In other words, this unit is a better practical one at pre-
sent. Iam very sorry this is so, because it is a very poor theoretical one
indeed.
But as we can write our text-books as we please, I suppose that it is
best to accept the most practical unit. This I conceive to be the heat
required to raise a gramme of water 1° C. on the hydrogen thermometer
at 20° C.
I take 20° because in ordinary thermometry the room is usually about
this temperature, and no reduction will be necessary. However, 15°
would not be inconvenient, or 10° to 20°.
As I write these words I have a feeling that I may be wrong. Why
should we continue to teach in our text-books that heat has anything to
do with temperature? It is decidedly wrong, and if I ever write a text-
book I shall probably use the ice unit. But if I ever write a scientific
paper of an experimental nature I shall probably use the other unit.
1896. M
162 REPORT—1896.
APPENDIX II.
THe Capaciry ror Herat or WATER FROM 10° To 20° C. REFERRED
vo its Capacity at 10° C. as Unity.
— Rowland Griffiths canbe Mean
o |
10 1:0000 | 1:0000 1:0000 1-0000
11 “9995 “9997 ‘9997 *9996
12 “9990 "9994 9994 +9993
13 “9985 “9991 “9991 “9989
14 “9980 “9989 “9988 “9986
15 | “9974 “9986 | “9985 “9982
} 16 | “9969 “9983 | “9981 “9978
| 17 “9964 | “9981 | “9979 “9975
| 18 “9959 | “9978 } “9978 “9972
| 19 "9954 | “9975 “9977 *9969
| 20 | *9950 | “9973 | “9977 “9967
(Numbers given in italics are obtained by extrapolation.)
Nore.—If we assume the validity of the numbers in the last column,
then any quantity of heat (Q,) expressed in terms of the capacity for
heat of water at ¢° C. may be expressed with sufficient accuracy in terms
of the thermal unit at 10° C. (Q,o) by means of the following formula :—
Qio = Q, {1—-000338 (¢—10)',
where ¢ lies between 10° and 20° C.
Then Qo X 4:2 gives the equivalent in Joules.
APPENDIX III.
RECALCULATION OF THE ToTaL Heat oF WATER FROM THE EXPERIMENTS
OF REGNAULT AND Rowianp. By W. N. Suaw.
Tables of Thermal Data expressed in terms of Joules,
(Pp 2
The thermal data depending upon a thermal unit, which are, as a
rule, included in tables of physical constants, comprise the following :—
The variation of the specific heat of water with variation of tem-
perature.
Specific heats of various substances, solid, liquid, or gaseous.
Latent heats of fusion.
Latent heats of evaporation.
Heat of chemical action.
Thermal conductivities of various substances.
The tables are mainly compiled by grouping the results obtained by a
number of observers. Such results are only, strictly speaking, comparable
where the scales of temperature, and the thermal units adopted for the
reduction of the observations, are identical. With different observers
this is only the case if very rough approximation be allowed ; but the
experimental data communicated in the description of observations some-
times afford the possibility of putting the results upon a better footing for
comparison than that upon which the author’s own reductions leave them.
Jt is clear that the auxiliary data which must be used in order to render
the results strictly comparable, are in effect precisely those which are
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 163
necessary to express the author’s data in absolute measure, except that
for the mere purposes of comparison one datum—the dynamical equivalent
at one specified temperature—is not actually required. At the same time
the comparison of data is in no way vitiated by the use of some number
(for the present a conventional one), in order to convert a result from
some definite gramme-degree-unit to Joules.
An examination of the tables of thermal data with a view to expressing
the results in Joules furnishes, therefore, a very effective test of the com-
parability of the results obtained by different observers for the same
thermal constants, and, moreover, the difficulties to be met with in making
the reduction to Joules give the best indication of the points which must
be settled before the results of thermal measurement can be regarded as
final. To carry out such an examination completely, using numbers for
reduction that can only be regarded as provisional, would be an unneces-
sary labour, but a few selected instances may help to exhibit some of the
uncertainties which might reasonably be expected to disappear if ob-
servers once recognised the desirability of expressing all thermal mea-
surements in Joules, or in some accepted equivalent.
As an example, I have computed the total heat of water at various
temperatures as determined experimentally. I have used Rowland’s num-
bers for lower temperatures, and have recomputed Regnault’s experiments,
accepting Table I. (computed from Rowland) as correct.
I think it might be possible to find data enough to recompute some
others, e.g., the latent heat of steam at 100°, the specific heat of air at
constant pressure, which, by the way, is almost exactly a Joule. The
labour is, however, very considerable, and it might be abbreviated (for the
Committee) if those who are or have recently been engaged in thermal
measurements would supply the Committee with the results of their own
observations reduced to Joules and thermometric units.
Taste I.—Total Heat of Water at Various Temperatures of the scale of the
Hydrogen Thermometer between O° and 36°, expressed in Joules
(Rowland’s Experiments).
| Total Heat in Jou'es i T Total Heat in Joules
T _ between 0° and T° I} | between 0° and T°
o fe}
5 21-044! | 21 88°144
6 25:°254 | a, 92-321 }
? 29°462 23 96-496
8 33°668 | 24 100671
9 37°871 25 104°844
10 42-072 | 26 109-017 }
1l 46271 . 27 113°188
12 50-468 | 28 117-359 |
13 54663 29 121°530
14 58°856 30 125-700
15 63:046 BL 129-871
16 67-234 32 134-042
17 F 71:420 | 33 138-214
18 75604 34 142-386
19 T9786 35 146°558 |
20 83:°966 36 150°731
' The total neat between 0° and 41° is obtained by extrapolation from Rowland’s
numbers.
M2
164 REPORT—1896,
The numbers are reduced from the table in the ‘Mémoires de I’In-
stitut,’ tome xxi. p. 743, by assuming the mean specific heat of water for
the calorimetric range of each experiment to be the specific heat of water
as given in Rowland’s table for the mean calorimetric temperature of the
experiment, and adding to the heat thus computed as that given out by
one gramme of water in cooling from T° to the final calorimetric tempera-
ture, the further amount which, upon an estimation based on Rowland’s
data, would be given out on cooling to 0°.
Some doubt has been thrown on the accuracy of the data quoted by
Regnault in the table referred to. Ihave adopted Mr. Macfarlane Gray’s
conclusion that the computations of the mean specific heat are correct,
though the data are erroneously printed in Regnault’s papec.
The results of the individual experiments are shown in the following
table. In order to obtain a mean result a curve of differences (see figure)
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Abscissee.—Air Temperatures (T.)
Ordinates.—Differences (in Joules) between Total heat from 0° to T° and 4:2xT.
between tctal heat at temperature T and 4:2 xT has been plotted, and
the means of observations, collected into seven groups, have been taken
and also plotted. These are indicated in the diagram by circular dots,
the individual results being shown by crosses.
Taste II.—Regnault’s Observations for the Total Heat of Water between
0° C. and Various Temperatures (7') of the ‘ Air Thermometer’ above
the Boiling -point of Water.
(Reduced from Regnault’s and Row ae results. ea in ee )
Total Heat
11691 | 492-46 | 491-02 | +1:44
11854 | 498-76 | 497-87 | + :99
120°39 | 50486 | 505-64 | — -78
109-25 | 461-44 | 458-85 | 42:59 | 120°84| 50736 | 507-53 | — -17
109-25 | 46094 | 458:85 | +2-09 | 12186 | 51272 | 51181 | + “91
107-79 453°36 452°72 | + ‘64
109°38 460°69 459-40 | +1:29
‘ Nl | Total Heat | A
av from 42xT Differ | Ak frm 42xT Differ-
0° to T? | | 0° to T? ence
I | i.
4 | ° oe =
107-70 |, 451-83 | 45234 | — ‘1 || 11660] 491°35 | 489-72 | +1°63
|
|
|
|
107-90 | 45360 | 45318 | + 8 |
|
|
|
109°25 460 84 453°85 | +1:99 | lll
110°80 465°76 465°36 | + ‘40 | ‘
111-51 467°60 468:34 | — ‘74 | 12891 5
42°3
113°86 47856 478-21 | + ‘35 || 180: 40! 548-07 | 547-69 | + 38
ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 165
TABLE II.—continued.
| Total Heat |
ars | Total Heat | oe
py from 4B? Dist Ls | 7c from 4:2xT Differ-
| U° to 1° | eeee | | 0° to T° puce
y IV. eek VI.
137716 | 577-27 | 57607 | +1:20 172766 | 728°47 72517 + 3°30
137°27 57796 T6538 PASe |) UTZ 75 730°82 (255d + 5:27
138-27 | 581-58 580°73 r °85 172°71 730°68 725°38 + 5°30
17266 | 730°59 (25°17 + 5:42
Vv.
15368 | 646-44 | 64546 | + -98 | VII.
154:30 | 651-97 | 650°16 +181 || 179°23 78970 | 75277 + 6°93
15561 65427 | 653°56 + ‘Tl || 183°56 T7657 770°95 +562
156782 660°89 | 65864 — 2°25 i 186-00 787°34 781:20 +614
158°82 668°38 | 667-04 +1°34 || 186°65 79162 | 783-93 +769
159719 669°64 668°60 +104 | 186°89 790°86 78495 +591
160°34 675:°74 / 673°43 +2°31 | 187°75 795°35 78855 + 6°80
160-61 67761 | 674°56 +305 || 190°36 80580 799-51 + 6:29
A curve based upon these means as accurate would show a minimum
ordinate above 100° C. Without any definite experimental reason I have
considered this as outside the range of probability, and have drawn a
curve corresponding to a gradual increase of specific heat between the
limits of the experiments, viz., 107° and 190°, which fairly connects the
means. Continuing that curve beyond 107° to 100°, and reading off from
it the value of the total heat minus 4:2 x T at intervals of 10° we get the
following result :—
Tasie III.—Total Heat of Water between 0° and T° (Air Thermometer)
according to Regnault and Rowland.
Ly ~ fe) fo)
| z Tosa ae Geet Excess over 4:2 x T
QO
100 420-68 “68
110 462°73 ‘73
120 504°80 *80
130 546°88 *88
140 589-04 1-04
150 631-40 1-40
160 674-02 2°02
170 71752 3°52
180 761:60 560
Whence we obtain—
Mean specific heat of water between 0° and 100° is 4:2068 Joules
=1-0016! thermometric units.
Mean specific heat of water between 0° and 180° is 4:2312 Joules
=1-0075' thermometric units.
‘ It will be remembered that Regnault gives for these two values 1:0050 and
1 0133 respectively.
166 REPORT—1896.
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Ieport of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren, Professor A. CkuM Brown (Secretary),
Dr. Jonn Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER BucHaN, and Professor R.
CorELaND. (Drawn up by Dr. Bucnay.)
TuE Committee were appointed, as in former years, for the purpose of co-
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteorological
opservations on. Ben Nevis.
The hourly eye observations, carried on by night as well as by day,
have been made without interruption during the year at the top of Ben
Nevis ; and the continuous registrations and other observations have been
carried on at the Low Level Observatory at Fort William with the same
fulness of detail as heretofore.
The Directors of the Observatories tender their best thanks to Messrs.
A. Drysdale, M.A., B.Se., A. Russell, BSec., G. Ednie, and W. Thomson
for the assistance they rendered as volunteer observers during the summer
months, thus giving a greater extension than could otherwise have been
given to the holiday time of the members of the regular observing staff,
which it is in every way so desirable to secure.
Table I. gives for 1895 the monthly mean pressure, mean and ex-
treme temperatures ; hours of sunshine ; amount of rainfall ; number
of fair days, and of days when the rainfall exceeded one inch ; the mean
percentage of cloud ; and the mean rain-band at both Observatories ; and
the mean hourly velocity of the wind in miles at the top of the mountain.
The mean barometric pressures at the Low Level Observatory are reduced
to 32° and sea level, but those at top of the Ben are reduced to 32° only.
TasLe I.
April May | Tune | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct.
1895 | Jan. | Feb. | March Nov.| Dec. | Year
Mean Pressure in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob- | 25-095) 25-442: 25-031) 25°254) 25°549) 25°526) 25:287] 25-274) 25-525) 25-222) 25+166) 25038) 25-284
servatory | | | |
Fort Wiliiam | 29°768' 30°
0 “617 29°819 30101 30°042) 29°771)| 29°733} 30°012! 29°802| 29°735) 29°652| 29°842
Differences .| 4673) 4°7: 5
7
“S86 4°565, 4°562) 4°51b| 4°484| 4°459| 4°487| 4°580) 4°569) 4°614| 4°568
Mean Temperatures.
a |) So.) | | | ° ° ° °
BenNevisOb-| 175 187 | 247) 298) 363 | 39°9 | 382 | 412 | 483 | 272) 363 | 25:0 | 30:7
servatory | | |
Fort William | 33:4 | 309 | 406 | 459) 52-7 | 58-4 | 55-4 | 56-9] 586 | 43°6| 425 | 396 | 46:0
Differences . { 149; 122 | 159 | 161 | 16-4 | 155 | 17-2 | 157 | 133] 16-4] 142 | 166] 153
Extremes of Temperature, Maxima.
| ete legal | | | |
BenNevisOb-) 203 385 379) 40:7 | 5r1| 598 484 | 506 | BHD] 553 | 407 | BL1) 5x9
servatory | | |
Fort William | 45°5 | 480 | 51:9 63°8 | 73°0 | 74°4 69°4 | 70°3 744 | 66°2 56°1 52°8 | 74:4
Differences .| 152] 95, 140] 23:1 | 189 | 146) 21:0| 19:7 | 145 | 12°9| 15-4 | 18-7 | 1495
ate ° o | oo ° DE |, to Weer ° oy ifeco ° or | Po
Ben Nevis Ob- 6-0 18 $6 | 11°6 | 19:8 | 242 ; 30°0 30'1 | 30°38 | 17°4 | 183 |] 13°9 18
: servatory | | | |
| Fort William 90 89 | 266 | 29°9 | 36:0 | 357 / 443 | 444 |] 41° | 30°77 | 273 | 25°0 89
Differences .| 30| 71/ 160/183] 16¢2| 115] 143 | J43| 12) 333] 95! m4] 74
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 167
TABLE I.—continued.
1895 | Jan. Feb. |Mareh! April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Noy. | Dec. | Year
Rainfall in Inches.
BenNevisOb-| 6S9| 3:54] 14:32] 11-73) 3°69) 3:97 | 10°79) 12°76; 8-95) 12°07) 13°88| 15-41 )118-00
servatory | " | | |
Fort William | 2 70| 1:15 | 5°55 | 5°26 "2° -07 | 3°04) 4°89) 9°37} 5:52) 4°78 847) 7:65 60°43
Differences .| 4°19] 2-41{ 877! 6-47| 162; U93| 5:90] 3:39] 3-43) 7-29| 5:41] 7:76, 57°57
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.
Ben Nevis Ob- Teel ee 5 4 ii 1 3.) 4 7a a 6 4 | 36
servatory | |
Fort William 0 i) 1 |3z0 0 0 0 | 2 1 Oy 2 2). 8
Differences . 1 | 2 4 t4 1 1 ‘3 2 1 | 3 4 2 28
Number of Days of no Rain.
Ben NevisOb-| 11 19 fell ome el aang 12 ae yd 4. 12 6 9 10 , 125
servatory | | | | |
Fort William}; 13 20 8 12 | 18 i8 = came Ae TS 18 12 | 10 154
Differences.) 2 | 1 do Lace iad eee I te de f78: | pa ee laa
Mean Rain-band (scale 0-8).
BenNevisGb-; 0:9 0:8 20 25 23. 32 | 34 | 43 | 2:7 27, 18 14 2°3
servatory | / |
‘Fort William] 23 | 17 | 33 | 37 | 36 | 42 |.53 | 5-0 | 44) 26 | 31 | 36) 36
Differences .} 16 | 0:9 13 12 13 Oi t 9 | 08 Et” i Ok 13 18 | 1:3
Number of Hours of Bright Sunshine.
BenNevisOb-; 29 83 | 20 82 | 139) 149] 24 |; 25 | 74 41 26] 3 695
servatory |
Fort William 49 101 72 113 197 208 75 58 102 104 45} 8 | 1,132
Differences .| 20 18 52 31 58 59 bl | 33 28 63 19 5 437
: Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind in Miles.
Ben NevisOb-| 21 | 18 18 16 16 5 eh a Fes ec. | 15 19 | 28 16
servatory { | \ i
Percentage of Cloud.
BenNevisOb-{ 84 | 60 | 95 81 75 70 95 94 | 79 82 80 95 82
servatory |
Fort William | 66 45 81 73 64 65 87 87 69 70 65 81 a
Differences .| 18 15 14 8 11 5 8 7 10 1l 15 14 | i
At Fort William the mean temperature of 1895 was 46° 0, being 02-9
less than the annual mean of previous years. The mean temperature at
the top of Ben Nevis, was 30°-7 or 0°-7 less than the mean for the same
years. This was the deficiency for the year over a wide district of Scot-
land surrounding Ben Nevis.
The following shows the departures from the mean temperatures during
the great cold of the first two months of the year :—
TaBLe IT.
Mean Temperature. || Departures front ean |
Jan. Feb. Jan. Feb. |
° fe} oO
Fort William Observatory . : 32:4 30°9 -61 —76
Ben Nevis Observatory . ° * 175 18-7 —63 —47
These very different results for the two months are a good example of
the striking weather differences observed at the top and bottom of the
mountain respectively, under different types of weather, or under cyclonic
or anticyclonic conditions, Thus in January the weather usual to the
168 REPORT—1896.
season prevailed—in other words, it was decidedly cyclonic—and conse-
quently at both Observatories the lowering of the temperature below the
average was substantially the same. But in February it was quite other-
wise, the weather of this month being eminently anticyclonic. Hence,
on account of the higher temperature at the top accompanying the. anti-
cyclones, the mean temperature of the month was only 4°-’7 under the
average, but at Fort William the mean temperature was 7°°6 under the
average. This effect of the prevailing anticyclones is also well seen in
the difference of the mean temperature at the two Observatories. From
the past observations the mean difference in February is 15°-1, whereas
in February 1895 the difference was only 12°°2.
Similarly striking contrasts were shown in the weather of the summer
months at the two Observatories. The following indicates the departures.
from the mean temperatures from June to September :—
Tase III.
Mean Temperature. | Departures from Means.
June | July | Aug. | Sept. || June July Aug. | Sept.
ae £ : ae | ae ey in
een eo io
ian Or. eer | 6 ° ° ) °
Fort William Observ.| 55-4: | 55°4 | 569 | 566. ||) +O1L | —1l4 | —O4 | +34
Ben Nevis Observ, | 399 | 382 | 412 | 43:3 | +10 | -21 | +13 | +54
Of these four summer months it was in July when anticyclones prevailed
least, and it is seen that at the top of the mountain, as compared with
Fort William, the mean temperature was relatively the lowest of the
months ; notwithstanding, the difference between the mean temperatures of
the two Observatories exceeded the average. But in September these
conditions were all reversed. In this month the weather was strongly
anticyclonic. Consequently, while at Fort William the mean temperature
exceeded the average by 3°°4, the excess at the top of the mountain was
5°-4; and while the mean difference between the top and bottom of the
mountain has been 15°:3, in September 1895 it was only 13°-3.
In September the minimum temperature at the top of the Ben was
30°°3, which is the highest minimum yet recorded for any September;
thus further evidencing the anticyclonic influence on the weather at this
high elevation in constantly maintaining a relatively higher temperature.
Table IV. shows the deviations from the mean temperatures of the
months from their respective averages :—
TABLE LV.
Fort Top of
William. Ben Nevis.
) G
January . : 5 : : : : . —61 —63
February . ; 5 2 : - : . —76 —47
March . 5 F 3 A é 4 , 3), iO 1:0
April . : E : 5 : 5 = oe cD: 21
May . ; : : : : 3 4 ee is. 35
June. ; . = é : : ee a 1:0
Juiy : A : : 3 : : . —14 —2-1
August - : 3 : : 5 oe OF: 13
September . : : 5 . 3 SE 54
October ; : a : : : ‘ . —31 —41
November . : : : x . 4 . —0O1 03
December . A : : 2 t ; ee —2:0
Year, : 5 : —OU —0T
|
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 169
The maximum temperature at Fort William was 75°-0 on June 2, and
at the top 59°-9 on September 9 ; where on June 25, 59°-8 was recorded.
The minimum temperature was, at Fort William 8°:9 on February 11,
and on January 28 9°-0 was recorded ; and at the top 1°8 on February 7.
This is the lowest minimum temperature yet recorded at the Fort William
Observatory ; and the above minimum, 1°°8, at the top of the mountain, is
the lowest there, with the exception of the previous year, when tempera-
ture fell to 0°°7. The minimum on the top fell below freezing each
month.
As regards extremes of temperature, the difference between the
maxima was greater in July, when it was 21°-0, and least in February,
when it was only 9°°5 ; and the difference between the minima greatest
in April, when it was 18°-3, and least in January, when it was only 3°70.
The registrations of the sunshine recorder at the top show 695 hours
out of a possible 4,470 hours, being 115 hours fewer than in 1894. This
equals 16 per cent. of the possible sunshine. The maximum was 149 hours
in June, and the minimum 3 hours in December, being, along with January
of the previous year, the lowest hitherto recorded in any month, except
in December 1893, when there was only 1 hour of sunshine. At Fort
William the number for the year was 1,132 hours, or 28 hours fewer
than in 1894. The largest number was 208 hours in June, and the least
& hours in December. As the number of hours of possible sunshine at
Fort William Observatory is 3,497 hours, the sunshine of 1895 was
32 per cent. of the possible number of hours.
In Table V. are enumerated for each month the lowest hygrometrie
observations :—
TABLE V.
— / Jan. | Feb. | Mar. April | May | Tune | July | Aug. Sept. | Oct. | Nov. : Dee.
pee 2 | uy a erte
| oO xP Ss oO ° ° | °o ° ° 5 °o ° | °o
Dry Bulb . - | V7 |, 147 | 246 | 389 | 323 | 460 | 36:0 | 501 | 46°3 | 29°3 | 36:7 | 22-0
Wet Bulb . .| 140 | 10:1 | 22°5 | 28:4 | 25:7 | 34:0 |. 31:1 | 47-2) 35:7 | 25°8 | 25°7 204
Dew-point . - | —96 | -25°8 =2:91| 14°7°| 112 | 20°8 | 23°8 | 44-1 24°0 | 13:7 9:2 98
| Elastic Force . - | °027 | -O11 | -038 | °085 | ‘O71 | -112 | *128 | -289 | -129 | -081 | -065 ) ‘067
| Relative Humidity 29 13 29 36) 33) 36) 60 80 41 50 | 30 58
(Sat.=100) | | | | | |
Day of Month - 20 11 9 17 | 8) 8 | 5 18 231 1h) 25 20
| | | | |
Of these lowest monthly humidities the lowest occurred on February
11, when the dew-point fell to —25°-8, the elastic force of vapour to
0-011 inch, and the humidity to 13. On the other hand, in August no
low humidities occurred, the lowest in this month being 80, a month
which stands out as being characterised by unrelieved high humidities
throughout. In this month the hours of sunshine were 25, which is the
lowest yet recorded in August, except in 1889, when only 9 hours
occurred ; and the amount of cloud was very large, being exceeded only
by the August of 1889. At the Ben Nevis Observatory the percentage
of cloud covering the sky was, on the mean of the year, 82, being 2 per
cent. less than the mean of previous years. The variation among the
months was unusually large, the lowest being 60 per cent. in February,
~and the highest 95 per cent. in March, July, and December. At Fort
William the annual mean was 71 per cent., the lowest being 45 per cent.
in February, and the highest 87 per cent. in July and August. The mean
rain-band (scale 0-8) observation at the top was 2°3 for the year, the
170 REPORT—1896.
highest being 4-2 in August, and the lowest 0-8 in February ; and at Fort
William the annual mean was 3°6, the highest being 5-3 in July, and the
lowest 1-7 in February.
The mean hourly velocity of the wind at the top of the Ben was 16
miles for the year, the highest monthly mean for the year being 23 miles
for December, and the lowest 5 miles for June. This minimum of 5
miles per hour is the lowest mean monthly velocity yet recorded for any
month since the beginning of 1884. For the three summer months, June,
July, and August, the mean was at the rate of 11 miles per hour ; but in
December, January, and February it was 21 miles, or nearly double the
summer velocity.
The rainfall for the year at the top of the mountain was 118-00 inches,
being 31°87 inches less than in 1894; and the lowest that has yet
occurred, excepting the year 1886, when tiie amount was 107°85 inches.
The highest monthly amount was 15:41 inches in December, and the
lowest 3°54 inches in February. The above monthly maximum of 15-41
inches is a very low maximum for the top of Ben Nevis. The heaviest
daily fall was 3:48 inches on August 29, which is also a rather small
maximum daily fall for the year.
On the top rain fell on 250 days, and at Fort William on 211 days,
being respectively 10 and 27 days under their averages. The maximum
number of days on which rain fell at the top was 28 days in July and the
same number in August ; and at Fort William, 27 days in August; and
the minimum number of days 9 at the top, and 8 at Fort William in
February.
During the year the number of days on which an inch of rain was
exceeded was 36 at the top and 8 at Fort William.
The mean rain-band (0-8) was 2°3 at the top and 3°6 at Fort William,
being nearly the average ; the lowest being in January and February, and
the highest in July and August.
Auroras are reported to have been observed on the following dates :—
February 5, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25 ; April 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 ;
May 2, 23; September 20, 22, 23, 29, 30 ; October 16,17, 26 ; November
10, 23, 24, 25 ; December 13, 22.
St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on April 23, 24, 25; May 1, 23, 24, 25 ;
June 19, 28; July 2, 23; August 11; October 6; November 13, 14 ;
December 1. ,
The Zodiacal Light, February 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19.
Thunder and lightning was reported on May 9, 23, 24, 25; June 9,
25, 26 ; July 2, 21; August 6,11; December 5,6. Lightning only on
February 28; May 9, 23, 25; September 9, 10, 23, 24; October 1 ;
November 10.
At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure was for the year
eeduced to 32° and sea-level 29-852 inches, and at the top reduced only to
32°, 25284 inches, being 0-005 inch above, and 0:012 inch under, the
wespective averages. The difference for the two heights was thus 4°568
inches, the mean difference being 4553 inches. At the top the highest
pressure was 25-975 inches on May 3, and the lowest 23-889 inches on
November 11, the annual range being thus 2-086 inches ; and at Fort
William the highest was 30-673 inches on February 16, and the lowest
28:601 inches on November 10, the annual range being 2-072 inches.
The differences from the monthly means of the two Observatories
greatly exceeded the average differences in January, February, October,
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. WA
and December, which were substantially occasioned by the very low tem-
perature of these months, so that the high-level pressure, when reduced
‘to sea level, closely agrees with the sea level pressure at Fort William.
In September, however, though the mean temperature was 3°°5 and
5°-4 respectively above the averages, the difference between the mean
pressure at the two Observatories was 4487 inches, the September averages
of the previous 15 years being 4:450 inches. The characteristic of the
weather of the month was eminently anticyclonic, and as the anticyclones
extended, in a modified form, downward, considerably below the level of
the summit, they carried down with them their characteristically very dry
and therefore heavier air, thus increasing the density of the aérial stratum
between the top and bottom of the mountain, above what would have
been if this stratum had been of the usual humidity. Hence pressure at
Fort William was relatively higher, and consequently the difference
between pressure at the top and bottom was correspondingly increased.
But during the last three days of the month over Scotland the sky
was clear, sunshine strong, humidity high, night temperatures unusually
high, and dews heavy, with calms or light winds. The weather of this period
has been discussed with some fulness in a paper published in the last
issued ‘ Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society,’ to which reference
may be here made. On these days, while at the top temperature was
very high and the air clear and very dry, at Fort William, under a sky
equally clear and temperature high, the air showed a large humidity, and
this state of moisture extended to a height of about 2,000 feet, or nearly
halfway to the summit. Thus, then, while the barometer at the top was
under an atmosphere wholly anticyclonic, with its accompanying dry
dense air, the barometer at Fort William was not so circumstanced. On
the other hand, it was under the pressure of such dry dense air, above
the height of 2,000 feet only, whereas from this height down to sea level
it was under the pressure of air whose humidity was large and pressure
therefore much reduced. The result was that the sea-level pressure at
Fort William was 0-050 inch lower than it would have been if the dry
dense air of the anticyclone had been continued down to Fort William.
This is confirmatory of what is to be expected, that the greater density
of dry air as shown in our laboratories prevails equally in the free
atmosphere.
The discussion of the observations reveals numerous instances of an
opposite condition of things, viz., the air at the lower levels remaining
comparatively dry, while aloft at higher altitudes it is becoming rapidly
moister, the moister air gradually occupying lower levels as a cyclone is
advancing. In these cases the lower barometer reads—not the relatively
ower, but the relatively higher, of the two. An important result is
emerging as the discussion proceeds, since it appears that an indication
is hereby given towards a more accurate knowledge than is at present
possessed of the intensity of a coming cyclone and of the attendant anti-
cyclone.
: In addition to the variability of the distribution with height of the
humidity, the distribution of the temperature is also being particularly
investigated, especially as regards the light it casts on the interpretation
of the causes leading to the variability in the vertical distribution of the
pressure. This department of the inquiry is in the hands of Mr. Omond,
who read a preliminary paper on the subject at the meeting of the
Scottish Meteorological Society in July last.
72 REPORT—1896.
The large inquiry carried on by Dr. Buchan and Mr. Omond for some
years, and reported on to the British Association in preceding Reports, on
the influence of fog or cloud and clear weather respectively on the diurnal
fluctuations of the barometer has been extended into other regions of the
globe, notably into the Arctic regions, particularly over the ocean, the
data employed being the observations made by Mohn, during 1876-78,
over the Norwegian Sea and the Arctic Ocean, and those by the expedition
of the Austrians in Jan Mayen, and ocean in the neighbourhood, in
1882-83. The inquiry will be completed in a few months, and the results
will be communicated to the next meeting of the British Association.
For the contribution of the observations necessary to the carrying out
of these inquiries the directors of the Ben Nevis Observatories have
resolved to establish a temporary station, intermediate in height between
the two Observatories, for the purpose of ascertaining with greater pre-
cision than has hitherto been possible the extent to which anticyclones
descend on the mountain, and more particularly the relations of pressure,
temperature, and humidity at the new station as compared with the
observations at Fort William and the summit of Ben Nevis. A suitable
situation was formally obtained from the tenant on August 14,a complete
set of instruments procured, and the building materials conveyed for the
enlargement of the present hut to accommodate Mr. Muir, one of the
assistant masters of the High School of Edinburgh, who had volunteered
his services as observer till the close of September. The height of the
hut, where the barometer is placed, is 2,196 feet, or nearly midway in
height between the two Observatories ; und the thermometer, rain-gauge,
and other instruments are placed 30 yards distant above the hut over a grass
plot on a slight ridge, which will to a large extent secure that the down-
flowing cold-air currents which set in from terrestrial radiation chiefly at
night will pass down on each side, thus protecting the thermometers from
their disturbing influence.
The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorologicat
Phenomena.—Siath Report of the Committee, consisting of Myr.
G. J. Symons (Chairman), Professor R. Metpota, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, and Mr. A. W. CLAYDEN (Secretary). (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)
Durine the past year the attention of your Committee has been almost
entirely confined to the determination of cloud altitudes by the photo-
graphic method briefly sketched in former reports. As this method
differs considerably from those which have been employed elsewhere, and
as it has been found to give very satisfactory results, it seems desirable to
give a fuller description of the apparatus than appears in the report of
two years back, in which it was first indicated.
The observations are carried on upon a level piece of ground close to
Exeter, between some workshops and shunting lines belonging to the
London and South-Western Railway Company, who have given your
Committee an agreement providing for the use of the site on payment of
a nominal rent of 17. per annum. This ground is conveniently near the
residence of the Secretary to your Committee : it provides an excellent
sky view without interference of trees or buildings, and, being the property
of the railway company, is under a certain amount of supervision.
EE
ee eT
ON THE ELUCIDATION OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 1738
The site, moreover, admits of the selection of a base-line lying exactly
east and west, a point of some importance for simplifying the reduction of
the observations.
The observing stations are at present placed only 200 yards apart.
They are connected by a line of wire stretched on small telegraph poles in
the ordinary manner. At each end the iron wire is soldered to an india-
rubber coated insulated copper wire, which is led down one of the stays of
the last pole into the camera-stand, in such a manner as to prevent any
rain-water from flowing down this wire into the apparatus contained in
the stand.
Each stand is a four-sided cupboard built of thick matchboarding,
three sides sloping towards the top, which forms a level table about
18 inches square. The fourth side, which faces north, contains a door
which can be locked. The base of the cupboard is about 2 feet 6 inches
square, and is supported by four legs about 9 inches above the surface of
the ground. Several coats of paint have made these stands so secure
against weather that exposure for more than two years has not effected
any injury except a slight shrinkage in the top, which is easily repaired.
As the cameras and electrical apparatus are contained in these boxes, their
construction is important.
The two observing cameras have been specially constructed. Each
swings on trunnions between uprights rigidly secured to a flat stand. The
camera can thus be directed to any altitude, and can be firmly clamped.
In order to make this clamping secure, und at the same time add to the
steadiness of the whole, there is fixed to the base board of the swinging
camera a flat board whose margin forms a segment of a circle whose centre
is the same as that of the trunnions. This passes smoothly between two
pieces of wood let into the flat stand, which can be drawn together by a
screw, thereby grasping the margin of the circle. The surfaces of contact
are faced with leather, in order to prevent any sticking or injury to the
polished clamping-board. j
_ Adjustment in azimuth, which need not be done with any great exact-
ness, is effected by rotating the whole apparatus on the levelled top of the
eamera-box. Each camera is provided with a lens of 18 inches focal
length, which is provided with an iris diaphragm, and covers a plate of
the size known as whole plate.
The two lenses were carefully compared, both by testing their focal
lengths by the ordinary methods, and finally by comparing two views
taken simultaneously with the two cameras placed side by side. When it
was seen that the two pictures coincided exactly, it was certain that the
adjustments were correct, and the focus of each camera was fixed by
firmly screwing up the adjusting screws and putting a coat of varnish
over them to prevent any possibility of after-slipping. This fine adjust-
ment is rendered possible by making the back part of the camera of the
well-known ‘bellows’ pattern. In order to be sure that no shrinkage of
the materials should affect the result, they were made of old, well-seasoned »
wood, were adjusted and freely exposed to sun and wind, and to the
changes of temperature and moisture experienced by keeping them for
several months in the camera-boxes. On again testing them by the
superposition of two negatives, no change could be detected. The lenses
are provided with shutters, which can be simultaneously released by an
electro-magnet fixed to the front of the camera. The shutters used at
present are of the kind known as the ‘chronolux,’ which can be adjusted
174: REPORT— 1896.
for any exposure from three seconds down to the one-sixtieth ; but. in
practice it is found that the exposures required are always very brief, and
a latitude of exposure from a quarter of a second downwards would be
ample. This is with the diaphragm aperture about a quarter of an inch
in diameter, and it is evident that variation in this would afford the
equivalent of much greater variation in exposure. The shutters also
suffer from the fact that the sliding portions are made of ebonite, which is
liable to warp in consequence of the high temperatures sometimes pro-
duced in the interior of the camera-box when exposed to a hot summer
sun. Shutters like those at Kew, or with aluminium sliding parts, would
probably be better.
The electrical exposing connections proved to be a great source of
trouble. The site is on hard Permian sandstones and breccias, which are
very dry, and so hard that it would have been very costly to have made a
large hole to be filled with coke. After several trials a satisfactory earth
was obtained by leading the terminal to the end of about 50 yards of
copper wire, such as is used by bell-hangers, and twisting this to and fro
in a trench in the surface of the rock, which was then filled in with soil and .
turfed over.
The electro-magnets on the cameras, however, required a fairly strong
current to make sure that they would act, so the primary current from
the discharging key works two relays of similar construction, placed one |
in each camera-box, which simultaneously close local independent circuits
and release the shutters.
Another source of trouble has been the batteries. Those used were
of the dry-cell type. But during the past summer they were found to
fail several times, the moisture essential to their working being apparently
driven off by the excessive heat and drought to which they were exposed.
If they could be placed in a more substantial structure, which could be
kept cooler, they would doubtless do better. Your Committee propose to
replace them by Leclanché cells next year.
The plates used have been those already found to give excellent
results for ordinary cloud photography, namely, Mawson and Swan’s photo-
mechanical plates, or those prepared by the same firm for transparencies.
They are carried in double dark slides of the ordinary pattern, two of
which are provided for each camera ; but those belonging to the camera at
one end of the base are slightly thicker, and differ in other ways from
those used at the other end, so that there is no possibility of mistaking
them after exposure, and they cannot be used for the wrong camera.
On the right-hand side of the central part of each camera is a small
view-finder, in which a minute image of the view is projected on ground
glass, and which is adjusted once for all, so that the view in the finder
corresponds with that on the plate.
A loose piece of black velvet for each camera completes the apparatus.
Two observers are required, one for each camera, and in making the
observations the Secretary to your Committee has been assisted by Mrs.
Clayden, or by his brother, Mr. C. E. Clayden.
Each observer is provided with three small flags—pink, blue, and
yellow (to avoid railway colours), by means of which a simple code of
signals can be made. For simplicity, let us call the observers A and B,
and suppose A directs the observations and B can close the key which
will effect the exposure. A watches the sky until a favourable opportunity
seems to be approaching. He then puts up the yellow flag and places a
ON THE ELUCIDATION OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 175
dark slide in position, sets the shutter and adjusts the camera, so that the
image of the sun is in about the centre of the ground glass of the finder-
B does the same with the other camera, and, when ready, puts up the
yellow flag at that end, and stands ready to press the exposing key. A
then watches for the best moment for exposure, and, when it arrives, holds
up the blue flag, on seeing which B presses the key and holds up the other
blue flag as a signal that the exposure is complete at that end of the line.
The pink flag is used as an indication that something is wrong, and delay
is inevitable ; but if pink and blue are shown simultaneously, it means
that the opportunity for a good observation has passed, and that the dark
slide must be closed while waiting for another chance.
As soon as one exposure has been made the dark slide is turned, and
preparations are made for a second exposure, leaving the drawing out of
the slide until the signal is given. When A gives the signal for exposure
he has his watch in his hand, and notes the time at which he hears the
click made by the release of the shutter. This time is noted down and
checked as soon as possible afterwards by comparing the watch with a
trustworthy clock, and, if necessary, correcting the record.
The exposures having been made, the cameras are replaced in their
boxes, the relays are examined to see that the armatures have broken the
local circuit, and the line wire is disconnected from the key, these precau-
tions being taken to make sure that the batteries may not run down
owing to the circuits being unbroken or remade by the operations of
spiders or accumulations of earwigs, which find a welcome shelter in the
camera-boxes, and which it seems impossible to entirely exclude.
The plates are then taken into the dark room, and before opening the
dark slides the shutter of each is pulled out a little way, while the date
and time of exposure are written in pencil in the corner of each plate. The
subsequent processes do not remove this. They are then developed with
pyro and ammonia developer, and for the most useful results a fairly rapid
development is best. It should be remembered that prints will not be
required, and that, provided all the detail obtainable is on the plate, very
great differences of density are permissible. Indeed, when the image of
the sun is quite hidden in a black blur, as seen by transmitted light, it.
can always be found on the glass side of the negative as a. white or pale
disc. Sometimes it is reversed, and stands out clearly by transmitted
_ light ; but this is exceptional with the exposures which have been used.
In order to work out the negatives we have certain facts known.
These are the latitude and longitude of the place of observation, the
date and time at which the observation was made, and the relative
positions of the image of the sun, and the selected point of the cloud in the
two negatives. The first step is to determine the altitude and azimuth of the
sun, since its image on the plate is the fixed point of reference from which
the co-ordinates of the point of cloud in the image will be measured.
From the declination of the sun corrected for variation, and from the
known latitude, the meridian zenith distance can be calculated. From
the Greenwich time observed, the longitude and the equation of time, the
sun’s distance from the meridian is obtained.
It should be remembered that the meridian zenith distance need only
be determined once for a number of observations made within a few
hours of each other, and the correction of time is practically constant for
a day. Moreover, it is useless to attempt to do more than ascertain the
altitude to the nearest minute of arc.
176 REPORT—1896.
Now if H be the hour angle, D the reduced declination, and M the
meridian zenith distance, log versin H + Leos lat. + Lcos D—20=log n,
where » is a natural number and m+ vers M=covers alt.
Again, to find the azimuth, vers sup. (lat.+alt.)—vers polar dist.=m,
where m is another natural number, and log m +L sec lat.+ L see alt. —20
=log vers azim. reckoned from south. Thus, on June 12 (local time
12 hrs. 11 mins.) :—
Log versin H=3-061310
L cos lat. =9-801356
L cos D =9:963379
Log n=2°826045 ., n= 670
Vers M =113258
Covers alt. =113928
.. Alt.=62° 23'
Vers sup. (lat. + alt.) =607395
Vers N. polar dist. 606058
ji SMepy
Log m = 3126131
L sec lat. =10:°198644
L see alt. =10°333900
3658675
Vers azim.=001556
.. Azim.=5° 28’ west.
Two lines are then drawn on the negative, one vertical and one hori-
zontal, intersecting in the centre of the sun’s image. Two corresponding
points in the cloud are selected, and their respective linear distances from
the vertical and horizontal lines measured as accurately as possible. In
some hazy cases this cannot be done with greater accuracy than about
the =J,th of an inch ; but these are exceptions, and as a rule some small
speck or sharp angle of cloud can be found, the position of which may be
fixed with certainty to the ;},th part of an inch. From these linear dis-
tances the angular displacement is easily found, either by direct calcula-
tion of the tangents or by reference to a previously constructed scale. By
adding or subtracting from the sun’s azimuth, as the case may be, the
position of the cloud point in azimuth from the two stations is determined,
and thence the horizontal distance of the point vertically beneath the
cloud from either station.
Similarly the altitude of the cloud point from the same station is ob-
tained from the corresponding plate, and the height above the horizontal
plane then computed.
Now if a and 6 be the angles from the stations A and B respectively,
the difference of their sum from 180° gives the angle subtended by the
base line at X, the point vertically beneath the cloud. ‘Then the distance
AX is given by the equation :
Log AX=L sin }—L sin AXB+log AB
ON THE ELUCIDATION. OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. Lv
and the height / of the cloud point above X is given by the equation :
Log h=log AX +L tan alt.—10.
Thus in tlie case given above the angles a and b are 85° 45’ and 92° 53’,
whence AXB must be 1° 22’. The altitude in angular measure is 67° 46’.
Then : L sin } = 9:99945
' Lsin AXB= 8:°37749
1:62195
Log AB) = 2:30103
L tan alt. =10°38851
10+logh =14:31150
. Ah =20,488 yards =11°64 miles.
If the angle AXB becomes much smaller than 1° less confidence can be
placed in the result, and it is better to calculate from the different alti-
tudes at the two stations, as such minute angles can only occur when the
direction is nearly in line with the base.
Now it is seen that in the above calculation the angle AXB is certainly
small, but owing to the length of focus adopted an angle of 2’ may be
certainly detected, and by taking the mean of three or four measurements
there is little risk of error. The height determined above was that of
some high cirriform clouds, and is confirmed, not only by other measure-
ments on the same plates, but by other determinations made 35 and 47
minutes later, the three determinations being 11°64, 11:2, and 11°45
miles.
A little later in the same day a still higher layer of cirrus appeared,
and two measurements of this at a brief interval of time work out to
16°83 and 17-02 miles.
These are, of course, extreme altitudes, and are quoted in order to
show that the results obtained by the method employed are suttficiently
accurate even under such circumstances. With lower clouds the displace-
ments of the image relatively to that of the sun are much larger, and the
heights obtained are more uniform.
_ It should be remembered that the base line adopted is only 200 yards
long. This is not quite enough for very exact measurements of great
heights, nor is it enough for the determination of heights of less magni-
tude when the clouds under observation are either east or west, that is,
in line with the base. But, on the other hand, the effects of perspective
are quite sufficiently troublesome with low-level clouds, or when an upper
layer is seen through gaps in a lower one, and many negatives have had to
be rejected from the impossibility of identifying corresponding points. In
some cases the corresponding negatives were so much unlike that it was
difficult to believe they could really have been simultaneous exposures.
The distance of 200 yards has therefore been chosen as a convenient
mean. For low stratus and cumulus 100 yards would be better, and for
high cirrus about 400 yards would give more precise results.
The orientation of the base line again simplifies the angular measure-
ments, but for observations in the afternoon later than about 3.30 to 4 p.m.
the horizontal projection of the base is reduced to a very trifling amount,
and a complete installation should certainly consist of three stations, the
acres placed either due north or due south of one of the others, so
6. N
178 REPORT—1896,
that either an east and west or a north and south line could be used at
pleasure.
The result of the observations made so far is to suggest that the method
has certain advantages over others which have been used elsewhere.
1. The long focus gives a large image on which much minute detail
can be seen, and affords a large displacement for a small angle and the
best opportunity of selecting accurately corresponding points on the
two negatives.
2. The image of the sun as a fixed point of reference is completely
reliable.
3. The observation of the time is easily made, can be made with
exactness, and is the only precise observation required at the time of
exposure.
4. There is no possibility of misunderstanding between the two
observers.
_ 5. The share of work falling upon the assistant observer is extremely
simple.
6. The shortness of base diminishes perspective difficulties and allows
the use of a smaller site.
It has, however, one great disadvantage, it cannot be applied to clouds
which do not come near enough to the sun to be in the same field of view,
nor to clouds which completely hide'the sun. This, however, could easily
be got over by providing each camera with altitude and azimuth circles,
of which the former need only be graduated from the zenith to the horizon,
while the latter should be complete. They should be provided with
verniers reading to 2’ of arc. Telephonic communication between the
two stations would also be a convenience, but its absence has only been
felt occasionally when things have gone wrong.
Nearly a hundred pairs of exposures have been made, not counting
many experimental observations, but all these have not yet been worked out.
The following table gives the heights so far determined. They are
given in yards and miles, the latter being offered for comparison with the
Kew results.
Date | Time Yards Miles Cloud
W. MM.
| April1l7 , -|, 12 45pm). 3,736 213 Broken fragments of cu-
he hs gir is eed Qdieliin Ieyad 982 2°26 } mulus.
May8 . ah 410 838 “47 Base of cumulus.
iY : oH 415 995 “56 Side of cumulus.
af ; ‘ 415 1,950 1:10 Top of cumulus.
Maylt . : 10 OA™M.| 6,330 3°59 Cumulo-stratus.
BS ; - |} 10°20 7,575 4:30 Cumulo-stratus.
rs ra 4 10 P.M. 2,592 1:47 Stratus.
= sail 415 2,478 1:40 Stratus.
May 15. - | 1 £0 3,358 19 Cumulus forming.
ca : - | 4 20 1,782 1-01 Cumulus disappearing.
May19 . - | 2005 Aue! © 425525 1:43 Cumulus forming top.
* S ose eLON2 1,394 79 Cumulus forming base.
May 22 . ogee) Ley, 7,708 4°38 Stratiform cloud forming.
a - | 3 OPM. 5,847 3°32 Stratiform cloud disap-
| pearing.
June2 , A 3 20 10,288 5°84 Alto-cumulus forming.
5 r SH 3 20 12,530 712 Mackerel sky, massing
F » a 3.28 12,772 T25 | into high stratus.
ON THE ELUCIDATION OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA, 179
Cloud
Date | Time | . Yards Miles |
} Il, M |
mane s Nip elas 2 35 | 2970 1:28 Part of cumulus. |
ny i 2 40 | 3.914 |) | 222 Upper part of cumulus,
” . - | 2 40 TPT 4:38 | High cumulo-stratus.
” . 2 50 5,329 3°02. | Top of cumulus.
” . . 3% 20 1,790 1:02. | Lower part of cumulus,
an . 4 3 20 | = Ss27 217 | Middle of cumulus.
” . 4 45 7,860 4:46 High cumulo-stratus,
a > 4 50 2,618 | 1:49 Side of cumulus-
~ a 9n2 7
is a. FE : oy bens ) ae | Fragments of disappear-
i p ‘ 5 20 1,258 oral | ing cumulus.
June6 , 5 1 10 1,340 “75
” . . Bees 2,051 116 | | Fragments of disappear-
t ' e L 20 1,112 | 63 {| ing cumulus.
; ais L 25 1,895 | 1:07 |
June ld , , 3.0 G,846 | 3:89 High stratus. |
+ ° . aves 1,358 | i |
” . > 3.5 W139 | “65 | Points on side of cumulus.
“1 ‘ | 3.5 1,199 6S {f The lowest by the base. |
” . - 3 12 1,412 “63 |
Junel2 , - 9 25a. 8,378 476 Cirro-cumulus,
Bs e 2 9 25 8,216 4:67 Cirro-cumulus.
” ° 9 45 3,470 1:97 Cumulus forming.
” . * 10 5 6,912 3°92 Alto-cumulus.
wa < ‘ hO 10 883 5:02 Cirro-cumulus cirrifying.
+ . 5 12 20P.M. 7,010 3°98 Summit of cumulus,
” ° 4 12 24P.mM.) £4,084 8:00 Cirro-stratus (a).
+ ~ 5 12 25 20,488 VL-G4£ Cirrus.
” 4 ae 12 2% 16,804 9-54 Cirro-stratus (0).
” ° : i 0 13,923 T9L Cirro-stratus (a).
” ° : BAG 16,958 9°63 Cirro-stratus ().
a © . i @ 19,717 11°20 Cirrus.
= ° < 1 12 16,110 9°15 Cirro-stratus (0).
S . s4 1 12 20,164 11°45 Cirrus.
a os 2 1 30 29,633 16°83 Upper level cirrus.
Ey 1 32 29,983 17-02 | Upper level cirrus.
Heavy clouds lasted through the afternoon and
cleared off about 4.30, after which—
” ° mal 520 7,673 4°36 Cirro-cumulus,
ae . : Se2b 14,024 J 7:97 Cirrus.
June 23. 4 9 OAM. 4,621 2-63 Strato-cumulus.
as ° 5 9 9 4,997 2°83 Strato-cumulus.
S 5 ‘ 9 0 5,559 3°16 Alto-cumulus.
a - ‘ 9 3 4,752; 2-70 Strato-cumulus.
tS . 4 9.3 5,535 — | 314 Alto-cumulus.
3 . 5 9.3 7,122 4-04 Cirro-stratus.
” . : 9 30 5,692 | 3:23 Alto-cumulus.
4 e 5 9 30 6,280 3°56 Cirro-stratus.
3 ‘ 5 9 35 6,671 | 3-79 Cirro-stratus,
” . ie 9 35 7,044 4:34 Cirro-cumulus.
June 24 , - EEDOw < 2,847 161 || Fragments on side of
” °. the 2 NOON 2,434 1:38 j cumulus.
” Le . 12 Noon 6,300 3°58 Alto-cumulus forming.
” ores 12 10P.M.) 3,010 see) Fragment of cumulus,
” . . 12 10 3,177 1:80 Top of cumulus,
” . ~ 1Z 15 | 7,373 4:19 Cirro-cumulus.
” . ° Up Wi 8,684 4:93 Cirro-stratus.
The above results are put forward at. present merely to show the kind
N2
180 REPORT—1896.
of determinations which have been made. Further comment would be
premature, but they show that there is a wide field for future investiga-
tion opened up in following the changes of level which attend changes i in
form. The general tendency to rise shown by clouds forming is well
marked, and this is also true of the ascent of the general cloud-levels
towards the early afternoon. But many more observations are required
before such questions can be discussed. The negatives also contain mater‘al
for some determinations of cloud velocity in a horizontal plane, but time has
not allowed of any being made as yet.
Your Committee think, therefore, that the observations should certainly
be continued, as they promise to throw considerable light on many ques-
tions, and will at least give material for instructive comparison with
other determinations made in America and on the Continent.
Your Committee have done little to add to their collection, the time
at their disposal having been almost entirely taken up by the cloud
measurements.
In conclusion, they would ask for reappointment, with the addition of
Mr. H.N. Dickson, and a renewal of the grant of 15/.
Seismological Investigation.—First Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Dr. C. Davison and_ Professor
J. Mine (Secretaries), Lord Krtvin, Professor W. G. ADAMS,
Mr. J. T. Borromiey, Sir F. J. BraMwe tu, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Professor
J. A. Ewrne, the late Professor A. H. GREEN, Professor C. G.
Knorr, Professor G. A. LEsour, Professor R. MELpoua, Professor
J. Perry, Professor J. H. Poyntine, and Dr. Isaac Roserts.
CoNTENTS.
Report of Committee . 180
I. Notes on Instr uments 0 hich will record Earthquakes of Feeble fl ntensity.
Professor J. MILNE, /.R.S. (Also see Section VII. and Appendix.). 181
Il. Observations with Milne’s Pendulums T and U, 1895-1896. Professor
J. MILNE, F.B.S. : ; : - . 184
The Localities and their Geology : ~ 4 re . 184
The Instruments T and U and their Installation : : . Pee coy fl
Artificially produced Disturbances . 5 . 188
Sudden Displacements and Earthquakes in the Isle of W “ight. 5s)
Earthquakes recorded in Europe, and possibly noted in the Isle af
Wight, August 19 to March 1896 3 191
Notes on Special Earthquakes. (See also Appendix, p. 229. we ep Ss
Tremors and Pulsations, their relationship to the howrs of the day.
Air-current effects. Effects of barometric ali temperature,
frost, rain, Se. . ‘ c : 5 d . 200
Diurnal Waves z 212
Ill. Changes in the Vertical observed in Tokio, ‘September 1894 to March
1896. Professor J. MILNE, 7.2.8. . . 215
IV. Experiment at Oxford, dramn up by Professor H. ia TURNER F ee
V. The Perry Tromometer. Professor JOHN PERRY, F.2.S. : 3 . 218
VI. Earthquake Frequency (a Note). Dr. C. G. Knott, F. 2.8.2. é . 220
VII. Instruments used in Italy. CHARLES DAVISON, Se.D. . . 220
Ar the Ipswich meeting of the Association it was resolved that the
two committees which were studying vibrations of the earth’s crust, viz.,
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 181
‘The Committee for investigating the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena
of Japan,’ and ‘The Committee on Earth Tremors,’ should not be re-
appointed individually, but that the whole subject should be referred to a
new committee (consisting largely of the members of the old committees),
which should be called ‘The Committee on Seismological Observations.’
This Committee now presents its first report, and in doing so desires to
record its thanks to the Secretaries of the two old committees for having
continued their work as joint Secretaries to the new one. Statements
of what they have been doing form the bulk of the present report.
The Committee, however, thinks that it would be well, in this its
first report, to state definitely what it hopes to accomplish, and how far it
thinks that the British Association should go. It has long been an un-
written rule, that the Association should initiate work, but should not
charge itself with its maintenance. That is precisely what your Committee
desires. Now that it has been proved that any important earthquake is
felt all over the globe, the Committee considers that arrangements should
be made for the record and study of these movements. Your Committee
believes that such records may prove as important as those of, e.9.,
terrestrial magnetism, and, just as we have magnetic observatories in
various parts of the world, so in its opinion should there be seismological
ones. But, before advocating their erection, it is essential that a decision
be arrived at as to the form and the degree of sensitiveness of instrument
to be recommended.
This, and correspondence connected with the organisation of the
system, is the work which the Committee desires to complete. Previous
reports, and the appendices to the present one, show how much has been
done in this direction, but the Committee wants to do much more. It
wishes to place side by side four good patterns of instruments, and to
compare and study their records. When this is done it hopes to receive
the support of the Association in approaching Government with the view
to the establishment of a limited number of instruments identical in
' sensitiveness, in this country, in India and in the Colonies, and of a small
central office, at Kew or elsewhere, for co-ordinating and publishing the
results. As far as the Committee can at present judge, the equipment
of each station with complete apparatus for continuous photographic record
would not exceed 1007. For the experimental work of the coming year
the Committee have one instrument, and can have the use of another
_ {constructed under a grant to Professor Milne by the Royal Society) ; it
wishes to purchase two others, and will have to build piers, &c., and pay
‘for photographic necessaries and an assistant to run the instruments,
‘which, altogether, would probably cost over 200/. Your Committee
thinks it desirable that to meet unforeseen items it should have 250/., but
without 200/. the work cannot go on.
Report by Professor Joun Minne, /’.2.S,
I. Notes on Instruments which will record Earthquakes of Feeble Intensity.
What we desire to record are preliminary tremors of small amplitude
followed by quasi-elastic waves of comparatively large amplitude.
Within a hundred or two hundred miles of an origin, the former of
these have periods varying between } and ;!; of a second. Ata great
15
183 REPORT—1 896,
distance, say one quarter of the earth’s circumference, these may have
periods of from 5 to 12 seconds.
The latter near to an origin have periods varying between 4 and
2 seconds, whilst at a great distance this period may be 20 seconds. As
an average maximum velocity for the propagation of the preliminary
tremors, we shall take 11 km. or about 7 miles per second. The large
wave motion is propagated at about + of this rate.
It has been found by trial that fifteen or twenty stations can be found
on the globe, so that one of these shall be near to the antipodes of shocks
originating on the west coast of South America, Japan or the Philippines,
or the Western Himalaya, whilst six or seven other stations between one
of these origins and its antipodes will lie at distances from each other of
between one thousand and two thousand miles.
Because such an arrangement of stations is possible, we may take one
thousand miles as being the minimum difference in distance between
observing stations relatively to important seismic centres.
With the assumed velocity of propagation of 7 miles per second, the
difference in times we expect to note will be about 143 seconds.
Because some stations will be at shorter distances from each other
relatively to origins, I shall assume that instruments are required to note
differences in time of 100 seconds.
Instruments.
The instruments at our disposal are :—
1, An Italian type like that of Vicentini which I call V.
2. Von Rebeur’s Horizontal Pendulum 5 3 Re
3. Milne’s i OKAYS
” 3) bb)
4, Darwin’s Bifilar Pendulum + a2 Pas
Vicentint.—A pendulum of 100 k. at least 1-50 m. long. Light in-
dices, multiplying motion eighty times relatively to the pendulum as a
steady point, write on a moving surface of smoked paper. Two com-
ponents of motion are recorded.
Von Rebeur. —A light horizontal pendulum weighing 42 grammes and
188 mm. in length, carrying a smallmirror. Light from a lamp is reflected
from this back through suitable lenses upon a slit in a box containing a
drum carrying a bromide film.
Milne.—A. horizontal pendulum with a boom 2 ft. 6 in, long, the
whole apparatus within a case 4 ft. x 1 ft. 3in. x 2 ft. The end of the
boom is continuously photographed on a bromide film 2 in. wide. . Because
the lamp is within 6 in. of the paper, the necessary light is small.
Darwin.—A circular mirror with a bifilar suspension, so arranged that,
a slight tilt causes the mirror to rotate. This is immersed in paraffine.
The instrument is exceedingly sensitive to change of level, but not to
elastic tremors.. The recording apparatus is photographic and very similar
to that used by von Rebeur.
Accuracy as time-recorders (important).—The accuracy depends upon
the rate at which the recording surface is moved, the method employed. to
mark time intervals upon its surface, and lastly the fineness or sharpness
of definition of the record.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 183
Assuming that on a diagram we can measure within ‘25 mm., be-
5 fe) ’
cause
V runs at 5 mm. per minute, therefore we can read to within 3 seconds.
M ” ‘ ”) ” 7 +B) 15 ”
(=
R ” Ry 5B) ” ” ” 45 ”
; L
D ” 6 ” ” ” ” 30 »
By shaking M at known times, and comparing these times with times
determined from the developed film, the difference between these is about
half the expected error. Because this is probably true for the other
instruments, the errors in 100 seconds may be,
V_ 1:5 seconds or per cent.
(a)
R 22'5
D 45 ” ”
2
Because time-intervals in V and M do not depend upon the elock
driving the record-receiving surface, but are marked by an independent
time-keeper, these errors should not exceed a small fraction of a second
per hour. R and D do not share this advantage, the time being
dependent upon a clock driving a drum or a broad film of bromide paper.
As a time recorder D is like R. Should the rate be made greater,
it might involve an increase in light-source. The time intervals might
also be marked by an independent clock.
V and M also present the advantage of yielding a diagram, the
definition of which is much sharper than Rand D. V is slightly better
than M.
The M clock, which, however, only drives a film 2 inches wide, is so
arranged that it can be instantly altered to drive the paper at a rate of
about 6 or 10 in. per day, which, when recording diurnal waves, is
sufficiently quick.
Equality in Adjustment (important).—If two or more similar instru-
ments are not adjusted to have equal sensibility, they may commence to
indicate with different phases of motion, and much of what is gained in
the accuracy of the time scale is lost.
M and equivalent of R can be adjusted to have a close similarity in
sensibility, and this is probably true of D.
With V, which writes by the friction of a pointer on a smoked surface,
we have no experience, but from experience with its equivalent and a
large experience with ordinary seismographs writing upon smoked surfaces,
it seems likely that there would be great difficulty in obtaining equal
sensibility, especially with instruments which were not side by side.
Even if absolute equality is attainable with a group of instruments, it
should be remembered that instruments further from the epicentre will
necessarily indicate a later phase of the movement than those close to it.
Sensibility.— All types record long period wave motion.
V gives an open diagram for movements, the period of which is not
less than five seconds—that is of preliminary tremors at a distance from
their origin. R and M show the presence of these, but of D we have no
experience.
R and D give diagrams of large amplitude, but V has the best
definition.
184 REPORT—1896.
We do not know which instrument would at a given station commence
to move the first. The probable order would be R, M, D, V.
Carts, trains and traffic, unless very near, do not affect any of the
instruments.
D and V are probably not affected by ‘earth (?) tremors’ whilst
M and B& are aifected, but the serious character of these in obliterating
effects due to small movements has been greatly reduced.
D and K are most sensible to tilting effects hke the diurnal wave, and
therefore, unless we reduce their multiplication by reducing the distance
between the mirrors and the film, they require a broad recording surface.
D is entirely unaffected by rapid tremors. The movement of the
image during the passage of earthquake pulsations is absolutely steady,
showing that the rapid vibrations superposed on the long waves (tiltings of
the ground) are entirely quenched.
Installation and working.—V requires a strong support, like a solid
wall, and vertically a space of 10 or 12 feet.
Rand D require, as at present used, at Jeast 12 feet horizontally, and
unless we reduce their multiplication, a fairly strong light, and consider-
able isolation from the effect of loads. Six feet might be ample for R and
D. The foundation for D costs 7/. or 81.
M requires 4 feet horizontally, a small light, and moderate isolation.
Each instrument will require about ten minutes’ time daily, and about
one hour each week.
It is possible that the smoking and varnishing of a long roll of paper,
as required by V, may be more troublesome than developing the photo-
graphic films of M, R, and D. The M film lasts one week. Rand D
require changing at shorter intervals.
Cost.—V, as made in Italy, about 20/., but without timekeeper.
M, as made in England, 45/. with timekeeper.
R, as made in Strassburg, about 297. without special timekeeper.
D, as made in England, about 50/. without special timekeeper.
Mr. Milne suggests to the Committee that they should buy the appa-
ratus Vand an R. After which V, M, R and D should be set up side by
side. Let R and D be reduced in length to about 4 feet, and arranged to
record on a surface similar to M. A broad recording surface requires a
special clock to drive it, whilst it is expensive and troublesome to handle.
When this is done, and experiments have extended over two or three
months, we shall then be in a position to speak more definitely about the
relative merits of these instruments as earthquake recorders.
Il. Observations with Pendulums T and U in the Isle of Wight, 1895-96.
The Localities and their Geology.
The position of Shide Hill House, where instrument T is installed, is
approximately 50° 41’ 18’ N. Lat., and 1° 17’ 10’. W. Long. It is near
to the Shide railway station, at the foot of the western side of Pan Down,
which is a portion of the chalk backbone of the Isle of Wight.
Up on the Down the chalk reaches to within a few inches of the surface.
At Shide Hill House disintegrated chalk, which may have a thickness
of about 6 feet, is met with at a depth of 3 feet. In front of the house,
or towards the west, at a distance of about 150 yards at the other side of
a small stream, there is a railway. Ina N.E. direction, at a distance of
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 185
242 yards, there is a chalk quarry, where at certain fixed times blasting
takes place.
At the back of the house within a few yards of the buildings in
which the instrument is placed there is a lane down which on week days
carts heavily laden with gravel pass.
Through the kindness of Mr. A. Harbottle Escourt, Deputy Governor
of the island, I was enabled to establish a second instrument (U) within
the grounds of Carisbrooke Castle. The foundation is similar to that at
Shide, being a brick column built up from the chalk. This stands in a
small room, one wall of which is the western wall of the castle. Towards
the east it faces the Bowling Green.
This instrument gave its first records about June 22, but it was not
in proper working order until the middle of July.
Shide lies at a distance of 1} mile in a N.N.E. direction from Caris-
brooke. Mount Joy, which is 274 feet high, lies between the two places.
At Shide and continuing towards Carisbrooke the chalk ridge, which
forms the backbone of the island, strikes E.S.E. to W.N.W., and dips at
at a high angle approaching verticality towards the north. The central
portion of this anticline has been removed by denudation, whilst its
southern, which dips gently, can be seen in the Downs along the south
coast.
The steep dip on the northern side of this anticline is a feature
cominon to the folds of the continuation of these rocks. Sudden mono-
clinal folds are generally recognised as representing movements, which
if continued result in faulting, and the home of faults is that of
earthquakes.
The faults which are actually visible or inferred from the displace-
ment of beds in the Isle of Wight are only seven or eight in number,
and the throw of those, excepting the one supposed to exist a few miles
east of Shide at Ashey, is but small (see ‘The Geology of the Isle of
Wight,’ by H. W. Bristow, revised and enlarged by Clement Reid, and
Aubrey Strahan, ‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’ 1889).
The structural and the stratigraphical conditions which I have per-
sonally observed at Shide and its neighbourhood are as follows. The
chalk is so sharply tilted that it is reasonable to suppose that limits of
its elasticity have often been exceeded. As a result of the pressure and
metamorphic actions accompanying this distortion, the chalk has been so
far hardened that when two pieces of it are struck together it has almost
the ring of crystalline limestone, the flints if not broken into fragments
have been brought together in patches, and have been so far fractured
that by the application of light blows they fall in pieces. Siliceous
matter has been deposited in veins, whilst slickensided surfaces in
various directions apparently indicate that from time to time strain has
been relieved by minor yieldings.
At Alverton chalk pit, which lies to the west of Carisbrooke, the
chaik dips northwards at about 45°. Parallel to the dip the strike, and
in intermediate directions the beds, are traversed by fractures which can
‘be traced over lengths of 20 yards.
That these fractures are not mere cracks but are accompanied by
displacement, and therefore have the character of true faults, is shown in
one instance by the abrupt termination of a band of flint where it meets
one of these lines, in another case, as also at Shide, it is shown by the
smashing up of a mass of flint and the trailing out of the fragments of
186 REPORT—1896,
the same along the fractured face in a direction parallel to that of the
striations. The last indications of displacement are the striations them-
selves.
The surfaces of these fractures are yellowish in colour, indicating that
they have formed channels for subterranean water, but notwithstanding
the solvent action accompanying such percolation: the striations remain
singularly clear.
The inference from this is that these fractures, which penetrate down-
wards to unknown depths, are of comparatively recent origin. In an
upward direction they can be traced to the lower portion of the disinte-
grated chalk, but they cannot be traced through this into the overlying
gravel and its thin capping of earth.
Had these overlying materials been as resistant to fracture as the
hard chalk beneath them, it might be reasonably supposed that these
fractures had been produced before the deposition of the overlying
materials. In this instance, as in all other instances where deposits
of a soft and yielding character overlie strata of a much harder nature,
one of the usual arguments respecting the age of faults may fail. Very
large earthquakes are occasionally accompanied by dislocation which
reaches through the alluvium to the surface, but with the majority of
such disturbances, as with the fractures which accompany a subsidence
in a mine, the dislocations only extend upwards through rocks which are
in a state of strain. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that the dis-
integrated chalk and its overlying soft materials could only be disturbed
by faulting of an unusual character, and even in such instances, by
settlement, the percolation of water and surface denudation traces of the
same would be speedily obliterated.
In the majority of instances traces of fracturing and even faulting
at considerable depths would not be visible near the surface. The faults
which have been observed in the chalk of the Isle of Wight anticline
and in the overlying tertiaries, up to the Hampstead beds, which have
shared its movements, are in all probability the natural records of earth-
quakes of considerable magnitude.
Although geological evidence indicates that the Isle of Wight fold
like those to the north of it was commenced in Miocene times, and was
contemporaneous with movements which led to the building of the
Italian peninsula and some of the largest mountain ranges in the world,
actual earthquakes which have been felt in the Isle of Wight are but
few in number. Dr. Groves, of Carisbrooke, who is familiar with the
island and its history, has failed to meet with any accounts of such dis-
turbances.. Mr. Charles Davison, however, gives me the following list
of shakings, which, although they did not originate in Vectis, may
have been felt there—1734, November 5; 1750, March 19 and 29;
1755, November 1 (Lisbon) ; 1811, November 30; 1814, December 6 ;
1824, December 6; 1834, January 23 and August 27 ; 1853, April 1 ;
1884, April 22 (Colchester) ; 1889, May 29 (Channel Islands). On the
- opposite coast during the last two hundred years, on the authority of
Mr. J. E. Sawyer, it may be concluded that a shock of some violence has
‘on the average been felt once in every ten years. These were particu-
larly noticeable about Chichester.
The reason that earth shakings never appear to have originated in
the Isle of Wight, possibly lies in the fact that the strata in which it
seems so likely that dislocations should occur is almost entirely com-
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 187
posed of materials which are soft and yielding in their character, and
therefore adjust themselves to new forms by crushing and gliding rather
than by sudden fracturing.
The appearance and structure of the Isle of Wight anticline is that
of a district in seismic strain, in which we might expect to find adjust-
ments by intermittent and to some extent semi-viscous yielding. Later
on it will be shown that horizontal pendulums founded in this chalk
often exhibit sudden displacements, the cause of which is at present un-
known. These are much too local in their character to be called earth-
quakes, and it seems likely that they will prove to be settlements beneath,
or very near to, the foundations of the piers on which the instruments are
placed.
The Instruments T and U and their Installation.
The instrument and the installation at Shide is designated by the
letter T. Other horizontal pendulums of a similar type used in Japan
are indicated by the preceding letters of the alphabet.
-- Instrument T differs from the one shown on p: 85 in the Report for 1895
in the arrangement of the boom, which at its outer end carries a smalt
Figiels
Boom
Masonru
Coiumn
»plate with two slits,.one being large and the other small, the form of the
-bed plate, the balance weight being pivoted on an arm at right angles
.to the length of the boom, and the arrangement of a watch, the large
hand of. which every hour crosses the fixed slit in the box above the
moving bromide to eclipse the light and give time intervals (see fig. 1).
1838 REPORT—1896.
Up to March 27, the boom constructed of varnished straw and reed
was 2 ft. 5 in. long and weighed #0z. The balance weight weighed 22 oz.
With a period of 17 seconds a deflection at its outer end of 1 mm. corre-
sponded to a tilt of 0’71.
On April 24 this was replaced by an aluminium boom 3 feet in length,
weighing 4 0z. The balance weight weighs 8 oz. With a period of 31
seconds, a deflection of 1 mm. at its outer end corresponds to a tilt of
about 0/2.
The instrument stands upon the cement-covered top of a brick column,
which is 1 ft. 6 in. square and 6 feet high. This rises freely ina pit 3 feet
deep from a thin bed of concrete covering the surface of the disintegrated
chalk. The sides of the column are oriented N S., and E W.
The building in which this is placed is an old stable built with brick,
and sheltered by trees on its north, south, and west sides. From October
1895 the southern face of the column was covered with cement, which like
the top was on that day coated with paint. The pit in which the column
rises is filled with dry straw and hay, whilst for some months the column
itself was wrapped round with a double thickness of thick felt.
About the end of June a second instrument which I call U was in-
stalled at Carisbrooke Castle. It was made by Mr. R. W. Munro, of
Granville Place, King’s Cross Road, London, W.C. In nearly all respects,
excepting that of better workmanship, it is similar to the one at Shide.
It stands on a brick column inside a building, one wall of which is
the western wall of the Castle, facing the bowling green. With a period
of 8 seconds its sensibility is such that 1 mm. deflection of the boom
corresponds to a tilt of about 0’-5.
The cost of working one of these instruments, which includes benzine,
bromide paper, used at the rate cf 3 feet per day, and developers, is about
2s. 6d. per week. To wind and compare the watch, mark the bromide
papers with a date, and to refill the lamp, which has to be done daily,
occupies about 10 minutes. Changing and developing the papers once
-a week can be done in about 45 minutes. The time occupied to analyse
a diagram depends upon its nature and the exactitude required in the
necessary measurements. It may be 5 minutesorone hour. The walk to
Carisbrooke and back takes about 1} hour.
Artificial Disturbances.—(Blasting, Train and Cart Effects.)
At a distance of 242 yards on the N.N.W. side of the instrument
there isa chalk quarry, at which when the present observations commenced
‘charges of powder of 5 lb. and upwards were fired. Since October 1 the
‘quantities of powder employed are said to have been reduced, and the
times of firing the same confined to the half hours between 9 and 9.30 a.m.
and 2 and 2.30 p.m.
Although I have several times had the opportunity of watching the
instrument within 20 seconds of one of these explosions I never observed
that any appreciable motion had been produced.
It may therefore be assumed that the instrument was not seriously
affected by these operations. An assurance of this was obtained by com-
‘paring the following list of explosions very kindly made by Miss E. A.
Evelegh, of Shide House, which is within 50 yards of the quarry and a
}
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 189
railway cutting leading to the same, with the records of sudden displace- .
ments and swinging of the instrument :—
1895 Il. M
August 30 7 20 P.M. Heavy blast.
we 55 Peeoy uk Moderate blast.
” ” 7 28 ” ” ”
September 29 22 30 ,, In the cutting
October 1 20-15; a
Ee 2 19 3 i 33 double blast.
3 3 22) NOs. » pit, heavy blast.
” 4 23 5 ” ” ”
Br 4 23:25) 55 a » 2 or 3 small blasts,
be 8 19PZ0) 5 a8 », double.
2 9 21 55 ” ” ”
” 10 0 5 ” ” ”
9 10 18 25 ” ” ”
” 10 19 5 ” ” th
» 10 23 20 ,, s9f eens
Ae al br BF; Very heavy double blast.
ye eat 21uBb. 3; In the pit.
” 12 115 ” ”
» 13 2015 ,, ”
» 13 2215 ,, ”
” 14 2 0 ” ”
” 15 3 25 ” ”
» 15 22 0 ,, ”
” 16 2 0 ” ”
” 16 20 45° ” ”
” 17 0 5 ” ”
Pa Huh 2155 ,, Very heavy.
> as 21 40
” ”
The result of the comparison shows that in most instances no effect
ean be traced to the explosions. In one or two instances, however, a
slight blur from } to 1 mm. in width has been the result.
The conclusion therefore is that the swingings recorded, which repre-
sent sudden changes in the inclination of the ground, have not been the
result of blasting.
A few unusually heavy shots have, however, transmitted elastic vibra-
tions as far as the instrument. These have caused the outer end of the
boom to quiver but they have never produced a swing.
The true amplitude of most of these isin all probability only a fraction
of a millimetre and unless carefully looked for would hardly be visible in
the photogram.
A heavily laden cart passing at a distance of about 10 yards may
produce a somewhat similar effect, but a light train at a distance of 150
yards does not appear to produce any effect.
Sudden Displacements and Earthquales recorded at Shide,
By sudden displacements I mean movements like those shown in fig. 2.
Usually, as here shown, they occur in groups, but now and then they occur
singly. A similar appearance can be produced by gently pushing the
pier carrying the instrument and then allowing the swinging boom to come
to rest. Were they due to settlement in or beneath the pier, I should
expect that they would be accompanied by permanent displacements which
is seldom the case. A curious feature which now and then shows itself,
and can be seen in fig. 2, is a permanent displacement of two or three
190 REPORT—1896.
minutes followed by a sudden return to the normal position, Minute
spiders have sometimes found their way inside a case, but it is very doubt-
ful that they should be able to cause the sudden disturbances shown and
finally leave the boom in its normal position and free to swing. With
records from nineteen installations in Japan I never remember observing
movements of this character. Whatever may be the cause of these dis-
lic. 2.—Displacements on September 10.
Sept 8
1895
placements it is probably very local in its operation, and therefore they
cannot be regarded as earthquakes.
The duration of a displacement is evidently the length of time it takes
a pendulum which has been slightly deflected to come to rest. Witha
light boom this is about 15 minute but with a heavy boom it may be 5
minutes. A group of disturbances may extend over 20 or 30 minutes.
One group of 40 occupies 3 or 4 hours.
An earthquake originating at a distance has the appearance of fig. 3,
which is probably the Shide record of the commencement of shocks which
shock Cyprus on June 29, 1896.
Between August 19, 1895, and March 27, 1896, or during 202 working
days, 485 sudden displacements and earthquakes were recorded.
In the following list the records referring to sudden displacements are
those which succeed each.other at short intervals, and are marked
‘sudden’ or ‘strong.’ Those which are followed by the remark ‘slight’
or ‘moderate’ may be due to actual earthquakes, the origins of which in
some instances have been at great distances.
Records (August to November) marked A approximately correspond
in time to disturbances noted by Professor Agamennone in the ‘ Bulletin
Météorologique et Seismique de lObservateur Impérial de Constantinople.’
T refers to records published by Professor Pietro Tacchini (for September
and November) in the ‘ Bollettino della Societa Sismologica Italiana.’ G
refers to records received from Professor Gerland at Strassburg, and K to
those from Professor Kortazzi at Nicolaiew.
These references, it will be observed, are very incomplete, and are
only made up to the end of March 1896. Ina subsequent report it is
hoped that these will be completed, whilst the list itself will be extended
up to date, and include the observations made at Carisbrooke.
The corrections are given in minutes and seconds, and are to be added
or subtracted as indicated. From August 19 to October 27 the times
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 191
after correction may have an error of = 1 minute, but from the latter date
onwards the errors should not exceed + 5 seconds.
The uncorrected times are given in hours and decimals of the same—
Greenwich mean time. Noon = 24 or 0 hours.
Under the column ‘ Remarks’ the duration of disturbances is given
in minutes and seconds.
Tremor storms and pulsations are nof included in this catalogue.
Date | Correction Time Remarks
1895 M. §S. H.
August 19 : +2 O 9-983 A | 1m. 27s., sudden.
15°883 ” »
fp) 4D) * +2 0] 7783 5 9
9383 ” ”
Two displace- The first is permanent to E.
ments and the second partly back
to W.
9-516 Im. 27s., sudden.
9-900 ” ”
9-933 2MmlOS, bs
11-233 A ” 9
11°383 Om. 43s. _,,
11°516 A | 2m. 54s. ,,
12°383 A | 1m. 27s. ,,
12'816 Om. 43s, __,,
Ge 2s ° ° 5 11°5 to 12:5. Alto- | From 1 to 2 m,, sudden.
gether nine strong |
displacements
14:5 to 15:0. Five | PY) 3
strong shocks A |
gin 40 3 . ° 0-5to4:0. There were
three or four small
displacements
9°560 About 1m. 30s.
9°830 ” ”
9°880 3
11:300 Slight
16:220 Strong, 15m. earlier, two
slight disturbances,
16463 Slight.
_|Septemberl . at ee 8-050 A | Moderate.
i : 11214 19m.
11-786 Slight.
11:860 a
21-24 A | Very slight disturbances.
These may be blasts.
s 2 +0 387 | 1:30-5-30 Very slight disturbances.
These may be blasts.
9°645 A | Slight.
11:930, the first | Total duration 53m., but
of seven heavy after the second there is
} displacements A an interval of no motion
{ of 17m.
; 21 to 24 Slight, as if by blasting.
Pa BS 4 " 19-643 Heavy, 3m.
| 20-643 Moderate, 15m.
7 4. . . 2-000 | Slight.
, | ; 14:380 A
j 14-643 : Strong.
Bed
14880 ae Slight.
192 REPORT—1896.
TABLE I.—continued.
Date Correction Time Remarks
1895 M. 8. H.
17600, the first of | These are separate, but are
five strong dis- included in 16m.; the third
placements is strongest,
18-000, the first of | The first is heavy. Total
four displacements} duration 18m.
23-24 Blasting ?
September 5 . . . 0-2 Blasting.
9-690 Moderate.
12°240, the first of - Total duration 3m.
twodisplacements
12°790 Moderate.
12°857 5
13-071 | Strong.
13°213 Moderate.
13°500 (about) Three very slight shocks.
13:738 Strong.
14 (about) | Two very slight shocks.
15-095 | Strong.
15°548 9
20357 | Moderate.
% Shee : ° 9-000 (about) a
21-24 | Blasting.
- th ° - 10°762-13:000. There
were fifteen large
displacements
14-047 Moderate.
11:095, first of five | Total duration 20m., each |}
displacements one separate.
Soe : ° 6°857 Displacement of 15m. and
return.
7357 Displacement of 3m. and
return.
8-798, first of forty- | Twenty-eight of these are
two displacements large; there may have been
which ended 12:014 more in the series, but at
midnight the bromide film
ended. Record ceases un-
til September 18.
» L924 4 - One or two slight
sudden displace-
ments but no
shocks
+ 25 . . . 8540 A | Moderate.
8454 .
10:928 A | Slight.
13-400 “5 |
23°5 toabout 24:0 A | Six slight shocks amongst
tremors,
4 Zl : : 4691, followed by | Moderate.
two others
5:600 A 3
85 Strong.
97143 Slight.
9:262 5
11°341 7%
i 27 ..|— 3 13] 4-739 ce
55 (about), three | The second large.
shocks
ON SEISMQLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
TABLE I.—continued.
193.
September 30.
aaa
» 38
th es .
= 5 ‘
” 6
” 8
” ) .
4 11
9 13 °
5 5
f 16 ‘
: a (OS
B~ 19
oo pal :
» 22 to 30
_ x 80 toNoy. 4
1896.
Correction
M. 8.
— 4 Ol
— 4 20
— 5 O07
— 0 O07
+ 3 58
+ 4 46
+ 2 47
eng esl
HZ HOO
+11 7
+9 41
+ 6 18
+4 3
— 0 47
— 2 51
Time
Remarks
H.
7 120
7-430
7-5to 85, six shocks
9 5 (about)
9°452
9°660
14°320
6 (about)
6:45 ,,
65 ,,
ene
Sane;
9-853, the first of
thirteen
21°80 (about) A
22
11:643, the first of
five
9°5-10°5 T
6:0, the first of
seventeen dis-
placements
8:5 (about)
6:4, the first of three
displacements
10:0 (about)
12:5, the first of six
displacements T
10:140, the first of
six shocks A
10°3 (about)
5:09
9 762
10:215
22°333, the first of
two shocks A
9:0 (about)
21 ”
425, hy
5:5
2 ”
8-75, first of three
shocks
15:0 (about) A
0 to 3, there are
seventeen slight
disturbances T[
8:25 (about)
22°30 oO WEL. GUS
6-25 1
No shocks
Slight.
All moderate.
Moderate.
Two slight shocks.
Moderate. ‘
”
Two shocks, interval 1m.
” ” ”
” ” ”
One shock.
Total duration 28m.; the
last are feebler and sepa-
rated more widely than
the first.
Moderate.
Slight.
Moderate, duration of series
1 hr. 5m.
Four or five shocks.
Duration lhr. 10m. The first
commenced gently. The
heavy ones are slight dis-
placements.
Slight.
Duration 8°5m.
Moderate.
These occur in an interval
of two hours.
The first commences gently,
duration 30m.
Slight.
Displacement.
Strong, duration 3m.
Moderate.
These are slight, and look
like earthquakes from a
distance.
Strong.
”
Moderate.
Two shocks.
Slight.
These have the character of
disturbances from a dis-
tance.
Moderate.
Strong displaccment in the
midst of tremors.
Strong.
Lining case with felt. Heavy
tremors often eclipse pos-
sible shocks.
194. REPORT—1896.
TABLE I.—continued.
Date Correction Time Remarks
1895 iy) a3) H.
November 5 ‘ 8-5 (about) Strong.
9°6 Moderate.
22 (about) Slight disturbance.
- 7 + 1 30] 9°93, the first of | Duration55m. The first two
six A are small, and the third is
strong.
16°8 (about) Slight.
ZAI. ay Three slight.
21:75 ,, the first | All slight.
of three
= 12 — 1 0 1745 (about) Shock?
Py 13 —-1 oO 8-302, slight but | Total duration, 3hr. 8m,
followed by forty- The third shock or group
four displace- of shocks has a duration
ments of 6m.
22:25 (about) Moderate.
s 14 —1 0] O06 “5 Slight.
2°6 ” ”
4 aie A slight displacement.
85 > Four shocks, duration 10m.
22°3 3 Six shocks, duration about
12m.
yo JS —1 2) 0-640, the first of | Duration 26m. the fourth is
six displacements a group lasting 6m.
3°6, the first of | Duration lhr. 30m., the first
thirteen shocks heavy. and those at
the end slight.
6 (about) Two slight.
6°5, three Heavy.
+ 16 — 1 5] 3'9 (bout) A | Slight blur.
20°0 rf Three?
oa 19 = 41.°6 6:2 Displacement.
eee sil — 1 6] 11:270, the first of | Duration 30m. All are dis-
three displace- placements to the W. The
ments return swing of the last
Nomore untilDec.1; takes 7m.
December 1 — 1. 6 | 11:0 (about) Slight, W. displacement.
” 2 =i 7 10:0 ” ” ” ”
5 5 — 0 44] 115, the first of | Duration 23h.
nine displacements
S 3) — 0 42] 0°25 (about) Strong.
2-0 52 Slight.
Bi) TS Vibrations.
a 10 . > 11:7 + Slight displacement to W.
0:42
147-150 (about) Slight displacement to E.
and then W. ‘here are
several of these up to 24h.
7 1] — 0 40] 3:25 (about) Slight displacement E.
af 14 — 0 30] 1% » Slight.
pels == (iO) ela Oe = ees .
x 22 ‘ 5 22°45 54 Moderate.
i 25 + 0 41 |} 19°0 Strong.
19°654 ae
26 + 0 36 | 13:28 (about) A | Moderate.
13°32 e
19°15 55
20°25 Fe
Double shock.
Moderate.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
TABLE I.—continued.
195
Date Correction Time Remarks ,
1895 M. 6S H.
December 27 + 0 31] 3°50, 4:50, 4:45, 5:5, | Approximate time of sixteen
7:5,7°10, 7:12,7°35, distinct displacements, the
7°38,7°55,8°0,10°45, one at 10°45 commences
15 50, 19:0, 20°45, gently.
2171
ay 2 eo 2 2 ; - a R No records.
Dec. 29 to Jan. 18 no shocks.
1896
January 17 + 0 33 | 22°45 (about) Two vibrations.
7 19 + 0 36] 1:0 5 Slight ,,
3 22 + 0 46} 6317 Strong.
9-701, the first of | Duration 30m. The third is
five displacements a displacement to E., and
the fifth to the W.
55 24 + 0 55} 3°350, the first of | Duration 20m.
seven small dis-
placements
1 25 + 0 59 | 22°50 (about) Vibrations.
February 5 +1 16] 25 ~ Slight displacement.
2°8 ” ” ”
3:140 Decided shock.
” 6 + 1 22] 0-707 Slight.
4/190 *
* 8 + 1 382) 1:952 Decided shock.
ry eee + 1 33 | 2:0 (about) Vibrations.
or 21 + 1 58 | 15561 Strong.
17:0 (about) Three, the two second strong.
rr 24 +1 55 Bi2be se Slight tremor.
<3 28 + 1 23 | 15°805, the first of | Duration 30m.
four
20°25 (about) Slight.
22 Saar four | Duration 8m.
displacements
March 1 + 2 10} 9:0 (about) Slight.
a Ld +2 0} 4000 Shock commences; max. 4m,
later.
PlG: vs +2 0} 5-548 First of three very slight
shocks.
ye 22 +2 53 1191 First of two very slight
shocks.
2:309 First of five small shocks.
Up to Mar. 27, whencircum-
stances compelled me to
cease recording, there were
no more shocks.
After comparing ‘sudden’ disturbances and decided ‘shocks’ noted in
July 1896 with similar records obtained at Carisbrooke, it is seen that
these do not coincide in time. Therefore these movements, which appear
to be so frequent in the winter, are extremely local in their action, and
cannot be regarded as earthquakes. What they mean is at present
unknown, and it will not be until two instruments have been installed
near to each other that we can speak more definitely regarding their
cause.
Because the lists given by Dr. Agamennone, which include, with the
earthquakes of Turkey and Asia Minor, those of Italy and other Euro-
o2
196 REPORT—1896.
pean countries, are very full, we naturally expect to meet with approxi-
mate coincidences in time between some of these shocks and those recorded
ht. Shide. As examples of these coincidences, the shock of August 19
t 9°983h. and that of August 20 at 12°383h. may be taken. These two
shocks followed heavy disturbances which took place in Asia Minor by
intervals of about 28m. 32s. and 32m. 32s. Taking the distance between
the Isle of Wight and the western part of Asia Minor at 5!,th of the
earth’s circumference and the velocity of a surface-wave at 2km. per
second, these intervals of time should have been 23m. or 24m. The dis-
crepancy of from 4m. to 8m. betwéen what is observed and what would
be expected might be explained on the assumption that the times noted in
Asia Minor seem to be but roughly approximate. Several facts, however,
indicate that many of the disturbances noted in the Isle of Wight, although
they may agree in time with those catalogued by Agamennone, are not
identical with the same.
The Isle of Wight displacements commence suddenly and succeed each
other at widening intervals of time, both of which characters are sugges-
tive of shocks having a local origin. Farther than this, although certain
of them may have taken place at an interval of time roughly proportional
to the distance of an origin when there has been a heavy disturbance,
there are many in the same series-where this proportionality does not
exist. For example, although it has been shown that two out of the
thirteen shocks of August 19 and 20 might be identical with shocks
of those dates in Asia Minor, other shocks amongst the remaining
eleven follow those in Asia Minor at intervals exceeding one hour, whilst
some precede them. The important feature in the European and Isle of
Wight records is the approximate coincidence in time of groups of
shocks. On August 12 and 20 there were a succession of violent dis-
turbances in Asia Minor, and on the same dates we find a marked set of
disturbances in the folded and faulted strata of the Isle of Wight. For
the same places the same phenomenon is repeated on November 13 and 14.
In the Isle of Wight, on the former date, between 8.30 and 11.30 p.m.,
forty-four sudden tiltings were recorded, whilst in Asia Minor, between
9.30 on the 13th until the night of the 14th, there were violent shakings.
Observations of this character suggest the idea that either unfelt earth-
waves radiating from centre of violent activity disturb strata in a critical
condition in distant places, or that the relief of strain in one portion of
the globe cause readjustment in distant localities. Large earthquakes, like
that of 1755, have apparently caused secondary earthquakes, whilst seis-
mological chronology tells us that there have been periods when earth-
quakes have been more frequent throughout the world than at others.
Copies of this list have been sent to several of the principal observa-
tories in Europe, where there is apparatus which might record similar
disturbances. Up to date only three replies have been received, which are
as follows :—
Dr. Eschenhagen, Potsdam.
1895. Nov. 9.—Schwingungen des Magnets von Lloyd’s Wage (Magnet liest
Ost-West) nach den photographischen Curven ermittelt :—
H. M.
Beginn . . . - 1 24.6 Mittl. Zeit Potsdam
Maximrm . : . wok 227.0
Ende i 1h 27:8
Amplitude sehr klein, c* 3 Bogenminute
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 197
Andeutungen von Schwingungen sind noch um:
1 31.0
1 34.4
1896. Jan. 9.—3 Stésse an Lloyd’s Wage beobachtet :—
HH. M.
(1) Anfang ° . . . 3 1.1 P.M. M. Z. Potsd.
Maxim. ° 5 = : 1.8
Ende . ;. “ : - 2.9
Amplitude . : . - 1 Bogenminute
(2) Anfang : 5 : . fa 8
Maxim. . : - - 6.9
Ende ; $ : 8.9
Amplitude . : : 5 0.8 Bogenminute
(3) Anfang - - . . 3 11.0
Maxim. - : 6 . 12.6
Ende é F . 5 13.9
Amplitude . : : 5 0.5 Bogenminute
1896. Méarz 4.—Mehrere Stisse bei allen drei Komponenten beobachtet :—
on eRe Bifilarmagnet
— I. Declination iS Horiz. a III. Wage
H. wM. H. OM. H. OM.
(1) Anfang . : 5 44.8 A.M. 5 36.2 5 42.9
Maxim. . : 46.2 Schwache Bewegung Schwache
‘Ende. A 47.7 5 43.7 Bewegung
‘Amplitude .| c® LT! =
(2) Anfang . . 5 48.3 — 5 45.3
Maxim. . : 49.9 Gleichmissige Schwingungen 46.3
Ende. , 51.7 5 50.9 48.0
Amplitude .| c 1.0’ 0.5'-1.0' 0.5’
(3) Anfang . : 5 55.1 5 54.7 5 48.5
Maxim. . 4 5 58.3 Schwache —
Ende 5 6 2.0 Bewegung —
Amplitude .| c ald — | —
Alle Zeitangaben sind nach mittlerer Zeit Potsdam gemacht (Oh. 52m. 15.45.
Zeitdifferenz gegen Greenwich). Dieselben sind auf j-} m. sicher. Die hier vorlie-
genden Beobachtungen zeigen leider keine Coincidenz mit den dortigen. 4
Potsdam, 1896, Juni 23.
On November 2 and January 9 shocks were not recorded at Shide,
whilst on March 4, at the hours specified, the instrument was dicntantlea.
and a felt lining removed from the case. “4
Professor G. Agamennone, Constantinople,
C'est avec grand plaisir que j’ai regu la liste des secousses sismiques que vous
avez enregistrées 4 Shide du 17 aot 1895 jusqu’au 27 mars 1896.
Je n’ai pas manqué de les confronter avec celles que j'ai déja publiées ou que je
publierai sous peu dans le ‘ Bulletin Météorologique et Sismique’ de Constantinople,
bulletin que je m’honore de vous envoyer et que, je lespére, vous devez réguliérement
recevcir.
D’aprés ce qu’il résulte de cette comparaison je n'ai pu y trouver aucune relation
qui soit bien sfire, un intervalle de temps remarquable se trouvant toujours entre les
commotions sismiques d’Orient et les perturbations indiquées par vos instruments, eu
égard, bien entendu, aux diverses longitudes.
Une différence moindre se montre seulement pour la secousse du 19 aot 1895,
laquelle fut indiquée dans votre observatoire 4 10" 1" du matin, tandis que } dheure
'198 REPORT— 1896.
plus tard un désastreux tremblement de terre ravagea la ville d’Aidin et ses alen-
tours en Asie Mineure.
Je porte, enfin, 4 votre connaissance que le 29 juin passé, vers 11* 3 du soir (t. m.
Constantinople?) une forte secousse sismique 4 eu lieu sur la céte de la Syrie et s’est
fait ressentir aussi avec une grande intensité 4 Larnaca (Chypre).
6 juillet 1896.
As Professor Agamennone remarks, my record for October 19 precedes
the Aidin Disaster by about 15 minutes, but it follows the fourth and
heaviest shock felt at Bouladan, at about 9h. 44m. 6s. G.M.T.
The Cyprus shock of June 29 was recorded at Shide (see fig. 3).
Fie 3.—June 29, 1896. Cyprus.
8.29.14 | 9.2.26 29. 10.29.14
|
Dr. Adolfo Cancani writes that the Shide records do not correspond to
those at Rocca di Papa.
Earthquakes recorded in Europe, followed by disturbances at Shide,
Aug. 19-Nov. 30, 1895,
Charac- Bg
: G.M.T. at G.M.T. Diff.in | Character at
am pomntey Aiea Locality at Shide | G.M.T. Shide
1895 ae) H. M.S
Aug. 1 | Bouladan . | Heavy 9 44 6 10 10 | 17min. | Sudden
;, 20| Patras A — 10 33 36 11160 / 42 ,, .
>» 20:°| Aidin . | Heavy 12:4 6 Oye ONS lala 5
» 28 | Zante . | Slight 1414 6 14300 | 16 ,, | Strong
Sept. 1 | Messina . — 8 0 0 32.0 2 ,, | Moderate
(about) (about)
» 1 | Laibach . — 10 8 O 1990) | b8amin: a
(about) (about)
— Laibach . | Strong 912 6 9 38 0 | 26 min. | Slight
— Zante . | Light 13 4 6 14 230 | 59 ,,
» 20 | Zante : — (ean 16 8 20 0 | 33 ,, | Moderate
(and at night)
» 26} Zante . | Feeble 511 6 Bob Oi!) BH ay 4
» 27 | Spoleto. — 49 6 4430 | 34 ,, | Slight
Oct. 6 | Florence . — 11 22 34 12 300 ‘lehasn —
~» 8 | Waibach = night 10 80 _ First of 6 com-
mence gently
— Zante —_. | Strong 11 4 6 10 24 7 | 20 ,, | Light
» 16 | Giano dell’ = 350 0 4193 | 29 ,, | Moderate
Umbra .
Out of these fifteen shocks, if we make an allowance of a few minutes
in the accuracy of the times in the fourth column, then there are twelve of
them recorded at Shide at about the times we should expect them to have
reached that place. Two of the first three shocks which were ‘sudden’ at
Shide took place when we might expect earth-waves to have reached that
place from localities where there had been heavy disturbances.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 199
Notes on Special Earthquakes.'
October 19, 21h. 30m. G.M.T., 1895 (Strassburg).—The following
note is derived from a sketch of the photographic trace sent to me by
Dr. Gerland, of Strassburg. This sketch shows the movements which
took place in a von Rebeur-Paschwitz pendulum on the morning of
October 20.
About 10 a.m. (S.M.T.) there were preliminary tremors, lasting about
five minutes. These were followed by strong movements, reaching thirty
or more millimetres, which continued until about 11.30, during which
time the pendulum was displaced by four steps towards the south. From
this time the movement died out, but slight movements are observable
until after 1.30 p.m. The duration of the disturbance was therefore at
least 34 hours.
Padua.— Observations made with the pendulum apparatus and multi-
plying indices of Professor G. Vicentini :—
} y Heh Me ©
Commencement . ‘ 3 5 ' 3 : . - 10 29 44
End . 5 ah ae - - 3 : 5 F 2) un bbr” 45
Duration . ‘ 5 , z ; 3 5 : hee s265 =O
These times are probably mean European time.
Nicolaiew (Professor Kortazzi). — Observation with a Hherizisntal pen-
dulum :—
H. M. s.
Commencement N.M.T. . 5 5 ‘ ‘ . 21 30 O
Shide, Isle of Wight (Milne’s Pendulum).—Unfortunately this dis-
turbance iGcuuened in the midst of a tremor storm. Its commencement
and end are therefore lost.
Strong movements occurred at 22h. 24m., 22h. 27m, and 22h, 32m.
G.M.T.
Reducing the observations to Greenwich mean time we obtain :—
Commencement Maximum
H. M. 38. H OM &
Strassburg , ‘ . ° - 21 28 55 22 28 655 about
Padua . ; ‘ p ‘ . 21 29 44 21h 43 44°,
Nicolaiew . é : 2 . 21 29 51
Shide . P ‘ ‘ . unknown 22 300810" 3
These records show that three types of instrument have each been
sufficiently sensitive to record the same disturbance.
September 4, 5, 7 and 8.—It will be observed that on these days, from
which it must be noted September 6 is omitted, when there was practically
no movements, that shocks were very frequent. Dr. Gerland of Strass-
burg writes me that on these days there were many small shocks, and a -
tendency for the pendulum to move towards the south.
June 15, 1895.—On the above date Professor Vicentini, at Padua,
recorded disturbances, commencing at 10.45 a.m. G.M.T., which reached a -
maximum at about 11h. 14m. p.m., ending about one hour later.
At Shide a disturbance commenced at 10.30 a.m. G.M.T., but as the
instrument was dismantled at 11.30 the record is incomplete.
If we allow forty-five minutes for a disturbance to travel from Japan
to Europe, and nine hours as the difference in time between Greenwich
and Tokio, then in Japan mean time the earthquakes and sea-waves, which
' See Appendix.
200 REPORT—1 896.
resulted in the loss of about 30,000 lives, took place on June 15 at about
8.30 p.m. Until July 11, when we learned that the destruction had taken
place on June 15, the impression received from telegrams was that it
occurred on June 17. We now know that the information derived from
seismographs was correct, whilst that published as telegrams in our daily
papers involved an error of two days.
June 29 to July 4, 1896.—At about 11 p.m. on June 29 there was a
violent shock in Cyprus, which was followed by a series of others.
An alarming shock was felt at 8.25 a.m. on July 3, and others at noon,
12.38 p.m., 2.52 p.m., and 3.22 p.m.
On these days many small shocks were recorded at Shide. Assuming
a difference in time between Cyprus and Greenwich of 2h. 12m., the above
times and dates in G.M.T. are as follows, and are placed side by side with
the observations made at Shide.
Cyprus Shide
Hi. M S. H. M. S.
June 29. - 8 48 severe 9 02 26 continuing to 9 24 45)
0
July 2. 18 13 0 es 18 51 - 29
De - 21 48 O moderate not recorded
3 2 22 26 0 ” ” ”
” Oe 0 40 0 ” ” ”
sa 5 ie »>-1 100 , 99 99
Tremors and Pulsations.
In the following table the more or less continuous, regular, and
irregular swingings or repeated tiltings which have been observed are
Fig. 4.—Commencement and Growth of a Tremor Storm.
10. P.M. ul. P.M.
» ; 2: ee
Ae TNY Bago dese c
16 hers.
arranged chronologically. The numbers in brackets indicate the range of
motion expressed in millimetres. The first entry for August 18 means
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 201
that between 18 and 19 hours the pendulum was swinging through a
range of half a millimetre. On August 23 the motion was continuous
for the whole twenty-four hours, and the extent of motion was 10 milli-
metres. On days that are omitted, unless there are remarks to the
contrary, the pendulum was at rest. Although the natural period of
Fie. 5.—Tremor Storm and Deflection.
Oct.17 1895 Cio tee ADS es re _4hrs. .
the pendulum was 17 seconds, it will be noticed that sometimes its
period exceeded 5 minutes, while periods of 15 minute are com-
mon. Irregular and comparatively rapid swingings of the instrument
are called tremors. Some of these are apparently due to the establish-
ment of air currents within the case of the instruments, while others
seem to have their origin in actual movements of the supporting pier.
Fic. 6.—Pulsations at Shide.
Ne,
9.28.9.30.P.M ocT19"" 1895 10.30.P.M
Pulsations are slow movements which are regular in the period and
amplitude on the photogram, having an appearance like that produced by
a tuning fork recording its vibrations on a moving smoked surface.
These pulsations are referred to as such, or as waves. Often they are
distinct from tremors, but at other times they lead up to tremor storms,
and in such cases it becomes difficult to distinguish between pulsations
and tremors.
202 REPORT—1896.
Fig. 4 shows the commencement of a tremor storm at 10 P.M. on
October 10, with long period irregular waves. At 15 and 16 hours it will
be noticed that there has been a great increase in amplitude.
Fig. 5 shows a portion of a heavy tremor storm with a rapid tilt on
October 17.
Figs. 6 and 7 show pulsations at Shide, commencing on October 19,
Fig. 7.—Pulsations at Strassburg (Paschwitz), enlarged ten times.
at 9.30 p.m., and pulsations at Strassburg magnified 10 times. The Jatter
are reproduced from the work of von Rebeur-Paschwitz because they are
identical with records often obtained in Japan.
TABLE II.
Date == Remarks
1895.
August |
18 18 to 19 (-5), 21 to 24 | —
19 0 to 4 (1) _
20 0 to 3 (5) —
23 0 to 24 (10) Windy. Trays of CaCl, put in the
24. 0 to 24 (10) case. When this was taken out the
25 Heavy tremors heavy tremors ceased. This was
26 35 done three times.
27 ”
28 ”
29 Ps
30 17 to 20 (1) —
Sept.
2 5 to 8 (2) =
4 16 to 20, max. 18 (3) a
8 to 19 — No records.
25 23 to 24 (-5) Heavy rain and thunder.
28 2 to 4 (1) oo
28 | 20 to 23 (4) =
29 18 to 22 (3) Period 4m. 18s.
October
1 19 to 24, max. 22 (5) —
2 0 to 3.30 Tremors die out.
2 3 to 8.30, slight Very windy on the 3rd,and no tremors.
2 9 30 to 24, max. 17 (6) —
+ 10.30 to 23, max. 16 (5) | Periods 3m. 20s. to 4m.
6 12.30 to 18.30 All tremors for the preceding week
have long periods. :
a at i et ite pt i il
Date
October
ON
SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
203
TABLE IT.—continved.
Remarks
Slight
sy ie tors
18 to 24, max. 23 (10)
0 to 5 slight, and slight all day
19 to 23 (5)
8 to 24, max. 18 (8), at 10 (2)
with 2m. period
6 to 24, very slight
14 to 21, max. 18 (5)
18 to 19, slight
21 to 24, ,,
1 to 7 (3)
7 to a max. 18 to 21 (15)
0 to
9 to D4, max. 12 to 20 (6)
0 to 24, slight
4 to 5, two groups of 10 waves
each (1)
8 to 10, 34 waves per hour
13 to 24, max. 21 (5)
0 to3
4 to 5, two groups of 9 waves
each
10 to 24, max. 20 (5)
0to8
4 to 6, groups of slight regular
waves
8 to 24, 20 (5)
0 to 1l
12 to 20 (2)
20 to 24 (15)
Heavy tremors (10 to 15)
Heavy tremors (10 to 15)
” ”
11 to 22 (1)
22 (5)
22 to 24, slight
0 to 9, F
1 to 2, irregular and slow
10 to 22 (1)
5 to 24, max. 14 to 24 (5)
0 to6
6 to7
Rain at night.
Period 3m.
Period is shorter.
15m. at end of storm,
“4m.
Period reaches 5
Sudden increase from 2 mm. to 7 mm.
in tremors after opening case at
7.45 P.M.
Period lm 25s. to 2m. 50s.
Tremors die down.
Period at 9h. about 2m. 50s., but de-
creases at end of storm. Cold at
night.
Max. of 2°5mm. after opening case at
21. Dies out as regular pulsations
of ‘6mm. and period Im. 25s.
These are good examples of pulsations.
The latter has 34 waves. Period
Im. 24s. to 2m.7s. Max. range 2mm.
Die out.
Commence as pulsations.
Slight.
Increase after opening case at 20.
Reach 15mm. when the pendulum is
deflected and they stop suddenly.
These large tremors commence after
opening box.
No CaCl, in box.
Box painted inside, and face and top
of column covered with cement. °
These continue even with doors of case
open.
Completely covered inside of case with
thick felt and tremors cease.
9h., door slightly opened; closed it at
7h. on the 11th. On the 10th it was
very stormy all day and no tremors.
Period 56m.
Become mar} ed after closing door at
7 p.M. Period 2°8m., but this is
shorter at end of storm.
Storm dies out.
A calm day.
-204 REPORT—1896.
TABLE II.—continued.
—_ Remarks
7 to 24, max. 13 to 19 (5) Period often 2°8m.
0 to 3, slight 2.30, pulsations 6 waves, each ‘5mm.
The column was felted and box filled
round with straw.
3 to 24 Now and then very slight irregularities.
10 to 14 ” ” %
14 to 24, max. 18 to 20 (3) Period 1-4m. Breeze, cloud, rain.
16 to 24, max. 19 to 21 (2) Period of irregular waves reaches 56m.
High wind in morning and no tremors.
0 to 5, slight Dull, showers, calm.
5 to 24, max. 9 to 14 (4) Irregular waves reach 4:2m. At 23.30
a very heavy storm commences sud-
denly. Frosty.
0 to 2.30 (5) Period 2°8m. and fairly regular.
2.30 to 24 Dying out slowly.
No tremors Gauze put over door.
; 16 to 24, max. 22 to 24 (3) Period 14m. Calm.
0 to 24, max. 12 to 24 (8 to 4) | Period 14m. Fine.
0 to8 Tremors die out. N. wind.
8 to 24, slight - | Dull. Strong wind at night.
| 0 to 16, very slight ==
16 to 24 (1) —
0 to 16, very slight | Dull, calm,
0 to 14, no tremors Rain.
Up to 16 hours no tremors On 29th took gauze off,
16to 4 (1) =
9 to 24, max. 18 to 22 (2 to 3) Fog in morning.
0 to 3, slight | Fine.
No tremors except %3 to 24, | Dull and damp. Strong wind on the
slight 4th and 5th.
0 to 24, from 3 violent High wind at night.
0 to 24 (10), violent Fine, windy.
0 to 24 (10), violent; die out | Calm.
from 19 hours, but increase
slightly after opening door
No tremors | Dull.
10 to 24, slight | Fog, calm,
22 to 24, ” ” ”
1 to 3, a | Heavy S. gale from 10 A.M.
3 to 10, AA —
10 to 24, max. 18 to 20 (5) —
0 to 24, max. 9 to 22 (4) Moderate N. wind.
No tremors ‘ Fog, calm.
8 to 24, max. 18 (2) Opening door at 21 increased the
tremor. Dull, no wind.
0 to 8 (3 or 4) At 8.45 door was closed and tremors
are greatly reduced.
8 to 24 (1 or 2) Rain.
0 to 24 (1) Dull, fine.
0 to 24 (1) Slight increase of tremors at night.
Dull, drizzle.
0 to 24 (4 or 5) Started by opening the door. Dull
and calm.
4 to 24, max. 18 to 24 (2) Calm, tremors reduced from 3 to almost
zero by putting in wind guard.
0 to 24 (2) Period 2°8m. Fog, calm.
0 to 24, no tremors Fine, breeze.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
TABLE II.—cvuntinued.
aoe eR wih bee
No tremors
23 to 24, slight
0 to 24 (2)
0 to 8, slight
8 to 24, no tremors
14 to 17, slight
No tremors
”
1896.
0 to 24 (5), max. 18 to 20 (1)
0 to 24(-5to1), max. 15 to 24 (1°5)
0 to 24 (1)
0 to 24 (1)
18 to 24(1)
0 to 24 (1)
0 to 18 (-5)
No tremors
”
”
0 to 9, no tremors
9 to 24 (10), max. 13 to 24
0 to 24 (8)
0 to 9 (2)
9 to 10, no tremors
10 to 24 (1)
8 to 22 (5)
Occasionally very slight and
regular
No tremors
0 to 24, no tremors
No tremors
0 to 5, no tremors
5 to 24, max. all night (10)
0 to 24, max. at night (5)
0 to 24 (3)
0 to 10 (1)
10 to 24 (2)
0 to 10, slight
10 to 24 (1)
0 to 6, slight
6 to 24, max. 10 to 16 (3)
0 to 17, no tremors
17 to 23, slight
0 to 11, no tremors
11 to 22 (1), max. 16 to 21
22 to 24, no tremors
0 to 24, no tremors
” ”
Remarks
Dull, S. wind.
Rain, 8.E. wind.
Period 2°8. Little snow.
Drizzle.
Dull, calm.
Dull, rain.
Clock sent to be cleaned.
Period 2°8m. Calm.
Regular character.
” ”
From 5th to 10th no wind,
Dull, calm,
Fine.
Dull, calm.
S.W. wind, sun, cloud.
Dull, windy at night.
Fine, calm.
Dull, calm.
Calm, drizzle.
205°
Period regular, about 2°8m. Fog, calm.
Period 1:25m. to 2m. Fine, hard frost.
Dull, damp, calm.
Regular.
Dull, calm.
Calm, fog.
Calm, but wind rising at night,
Rain.
S.W. wind all last night.
Dull, calm.
Drizzle.
Fine. Frost at night.
Frosty, calm.
White frost, calm.
Dull, calm.
Dull, calm.
Calm, fine.
8.W. breeze, dull.
Dull, calm.
Dull, calm. ire
Wind in early morning, calm.
REPORT—1896.
TABLE II.—continved.
Remarks
0 to 13, no tremors
13 to 21, max, 19 (2)
0 to 24, no tremors
0 to 22, no tremors
22 to 24, slight
0 to 22, no tremors
22 to 23, small pulsations (-5)
0 to 10, no tremors
10 to 12, pulsations (1), which
lead to tremors
J2 to 24, slow tremors (2)
Slight tremors at night
0 to 19, no tremors
19 to 24, tremors or pulsations
(1)
0 to 16, no tremors
16 to 24, slow tremors, max. 22 to
23, (2)
0 to 18, no tremors
18 to 24, slow tremors (2)
0 to 6, slow tremors (2)
6 to 7.30, no tremors
7.30 to 24, max. 19 (2)
0 to 2 (2)
2 to 4, no tremors
4 to 24, max. 17 to 24 (2)
0 to 3 die out
3 to 24, no tremors
0 to 24, no tremors
0 to 24, no tremors, but a trace
of tremors at 22
0 to 24, no tremors, but a trace
21 to 24
0 to 6, nc tremors
0 to 24 (increase up to 5)
0 to 3, die out
3 to 5, no tremors
5 to 24 (increase up to 3)
0 to 1, die out
1 to 6, no tremors
6 to 24, max. 18 to 20 (2)
0 to 4, die out
4 to 5, no tremors
5 to 24, max. 17 to 24 (3)
0 to 8, die out
9 to 24, slight, max. 20 to 21 (1)
0 to 24, no tremors
” ”
0 to 13, no tremors
13 to 24, slight
0 to 24, no tremors
No record
Dull, damp. At night S.W. breeze.
S.W. breeze, fine. At night heavy wind.|
Drizzle, calm.
Fog, calm.
Period 2°8m. to 5:6m.
Fine, calm.
Period 4:2m.
Fine, calm.
Fog, calm.
Dull, calm.
Fine, calm.
Period 28m. to 4-2m.; stop by open-
ing door at 6°33, but in 1} hour
recommence.
Dull, damp.
Calm, dull, cold.
Period 14m. to 1:2m.
Fog, calm.
Calm, sunshine, cloud.
Dull, sea breeze.
Bright sunshine.
Dull.
Period at first 4°2m.
Fine, frosty last night.
Period 1:4m. to 28m. Frosty at
night.
Frosty last night.
Cold, frosty, calm.
Slight pulsations in groups of 3 to 8 at
intervals of 30 minutes.
Fine, calm.
Fine, stormy, N.W. wind.
Dull, 8. wind.
Dull, S. wind.
Fine.
Removed felt lining from box.
a
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
207
TABLE II.—-continued.
S)
S
S
S
COBNAAGRAMAEE
0 to 24, max. 16 (1)
0 to 3, slight
3 to 21, no tremors .
21 to 24, slight
0 to 2, slight
3 to 24, no temors
0 to 24, no temors
0 to 14, no tremors
14 to 24, max. 19 and 20 (5)
10 0 to 1, die out
10 1 to 8, no tremors
11 No tremors
12 7 to 24, max. 22 (5)
13 0 to 4, die out
13 4 to 12, no tremors
13 12 to 21, slight
14 0 to 13, no tremors
14 13 to 23, max. 22 (5)
14 23 and 24, no tremors
15 0 to 24, no tremors
16 0 to 16, no tremors
16 16 to 21, slight and slow
16 21 to 24, no tremors
17 0 to 24, no tremors
18 0 to 3, no tremors
18 3 to 24, max. 18 to 23 (5)
19 0 to 1, die out
19 1 to 8, no tremors
19 23, slight
20 0 to 24, no tremors
21 0 to 24, no tremors
22 0 to 17, no tremors
22 17 to 21, slight, slow
22 21 to 24, no tremors
23 0 to 16, no tremors
23 16 to 22, slow max. 18-19 (2
or 3)
23 22 to 24, no tremors
24 0 to 17, no tremors
24 18 to 21, slow max. 18 to ly
25 No record except 20 to 24, when
tremors are 2 mm.
26 0 to 5, die out
26 5 to 14, no tremors
26 14 to 24, max. 19 (3)
27 0 to 4, die out
27 4 to 10, no tremors
27 10t 24 max. 17 to 19 (3)
Remarks
Stormy.
Fine, breezy.
After opening door.
Dull, 8. wind.
Rain, calm.
Dull, W. wind.
Dull, S.W. breeze.
Heavy dew at night.
Fine, calm.
Calm, dull.
Drizzle.
Calm.
Calm, fog.
Hoar frost in morning.
Calm, dull. From noon high wind.
High wind.
Calm, drizzle. th;
Rain, N. wind.
Decrease by opening door. Heavy dew
and frost.
Calm, fine.
High wind, rain.
Rain, 8. wind.
Dull, calm.
Calm, fog.
Calm, fog.
Record like 23rd.
Calm, dull.
Rain, breeze, high wind.
Fine, N.W. breeze.
Relationship of Tremors to the Hours of Day and Night.
A general inspection of the preceding table leads to the conclusion that
tremors have been more frequent and more intense during the night than
during the day, and that they are especially marked during the early morn-
ing. To render this relationship more clear, tables have been made
208 REPORT—1896.
in which tremors for successive days have been placed under columns
representing 24 hours, 12 hours being midnight. These tremors had
values assigned to them equal in millimetres to the range of motion
they exhibited on the photograms. By adding these columns up verti-
eally a value was obtained for the period considered for each hour of the
day and night. This value has been considered as proportional to the
intensity of motion exhibited at various hours. By simply adding up
the number of entries a set of numbers were obtained which may be
regarded as proportional to the tremor frequency.
These two sets of numbers obtained for the months of November and
December 1895, when plotted on squared paper, give the curves shown in
fig. 8.
From these curves we see that for the period considered tremors have
been least intense and least frequent between 3 p.m. and 7 P.m., but from
Fig. 8.—Tremors November and December 1895.
4
7O =! Set)
Hows0O 1234 5 6768 9 0 i1 12 1G HIS16 17 1879 20 7 2 23 24
PM. AM.
the latter hour there is a rapid increase in both these quantities. The
intensity falls off rapidly from about 6 or7 A.m., whilst the frequency
commences to diminish about five hours later.
From these observations it would seem that the cause of tremors may
possibiy be found in operations which grow in intensity during the night.
and which become gradually enfeebled during the day.
Tremors and Air Currents,
Tnasmuch as the atmosphere may be calm, and the air inside an
observatory may always be apparently quiescent, and yet an instrument
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 209
not necessarily a horizontal pendulum, but an ordinary pendulum, a
balance, and perhaps even a magnetometer, shows considerable motion
within its case, the question arises whether there be not air currents
existing within the cases which cover such instruments. With compara-
tively heavy horizontal pendulums in well ventilated cases in Japan
tremors were always small and of rare occurrence, but with light
pendulums in similar cases tremors of a pronounced character nearly
always occurred between midnight and about six in the morning. With
the light pendulum at Shide, beneath a fairly tight case, I found tremors,
whether the inside of this was lined with thick felt, and the supporting
pier covered with the same material, which kept the surroundings of the
instrument at a fairly uniform temperature, or whether such coverings
were removed. Covering those portions of the column which were inside
the case with cement, and painting the surface of the same, did not
destroy the intruders. Another experiment was to replace the large
doors of the case with fine gauze, thus giving the instrument considerable
ventilation ; but, as will be seen from the records (November 21-30), no
great improvement was effected. By means of a very fine column
of smoke from the spark at the end of a thin joss-stick, joints in the
covering cases were tested for draughts. The column of smoke was also
placed before a small hole usually closed by a cork, to see if there was any
tendency in the air to enter or come out from the case, but no indication
of the same was obtained.
One very marked observation was that a strong tremor storm would
suddenly cease, or be at least greatly altered in its intensity, by opening
the door of the case for one or two minutes.!
Although a sudden change of this last description has occurred with-
out opening the doors, we have in this observation an indication that
by some means or other, which do not seem to be effects due to differ-
ences in temperature in different parts of a case, air-currents are from
time to time established within a case, the mechanical working of which
can be more or less destroyed by simply opening the door of the case.
One cause of such currents may be due to the different rates at
which aqueous vapour is absorbed or given off at different points within
the covering, and if these are steady they may set up a steady set of long
period displacements in a light pendulum.
By introducing a tray of calcium chloride inside the case, violent
“movements have resulted, which only ceased after the desiccating agent
‘was removed.
_ These facts, coupled with the fact that tremors were apparently
greatly reduced by surrounding the boom with a trough or wind-guard on
- three of its sides, lead to the conclusion that air-currents are from time
to time generated within casings such as I have employed, which result
in movements which are with difficulty separable from those which are
attributed to motion of the supporting pier.
The fact that tremors occur when there is a slight fall in temperature
outside the case, whilst the fall inside the same would be comparatively
small, suggests the idea that at such times, although they have failed
detection, there may be streams of air passing through the joints of the
coverings. The unlikelihood of this is, however, referred to in the next
section.
' In some instances, however, the opening of the door seems to have brought
. # tremor storm into existence.
1896. | P
210 REPORT—1896,
Tremors in relation to Barometric Pressure, the Hygrometric State of the
Atmosphere, Temperature, Frost, Dew, Wind, and Rain.
From November 18, 1895, a self-recording barometer, thermometer, and
hygrometer of the Richard types were established at Shide. The two
latter instruments usually stood upon the case covering the horizontal
pendulum, but for one or two weeks they were placed inside the covering.
The tremors have been written, with their magnitudes, on the diagrams
showing changes in temperature. Although these changes, which are
indicated in degrees Fahrenheit, have been within a period of twelve or
twenty-four hours small, it must be remembered that the corresponding
changes which have sometimes taken place outside the building may have
been comparatively large. The following notes, in which T, B, and H
respectively mean temperature, barometer, and hygrometer, are based
upon an inspection of these records :—
1895.
Noy. 18-25 . . Tremors occur with falls of T, 55°-49°. B rising, 29°7-30°05 in., and
H slightly fluctuating, 40°5-40°7.
Noy. 25—Dec. 2. Slight tremors, with falling T, which sometimes occurs during the
day. B down to 29:4, and no tremors.
Dec. 2-9. . . T falls 56°-40°, and strong tremors of 10 mm. B rising. H steady,
Dec. 16 . . . Tat 48°, and tremors with falling T even during the day. B rising.
Dec. 16-23 . . T falis 48°-43°, and tremors. B rising.
Dec. 23-30 . . T falls to 43°, and tremors. B rising.
1896.
Jan. 6-13 . . T falls 50°-45°, but tremors are very slight. B very high.
Jan. 13-20 . . T falls 51°-45°, and heavy tremors of 10 mm.; but there are falls
50°-48° and no tremors. 8B 30:4. H steady.
Jan. 20-27 . . T 45° and fairly steady, with slight tremors, which, as usual, cease
when it rises.
Jan. 27-Feb. 3. T falls 52°-43°, and heavy tremors. So long as it remains at 43°
tremors are slight, but with the slightest fall, even to 42°, they
recommence.
Feb, 3-10 , . T falls very slightly during the early morning on the 4th and 7th,
and there are slight tremors. Whilst T is steady, even if it is
low, there are no tremors; also no tremors when rising. 5 high.
H fluctuates, but not at the time of the tremors.
Feb. 10-17 , . Slight tremors, with slight falls of T. B high. There are tremors
with three falls of H.
Feb. 17-24 . . Tremors with three falls of T, commencing at 48°. A rapid fall of
T on the 22nd was accompanied with heavy tremors. B high.
H shows decided fluctuations, but at the times of no tremors.
Feb, 24-Mar. 2. T falls from 45°-40°, and tremors. B high. H has fluctuations,
but these occur with or without tremors,
Mar. 2-9. . . Tremors with T at 48°, A large B wave, 28°7-30:0, but no tremors,
H fluctuating.
Mar. 9-16 . . T falls, 58°-53° and 53°-45°, and tremors. B high. H steady.
Mar. 16-23 . . T falls, 54°-52° and 54°-49°, and tremors. B moving steadily down
and up, 29-5 to 30:0. H shows three waves, but not with tremors.
Mar. 23-30 , . Six cases of tremors with slight falls of T, and the lower T the
greater the tremors. H very irregular. The tremors are most
when the air is dryest, B shows several moderately rapid
changes, and the tremors chiefly occur with the falls.
The conclusions which may be derived from these notes are :—
1. There does not appear to be any relationship between the indica-
tions of the hygrometer and tremors. When the door of the observing
room was often left open during the day, at such times the hygrometer
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 211
would indicate considerable changes, which are the times at which tremors
are least frequent.
2. Tremors have occurred when the barometer has been high, low,
rising or falling. These observations, however, do not throw any light
upon the connection which may exist between the appearance of tremors
and the state of the barometric gradient.
3. Tremors nearly always appear when the temperature is falling, and
therefore are frequent at night. When the temperature is steady or
rising, tremors have been but seldom observed.
The observation that tremors accompany a falling thermometer receives
strong confirmation that they have been markedly large on frosty nights,
and that these sometimes have continued whilst the morning sun has been
thawing the frozen surface of the ground. Such coincidences occurred
on January 20, 28, 29, 30, 31, February 22, 23, 24, 25, March 14 and 18.
The only exceptions to this rule appear on November 25, January 14
and 15, on which occasions the fall in temperature was from 50° to 49°
and 48°, which, it may be remarked, are only small changes.
From January 20 to 22 tremors were pronounced, whilst the tem-
perature was steady at about 45°. Although there was this approximately
constant temperature in the room, and a temperature yet more constant
within the case, on the night of the 20th there was a hard frost, and
possibly frost on the other nights. For each of these days it may therefore
be assumed that between the day and night, outside the building, the
change in temperature was great. The large differences in temperature
between the outside and inside of the building no doubt resulted in the
establishment of air-currents through a broken pane of glass and other
air passages, but, as these do not appear to have disturbed the inside
temperature, such air-currents must have been small. Rather, therefore,
than looking to such currents as being the cause of the movements of the
pendulum, it seems more reasonable to suppose them due to expansions
and contractions which were taking place in the ground outside.
Tremors have also occurred on nights which have been accompanied
with heavy dew, as, for example, on March 9. This may possibly mean
that when large quantities of aqueous vapour are escaping from the
ground, as evidenced by copious condensation on its chilled surface, con-
tractions or expansions may be taking place in the same.
My note-book also shows, as it has repeatedly shown in previous
years, that tremors have been marked or entirely absent with heavy winds
from different directions and at the time of calms.
A long drought followed by heavy rain has been followed by slight
tremors.
The conclusions that are arrived at respecting the cause of tremors
are yet wanting in certitude.
It is probable that naturally produced elastic tremors with a high
frequency have an existence in localities remote from earthquake centres,
but this has not yet been demonstrated. The only records bearing upon
such an investigation are a few taken at Shide. These are referred to
when describing the Perry Tromometer.
The long-continued movements which are so often observed with light
horizontal pendulums are probably due to the same causes which produce
movements in ordinary pendulums, delicate balances, and, as the Rev. W.
Sidgreaves tells us, in suspended magnets beneath azr-tight covers at Kew
and Stonyhurst,
P2
1212 REPORT—1896.
As the result of many observations, I venture to suggest that the
causes of the so-called ‘earth tremors’ are twofold :—
i. Air-currents within the cases. Such currents are produced by a
cold current of air impinging upon the outside of covers like glass or thin
metal, but they are not likely to be produced if the covering is made of
_ thick wood lined with thick felt. They may be produced by an inflow or
' outflow of air through ill-fitting joints, but what is more likely, as experi-
ment has shown, by a difference in the rate at which moisture is con-
densed, absorbed, or given off at different points within a cover.
2. By movements in the superficial soil outside the building in which
the instrument is installed. These movements take place in soil whilst it is
‘freezing or thawing, and after a heavy shower on dry ground. They may
also be produced at the time when there are rapid but small changes in
barometric pressure over an area the different portions of which vary in
their elasticity and resilience.
Although these suggestions partially destroy the value of many records
of ‘earth’ tremors, they nevertheless leave us confronted with phenomena
which it is the interest of all who have to work with instruments having
‘delicate suspensions to understand more clearly, especially, perhaps, the
reason that their frequency is so marked at particular hours and seasons.
Diurnal Wave and Wandering of the Pendulum.
On May 24, 1896, a drum moving a bromide film at a rate of about
‘75 mm. in twenty-four hours was placed beneath pendulum T, and records
‘were taken until June 15. The sensibility of the instrument was such
that 1 mm. deflection indicated a tilt of 0''-56.
The records yield the following results :—
Difference
Tarthest | Farthest | Range of °
Date East / West catia ee Remarks
| 1 ah al Falla ur |
May 24 Sieh 18 1:12 5° | Rain last night
yy 628 5 | Wave slight. Fine, cloudy, N. wind
» 26 3 <3 = Dull, 8. wind
See | 24 1:12 is Fine, E. wind
eos 8 2t 392 6 Fine, N.W. wind
i 29 3 Glen Fair
12 21 1:12
+> 30 8 24 2°80 3 Dull, 8. W. wind
=) vey 8 22 4:48 | Fine, E. wind
June 1 ley 22 3°36 8 Fine
ee D 3 iat
7 | 19-24 1:68
(23 6 | 18-24 2:24 Gash Fine
ee al teG27 dl flies 24 1:68 Cree-| Fine
ee ei Oe 22 2°24 aay ee Dull, W. wind
ea 2 6_7 22 5 | Wave slight. Fine rain, W. wind
det § 24 el en » Rain
Er 8 4; | ,. practically straight. Fine
a 19 Aah ES + » Dull, S. wind
flO Bh = = », Drizzle
” 1 l 3 ” ” ” ”
an le 29 ge Fine
yh ks} 22 i felled Dull
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 213
The differences in temperature which are in degrees Fahrenheit are
those recorded in the instrument room between about 8 A.M. and 2 p.m.
Fig. 9 shows tracings from the photograms of diurnal waves observed
at Shide. The range of motion has varied between 1’’ and 5". Usually
the Western motion ceased about 10 a.m., from which hour the pendulum
moved eastwards until about 7 or 8 p.m. The motion from 10 a.m. or noon
is therefore similar to that which would accompany a decrease in the
steepness of the open bare down on the eastern side of the pendulum, or
a rising of the tree and grass covered valley on its western side. The fact
that the movements were usually pronounced on bright fine days, and but
Fie. 9.—Diurnal Wave at Shide.
Motiow Waestvards —»
feeble or absent when it was dull or wet. suggests the idea that the ob-
served movements may have been the result of the removal by evaporation
of different loads from the two sides of the station. The amplitude of the
daily wave is far from being proportional to the daily range of tempera-
ture observed near to the instrument.
From May 24 to June 7 the pendulum gradually moved westwards,
and during this time the maximum temperature gradually rese from
60° to 70°, that is to say, the direction of motion has been the same as
that which takes place whilst the temperature is rising during the day.
The creeping of the pendulum between the above two dates is in such @ |
214. REPORT—1896.
direction that it might be attributed to the removal of a larger load from
the hill side of the instrument than from the valley side.
Between June 6 and 7 the maximum temperature fell to 65°, from
which it rose to 68° on the 11th. During this time, however, the pendu- -
lum crept eastwards, or in the opposite direction to that in which, under
similar conditions, it had been previously moving. From June 11 to 13
the temperature rose from 65° to 72°, whilst the pendulum remained
stationary.
What these observations show for a period of only twenty-one days is
true for longer periods, as observed in Japan, and generally agrees with
the observations made at Strassburg, described by the late Dr. E. von
Rebeur-Paschwitz. At this latter place, for a period of nineteen months,
the character of the curve of wandering is similar to that for a curve of
temperature ; but when we observe, as this author points out, that the
minimum of temperature is reached from 14 to 2 months before a mini-
mum in the curve, showing the displacement in the pendulum, whilst its
maximum is reached about four months later, the relationship between
the two becomes obscured. This and other results obtained at, Strass-
burg are shown in fig. 10, reduced from the observations of von Rebeur.
Fig. 10.
td :
YASIANDS MAMISISIASONDISF MA
1892 7893 IB DF
Tn this diagram the temperature curve taken in the cellar where the pen-
dulum was installed is shown in dots. H P is the horizontal pendulum
curve, La curve from level observations, and N a Nadir curve. An in-
crease in reading indicates a movement towards the north. Although,
these three sets of observations were made with instruments near to each
other, the difference of the Nadir curve from the other two is very strik-
ing. The amounts of change are also noticeable, the horizontal pendulum
having been tilted towards the south through 87", and if we take it from
the commencement of the observations in April, 1892, this is increased
to. 143”,
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 215
III. Changes in the Vertical observed in Tokio, September 19, 1894, to
March 1, 1896.
Pendulum L.—On September 19, 1894, pendulum L, which has a
boom about 5 feet in length, was installed beneath a wooden case on the
concrete floor of a cellar in the N.W. corner of the College of Engineering
at the Imperial University of Japan, in Tokio. When set up it had a
period of about twenty-eight seconds, and 1 mm. deflection at the end of
the boom which is in the meridian corresponds to an angular tilt of about
0-5. Thedoubt expressed regarding the value of the readingsof this instru-
ment arises from the fact that the notes relating to its calibration were lost
by fire. When the readings increase in value the pendulum is swinging
towards the west, which means that the ground may have been raised
upon its eastern side. The diurnal motions of this instrument were small,
not exceeding 1 or 2mm. For several days readings taken about 9 A.M.
have been identical, after which there would be noted a displacement of
lor more mm. For the first nine months these apparently sudden: dis-
placements were towards the east. This was followed by three months
of westerly motion, and then three months more of displacements towards
the east. For the remaining three months, although the general direction
of motion is westwards, it has been somewhat erratic in character.
The readings given in the following table are in millimetres, and
the date for any reading is the day on which there was a change from the
reading which precedes it.
Date Deflection Date Deflection
1894, September . . 100 to101 || 1895, August 1 . : 79 \
October 1 . . 95 - Tea ‘ 80°
- Oia s aa 96 - VRS Se ‘ 81
4 18 , ; 95 oe 2 Oe ; 82
+ 24. ; 96 | September 8 . 81
5 Ske ¢ 95 % 10g fs 80
November 24 | 102 | - oe ys 79
cp 27 é 100 ~ 25m". 75
re 30 r 97 i October 14 . = 73
December 3 : 95 | ee dee al 74
a 20 : 97 | wy MOG F 70
1895, January 20 . : 89 | ree ee oe 66
February 18 : 8§ <A Pai F 64
March 10. s 86 i} a eG A 63
en ee 85 i November 1. 60
* April 38 : : 84 | is 24 , 59
By 80 ‘ . 3 | December 8 é 64
May6é6. ‘ a4 76 | be 16 : 63
aes ie 3 a} 75 | 3 24 ‘ 64
June 1] ; { 68 | 1896, January 10 . z 6L
oa . ct 69 . fe OD : 60
July 5 Z 3 70 % OR ‘ cai
renege CU Z ; 73 February 9 x 67
» 14 : =f 74 . 13 : 69
» 18 E ; 76 s 16 ‘ 70
» 27 - j 78 x 23 ‘ 68
” 29 . 66
' |
|
A fact of some importance connected with these displacements is that
very many of them took place at the time of earthquakes which were
sensible, and most of these small jumps were in the general direction in
216 ' REPORT—1896.
which the pendulum was suffering displacement. My late colleague,
Mr. C. D. West, who from time to time has sent me these readings which
are taken by one of the college servants, tells me that the displacement of
January 26-27, 1896, cannot be accounted for, but the readings generally
follow the seasonal changes in temperature—a conclusion which is at least
true for 1895. Fig. 11.
With the assumed values for the readings the approximate changes in
the vertical have been as follows :—
"
September, 1894, to June J1, 1895 - - 160 East side sinking
June 11, 1895, to August 23, 1895 ‘ yO “§ rising
August 23, 1895, to November 24, 1895 a LO 3 sinking
November 24, 1895, to January 27,1396 . 60 “A rising
January 27, 1896, to February 29, 1896 ae 2D ai sinking
Total change during whole period : Be ara) S sinking
This long-continued creeping in one direction is common to observa-
tions made by Plantamour and others who have made like investigations.
Fig. 11.—Change in Level observed in Tokio.
ek
iS
:
s
:
.
pa
SON DSYSFMAMSSASONDSFMA
IEIF TEGS 1896
IV. Eaperiments with a Horizontal Pendulum at the Oxford University
Observatory, 1896, May 5. Drawn up by Professor H. H. Turner.
1. During the morning Professor Milne set up his horizontal pendulum,
which is similar to the one at Shide, on the slate slab in the Students”
Observatory. The level of the transit circle was set up on the same slab
near the H.P., and watched throughout by Captain E. H. Hills, R.R.
This slab rested on a hollow foundation of bricks about 10 inches in
height, which in turn rested upon a bed of concrete a few inches in thick-
ness, and common to the whole building. Beneath the concrete there is.
a natural bed of gravel a few inches in thickness. Because the horizontak
pendulum, which pointed from E. to W., stood on the slab near to its edge,
it was to be expected that a load on the south side at a distance of,
say, 3 feet would produce a greater effect than the same load would pro-
duce when moyed to the north side, where it would be distant 7 or & |
feet.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 217
« The value of one division of the level may be taken=1''0.
The changes of level N. and 8. were observed.
2. The crowd collected at 12.15-12.20: 76 men in all. Four com-
panies of 18 each (with commanders=19) were formed by Mr. G. C.
Bourne. These were halted with front rank 90 feet from observatory.
Pos. I.)
Then marched up, two rear companies taken over fence and brought up
inside : front rank 5 feet from N. side of building=10 feet from slab.
(Pos. IT.)
Then retired to 90 feet. (Pos. ITI.)
Then marched up again ‘closer’ ; the two front companies came close
up to building ; front rank thus about 5 feet from slab : other ranks say
7, 9, and 11 feet from slab. (Pos. IV.)
Then away again. (Pos. V.)
Then marched up in open order, viz.: Each man two arm’s lengths
away : say at 5 feet apart. Front rank still close to hut, ¢.e. 5 feet from
slab; 2nd rank, 10 feet ; 3rd, 15 feet ; 4th, 20, &c., to Sth, at 40 feet
from slab. (Pos. VI.)
Then away again. (Pos. VI.)
Then in more open order, say 10 feet apart :
Front rank 10 feet away : : : .
2nd =,,_=-20 45 : ? , -} (Pos. VIII.)
ord +. ;, 30 x : : : :
8th ,, 80 a ; : : :
Then away. (Pos. IX.)
Then on the south side: In close order, front rank 5 feet away, next.
6} say, de. (Pos. X.)
Then away=Pos. XI.
_ A few experiments were made inside the observatory with loads of one
or three men standing on the board floor within 3 or 7 feet of the
instruments.
The results obtained were as follows :—
Result of Loads outside the Observatory.
% 5 é es Taking the difference between |:
Roos Level | 22Y reading and the readings
Time Posi- 2a g a Order | Side | Horizontal |(Mean before anil etter xiest
tion + N.orS.| Pendulum | of 2
Sale ends) 7
£3138 Effect Ty
Balse
FT, | FY. " HP. | Level Uy
12.20 0. —|— _— — _ 15°20 | a
12.25 0. —|— — _ 49°5 15°60
12.27 to 12.28 1 90 | 102 close N. 49°5 16°00 Mg
12.29 to 12.31] II. | 10 | 22 aa N. 50°5 15°70 | +1:25=+042) +025 | +0°34
12.32 to 12.34 | III. | 90 | 102 - N. 49°0 15°90 | |
12,35 to 12.37| IV. | 5 | 22 a N. 50°0 15°10 | +1:50=+0:50| +073 | +0°62
12.38 to 12.40} V. | 90 | 102 N. 480 15°75
12.41 to 12.43 | VIL 5 | 40 open N. 48:0 15°35 0:00=0'00 | +032 | +0716
afterwards | |
12.44 to 12.46 | VIT.} 90 | 102 Eo N. 47-0 15°60
12.47 to 12.48 | VIII.| 10 | 80! veryopen| N. 47-0 15°15 | +050=017 | 0:00 | +0°08
12.49 to 12.50 | IX. | 90 | 102 s | N.&S. 46°0 14°50 }
afterwards
| 45°25
12.54 to 12.55] X. 5 | 15 close s. 44°25 15°65 | —1:13=—0°38 —0°65 | —0°52
12.56 to 12.57 | XI. | 90 | 102 + rs 45°5 15°50 |
= a
\ » For lead approaching on N. side readings of H.P. increase.—Level decrease,
» 3 mts 5 as decrease,—Level increase,
J One division of the horizontal pendulum=0”, 33,
218 REPORT—1896.
3. Experiments inside the hut, within 3 feet S. side and 7 feet
N. side of the instrument.
Effect of 240 lb. Zero 59.
On North side, Reading 60°5. Effect 15=0'-49
» South ,, - 54:5. > 4:5=1':48
» North. ,, o 60°5.
Effect of 570 lb. Zero 59.
On South side, Reading 50. Effect 9=2'":97
» North ,, 3 66. (=203
4. Experiment with load outside the hut within 5 feet on 8S. side
and 5 feet on N. side.
Effect of 570 lb. Zero 56.
On South side, Reading 5
» North ,, ee 5
» 15=0":49
”
5. Effect 1=0''-33
5. Oe 0
This last reading is unsatisfactory. Five minutes later it became 55:5,
but if the north side load showed an effect it ought to have exceeded 56.
In the afternoon a few experiments were made in the main building of
the Observatory. The horizontal pendulum was placed on the top of a
massive pier whilst two boys and a man (almost 350 Ib.) stationed them-
selves in the basement of the building, first on the east side and then on
the west side of the same. The difference in readings given by the two
positions was approximately 0-16.
V. The Perry Tromometer. By Professor Joun Perry, F.#.S.
What is interesting about the apparatus is this, that any periodic
motion of the supports is faithfully indicated by the pointer if its frequency
is several times the natural frequency of vibration when its supports are
at rest.
One body supported on a pivot with three Ayrton-Perry springs will
record the vertical and two horizontal motions.
A body P G Q is free to move about an axis P at right angles to the
paper. G is its centre of gravity. An Ayrton-Perry spring is applied
HiGwete:
vertically at Q from the point A. Weight of body is W. Vertical force
at P is P, force at Qis Q. Let P and A get a vertical displacement ~,
downward, and let Q be displaced « downward. Let Q=Q,+¢(a—2,)
where c represents the constant of the spring. Then forming the equations
of motion we find, neglecting friction
etn esen,+nrx, . ” ‘ (1)
—_. -= =
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 219
Where Mitre we is called n? so that » divided by 27 is the OATERGY
of the natural vibration of Q.
re @ 55 called e.
The distance PG is called a, and GQ is 6, M is the mass of the body
and & its radius of gyration about G.
Assuming that friction will destroy the natural vibrations at Q, but
neglecting the easily expressed friction term of (1), the forced vibration is
easy to find. If an observer moves with P and A, he observes, not 2,
but w2—2,. Let y=x—a,. Then if x,=A sin qt,
2
yo —h S * / Lf __ sin gt.
y ; are is
Now if we arrange that n is, say, less than one-fifth of ¢ [that is, that
the natural frequency of Q is less than one-fifth of the fr equency of A and P]
we may say that the motion y which is observed is a faithful imitation of
any periodic motion of P and A; or, letting a+ 6 or PQ be called 7 and
k?+a?=k,?, the square of the radius of gyration about P, y=— ke Oe
A magnifying pointer on the spring enables this tiotion to be
observed.
Tt is obvious that the motion may be in a horizontal plane instead
of a vertical.
Note. By Professor Joun MILne.
A form of Perry Tromometer as experimented with at Shide consists of
a horizontal beam free to oscillate upon a knife edge. This beam is
heavily loaded by two unequal masses which to obtain a balance are
placed at different distances from the knife edge. Attached to one of
these masses and running vertically upwards is a light A.P. spring, the
top end of which is held by a fixed support. To show the movements of
the spring which coils or uncoils with vertical vibratory motion, a very
light pointer, or a small mirror from which a beam of light is reflected, is”
attached to the same. One photogram representing a period of twenty- ~
four hours has been obtained by this instrument at Shide. This shows
that during nearly the whole of the day the mirror is in motion, and the
fact that this motion is due to passing carts, carriages at a distance of
several hundred yards, and trains at a distance of about a mile speedily
led to the conclusion that an instrument so extremely sensitive to rapid
elastic motion could not be used at Shide. One interesting observation »
was that, at the time of the funeral of Prince Henry of Battenberg, when —
minute guns were being fired on ship-board at a distance of about five .
miles, each sound wave was accompanied by the sudden displacement of
the spot of light through a distance of about one foot. It did not séem
that vibrations came from their origin through the ground to disturb the
instrument, but as sound waves through the air, which shook the burlding
and the foundation on which the instrument rested. )
If an instrument of this description could be installed at a locality ties
we can assure ourselves that its movements could only be due to natural *
220 REPORT—1896.
causes, it seems likely that we should add to our records of the movements
of the earth’s crust forms of vibration which horizontal pendulums and
seismographs are incapable of recording.
VI. Earthquake Frequency. (Extract from a letter written by
Dr. C. G. Knorr.)
_ In my paper on Earthquake Frequency (‘ Trans. Seis. Soc. Japan,’ vol. ix.
1884), in which, probably for the first time, a sound mathematical treat-
ment of periodicity was insisted upon, various possible causes of periodi-
city in earthquake frequency were considered. Next to the solar annual
and diurnal periods, the most important are the lunar monthly, fortnightly,
and daily periods. From lack of completeness of information at that time,
it was impossible to search for these. But the great eight years’ list of
8,331 Japanese earthquakes, prepared recently by Professor Milne, seemed
eminently suitable for harmonic treatment. Other necessary work has
prevented me getting the investigation carried out so quickly as I had
wished, but enough has been done to show the probable results in certain
directions.
The idea is that the tidal stresses due to the moon influence the perio-
dicity. The lunar day gives a periodic tidal stress of comparatively short
period ; the anomalistic month (from apogee to apogee) and the nodical
month (from ascending node to ascending node), give periodic tidal
stresses of long period.
Tabulating the earthquakes according to the number of days each has
happened after apogee, or after ascending node, we get two statistical
tables of monthly means, one nearly 100 months. The anomalistic month
is longer than the nodical month by almost exactly one-third of a day—
in the hundred months, therefore, one will have gained upon the other by
thirty days, or fully one month. The curves obtained, when created by
harmonic analysis, give monthly, fortnightly, and weekly periods ; but
the fortnightly is more marked in the nodical curve than in the anoma-
listic.
In discussing the daily lunar period, we must take account of the dis-
tricts in which the earthquakes occur, for only in this way can we compare
their times of occurrence with the time of meridian passage, or the time
of high water. In the case of the Tokio and Yokohama district, there is
evidence of a half daily period ; but the investigation is still far from
complete.
VII. Instruments used in Italy. By Dr. C. Davison.
In the following pages a description is given of a few of the principal
instruments used in Italy for the registration of pulsations proceeding
from more or less distant origins.
Many of the instruments erected in that country are long vertical
perdulums, the movements of which are magnified and registered in
different ways. The length is made as great as circumstances will allow,
so that for rapid vibrations the bob may be practically a steady point, and
the bob is made as heavy as possible, so as to lessen the friction intro-
duced by the mechanical registration. Those who have used these pendu-
lums claim that they possess the following advantages over the horizonta}
pendulum and other instruments designed for photographic registration.
1. They are much less expensive to work ; the cost of the paper on™
ON SEISMOLOGICAL. INVESTIGATION. 221
which the records are made being only about a franc or a franc and a half
a month.
2. Any person can superintend and adjust them easily.
3. They are not subject to the displacement of the zero-line.
4. Owing to the great velocity which can be given to the paper, the
epoch of the different phases of the movement can be determined with
great accuracy.
5. They allow all the minute details of the movement to be studied.
It is obvious that these, especially the two last, are great advantages.
On the other hand, the long pendulums are subject to several objections
as compared with the horizontal and bifilar pendulums.
1. Owing to their great length (Professor Riccd’s seismometrograph
at Catania is 26 metres long), they are difficult to install, and indeed
require a building almost specially constructed for the purpose.
2. They are much less delicate than the horizontal and bifilar
pendulums.
3. The latter are also adapted for other purposes—e.g., investigating
the bending of the ground by barometric and tidal loading—and this will
facilitate their adoption at astronomical observatories, where, from the
ease with which the exact time can be ascertained, it is most desirable
that they should be established.
The instruments I propose to describe are: (1) Professor G. Vicen-
tini’s microseismograph ; (2) Dr. G. Agamennone’s seismometrograph,
(3) Dr. A. Cancani’s seismometrograph, and (4) Professor G. Grablovitz’s
geodynamic levels. It will be seen that the first of these is more or less
free from the above-named objections.
Professor G. Vicentini’s Microseismograph.—An account of this instru-
ment and the results which have so far been obtained with it is given in
the following papers :
1. G. Vicentini : Osservazioni e proposte sullo studio dei movimenti microsismici:
‘ Atti della R. Accad. dei Fisiocritici’ (Siena), vol. v. 1894.
2. G. Vicentini: Osservazioni sismiche (two papers): bid.
3. G. Vicentini: Movimenti sismici registrati dal microsismografo nella prima
meta del luglio 1894: Zbid.
4. M. Cinelli: Sulle registrazioni del microsismografo Vicentini avute a Siena
del 15 luglio al 31 ottobre 1894: Tbid.
G. Vicentini: Microsismografo a registrazione continua: Cenno sui movimenti
sismici dei giorni 14 e 15 aprile 1895: ‘ Bull. della Soc. Veneto-Trentina di
Scienze Naturali’ (Padova), vol. vi. 1895, pp. 5-12.
6. G. Vicentini: Microsismografo a registrazione continua: ‘Boll. della Soc.
Sismol. Ital.,’ vol. i. 1895, pp. 66-72.
7. G. Vicentini: Intorno ad alcuni fatti risultanti da osservazioni microsismiche :
“Atti e Mem. della R. Accad di Scienze, &c., in Padova,’ vol. xii. 1896,
pp. 89-97.
8. G. Vicentini and G. Pacher : Considerazioni sugli apparecchi sismici registratori
e modificazione del microsismografo a due componenti: ‘ Atti del R. Ist.
Veneto di Scienze,’ &c., vol. vii. 1896, pp. 385-399.
9. G. Vicentini: Fenomeni sismici osservati a Padova dal febbraio al settembre
1895 col microsismografo a due componenti: ‘ Atti della Soc. Veneto-
Trentina di Scienze Naturali’ (Padova), vol. iii. 1896, pp. 3-63.
5.
Some further details with regard to the construction of the instrument
are taken from two letters written by Professor Vicentini to Professor
Milne.
Professor Vicentini was led to design this instrument owing, he says,
to the difficulty of obtaining good photographic registration, the incon-
222 REPORT—1896.
venience of working in the dark, and of using an apparatus which does
not give its record until the sensitive paper is developed, and to the great
expense of the photographic paper, the chemical reagents, and the source
of light.
Fis first experiments were made with an ordinary tromometer, about
1:50 metre long, and with a bob 50 kg. in weight. The support of the
pendulum was fixed in a wall of the University buildings of Siena, over-
looking a much frequented road, on the third floor, and about 20 metres
above the ground. A short straw, terminating in a fine steel wire, was
attached to the bottom of the bob, and the movements of the point of the
wire were observed by means of a totally-reflecting prism and
microscope provided with a micrometer. A tromometer of
this kind does not give at any instant the true state of vibra-
tion of the ground, its movements being affected by previous
disturbances. But if the pendulum be obliged to perform a
very little work, such as the movement of the light vertical
lever described below (fig. 13), the bob is rendered much more
insensible to the rapid vibrations of the point of suspension.
Substituting this lever for the straw referred to above, the
movements of the lower end were observed with the micro-
scope. The superiority of this arrangement is very evident.
When a carriage, for instance, approaches from a distance,
the point of the lever at first vibrates parallel to the wall,
‘then ina plane more and more inclined to it, until, when the
carriage is just opposite the building, the vibrations are per-
formed normally to the wall and are synchronous with the
¢ trampling of the horses. When the vibration of the ground
ceases, the movement of the lever ceases contemporaneously.
Thus, by the application of this vertical lever, the bob of the
pendulum is transformed almost into a steady mass, and its
steadiness during movements of the ground is further pro-
moted by the addition of the two horizontal levers which give
the component movements in two directions at right angles
2 to one another. ;
In the complete microseismograph erected in the University
of Siena, the bob of the pendulum weighs 50 kg., and is sup-
@ ported by three chains, united at their upper ends in a brass
cap, to which is attached an iron wire about 2 mm. in diameter.
€ This is fastened to a screw in a strong iron bracket driven into
the wall. The length of the pendulum is about 1:50 metre.
By means of the screw the bob can be raised or lowered. Immediately
below the latter are fixed two iron bars to support it, and prevent damage
to the registering apparatus in case the suspending wire or chains should
break. The bob is also surrounded by an iron ring carrying three screws,
whose office is to prevent excessive displacements of the pendulum. When
the pendulum is connected with the recording levers it performs complete
oscillations in 2°4 seconds.
Fig. 13 shows the vertical amplifying lever referred to above. It
consists of a thin tube of aluminium A, soldered at its upper end to a ring
B of the same metal. To its lower end is fixed a sewing-needle, DE,
whose cylindrical part has a diameter of 0°6mm. The ring B is traversed
at its highest point by a second needle, FG, exactly similar to the first.
Its point, G, penetrating a short way inside the ring, rests in a small
Fig. 13.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 223
glass cup carried by a support fixed to the wall. The position of the cup
can be adjusted by screws, both horizontally and vertically. The base of
the bob is slightly conical, and in its centre a hole is made, covered by a
sheet of brass, in which a small hole with bevelled edges is made which
clasps the needle, FG, at the point H. By means of the adjusting screws
fitted to the glass cup, the points G and E of the needles are placed as
nearly as possible in a vertical line below the centre of gravity of the bob.
So long as the bob remains steady the point H is the fulcrum of the lever,
and the movements of the wall are magnified at the end E in the ratio
Fig. 14,
EH to GH. The total weight of this lever is 2-2 grammes ; its length is
144 mm., and the ratio EH to GH is equal to 16. The friction at both
the points G and H is extremely small.
The movements of the lower end of the vertical lever are magnified by
two light horizontal levers (fig. 14), which give the components of its
motion in directions at right angles to one another. It should be mentioned
that this figure is not drawn exactly to scale, and illustrates the slightly
law arrangement in a new microseismograph recently erected at
‘adua.
One of the levers, K, is rectilinear, and the other, K’, bent at right
angles, In the Siena instrument they are made of thin aluminium plate,
terminating, at the ends L and L’, in two very thin burnished steel
needles, parallel to one another, and separated by a distance equal to the
. 224 REPORT—1896.
thickness of the needle, DE, of the vertical lever. The vertical axis, M,
consists of a fine steel needle, the lower point of which rests in the
conical cavity of a small glass cup fixed to the plate, P. The axis, M’, is
exactly similar, but the lower end rests in a glass cup, whose height above
the plate, P, can be adjusted by a screw. The levers are provided with
<ounterpoises, N, N’, N’. The needle, DE, of the vertical lever passes
through the slits, L, L’, and thus any displacement of the end, E, is
decomposed by the horizontal levers into two components at right angles
to one another.
At the free ends of the aluminium arms of the levers, fibres of glass are
fixed at right angles to them with melted wax. In the apparatus after-
wards erected at Padua (to which fig. 14 refers), these glass fibres are
replaced by broad but thin strips of glass, the terminal parts being drawn
out as fibres.
In the horizontal levers the length of the long arm is about five times
that of the short arm ; the movements of the wall supporting the apparatus
are therefore magnified about eighty times.
The smoked paper on which the records are made is a continuous
strip, and is driven by a drum which revolves by clockwork. The drum
is placed so that the pens rest on its highest horizontal generator, and the
fibres are made of such thickness and length that, with the slight friction
to be overcome, they do not bend. To diminish their friction they are
fused at the tip ; the smooth surface of a very small sphere of glass thus
slides on the smoked paper. To equalise the friction of the two pens, that
of the pen K is first regulated by raising or lowering the support on
which the plate P rests by means of the levelling screws with which it is
provided. The contact of the other pen is then adjusted by moving the
glass cup on which the axis M’ rests. The clock which drives the drum
may be of any kind, but, in order to measure the time, a chronograph is
connected with a good pendulum clock which closes an electric circuit,
and thus causes a stroke to be made on the paper every minute. At each
hour a double mark is made.
The strip of paper is unrolled at the rate of about 2 mm. a minute.
The pens leave on the paper a fine but very clear trace. When heavy
carts pass by the University buildings the lines are simply widened, the
lampblack being completely carried away. In the case of earthquake
movements, however, the separate oscillations are clearly perceptible,
though the more rapid ones are only to be seen with the aid of a lens.
Fig. 15 reproduces the diagram obtained at Siena of the Japanese earth-
quake of March 22, 1894. The toothed line in the middle shows the
strokes which mark consecutive minutes. This figure may be compared
with the record of the same earthquake obtained by means of the horizontal
pendulum at Nicolaiew.!
Beside the microseismograph above described, Professor Vicentini has
recently erected a new instrument at Padua, designed, not for obtaining
the times of the different phases of a disturbance, but for determining
with greater exactness the direction in which the movement takes place.
The mass of the new pendulum is 100 kg., and its length 3:36 metres. It
contains a vertical amplifying lever, like the first instrument, but for the
horizontal levers a small pantagraph was substituted at Dr. Pacher’s
suggestion. This is made of aluminium tubes, weighs about eight deci-
' See Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1894, p. 156.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 225
\
grammes, and magnifies five times the displacements of the lower end of
the vertical lever. The rate of the smoked
paper is increased to about 15 mm. a
minute, a velocity which enables the pen-
dular oscillations to be distinctly traced.
Dr. G. Agamennone’s Seismometro-
graph.—tThe latest form of this instrument
is described in a paper, ‘Sopra un nuovo
tipo di sismometrografo’ (‘ Boll. Soc. Sismol.
Ttal.,’ vol. i. 1895, pp. 160-168). It was in-
stalled at Rome about two years ago in
the tower of the Collegio Romano. Owing
to the difficulty of reproducing the illustra-
tion of this pendulum, several of the details
of construction are necessarily omitted in
the following account :—
The bob of the pendulum consists of six
discs of lead, weighing altogether nearly
200 kg. This heavy mass is suspended by
an iron rod 7 or 8 mm. in diameter and 16
metres in length, but to make the pendulum
more sensitive the upper end of the rod is
prolonged as a steel wire 2 or 3 mm. in
diameter, and 50 or 60 cm. long. At the
lower end the rod terminates in a smooth
eylinder of steel of about the same thick-
ness, passing through slits made in the
short arms of two horizontal levers. These
levers, which turn with very little friction,
are mounted on a strong frame provided
with screws for securing the verticality of
the axes about which the levers rotate. The
longer arms of the levers are about 35 cm.
in length, being about twelve times as long
as the short arms. They are triangular in
form, and are made of very thin brass
tubes. The levers are bent, so that while
the short arms are at right angles to one
another, pens at the ends of the long arms
record the components of the movement on
the same strip of moving paper. The pens
are supplied with ink of different colours
to avoid confusion of the records if the
pens should happen to cross one another,
In order to prevent the pens leaving the
strip of paper, the movements of the pen-
dulum are limited by four screws. A
strong box is placed immediately below the
heavy mass to save the instrument from
further damage in case the steel wire
should break.
The strip of paper on which the pens
record the movements of the pendulum is driven by a cylinder about
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REPORT—1896.
8 cm. in diameter, and rotating about a horizontal axis. The part of the
Fig. 16.
NE- SW
|
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paper on which the record is being made lies on a
rectangular platform immediately above the driving
cylinder. Two pens fixed to the platform record the
time every half-hour on the edges of the strip of
paper. As a rule the cylinder rotates once in an
hour, so that the paper is driven at the rate of about
30 cm. an hour. But when a shock occurs the
velocity of the cylinder is immediately increased, so
that for three revolutions it revolves once a minute,
thus unrolling the paper at the rate of about 5 cm. a
minute.
The increased velocity is produced by means of a
roller, started by an electrical seismoscope. This
consists in the longer arms of the levers being con-
tinued backwards to a length about fifteen times as
great as that of the short arms. Beside, and very
near the further ends, are two small vertical rods,
which turn at their lower ends about a horizontal
axis. A very slight movement of the levers closes
an electric circuit, and at the same instant sets in
motion the roller which gives the increased velocity,
moves a collar which at once withdraws the vertical
rods, so that they do not impede the oscillations of
the multiplying levers, and also starts a clock pre-
viously pointing to xii. The latter clock thus gives
the time at which the increased velocity began.
The increased velocity continues, as already men-
tioned, for three minutes. At the end of this time
the two vertical rods return to their original position.
But if the pendulum is still in motion, electrical
contact is immediately remade, the rods are again
withdrawn, and the increased velocity re-established,
so that with instantaneous interruptions this lasts
until the movement is so slight that it ceases to start
the seismoscope.
Fig. 16 reproduces a diagram furnished by this
seismometrograph on the occasion of the Caspian Sea
earthquake of July 8, 1895.
Dr. A. Cancani’s Seismometrograph.—The chief
difference in principle between this instrument and
the preceding consists in the omission of the arrange-
ments for increasing the velocity at the time of a
disturbance. Seismometrographs of this pattern have
been in use for some time in the the geodynamic
observatory of Rocca di Papa near Rome. Two
apparatus of larger dimensions have recently been
constructed, one for Rocca di Papa and the other
for the observatory at Catania. These are described
in a paper, ‘Nuovo modello di sismometrografo a
registrazione continua’ (‘ Boll. Soc. Sismol. Ital.,’
vol. ii. 1896, pp. 62-65).
In the Rocca:di Papa seismometrograph, the pendulum is 15 metres
long and 200 kg. in mass. The weight is suspended by a steel wire
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 227
45 mm. in diameter. Near its lower end, the wire passes through slits
in the short arms of two horizontal levers. The long arms of the levers
are made of two very light brass tubes which, soldered to a small metal
plate, form a very elongated isosceles triangle in a horizontal plane. The
short arms are inclined at 45° to the long arms in opposite directions, so
that, while the former are at right angles to one another, the latter are
parallel. The weight of each lever is 25 grammes ; the length of the long
arm is 40 cm., and its ratio to that of the short arm is at present 10 to
1; but this ratio can, if desired, be increased to 20 tol. At the free
end of the long arm is a small ‘V-shaped frame, which carries a light pen
furnished with a counterpoise, similar to those used in the meteorological
instruments constructed by MM. Richard of Paris. The levers are
arranged so that they are perfectly free throughout their whole range,
passing one over the other without striking.
The instrument at Catania differs only in details. The pendulum is
26 metres long and 300 kg. in mass, and the horizontal levers are made
of thin aluminium plate.
In both apparatus, the strip of paper on which the registration is
made is 14 cm. in breath, and is driven by a brass cylinder 60 cm. in
circumference, which rotates once an hour. <A strip of paper, which costs
one franc, lasts for about seven days, and can be used at least four times,
twice on each side, so that the daily cost is less than four centimes.
Paper is also wrapped round the driving cylinder to prevent the loss of
any part of the diagram, in case the moving strip should come to an end
unexpectedly.
For ten seconds at the beginning of every hour, the traces are inter-
rupted, the levers being raised from the paper by means of a system of
levers connected electrically with a chronometer. The experience of five
years with another instrument shows that this is the best of the methods
which have been devised for marking the time. The subsequent move-
ment of the levers does not seem to be in the least affected by their
removal, and the missing part of the diagram is so small that it can be
reconstructed with ease.
The diagrams corresponding to distant earthquakes which are obtained
with this seismometrograph are too large to be conveniently reproduced.
The velocity of the paper being so great (60 cm. an hour),! the diagrams
are exceedingly clear, showing the individual undulations so distinctly
that all the elements of the motion and the epochs of the different phases
can be determined with great precision.
Professor G. Grablovitz’s Geodynamic Levels.—For many of the details
given below I am indebted to the kindness of Professor Grablovitz. The
levels are installed in the R. Osservatorio Geodinamico of Casamicciola, in
the island of Ischia, one being directed north and south, and the other
east and west.
The account of these levels is contained in the following papers :—
1. ‘Livelli geodinamici a registrazione continua:’ ‘Boll. Soc. Sismol. Ital.,’
vol. i. 1895, pp. 39-43.
2. ‘Nuovi metodi per indagini geodinamiche:’ Ibid. vol. ii. 1896, pp. 41-61.
‘ The reasons which have led Dr. Cancani to regard this as the most suitable
velocity for the study of pulsations from a distant earthquake are given in a valuable
paper, ‘Sugli strumenti pid adatti allo studio delle grandi ondulazioni provenienti
da centri sismici lontani’ (Rend. delle R. Accad. dei Lincei, vol. iii. 1894,
pp. 551-555).
Q2
998 REPORT—1896.
Each level is 2°50 metres long, and consists of two vessels A, B (fig. 17)
30 cm. in diameter and 25 cm. high, communicating with one another by
means of a tube C, 15 cm. in diameter. The level is filled with water,
and, to prevent evaporation, floats, D, E, consisting of zine dishes 28 cm.
in diameter with a rim 3 cm. high, are placed in the vessels at each
end, and these again are surrounded with a stratum of oil. In the centre
of the float D there rests a weight F of 100 grammes, connected by a wire
with the end of the short arm of the amplifying lever G, the fulcrum of
the lever being fixed to a plate H resting on top of the vessel A. The
arms of the levers are 3 mm. and 15 em. in length, so that the movements
of the float are magnified fifty times. The longer arms of the levers were
at first furnished with pens filled with ink, but for these were afterwards
substituted points writing on smoked paper, which give much clearer
diagrams. The paper is wrapped round a cylinder K, rotating on a
vertical axis once in 53 minutes, and drives the paper under the pen at
the rate of 55 mm. a minute. The levers of the two levels are arranged
with their pens on the same vertical line, and about 6 em. from one another.
In order that the records may not be superposed after a complete
revolution is made, a cylinder L, 4 cm. in diameter, is lowered from a
drum, driven by another clock, into.the vessel B. As it becomes immersed
in the water the registering float D is slowly and gradually raised, and the
pen in consequence traces a continuous spiral on the paper. As the
Fie. 17; ®
te
cylinder rotates once in 53 minutes the diagram for each component
consists of twenty-seven lines, the distance between consecutive lines
being about a millimetre. To determine the time of any displacement of
the float, a trace is impressed when the paper is put on and taken off, as
well as at some intermediate time about equidistant from the ends of the
24 hours. Or, if desired, an automatic hourly trace could be made by
electric connection with a chronometer.
The lines of the spiral are parallel and equidistant. Except when the
instrument requires sensitising, the registra-
Fie. 18. tion proceeds without jumps, showing that it
is sensible’ to very small changes of level.
Et Professor Grablovitz informs me that he
has not been able to determine the smallest
tilt which the levels can detect, but a displace-
ment of the writing-point of half a milli-
metre, corresponding to a tilt of the ground of
2” can generally be read with certainty.
The levels do not seem to be affected by
the tremors of passing carts, &c., but they are
sensible to certain seismic movements. They
will not register slow movements taking place
in a horizontal direction, for in such cases the
water receives no displacement relatively to
the tubes. Nor do they seem capable of
recording the long-period pulsations of very distant earthquakes. For
instance, on June 15 of the present year the horizontal pendulums at
2st a4™
=
=
=
a)
a
~
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 229
Casamicciola revealed oscillations of 10”, due probably to the earthquake
which caused the great sea-waves in Japan ; but, at the same time, the
levels were not affected, though the corresponding traces on their records
would have been 2:5 mm. in length.
The most marked diagram so far obtained is that which was due to the
severe earthquake in Carniola on April 14, 1895 (see fig. 18, in which the
scale is half that of the original diagram). The curve in this case was,
however, obtained before the employment of smoked paper, so that it is
not so clear as that of a similar earthquake at the present time
would be.
APPENDIX.
Notes on SpeciaL Eartuquakes. Ly Professor J. MILnNe.
About 11.30 p.m. on August 26, 1896, a diagram was obtained which
may represent an earthquake that occurred in Iceland on that date. It
shows three maxima. A much more remarkable record, however, is one
commencing as a series of minute tremors at about 8.23 a.m. on August 31.
Fie. 19.—Japan Earthquake ; Carisbrooke Castle Record.
It is shown on the photogram from Shide, and also from that at Caris-
brooke Castle (fig. 19), and the times of marked phases of motion in G.M.T.
are as follows :—
| Carisbrooke 5
ate Castle Shide
a STS
eG Se |f HM, S.
1. Exceedingly minute tremors, August 30 . 20 23 6 | Too faint to be visible.
2. First decided tremors : : 4 . 20 31 46 | 20 31 42
83. Heavy motion commences. : : . | 20 57 6 | 20 56 49
4. First maximum (about) . . : e021 4526 | 2 od> Oo
beeliemaximom jf) 5... . + | 21 14 26 | Not calculated.
6. Heavy motion . : , , : Ses ON AG oe *
ls s 43 - 5 ; ; F . | 21 23 6 | 21 24 43
Be. 9 ” : 3 : : : . | 21 27 46 | Not calculated.
9. End of tremors . : , : 3 . | 23 16 20 | 22 59 36
Duration of disturbance . : ; . | 2 63 20 —
Duration of preliminary tremors . .| 0 34 0 —
REPORT—1896.
bo
(vy)
oO
The reason that phase No. 1 is not shown at Shide—and it can only be
seen in the Carisbrooke record with the help of a strong magnifying-glass
—is apparently due to the fact that the Shide lamp gives a light which is
smaller and therefore feebler than that at Carisbrooke. The photograms
from the latter station have therefore a definition sharper than those from
Shide. Carisbrooke records are also freer from ‘tremors’ than those at Shide.
Phases 2 and 3 respectively differ by 4 and 17 seconds ; but inasmuch as
the Carisbrooke time was regulated by comparisons with an ordinary watch,
it is remarkable that these well-defined periods are so closely coincident.
The difference in duration at the two stations is also probably due to
difference in definition of the photograms.
I do not know where this shock originated, but because the daily
papers tell us that there was a severe earthquake in Japan on August 31,
and because the preliminary tremors have outraced the principal motion
by 34 minutes—which indicates an origin at a distance of about 6,000
miles—the inference is that the above records refer to an exceedingly
violent adjustment of crumpling strata, probably in Japan. If this
inference is correct, then in that country, in its own time, a violent earth-
quake took place on August 31 at a few minutes past 5 p.m.
Electrolysis and LElectro-Chemistry.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. W. N. Saaw (Chairman), Rev. T. C. Firzpatrick,
W. C. D. WHetHam (Secretary).
THE parts of the original scheme for a report on the present state of
electrolysis and electro-chemistry which remain to be dealt with are as
follows :—
III. (d) Electro-chemical thermo-dynamics.
(e) Electric endosmose.
(f) The theory of ionic migration and ionic velocities.
(7) Relations between numerical values of the electrical and
other physical properties of electrolytes.
IV. A discussion of experimental methods and apparatus.
V. Electro-chemical phenomena not usually included as ‘ electrolytic.’
VI. Some miscellaneous electrolytic phenomena. ~
The Committee divided the work of Sections III. and IY. among its
members. Electro-chemical thermo-dynamics and electric endosmose were
assigned to Mr. Shaw, the theory of migration and ionic velocities to Mr.
Whetham, and the discussion of apparatus and methods to Mr. Fitzpatrick.
Mr. Whetham has completed the account of the theory of migration,
&ec., and Mr. Fitzpatrick has dealt with the methods of measuring electrical
resistance of electrolytes. With regard to the section upon the numerical
relations of electrical conductivity with other properties of electrolytes
the Committee are of opinion that very valuable results would be obtained
by carrying out measurements of the several properties upon identical
solutions with special precautions to protect the experiments against the
effects of small impurities. They have learnt that Mr. E. H. Griffiths
intends, in the course of the coming year, to make a series of observations
on the freezing-points of solutions, and it is thought that the opportunity
of making electrical measurements upon the same solutions should not be
allowed to pass. Mr. Whetham will undertake the electrical portion of
the work, and it is proposed to apply for a grant of 50/. towards the cost
of the special apparatus necessary for it.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 931
It is also proposed to print forthwith, and circulate among those most
likely to be interested, revised proofs of the portions which have been
completed, but not to include them in the published Report for this year.
It is intended to publish them in the Report for 1897, with the remainder
of the work that the Committee are able to put before the Association.
The Committee therefore ask for reappointment, with the addition of
the name of Mr. E. H. Griffiths, and with a grant of 50/,
Comparison and Reduction of Mgiiaes Observations.—Report of the
Conmmittee, consisting of Professor W. G. Adams (Chawman), Dr.
C. CREE (Secretary), Lord KeELvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. CurystaL, Professor A. SCHUSTER, Captain H. W.
CreAK, The AsTROoNOMER Roya, Mr. WILLIAM ELLIS, and Pro-
fessor A. W. Rtcxer. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
CoNTENTS.
Nen-cyclic Effects at Kew Observatory during the selected ‘Quiet’ Days of
the Siw Years, 1890-1895. By C. Cures, Sc.D.
SECTIONS PAGE
1. Introductory Remarks: ‘ Non-cyclic’ Effect . ; ; é F 5) pul
2. WNon-cyclic Effects during Siw Years, 1890-1895. ; : ; . 231
3. Relation of Non-cyclie Effects to Annual Changes . ; : : . 233
4-6. Mean Annual Values from ‘ Quiet’ and Unrestricted Days . : . 234
7-8. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Ranges . : : é . 235
9. Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Ine ae : : , . 236
10. Llimination of Non-cyclic 5 be : : : : . 236
11-12. Associated Phenomena . : ; : : : : . 237
APPENDIX.—Remarks by W. ELLIS, PF R. 8. : : : : 5 : . 238
Introductory Remarks: ‘ Non-cyclic’ Effect.
§1. An analysis of the results from the Kew declination and_hori-
zontal force magnetographs during the selected ‘quiet’ days of the five
years, 1890 to 1894, was submitted last year to the Committee and
adopted as its report for 1895. The corresponding inclination and
vertical force results had also been pretty fully worked up, but I held
them over pending an inquiry into the sufficiency of the temperature
correction. Some considerable time may elapse before these results can
be utilised to full advantage. It has thus seemed inexpedient to defer
dealing with one set of phenomena whose general character is unaffected
by any uncertainty as to the temperature correction, and whose existence
seems to render desirable a reconsideration of the whole system of ‘quiet’
day observations. The phenomena in question bear on what I termed
last year the non-cyclic effect.
Supposing H, and H,, to denote mean values of the horizontal force
at the first and second midnights of a selected series of days, then
H,,—Hp was defined as the non-cyclic effect or variation of horizontal
force ; and a similar definition applies in the case of any other element.
Non-cyclic Effects during Six Years, 1890-1895.
§ 2. It is propasad to give here complete data as to the non- cyclic
effects in the selected ‘quiet’ days at Kew during the last six years. To
some extent this incorporates results given last year, but it seemed
262 REPORT—1896.
desirable to show side by side the results for all the elements throughout
the same series of years.
There are five selected ‘ quiet’ days a month, and so a total of 360 in
the seventy-two months of the six years considered. In November
and December 1890, however, the vertical force magnetograph was out
of action, which reduces by ten the number of days available in the case
of the vertical force and inclination.
In the following table, I., the six Januarys, six Februarys, &e., of the
six years have been combined together, so as to show the values of the
cyclic effects at different seasons of the year. The figures under the
heading ‘Individual Months’ show in how many of the six Januarys, &c.,
the effect was an increase of the element in question, was nil, or a decrease.
At the foot of the table appear the mean non-cyclic effects per ‘ quiet’
day throughout the six years, and the totals of the several columns under
the headings ‘ Individual Months.’
Taste I.—WNon-cyclic Effect from Six Years, 1890-1895 (Mean per
‘Quiet’ Day).
DECLINATION HORIZONTAL FORCE VERTICAL FORCE INCLINATION
Month | rm ry 7 ln ial
| Individual| (Effect) | Individual | (Effect) | Individual | ;, Individual
Effect Months : x 10° } Months x 10° Months Effect Months
| |
+0 -— a Oh | +0— | +0-—
January . | +0°63 | 6 +50 5 1 —52 6 | —0"47 | 1 5
February. | + -33| 4 2 +57 i al +5 3 eal eae eal 5
March | + *18) 3 3 +28 bial +13 22" 2 — ‘17 I wily 4
April SA 8 Le +20 4.14 1 —22 2 4 — 20 3 [es (et
| May . «|?+ °07 3 3 +38 5 1 —12 3 3 — ‘27 2 4
June. - 17 3 3 +22 2b: —28 1 5 | — "22 te
| July . — 23 | 3 3 +27 4.2 —13 1 5 — +22 2 4
| August — 30/ 11 4 +37 5 1 — 8 3 3 — 27 by
September | + 12 3 3 +38 6 +30 Diet ast — 18 5
October + °03 2 Lie +50 6 + 5 3 3 — "28 1 5
November | + °18| 3 1 2 +53 6 —12 2 3 — 40 5
December. | — ‘10| 1 2 3 +15 5 1 — 6 2 3 — 12 2 3
Annual }
mean . | +0/072 - +36°4 — =8'3 = | —0/-263/ -
| |
Totals of |
months. — 35 6 31 — 60 7 5 — 25 3 42 — 9 8 53
In the case of the declination + signifies a deflection to the west. The true secular variation at
present is towards the east. The components of force are measured in C.G.8. units.
Table II. gives the mean results for the several quarters of the year as
deduced from Table I., while Table III. gives the annual means for the
individual years.
TasiE II.—Mean Non-cyclic Effect per ‘ Quiet’ Day for each Quarter
of the Year.
_— Declination ec Force) (Vertical Force) x 10° Inclination
Quarters] 1 AD INE 2 RE Bei Pe 4) ee
+3 | —4 |-0-33| —-23| —-g2' —-28
Effect. .| +038) +-01 —-14) +04) +45) +27/ +34 | +39 | cate
\
ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 299
Taste III.—WMean Non-cyclic Effect per ‘ Quiet’ Day for each Year.
| (Horizontal Force) | (Vertical Force)
6
Year Declination x 10 % 108 Inclination
‘
1890 —0'36 +23 +15} ~0'10!
1891 + °29 +23 —12 — 18
1892 + ‘14 +53 — 20 | — ‘41
1893 + °26 +40 — 26 | — 35
1894 + ‘15 +33 +12 — 18
1895s — 05 +44 —15 | — °33
Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Annual Changes.
§ 3. To see the full significance of these data regard must be had to
the magnitudes of the annual changes of the several elements. Table IV.
gives these for the period considered, along with the number of average
‘quiet ’ days, which, according to Table I., would have sufficed to produce
changes numerically equal to the annual changes observed.
Tasie IV.
\Declinatt Horizontal Vertical F eblivalk
— } eciination Force ertica orce nelination
Mean annual change, 1890-95. | —6”8 21x10° | —19x10°% —1'9
Number of ‘quiet’ days pro- | | 952 6 23 72
ducing equal change . As =
The figures relating to the horizontal force and inclination are so
significant that comment in their case seems unnecessary,
As regards the declination and vertical force in individual months,
notably January, the non-cyclic effects have been as large and consistent
as with the other two elements, but in general this has been far from the
case. As Table III. shows, in two years out of the six both declination
and vertical force have exhibited a mean non-cyclic effect opposite in sign
to that supplied by the six years as a whole.
In considering such a phenomenon one ought of course to remember
that it is contrary to probability that any sixty arbitrarily selected days—
the number on which an annual mean is based—will produce a diurnal
Variation truly cyclic after allowance is made for the normal annual
change ; and thus part of the irregularity exhibited by Table III. may
reasonably be attributed to pure chance. When, however, one looks at the
uniformity of sign in the non-cyclic effects in the horizontal force and
inclination exhibited in Table I., and remembers that the monthly means
in that table are based on only thirty days, one must, I think, conclude
that the variability of sign in the declination * and vertical force? results,
at least in Table III., has probably a true physical basis.
1 In 1890 the means of vertical force and inclination are based on the results of
only ten months, in one of which (March) an abnormally large positive non-cyclic
effect was recorded in vertical force.
* In the case of declination, and it alone, the non-cyclic effect is opposite in sign
to the secular variation.
° In 1890 a positive non-cyclic effect appeared in only one month (January); in
1891 a negative effect in only one month (November).
* In both 1890 and 1894, however, a slight majority of individual months
exhibited a xegative non-cyclic effect as usual.
234 REPORT—1896.
Mean Annual Values from ‘ Quiet’ and Unrestricted Days.
§ 4. Table IV. is merely a plain statement of facts ; but if too exclu-
sively considered it might unquestionably convey an exaggerated idea of
the defects attaching to the ordinary use made of ‘quiet’ days at the pre-
sent time. At Kew Observatory they are employed to get out the mean
diurnal inequality for summer and winter and the whole year, as well as
the mean annual values of the several elements.
As regards the mean annual value of an element, the quantity
‘mean value from “ quiet” days less mean value from all days’ may be
irregularly positive and negative, or like the non-cyclic effect in the
element it may be normally of one sign. It would certainly be desirable
to know which of the alternatives is true. The meaning to be attached
to the secular variation deduced from two consecutive years or from a
short series of years would be much more uncertain if the former
alternative represented the facts than if the latter did.
In the Greenwich ‘ Magnetical and Meteorological Observations’ tables
are published showing the diurnal variations both in ‘ quiet’ and unre-
stricted days, but not apparently direct information as to the difference
between the absolute values of means deduced from the ‘ quiet’ and from
unrestricted days. ;
At St. Petersburg, and then at Pawlowsk, it has, however, long been
customary for Dr. Wild to select a series of normal ‘quiet’ days whose
results are dealt with alongside of those from unrestricted days. The
principle of selection guiding the choice at Pawlowsk and Greenwich has
probably been slightly different, but there is at least a strong presumption
that the differences between the annual means from unrestricted days and
from the Astronomer Royal’s ‘ quiet’ days will prove to be of the same
character as the corresponding differences observed in the case of Wild’s.
‘quiet’ days.
§ 5. The annual means for all the elements at St. Petersburg, from
both ‘quiet’ and unrestricted days, for some twelve to sixteen years
preceding 1885 are given in a paper by Dr. Miiller in the ‘ Repertorium
fir Meteorologie,’ Bd. XII. No. 8. In the case of every element, according
to Miiller’s tables 20 to 23, the sign of the quantity ‘ “ quiet ” day mean
less unrestricted day mean’ was uniformly, or practically uniformly, of
one sign ; and the secular variations deduced from the ‘quiet’ and un-
restricted day results, even for consecutive years, showed a remarkably
good agreement. The following summary of the mean results deducible
from Miiller’s tables is extracted from a recent paper by Leyst ! :—
Wild's Normal Days—all Days (Annual Means).
Declination west . PhO e2o:
Inclination . { . — 0723.
Vertical component - —10°x8C.G.S. units.
Horizontal component . +107§x 35 Af
Tables of the monthly and yearly means for Wild’s ‘quiet’ days and
for unrestricted days at Pawlowsk continue to be given in the ‘ Ann. des.
Phys. Central-Observatoriums.’ The results from the last two volumes
are as follows :—
1 Rep, fiir Met, BA. XVII. St. Petersburg, 1894, No. 1, p. 109.
rt
ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 235:
7
Wild’s Normal Days—all Days (Annual Means).
Year | Declination Horizontal Force Vertical Force
1893 +0'3 +1075 x 40 —10-* x 20
1894 +0"6 +1078 x 60 —107*x 10
There would thus appear to be no essential change in the phenomena
since the period to which Miiller’s paper refers.
§ 6. Wild’s ‘quiet’ days numbered only twenty-five in 1893 and
thirty-three! in 1894, as against the Astronomer Royal’s sixty a year ;.
thus the results from the latter are likely to exhibit even less irregularity
in their departures from the results of unrestricted days than the former.
Mere surmises such as the preceding are vastly inferior to the actual
numerical facts. Before deciding on the labour necessary to obtain the:
facts one has first, however, to estimate their probable value. One factor
in this consideration which the practical man can fairly urge is that
accuracy in absolute value to anything like 1 x 10~°, in the case even of
the horizontal force, is an ideal we can hardly claim to have reached in
this country.
Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Ranges.
§ 7. An idea of the amount of uncertainty which the non-cyclic effect.
may introduce into the mean diurnal inequalities for summer, winter, and
the whole year may be derived from Table V. It gives the ranges of the:
elements, uncorrected for non-cyclic effect, as published annually in the:
Kew ‘ Report,’ along with particulars as to the ratios borne by the mean.
non-cyclic effects to the corresponding ranges.
TaBLE V.—Ranges of Elements from Annual Kew Reports.
| =
Declination re we Force) goon Inclination
7” Win- Sum- 7 Win- | Sum-| ~ Win- | Sum-| ,, Win- | Sum-
Yeat ter mer Year ter mer | Year ter mer Year ter | mer |.
/ / / i / i
1890 6°9 51 87 21 14 30 _— _ — — — _
1891 8-2 6°0 102 29 20 40 14 9 20 17 11 2:3
1892 9°6 6°9 12:3 33 26 44 17 Il 25 2°0 15 27
1893 101 74 13:0 37 29 46 18 10 25 2:2 7) 2:8
1894 93 70 11°9 36 26 48 17 11 22 2:2 15 28
1895 85 56 121 33 20 46 15 10 23 2-0 12 2:8
Means . a 8°8 6:3 114 32 23 42 16 10 23 2-0 14) 27
(Non-cyclic B
Effect) +
(Uncorrected ;
range) -| +°008 | +°033 | —-006 | +°12 | +°19 | +:07 | —-05 | —-08 | —-04 | —"13 | —:21 | —-08
——
In the case of the vertical force and inclination the year 1890 has been
omitted, as the results for it are not altogether complete.
? The number in most of the earlier years dealt with by Dr. Miiller seems, how-.
ever, to have been considerably greater.
236 REPORT—1896.
%
§ 8. Table V. shows how much more important relatively the non-
cyclic effect is in the winter than in the summer half-year.
In the winter half-year we see that the non-cyclic effect in both
horizontal force and inclination is equal to about one-fifth of the range.
This does not of course imply that there is an uncertainty of 20 per cent.
in the range, because, whatever be the nature of the correction applied to
eliminate the non-cyclic effect, it is hardly likely to introduce more than
a small fraction of the observed difference between 0 and twenty-four
hours into the algebraic difference of the maximum and minimum read-
ings. The interval of time between these readings is in most cases nearer
six hours than twelve. The fact, however, remains that in some indi-
vidual winters the uncertainty as to the range must be very appreciable.
When we come to individual winter months, notably January, when the
observed range is least, the uncertainty is apt to be considerable.
The preceding remarks refer exclusively to the uncertainties which
the existence of the non-cyclic effect introduces into diurnal ranges
deduced from ‘quiet’ days. Previous reports of the Committee! have
dealt with differences between the ranges deduced from unrestricted and
from ‘quiet’ days. It seems to me, however, that such comparisons are
open to criticism so long as the proper treatment of the non-cyclic effect
remains uncertain.
Relation of Non-cyclic Effects to Diurnal Inequalities,
§ 9. In the yearly and half-yearly results the most critical point is the
nature of the diurnal inequality in the late night and early morning
hours. The observed variation is then small, especially in winter, so that
a disturbing element of no great absolute magnitude might completely
alter the character of the phenomena. This will appear at once on refer-
ence to the curves of declination and horizontal force in last year’s
report, pp. 212 and 220. The curves on p. 220 are certainly suggestive of
the presence of some abnormal influence during the midnight | hours ; at
the same time this is not more true of them fhe of curves of the sainig
type for Greenwich which Sir G. B. Airy ® based on data derived from all
days but those of considerable disturbance.
Elimination of Non-cyclic Effect.
§ 10. If diurnal inequalities are to be got out at all from ‘quiet days’ in
a form suitable for harmonic analysis, they must be made cyclic, and there
is certainly no simpler way of doing this than that adopted last year, viz.,
treating the observed data as if the non-cyclic effect proceeded uniformly
throughout the twenty-four hours. This method of treatment doesnot
prejudice the facts. Supposing the non-cyclic effect to proceed irregularly
throughout the twenty-four hours, then it may most conveniently be ana-
lysed into terms, one being a linear function of the time, the others periodic
functions whose periods are twenty-four hours or submultiples thereof.
The linear term is eliminated by the method adopted last year. The
cyclic terms of course remain, and are incorporated with the other cyclic
terms of like period which go to make up the diurnal inequality on ‘ quiet’
1 B.A. Report, 1886, p. 71. See also paper by Messrs. Robson and Smith,
Phil. Mag., August 1890, p. 142.
2 Phil. Trans. for 1863 and for 1885.
OO EE
ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 237
days. It would, however, be impossible to separate the two sets of cyclic
terms by any mathematical device, without an addition of physical facts
or a supply of theories in their place. One way of obtaining additional
facts would be to compare for a series of years the constant coefficients in
the harmonic analysis of the diurnal inequalities from ‘quiet’ and un-
restricted days. The accidental features introduced by the arbitrary
nature of the choice of ‘quiet’ days might, however, prove troublesome.
The term in the non-cyclic effect treated as a linear function of the
time may in its turn be composed of a series of terms, some possibly fluc-
tuating regularly with the season of the year, others possibly of very long
period ; its magnitude, at least in individual months, may depend in large
measure on the accidental preference of one set of ‘ quiet’ days to another.
Associated Phenomena.
§ 11. It was pointed out last year (/.c., p. 213) that the elimination of
the non-cyclic effect through a correction consisting of a linear function
of the time was determined solely by considerations of convenience and
mathematical simplicity. It was carefully explained (J.c., §$ 5, 6) that
General Sabine and Dr. Lloyd had observed phenomena in magnetic
storms so exactly the converse of those presented by the non-cyclic effect
on ‘quiet’ days as to suggest that the two classes of phenomena were inter-
dependent ; and the conclusion was drawn that if this interdependence
were true the non-cyclic effect might be expected in reality to progress
irregularly throughout the twenty-four hours.
These conclusions may now, perhaps, be regarded as more than sur-
mises. In the ‘ Met. Zeitschrift’ for September 1895 Dr. van Bemmelen
has described phenomena he terms Wachstérwng, which appear to be of the
same general character as, if not identical with, what has been termed
here the non-cyclic effect.
As the title he selected implies, Dr. van Bemmelen associates the
phenomena very intimately with ‘magnetic storms. His investigations
have included data from a variety of stations ; and whilst his theoretical
conclusions may, perhaps, undergo modification in the future, his work
certainly indicates that an increase of knowledge as to this outstanding
phenomenon on ‘ quiet’ days is likely to be of service in the general theory
of terrestrial magnetism.
§ 12. In the meantime it might be safest not to assume that the non-
cyclic element is an effect, and a preceding magnetic storm a cause. The
fact that the horizontal force, for instance, tends to rise abnormally fast
during a ‘quiet’ day may, of course, merely represent a recovery from an
abnormal loss occasioned by a magnetic storm ; but it is at least con-
ceivable that the abnormal fall during a magnetic storm may be partly a
consequence of abnormal increase preceding it, or the two phenomena
may be effects of a common cause.
Tf ‘quiet’ days, with no appreciable disturbance, were the rule, one
might possibly determine with ease the relationships of any given ‘quiet’
day to a preceding or succeeding disturbed day ; but appreciable move-
ments will usually be found both before and after a ‘quiet’ day at no great
interval of time. If the causes operating in large and small disturbances
are the same, then it is not improbable & priori that a small disturbance
within a day or two of a ‘quiet’ day may have more to do with it than a
large disturbance a week before or after. It should also be remembered
238 REPORT—1896.
that General Sabine found that whilst, as a rule, large disturbances lowered
the horizontal and raised the vertical force, the opposite results ensued in
a very considerable number of instances.
In proposing any additions to the existing ‘ quiet’ day system, or any
substitute, it must be remembered that one of the main objects aimed at
by its introduction was a substantial saving in the labour required to
obtain comparable results from different observatories. The tabulation of
the whole mass of curves was felt in most cases too serious a burden.
‘Considerable light might be thrown on the question of the uniformity or
variableness of the non-cyclic element throughout the day by a very
‘simple addition, viz., curve measurements at the noons preceding and suc-
ceeding each ‘quiet’ day. In the course of this paper other suggestions
have been made, but they could be put into effect only at observatories
prepared to tabulate all the curves.
In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge the assistance I have derived
‘from discussing a variety of the points involved with Mr. T. W. Baker,
‘Chief Assistant at the Kew Observatory.
APPENDIX.
Remarks by W. Eis, Esq., 7.2.8.
Having had the opportunity of reading Dr. Chree’s report on non-
-cyclic magnetic effects, I would beg to be allowed to offer the following
remarks :—
Thad read with great interest Dr. Chree’s ‘ Comparison and Reduc-
tion of Magnetic Observations,’ forming the report of the Magnetic Com-
mittee for the year 1895, in which he discusses the Kew magnetic results
on ‘quiet’ days for the years 1890 to 1894. I had lately commenced to
work up in a similar way the corresponding Greenwich results in order
to make comparisons between Greenwich and Kew, when treated for the
same years in a similar manner. Interesting questions are involved,
since it cannot be said to be at present known how far the magnetic
changes at two places not remotely distant one from the other should be
expected to be similar, and if not similar to what extent there may be
difference, and also whether any part of such difference might be instru-
mental. It is not satisfactory to compare results for one period with
results for another place for a different period, because at any one place
the phenomena may vary considerably at different times. But my work
is not sufficiently advanced to enable me to put the results at present into
‘shape ; still I may perhaps give some information bearing on points now
discussed by Dr. Chree. In Table I. he gives the mean non-cyclic effect
for ‘quiet’ days for different magnetic elements for each month of the year,
deduced from the Kew observations of the six years 1890 to 1895. My
numbers for Greenwich are for the five years 1890 to 1894. At Kew the
non-cyclic change in declination is positive in the first five, and in the
ninth, tenth, and eleventh months of the year, and negative in the
remaining months. At Greenwich it is positive in the first five months
and in the eleventh month, and negative in the other months. At both
places the largest positive value is in January, Kew = + 0/63, Green-
wich = + 0'-46; the largest negative value is in August, Kew = — 030,
—_—
ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 239
Greenwich = — 0'-42. Mean for year at Kew = +0/:072, at Greenwich
= +0'007. In horizontal force the non-cyclie effect at Kew is positive
in all months, and similarly at Greenwich. The greatest values at Kew
are (effect x 10° in C.G.S. units), in January, February, October, and
November, +50, +57, +50, and +53 respectively ; and similarly at
Greenwich, the values being +62, +53, +73, and +57 respectively.
Mean for year at Kew = +36, at Greenwich = +40. In vertical
force there is considerable difference, both in magnitude and sign, between
the non-cyclic effect in different months at the two places. The mean for
year at Kew = —8, and at Greenwich = —18. In this comparison it
is to be remembered that the Kew results depend on the observations of
six years, and the Greenwich results only on those of five years.
As regards now the mean values in separate years (Table III.); of
the five years 1890 to 1894 the non-cyclic change in declination is in the
same direction in four of the five years at both places ; in horizontal force
in the same direction in all years, and in vertical force in three years.
The actual numbers are :—
Non-cy clic change | 1890 | 1891 | 1892 | 1893 | 1894
In declination
At Kew . : . 2 2 . | —0'36 | +029 | +014 | +026 | +015
At Greenwich 2 0628 | +008: | —0'-20°| 4015 | F0"24
In horizontal force
At Kew . - : : ; é +23 +23 +53 +40 +33
At Greenwich +18 +37 +68 +44 +33
In vertical force
At Kew . z . : : : | +15 —12 — 20 —26 +12
At Greenwich —12 — 8 —39 —24 —4
In vertical force there is a tendency to a uniformly greater negative
value at Greenwich than at Kew. Considering, however, the values at
each station separately, the greatest negative values occur in the same
two years, 1892 and 1893, at both places.
One question that I had set myself to discuss was how far the abso-
lute magnetic values, as, for instance, the mean monthly values, differ, as
determined from the five ‘ quiet’ days in each month, and as determined
from all days (excepting those of excessive magnetic disturbance). In the
Greenwich ‘ Observations’ there are given in Tables I., III., and VII. of
the magnetic section mean daily values of declination, horizontal force, and
vertical force respectively throughout the year (excepting days of exces-
sive disturbance). The means of these values for different months are
given in Table XI. Extracting from the different tables the values for
the adopted ‘quiet’ days, and taking the mean in each month, the variation
of these means from the corresponding means of Table XI. gives in each
case the deviation of the ‘quiet’ days mean from that for all days. Since
the mean of the five selected days falls always near the middle of the
month, the comparison, for a first inquiry, sufficiently eliminates the
secular variation, considering it uniform, the only possible supposition.
The excess of the ‘quiet’ day monthly mean above the all day or
24.0 REPORT—1 896.
unrestricted monthly mean is, in each month of the year, for each
element, as follows (average of five years 1890 to 1894) :—
Greenwich | Jan. Feb, | Mar. Apr. May | June | July } Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. |Dec.
le |
PORE In declination
aiuinte | —0"04 | +012 | +0"24 | —0"10 | +012 | +010 | 000 | +010 | —0’06 | —0"08 | +0/-24)0"00
Fs esa In horizontal force
value | | +35 | +42 | +24 | +37 | +381 | +20 |4+22|] +5 | +27[ +55] +51 [+57
all days In vertical force
value .
| +31 | —26 | —10 | —13 | —i1 | +10 | -li | a5 %, i pie ii
Mean yearly excess of ‘quiet’ day value in declination = + 0/05
es -4 a in horizontal force = + 34
“8 oe is in vertical force = — 8
The corresponding separate yearly differences are :—
| Greenwich 1900 | sor | te02 | 1893 | 1894
H In declination
+0"01 | —O"12 | +0'07 | +0719 | +012
Excess of absolute In horizontal force
‘ ] ?
quiet’ day value - : 7
above all days value | +L eee) + BL. | Bel ieee
In vertical foree
ee eg 8 |. oo
I have not sufficient opportunity at the present moment to add much
by way of discussion of these numbers, but taking the element in which
the difference of absolute value is most marked, that of horizontal force,
some few remarks may be offered. We see that the uniformly positive
non-cyclic change on ‘quiet’ days is accompanied by an increased absolute
value of horizontal force on such days, as compared with the value from
all days, as we should perhaps expect. At Greenwich magnetic disturb-
ance commonly causes diminution of horizontal force, after which the
value works back to amore normal one. But there are years in which
the magnetic registers are unusually quiet, with few disturbances of even
moderate amount, as in the years 1878 and 1879. The inference would
be that in such years the difference between the absolute value for the
especially ‘ quiet’ days and that for all days should be small, varying to a
certain extent in different years with the more or less prevalence of
magnetic disturbance. I cannot, however, for the moment refer to the
Pawlowsk differences of which Dr. Chree speaks, to ascertain whether
they exhibit variations of this character. Further, whether the rise of
value on ‘quiet’ days represents a recovery from abnormal loss during dis-
turbance, or whether the abnormal fall during disturbance is in any way
a consequence of preceding abnormal rise, may be a question. But the
view that the recovery on ‘ quiet’ days is rather a consequence of abnormal
fall during disturbance, that is, that the disturbance is really the primary
dominating factor, appears to receive support from the following considera-
tion. When disturbance suddenly arises it seems to break out over the
ON COMPARISON AND REDUCTION OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 241
whole earth at precisely the same moment of absolute time (see ‘ Proc.
Roy. Soc.’ vol. liii p. 191). But an instantaneous magnetic shock
sensible over the whole globe could scarcely, one would imagine, arise
from action from within alone ; and since magnetic disturbances are more
frequent when sunspots are numerically high, there seems reason to
‘suppose that the exciting cause is in such cases mainly external. To
pursue this matter is, however, rather to enter the region of speculation.
It may perhaps be remarked that the mean non-cyclic change for
horizontal force and vertical force on ‘quiet’ days is +40 and — 18
respectively ; also that the mean excess of absolute value on such days over
all days is correspondingly + 34 and — 8 respectively. Thus the rela-
tion in both elements is of the same character.
A part of my work consisted of a comparison of diurnal inequalities
of the magnetic elements on ‘quiet’ days with those found by including all
days (always excepting the excessive magnetic disturbances), and also of
4 comparison of diurnal range as given: (1) by ‘quiet’ days as observed ;
{2) by ‘quiet’ days corrected for non-cyclic change ; and (3) by including
all days, in all cases for the different months of the year ; but the work
is not sufficiently advanced to enable any particulars to be given.
Dr. Chree, referring to a previous report of the Magnetic Committee
and to a paper by Messrs. Robson and Smith in the ‘Phil. Mag.’ for
August 1890, speaks of the differences between diurnal ranges deduced
from unrestricted days, that is all days, and from ‘quiet’ days. I may
perhaps point out that these comparisons were between ‘ quiet’ days at Kew
and all days at Greenwich, and were for the element of declination only.
In such a comparison the question of difference of locality must be taken
into account, and also possibly to some extent the difference of instruments.
But in a paper which I communicated to the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ for January 1891
I made a more direct comparison of results, for the one year 1889, compar-
ing the diurnal inequalities for ‘quiet’ days (five in each month) at
Greenwich with those for all days at the same place. This comparison
4was made for all the three elements of declination, horizontal force, and
vertical force. The five-day results were not corrected for non-cyclic
change, but in declination and vertical force this was evidently small.
The results show a marked difference between the diurnal inequalities for
4quiet’ daysand for all days. The later work in this direction, yet incom-
plete, to which I have above referred, includes a discussion of the diurnal
inequalities for the five years 1890 to 1894 for ‘quiet’ days and for all
days, and the results seem likely to support those found for the single
year 1889.
Solar Radiation.— Twelfth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
G. G. Sroxes (Chairman), Professor H. McLEop (Secretary),
Professor A. ScuustER, Mr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, Sir H. E.
Roscor, Captain W. pe W. Asney, Mr. C. Curer, Mr. G. J.
Symons, and Mr. W. E. Witson, appointed to consider the best
Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar It«adiation.
«Drawn up by Sir G. G. STOKEs.)
Av the date of the tenth report of this Committee, Professor McLeod,
who had undertaken to make some experiments with the Stewart’s
actinometer used as a ‘dynamical’ actinometer, tried whether it might
1896. R
242, REPORT—1896.
not be advantageous to substitute for the internal thermometer a thermo-
electric arrangement whereby the solar radiation should be measured by
the deflection of a galvanometer. A thin disk of blackened copper was
fixed in the position previously occupied by the flattened bulb of the
internal thermometer, and two wires led from this disk, namely, a
platinoid wire from behind the middle point of the disk and a copper
wire from the edge, the second junction of the two metals being embedded
in the solid copper of the case, the temperature of which was given by the
case-thermometers. A d’Arsonval galvanometer was intercalated in the
thermo-electric circuit, and the difference of temperatures of the two
junctions was given by the deflection of the mirror, which was read by
eye by means of a divided scale. This arrangement was found to work
in a very satisfactory manner ; the observations could be taken in @
shorter time than with the thermometer ; and on reducing the results by
the formula given in a former report it was found that the numbers
obtained fora magnitude theoretically proportional to the radiation came
out very consistent with one another when they were deduced from
different trios of readings taken on the same occasion. Professor McLeod
had not, however, sufficient leisure to continue the experiments as he
wished, and Mr. W. E. Wilson took charge of the instrument with a view
to continue the experiments.
Mr. Wilson modified the apparatus by introducing an arrangement by
which the light reflected by the mirror of the galvanometer, instead of
serving for eye observations, was received on a photographic plate which
descended by clockwork, and recorded the deviations of the mirror at
times which were recorded by a fixed light falling on the plate, which was
interrupted at each second, so that the former light traced out a curve,
the ordinates of which corresponded to the deflections, while the abscisse
gave the time.
In this manner very neat curves were obtained, which gave a perma-
nent record of the observations. This record was of course exempt from
possible errors of reading, and could be dealt with at leisure. In a later
arrangement the inter ruptions at each second were recorded on the curve
itself as well as on the line of abscissx, a method which presents certain
advantages for the subsequent reduction.
In order to obtain a base line corresponding to an equality of tempera-
ture of the disk and the case, the plate was started, and the permanently
tixed light and that reflected from the mirror not yet deflected were
wllowed to record themselves a few seconds before the sun’s rays were
allowed to fall on the plate. The latter gave a short straight line, paralle?
to the axis of abscissee, corresponding to no deviation, from which the
curve started when the light of the sun was let on.
The curves obtained in the preliminary trials were sent to Sir George
Stokes for reduction. The rapidity of the change from the straight line
traced before incidence of the sun’s rays to a curve which showed no sign
of the discontinuity of the initial conditions showed that the effect of the
inertia of the galvanometer was practically insensible, provided at least a
very few seconds were allowed for the instrument to get into train, that
is, provided a minute portion of the curve, near the point cf sudden
change in the conditions, were excluded in the reduction.
The galvanometer was dead-beat, but it is conceivable that the
damping force might have been such as to cause a sensible difference
between the angular position of the mirror of the galvanometer and that
ON SOLAR RADIATION. 243
corresponding to equilibrium between the torsional force at the moment
and the deflecting force belonging to the thermo-electric current at the
same moment. A special experiment showed, however, that such was not
the case, and that the difference between the actual position and that
corresponding to equilibrium was practically insensible, provided a very
few seconds were allowed to elapse after any sudden change of the nature
of letting on or cutting off the sun’s light.
Tt follows from this that the simple differential equation mentioned in
the report of the Committee for 1892 may be used in this case as well as
when the solar rays actuated an internal thermometer. The integral of
the differential equation shows that the curve is a logarithmic curve, the
parameter of which, or index of the exponential, is constant, provided the
constant relating to cooling, the q of that report, is the same under all
circumstances.
Measurement of the curves obtained showed that they agreed extremely
well with logarithmic curves. Any two logarithmic curves, of which the
parameter is the same, may be superposed by moving one relatively to the
other without disturbing the parallelism of their axes, but not if the
parameters are different. In general the curves obtained seemed to be
sensibly superposable, indicating that gy was not merely constant during
an exposure made under given circumstances, but even when the circum-
stances were different ; as, for example, when one diaphragm was replaced
by another of twice the area. In one case, however, it seemed that the
coefficient was slightly but sensibly smaller. The constancy or otherwise
of gis a point still under examination. Should it prove to be sensibly
different when the circumstances are changed, the expression may still be
obtained from three observations, that is, from three points of the curve.
If, for the sake of simplifying the formula, the intervals of time are
chosen equal, the expression (Av)?/(—A?w) has merely to be multiplied
by q, the expression for which need not at present be written down, in
order to obtain a measure of the radiation. It may be well to remark
that this measure is merely relative ; the question of obtaining the radia-
tion in absolute measure is one into which the Committee have not as yet
entered.
Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Convmittee, consisting of
Professor HERBERT McLeop, Professor W. C. Roperts—AUSTEN,
Mr. H. G. Manan, and Mr. D. H. Nace.
Tue work of collecting and arranging the titles of papers on subjects
related to spectroscopy has been continued up to the present date.
In the Report presented by the Committee last year it was proposed
to discontinue the work at the end of 1895, and it was suggested that the
four sections of the list of titles should be printed as a separate publica-
tion. In view, however, of the meeting of the International Committee
to consider the preparation of a catalogue of scientific literature, the
Committee now proposes to continue the work up to the year 1900, so as
to complete the list up to the time when the International Bureau will
commence its labours.
The Committee, therefore, asks for reappointment.
244, REPORT—1896.
The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.— Third Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS (Chair-
man), Dr. C. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRaNKLAND, Pro-
fessor F. Clowes, Dr. HucaH Marsnaui, Mr. A. E. FLETCHER,
Mr. D. H. NaGeu, and Professor W. CarLeToN WILLIAMS.
Tue bibliography of the subject having been completed for the last Report,
the Committee have been able to give their full time to experimental work
during the past year. In addition to the appended results on the arrange-
ments adopted for the work, the determination of bismuth, antimony and
tin, and the separation of the two latter, the work on the determination of
cobalt, nickel and zinc is well advanced, and will be included, together with
further work on bismuth, in the next Report of the Committee.
The Determination of Bismuth. (Part I.) By Professor J. Emerson
Reyno.tps, D.Sc., ID., F.RS., and G. Percy Battey, B.A.
Bibliography.
Author | Journal Year| Vol. | Page Composition of Electrolyte
i as . ) _—_- ae
Luckow, ©. : 5 - | Dingler Polyt. J. | 1864 | 178 42 Sulphurie acid
Luckow, C. - Zeits.anal.Chem, | 1880 | 19 1 | Nitric acid |
Classen, ee and Reis, MAL | Ber. . Z . | 1881 | 14 | 1622) Ammonium oxalate and nitric¢
acid
Th OE hein (ie ag | : . ( Sulphuric acid bin’ f
omas, N.W.& Smith, 2.1. | Amer. Chem, J.. | 1883 5 114 | / Citrie acid and sodium hydrate
| | Citric acid
( Oxalie acid
WWAGIANO Give suis, gud -¢fser| wIRETs jc + | 1884) 17 | 1611 | 1 Nitric acid
Smith, E. F., & Knerr, B. B. | Amer. chen J.. | 1885 8 206 | Sulphuric acid
Classen, A., and Ludwig, R. | Ber. . 1886 | 19 $23 | Potassium and ammonium
| oxalates
Moore, T. . 2 “ - | Chem. News . | 1886 53 209 | Phosphoric acid
Brand, A. . -. .- . Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1889 | 28 | 4581 | Sodium pyrophosphate, ammo-
| nium carbonate, aud ammo-
| nium oxalate
| | /Hydrochlorie acid and potas-
| sium iodide ; as amalgam
Hydrochloric acid and a:cohol ;
| : | 3 ees | oF H as amalgam
Vortmann,G. + +4 +/ Ber, . 4 «| 1801) 24 | 2749 |) nitric and tartaric acids; as
) | amalgam
Ammonium hydrate and tar-
| taric acid ; as amalgam
Riidorff, FP. . . . « Zeitsangew.Chem.| 1892} — | 198 Sodium pyrophosphate, potas-
| sium oxalate, and potussium
| | sulphate
Freudenberg, H. - | Zeits.phys.Chem. | 1893 | 12 97 | Sulphuric acid
Smith, E. F., & Sultar, J. B. | J. Analyt.& App. | 1893 7 128 | Nitric acid
| Chem.
Thomiilen,H. . . . | Zeits. Electro- | 1894 1 304 | Sodium pyrophosphate, potas-
Chem. sium oxalate, and sulphate
The examination of methods for the electrolytic estimation of this
metal was conducted in the chemical laboratory of Trinity College, Dublin.
‘The electrolytic department of the laboratory is fitted in the usual
way. The currents required are derived from the ‘ Bristol’ type of storage
cells, made up in sets of six in each case, with connections so arranged.
that currents of 2 amperes and 4, 8, or 12 volts can be obtained as required.
These cells, which are compact and light, have given very satisfactory
results during two years’ frequent use, and are now in perfectly good order.
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 245
The measurements of currents for most purposes is effected by the
usual gravity ammeters indicating 0°5 to 2 amperes, but much smaller
currents than 0°5 ampere must be used in bismuth estimations ; the
most satisfactory mode of measuring them was by means of a delicate
astatic galvanometer, with silk fibre suspension, and carefully calibrated
in the position in which it was used. A curve was plotted for converting
deflections into amperes, so that 0°01 ampere could be read directly, and
0-001 ampere current measured by interpolation, Provision was also
made for shunting in a gravity voltmeter.
For bismuth estimation a box of coils giving high resistances was used
for regulating the current, as the platinoid spiral with slide, in genera’
use in the laboratory, did not cffer more than 30 ohms resistance.
A long series of preliminary experiments made with bismuth nitrate
solutions and different forms of electrodes indicated :—
1. That the conical form of negative electrode is not suitable for use
in the estimations of bismuth, as it is difficult to get good adherent deposits
on the cones, unless the solutions are very dilute.
2. That the large, smooth surface of a carefully spun platinum dish is
hest suited for the negative pole in bismuth estimations. The dishes used
in the test estimations weighed from 35 to 38 grammes, and the internal
areas averaged 190 square centimetres.
3. That a large flat spiral of platinum wire for the positiye electrode is
more satisfactory than a disc, as it allows free circulation in the liquid.
A large number of experiments were made in the first instance with a
view to ascertain the kind of solution most convenient for electrolysis,
the nitrate or sulphate being used as the starting point in the production
of the different liquids actually electrolysed. Irregular results were
obtained with the simple nitrate containing varying proportions of free
nitric acid ; but good determinations were more easily made in solutions
of the sulphate when electrolysed by currents of 0-08 to 0:2 ampere.
On the other hand, for the purposes of actual analysis, it seemed of
more practical importance to ascertain how far the more convenient
nitrate solution could be made to afford good reguline deposits of bismuth,
which should admit of washing without loss or material oxidation. It
was found that careful, adjustment of the current is one of the elements
of success, but not the only one, and that 0:03 ampere is the maximum
current that should be used nearly to the end of the operation, though
0:1 may be passed to complete deposition. Regulation of the current did
not alone prove sufficient to neutralise the effect of excess of nitric acid,
and most of the substances were tried which have been recommended for
use in similar electrolyses. Of these, metaphosphoric acid and citric acid
proved so much better than any others we employed that our attention
was directed chiefly to examine their effects in test experiments with
bismuth nitrate.
Test EXPERIMENTS.
The bismuth used in the preparation of the test solutions was carefully
purified. In the first instance it was repeatedly fused with small quan-
tities of nitre and cast. This metal was then heated to low redness for
fifteen minutes with potassium cyanide and sulphur, with constant
stirring ; was again cast, and reheated to bright redness with 5 per cent.
of a mixture of pure sodium and potassium carbonate. The fine metal so
obtained was dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated to a small
bulk, and then precipitated as oxynitrate by water. The washed pro-
9
~_
16 REPORT—1896.
duct was again dissolved in nitrie acid, and was fractionally precipitated
by ammonia, the first and last fractions being rejected. The middle
fraction, after thorough washing, was preserved and used in the prepara-
tion of the final test solutions of bismuth.
The first solution of bismuth nitrate prepared contained, in 25 c.c.,
0-125 grme. of bismuth. This contained a sutticient excess of nitric acid
to prevent precipitation unless diluted with about ten volumes of water.
In the following series of estimations 25 c.c. of the solution were used
in each case, and either diluted to 150 c.c. in a platinum dish with water
only, or made up to the total volume of 150 c.c. with water after addition
of the various substances stated below. The electrolysis was then com-
menced with the current specified, and the action usually allowed to
continue all night. At the end the current was generally increased, in
order to complete the deposition.
As slight oxidation takes place at the edge of the liquid even with
apparently very good reguline deposits, the latter, when washed, dried,
and weighed, were in some cases oxidised by nitric acid, the solution
carefully evaporated to dryness, and heated until the bismuth nitrate was
converted wholly into Bi,O,. From the oxide obtained the weight of Bi
was then calculated. This operation is easily executed in the electrolytic
dish, and was found to be a useful check, especially when the results of
electrolysis seemed too good.
| Bi from |
A 24 F F Bi
0 phen solution | Currents in as Metal! Bi,0; | Remarks
iluted to 150 c.c. Amperes grme. weme. )
1. Water and Nitrate 0-008 0-13 — | Loose deposit, evident
only increased | | oxidation.
at end to | |
0:05
2. Ditto ‘ é 0:05 0:1238 — | Loose, but reguline. |
3. +2 ¢c.c. strong Me- 0:02 0-124 — | Very firm deposit, easily
taphosphoric acid washed. No apparent
solution | oxidation.
4. +2c.c. HPO, solu- | OOSin- | 0127 | — _ | Notso firm, and not per-
tion creased to fectly reguline.
0:05 at end
5. +4¢.c. HPO, solu- 0:03 to 07125 01248 | Very firm and reguline ;
tion 0:05 at end | | easily washed.
6. +1 grme. of Citric | 0:008 to | 0:130 01238 | Firm,but coloured owing
Acid 0-01 | | to oxidation.
7. +1 grme. of Citric 0-01 to 0:05} 0126 | — Firm good deposit ;
Acid | slightly oxidised.
8. +2 grmes. of Citric 0-01 01246 | — Very firm, easily washed,
Acid | and apparently unoxi-
dised,
9. +2 grmes. of Citric 0:01 01246 | 0:1246 | :, #
Acid
10. +25 grmes. of |0:01 to01} 0125 0°1249 of ”»
Citric Acid at end
11. +25 grmes. of |0-01 to0-1| 0125 | 0-1247 | ‘ 7
Citric Acid at end |
12. 0°05192 grme. of Bi | 0-005 to | 0:0526 | 0:052 | 1H 7
as Nitrate + 2°75 |0-Olat end |
grme. Citric Acid |
13. 0:07 grme. of Bi as | 0:005 to | 0:07 0:0697 | A »
Nitrate + 2:2erme. |0:01 at end |
of Citric Acid
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 247
Operating in this way, the results on the preceding page, from | to 11,
were obtained with 25 c.c. of bismuth nitrate solution=07125 grme. of Bi
diluted to 150 c.c.
Experiments 12 and 15 were made with solutions of different strengths
and larger proportions of nitric acid than those which precede.
So far as experiments with the simple nitrate solutions were concerned
the results merely confirmed all our previous experience, as it is very
difficult to obtain a good adherent deposit on electrolysis except from very
dilute solutions.
The results obtained with metaphosphoric acid under the conditions
specified indicate that the reagent controls deposition in a very marked
way, and enables us to get good adherent reguline deposits even in
presence of much free nitric acid and when using a comparatively strong
current. The use of metaphosphoric acid is therefore attended with
considerable advantage in the case of simple bismuth nitrate solutions.
Citric acid has proved quite as etfective as metaphosphoric acid, and
gives a wider range of utility in general analysis. Moreover bismuth can
be separated from alkaline citrate solution in good condition and with
considerable accuracy ; hence we are disposed to prefer the use of citric
acid to that of metaphosphoric acid in electrolytic determinations of
bismuth.
The separation of bismuth from stronger solutions and from other dis-
solved metals will be considered in the next report.
The Apparatus employed and the Arrangement of the Circuits for
Electrolytic Analysis. By Cuarues A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc.
The arrangements for electrolytic work described in this portion of the
Report have been fitted up in the Chemical Laboratory of University
College, Liverpool, where the work on the determination of antimony and
tin and their separation has been carried out.
A set of five secondary cells charged by a dynamo were employed
throughout the analyses,
Electrodes.
Platinum dishes of about 200 c.c. capacity, and weighing 37-38
girme., were used as the cathode, and small platinum discs with holes
bored through them to admit of the escape of the evolved gases as the
anode. For the determination of both antimony and tin, sand-blasted
platinum dishes were found preferable to the ordinary polished dishes ;
this is especially the case when the deposition of a metal is effected
from a hot solution. The electrodes were kept 20 mm. apart. Glass
stands with brass supports as described by Classen were used to hold the
electrodes, the support for the dishes being covered with an asbestos card
when heating was necessary.
Voltmeter and Ampere-meter.
A suitable ampere-meter for electrolytic analysis has long been a de-
sideratum. The use of the water voltameter which was formerly employed
has for obvious reasons been abandoned, and the ampere-meters on the
market are almost all cither too restricted in their range or lacking in
sensibility ; in addition their internal resistance is so high that it must
always be allowed for whenever the instrument is not in circuit. The
Fic. 1.—Arrangement for Six Circuits.
REPORT— 1896.
+20
Scale—1
unipolar instruments recently
devised by Mr. B. Davies, of
University College, Liverpool,
fulfil all the requirements for
electrolytic work admirably, and
they have been used for the past
two years with complete satis-
faction. The ampere-meter
possesses two marked properties
which are especially advanta-
geous :—
1. A very open scale, espe-
cially open for the lower readings.
2. A practically negligible
resistance.
I am indebted to Mr. Davies
for the following description of
his instruments :—
The construction of the volt-
meter and the ampere-meter de-
pend upon the same principle,
the rotation of a coil conveying
a current around one pole of a
magnet. The magnetic circuit
is composed almost entirely of
iron and steel, with an air-gap
of 2 mm. in thickness. The
steel is carefully magnetised and
‘aged,’ and the circuit is so de-
signed that the demagnetising
force is negligible. The chief
part of the electric circuit is the
moving coil, which conveys the
current, or a portion of the
current to be measured.
In the voltmeter the coil is
placed in series with a resistance
of manganin; in the ampere-
meter it is placed in parallel with
a small resistance. The whole
length of the scale is about 220°
of arc. Currents of all mag-
nitudes may be measured from
ooo ampere upwards, and elec-
tromotive forces from ;4, volt
upwards. Both instruments are
practically ‘dead-beat’ ; this is
not due to friction, the pivots
being jewelled, but is an elec-
tro-magnetic effect. The inter-
nal resistance of the ampere-
meters is shown in the following
table :—
249
ON ELECIROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS.
‘pt [-9vog
‘soOURISISOY puV “I}OUTPOA \9JOTUTY 0} Y O[qBI, WOLF smorjoouM. SarMogs “QAI,
Q Yee “Aep
9100) —"s ‘DIA
250 REPORT—1896.
tange of Resistance
Aimpere-meter
0O-Ol ampere. ° ° - . - 04 ~-onnr
O-1 * 5 - : : . s “O08 Tras
” . ' 2 - * -» 0;008. a
O-100 ,, - ? ; 5 - 09-0008 ,,
The ampere-mneter actually employed had a range of from 0-3-5
amperes, the graduations corresponding to 0-02 of an ampere. The
internal resistance was 0:03 ohm, and the readings above 0:1 ampere
perfectly accurate and constant. For currents below 0:1 ampere an
instrument with the range 0 to 0-1 ampere must be substituted, but such
small currents are not required for the experiments described in this
portion of the report. Small rheostats with mercury connections were used
as resistances, one for each circuit, each having a series of resistance coils
from 4 up to 40 ohms, and a total resistance of 80} ohms.
The current density is in all cases calculated on 100 sq. cm. of cathode
surface, and expressed as C.D. ; 9.
Arrangement of the Circuits.
The accompanying plans show the arrangement adopted for six circuits.
The tables A and B are each divided into three parts by thin strips
of wood, the current being carried in each case by wires from the brass
terminals ‘}’ to the stand for the electrodes, which is placed between
them. The circuit is completed or broken by an ordinary electric light
switch, ‘8.’
The centre-table contains all the connections to the ampere-meter,
voltmeter, and resistances, in addition to the instruments themselves, thus
leaving the tables on which the analyses are carried out perfectly free ;
this is a decided convenience. This centre-table is provided with a flap-
cover, so that the instruments are protected, except when measurements
are being taken.
The details of the connections on the centre-table for three of the
circuits are shown on Fig. 2. The board DD, which is fixed on to the
centre-table, carries two small boards A’ and B’, fitted with mercury-
cup connections ‘m’; it also carries three small blocks, C, on each of
which are fixed three brass binding-screws, connected underneath by a
broad copper strip. R,, R,, and R, are the resistance boxes.
The negative wire from the secondary cells passes direct to the con-
necting board C,, fixed on the wall at the back of the tables, the remaining
wires from the batteries passing to the switch-board (Fig. 2), so that any
number of cells from one up to six can be put into use. From the ter-
minal of the switch-board a wire passes to the connecting board C,, and
thence to the table A, where it is divided in parallel into the three circuits
1, 2 and 3 by a small connecting board which, together with the necessary
wiring, runs under the ledge of the table A (Fig. 1). The circuit is com-
pleted from the connecting board C, through the mercury cup ‘m’ on the
board A’ (Fig. 2), marked ‘to circuits.’ This cup is connected to the
other cups 1, 2 and 3 on the same board by spanners of stout copper wire
with ebonite handles. The resistance of the spanner is negligible, as is
that of the ampere-meter, but in cases where that of the latter has to be
considered, a spanner must be used, having an equivalent resistance.
Similar spanners are used for the ampere-meter and voltmeter connections ;
they are all of different lengths so as to prevent mistakes in taking
measurements. Supposing the spanner be put to circuit No. 1, the cur-
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 251
rent passes through the resistance box R,, then to the block C,, and finally
to the table A to complete the circuit. By placing the spanner between
m, and the cup on the board A’ leading to the ampere-meter, mm’, the current
is similarly completed through the ampere-meter, so that the reading is
taken without stopping the current. The connections to the voltmeter will
be clear from the diagram ; it is simply a branch from each of the circuits.
The Determination of Antimony. By Cuartes A. Konn, Ph.D., BSc.,
and C. K. Barnes, B.Sc.
Bibliography.
Author Journal Year | Volume] Page Composition of Electrolyte
Parodi, G., and Mas- | ina r ~ | {Ammonium tartrate.
Gazinic A. | Zeits. anal, Chem. . 1879 18 587 ( Alkali sulphide.
25 | Fattc ‘ { Hydrochloric acid.
Luckow, C. ° | Zeits. anal. Chem.. | 1880 19 1 | Aikali sulphide.
F Potassium oxalate.
‘ ais | s .
Classen, A., and Reis, Ber. . ° . | 1881 14 1622 | Alkali tartrate.
M.A. ji :
Ammonium sulphide.
} Sodium sulphide.
Classen, A. wae oe | ar om he .| 1884 17 2467 | | Sodium or potassium sulph- |
{ hydrate.
Classen, A., and Lud- | Ber. Be oe eS 18 1104 Sodium sulphide.
wig, R.
Brand, A... . . | Zeits. anal. Chem.. | 1889 28 581 Sodium pyrophosphate and
: ammonium carbonate.
Lecrenier,A. «» «. | Chem. Zeit. . . | 1889 13 1219 Sodium sulphide and sodium
sulphite.
Vortmann, G. ., - | Ber. Py 4 c 1891 24 2749 Sodium sulphideand hydrate
as amalgam.
Riidorff, F. . «| Zeits.angew.Chem. | 1892 — 3 Sodium sulphide,
Classen, A. e . | Ber. 2 C .| 1894 Pig 2060 Sodium sulphide.
The deposition of antimony from solutions of its sulpho-salts, as first
suggested by Parodi and Mascazzini, and also by Luckow, has been espe-
cially studied by Classen and his pupils. Classen finds that a sodium
sulphide solution is best adapted for the deposition ; the reagent must be
free from polysulphides, which, if present, are oxidised by hydrogen per-
oxide. The deposition is effected in the cold solution with a current of
15-2 c.c. of electrolytic gas per minute, and requires 10 to 12 hours.
Nissenson states that 0:15 erme. of antimony can be deposited from a
solution of the su!pho-salt in one hour by electrolysing the warm solution
with a current of 0°5—1-0 ampere.
Of other solutions ammonium tartrate has alone been stated to give
accurate results, the deposits obtained from hydrochloric acid, potassium
oxalate, and sodium pyrophosphate solutions not adhering sufficiently well
to the dish to be of value for quantitative determinations.
Experiments were accordingly restricted to the deposition from sodium
sulphide and from ammonium tartrate solution.
Deposition of Antimony from Sodium Sulphide Solution.
A hydrochloric acid solution of antimony chloride, prepared from
pure antimony, was employed for the experiments, the solution containing
just sufficient acid to keep the chloride of antimony in solution. It is
important to use pure sodium sulphide ; this was prepared from sodium
hydrate purified by alcohol, in the usual way, and concentrated to a
sp. gr. of 1°18,
252 REPORT—1896.
After adding the sodium sulphide to the antimony chloride the solu-
tion was filtered into a platinum dish, diluted to 175 ¢.c. with water and
electrolysed. The deposited metal was washed successively with alcohol
and ether and dried in the air bath at 80° C. before weighing.
Series I.
Influence of varying quantities of Sodium Sulphide on the Deposition of
Antimony.
The object of this series of experiments was to ascertain how varia-
tions in the quantity of sodium sulphide present, in excess, in the solution
of the sulpho-salt, affected the deposition of the antimony, and what
degree of accuracy was obtainable with varying quantities of metal under
the most favourable conditions.
The electrolyses were in all cases conducted in the cold solution and
allowed to go over night; an excess of sodium sulphide above that
required to form the sodium sulpho-antimonite was always present. The
results are recorded in the following table :—-
Experi- | Antimony Antimony Sodan aut C.D.09 | EMF. | Time:
| phide solution scent
ment taken; grme. | fuund: grme. Rdaed Amperes Volts hours
1 0:1010 071065 inere: O14 | 2:5 193
2 0:1010 01076 eee O19 1 eel: 193
3 01010 0 1062 1B, O15 32 193
4 0°1515 0:1572 225 ©.c. O18 eee 173
5 00505 | 0:0516 iD: 1.5 O17 bE 174
| 6 01010 0:1013 30 c.c. 0-19 }> ele 183
| 7 0:2020 02021 30 5, 015 17 174
8 0:2020 0 2023 Sines O18 eva 2se 183
9 0:0505 00508 Seed. ONG. ep ae 17k
10 0:0202 00202 S0 bre | 0200 St eet 173
11 0-0101 0:0100 a0 Ge Og [ae 174
12 0:0505 0:0508 102.5 | 0°20 (E26 18
13 0:0202 00204 ip: 75 } 0 20 2°7 18
| 14 00101 | 00098 | LO; 0:20 | 25 18
Experiments 1-5 show that with only 15 c.c. of sodium sulphide
solution per 071 grme. of antimony high results are obtained, whereas
with double the proportion the results are accurate (No.6). But in experi-
ments 7 and 8, although the quantity of sulphide added is double that in 1
and 2, the proportion to the antimony present is the same. This apparent
abnormality is due to the fact that unless a certain excess of sodium sul-
phide is present a small quantity of sulphur is precipitated with the
antimony on the cathode, hence the high results 1-6, and the excess of
sulphide is necessary to keep this sulphur in solution The proportion of
sulphur thus separated at the cathode appears to be independent of the
quantity of antimony present, within limits. According to experiment 5,
30 c.c. of sulphide should be insufficient for 0-2 grme. antimony, but Nos. 7
and 8 show that this is not the case ; on the other hand, experiment 12
points to 20 ¢.c. as the right quantity of sulphide per 0-1 grme. of metal.
In all cases sulphur is separated at the anode. Whenever it comes down
with the antimony at the anode the deposited metal, which is usually
bright and metallic in appearance, is always dull and almost black ; this
was the case in experiments 1-5.
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, 253
The normal decomposition can be represented by the equation :—
fo Na
2 SbCS Na = 8d,4+3Na,S48s.
S Na Cathode Anode
The separation of sulphur at the cathode must be due to a secondary
decomposition, which is prevented provided there is a certain excess of
the sulphide present. It appears immaterial whether this excess is
increased or not, for in Nos. 9, 10, and 11 three times as much sulphide
was added as in Nos. 12, 15, and 14 for the same quantities of antimony.
From this the method is reliable, provided 30 c.c. of sodium sulphide of
sp. gr. 118 are added for every 0-2 grme. of antimony, and up to 50 c.c.
can be used with safety. Classen and others recommend this proportion ;
the above experiments point out the necessity for it.
The current density of 0°15 to 0:20 ampere per 100 sq. cm. should not
be exceeded, otherwise the metal does not adhere so well to the electrode.
The completion of the deposition is best tested by withdrawing a little of
the solution from the dish with a capillary tube, and testing it with acid
for the presence of antimony sulphide.
The addition of caustic soda to the sodium sulphide has no disadvan-
tageous effect on the method as described. Under similar conditions to
the above, in which 30 c.c. of sulphide solution and 2 grme. of sodium
hydrate were added, 0:1514 grme. antimony were found for 0:1515 taken.
Caustic soda is added in the separation of antimony and tin electrolyti-
cally, hence it was desirable to ascertain its influence, if any.
The solutions of the sulpho-salt were quite free from polysulphides, but
should these be present they must be oxidised with hydrogen peroxide.
Series IT.
Deposition of Antimony from a WARM Solution of the Sulpho. sult.
The time required for the deposition of antimony is considerably
shortened by conducting the electrolysis in the warm solution. The
antimony solution is treated with sodium sulphide as described, and
electrolysed with acurrent of 1 ampere ; 0:2 grme. of metal can be readily
deposited in 24 hours. Under the right conditions the deposit is bright
and metallic in appearance. The following table records the results
obtained :—
- _ | Sodium |
Experi- | Antimony | Antimony | suiphide. C.D.49) |E.M.¥.| Tempera- | Time: |
ment takea: fond: Solution Amperes Volts ture hours |
Grme. Grine, | added
1 02020 | 02090 | 30c.c. 0-98 61 | 50°-60° | 23
2 02020 | 02028 | 50c.e. 104 6:5 | 50°-60° | 24
3 0 1010 071009 | 50ce. 1:00 G7 0°65" |) Be
4 0:0505 0:0502 | 50 c.c. 0-94 6-7 | 50°65° | 22
5 0-0202 00213 | 50ce. 0:97 6-4 | 50°65° | 2k
6 0-0101 00093 | 50 c.c. 1-01 64 | 50°65° | 25
7 02020 | 02000 | 50c.. 1:03 61 | so°-90° | 25 |
The deposits in Nos. 1 and 7 were dull and dark coloured ; this is to be
traced to an insufficiency of sodium sulphide in No. 1, and too high a tem-
perature in No.7. With 50 c.c. of sodium sulphide solution the method
254, REPORT— 1896.
is reliable, as shown in Nos, 2 to 6, though rather less so for small quan-
tities of metal than when the electrolysis is conducted in the cold solution.
The temperature should not exceed 50° to 60°. The deposit is bright
and metallic in appearance, and adheres well to the dish.
Series ITT.
Deposition of Antimony from Ammonium Tartrate Solution.
Parodi and Mascazzini (loc. cit.) state that antimony can be deposited
from a solution of its chloride in ammonium tartrate, but give no experi-
mental data. According to Classen an adherent deposit is obtained from
a potassium tartrate solution, but the separation takes too long to be of
value for analysis. As very few results have been published on this
method a series of experiments were tried. These show that the complete
deposition of antimony from a solution of an alkali tartrate is possible, in
about nineteen hours, with a current density per 100 sq. em. of 0°15 am-
pere. The deposit, however, does not possess the bright metallic appear-
ance of that obtained from sodium sulphide solution ; it is dark and dull
and does not adhere very fast to the dish. Still it can usually be washed
without loss, although with quantities of metal, above 0-1 grme., this
was not possible, hence the low result in No. 1. Also when the current
is allowed to exceed 0:15 ampere per 100 sq. cm. the deposit is less
adherent and apt to wash off. Nos. 2, 9, and 10 illustrate this. The method
of analysis was to neutralise the solution of antimony chloride and add
the ammonium tartrate in a 12 per cent. solution, the electrolysis being
conducted in the cold solution and over night. The following results were
obtained :
. Antimony Antimony Bt ;
Experi- | ~ fakes fouud< Tartrate C.D.400 E.M.F. | Time:
ment Gane’ Grine. rey Ampeies Volts hours
1 0°2036 0:2020 3 015 3°6 183
2 0:2036 0:2003 3 0:18 36 183
3 0-1018 0:1018 25 0-14 37 19
4 01018 01019 4 013 37 193
5 071141 0:1140 6 014 33 ify)
6 0:1141 01142 6 0-15 34 19
7 01018 0°1025 3 013 33 182
8 0:0509 0-0504 3 O15 3-4 183
| 9 0:1018 0:0983 3 0:18 35 184
10 0:0509 0:0477 3 0-18 37 | 183
Variations in the quantity of ammonium tartrate added above 2°5 grme.
have no influence on the accuracy of the method, as is seen from Nos.
3, 4, and 5.
Summary.
The most reliable method for the electrolytic estimation of antimony is
the use of the sulpho-salt in presence of a large excess of sodium sulphide,
under the conditions already described. This solution can be electrolysed
either hot or cold; the latter is always preferable when only small quanti-
ties of antimony are to be deposited. The saving of time by using the
warm solution is no great advantage, as the deposition from the cold
solution requires no watching and can be allowed to go on evernight.
a POT wetter s -
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 255
Although accurate results can be obtained by electrolysing an ammonium
tartrate solution of an antimony salt the method requires much greater
attention and the conditions are more limited than the above; it is, there-
fore, not to be recommended from a practical standpoint, whereas the
deposition from a solution of the sulpho-salt possesses advantages over the
ordinary gravimetric methods for the determination of antimony both in
regard to rapidity and accuracy.
The Determination of Tin. By Cuarues A. Kony, Ph.D., B.Sc., and
C. K. Barnes, B.Se.
Libliography.
Author Journal Year} Vol. | Page Composition of Electrolyte
Luckow,C.. . «. . | Zeits. anal. Chem. | 1880] 19 1 | { Hydrochloric acid.
| Alkali sulphide.
Classen, A., and Ieis, M.A. |Ber, . . «| 1881] 14 | 1692 Vinee
Classen, A. . - aie =| eBeren : -| 1884} 17 | 2467 | Ammonium sulphide.
Moore,T. . 3 . | Chem. News -| 1886 | 53 209 | Phosphoric acid.
Riidorff, F. . : . | Zeitsangew.Chem.} 1892 | — 197 | Acid ammonium oxalate,
Freudenberg, H. . : . | Zeits. phys. Chem. | 1893 | 12 97 | Ammonium oxalate.
( Acid ammonium oxalate.
Classen, A. . * - «t| Berrw « . -| 1894 | 27 | 2060 lac oxalate and acetic
acid.
Thomiilen,H. .« . ~~ | Zeits. Electrochem) 1894 1 304 | Acid ammonium oxalate,
| ( Hydroxylamine sulphate.
Engels,C. «2 « - Zeits, Electrochem| 1896 | 2 | 413 |4A™mmonium acctate, tartaric
( acid and Hydroxylamine
hydrochloride.
—
Luckow states that tin can be deposited from a hydrochloric acid
solution, or from a solution of the sulphide in alkali sulphide ; but no
analytical data are given in his paper. According to Classen and Reis
(Ber., 1881, 14, 1622) fair results are obtained by using a hydrochloric
acid solution; but the most important methods are those in which an
ammonium oxalate or an alkali sulphide solution are employed. The
experimental work has therefore been confined to these methods. Moore
states that tin is easily deposited from an acid or alkaline solution of the
metal in glacial phosphoric acid, but gives no details or experimental
data ; the method has not been tried.
The Deposition of Tin from an Ammonium Oxalate Solution.
The separation of stannic acid during the electrolysis of ammonium oxa-
late solutions of tin salts, owing to the solution becoming alkaline, renders
it necessary to keep the solution acid during the electrolysis. Classen uses
either oxalic acid or acetic acid for this purpose ; in both cases a CD. inc
of 03 ampere is employed, which is increased to 0-5 or even 1-0 ampere
towards the end of the experiment. 0-3 grme. of metal are deposited in
from 6 to 9 hours, according to the strength of the current. Freudenberg
has found that in an E.M.F. of 2:3 to 2-7 volts is required to separate tin
from an oxalate solution.
A large number of experiments were made with ammonium oxalate
solutions, under varying conditions, typical results of which are recorded.
The method was not found to be reliable. It is very dificult to effect
the complete deposition of the tin before the solution becomes alkaline
unless a large excess of acid is employed, and this very much retards
the rate of deposition, An increase in current density might overcome
256 REPORT—1896.
this, were it not that the deposit then obtained is always more or less
powdery in form, and does not adhere sufficiently well to the dish to admit
of being washed without loss. The method can be made to yield fair
results if the solution be kept jus? acid throughout the electrolysis by the
‘addition of oxalic or acetic acid from time to time, as required (Series IT.) ;
but such a procedure requires constant attention, thus withdrawing at
once one of the most marked advantages of electrolytic analysis.
The tin solution used in the following experiments was prepared by dis-
solving pure tin in pure hydrochloric acid, the acid solution being neutra-
lised with ammonium hydrate before use and diluted to 175 ¢.c. The
other solutions employed were : —
Ammonium oxalate . : . 40 grme. per 1000 c.c.
Oxalic acid . : ‘ ‘ . 80 BX -
Aceticacid . : i ‘: . 50 per cent. solution.
PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS, in which 120 c.c. of the ammonium oxalate
solution were added for 0:1 grme. of tin, showed that the solution be-
comes alkaline and separates stannic acid after 6 hours, during which
time only 60-70 per cent. of the metal is precipitated. The decomposition
may be represented by the equation :—
.. CO.ONH, , CO.0\ g
CY GG.ONE, CO.07 2 tem Nas 200
Cathode Anode
(ii.) 2NH, +2CO, + 20,0 =2NH,. HCO,.
Hence the alkalinity of the solution, which must be overcome to pre-
vent the precipitation of stannic acid.
EXPERIMENTAL Data.
Series I.
Ammonium Oxalate Solution Acidified with Ovalic Acid.
{ ‘ Tin Ammonium Oxali id
Experi- | Tin taken: bond’ oxalate xalic aci Fak pe EMF. | Time:
ment Grme. ae ‘| solution | Selotion | Ampere | Volts | hours
| rme. | added, c.c. added, c.c.
1 | 0:1050 0:0670 | 100 50 0-4 3-4 5
2 00525 | 0:0247 | 100 50 O-4 30 5L
3. | 0:1050 | 0-0669 100 50 0:3 3-2 gi
4 , 00201 | 00158 ; 100 50 0:3 32 gi
5 | 01026 | 01015 80 40 02-0 | 28-37] 8
6 01026 | 01009 80 40 0:25-0°5 | 26-32 | 84
7 | 01026 | 0:0939 80 40 0°24-0°52 | 28-35] 9
8 01026 | 0:0849 | 80 40 0:23-0°5 | 33-35] 9
9 01050 | 0:1030 100 50 0°9-1-2 35 6
10 0-1¢50 | 01042 | 100 50 0-5-1-0 35 7
11 0:1050 | 0-:0740 100 50 0-8-1 0 35 6 hot |
12 01575 | 01526 | 100 50 0-5 2-8 9 hot |
13. | 01050 | 0:1055 100 75 0-5 27 5}
14 01575 | 01250 100 15 05 2:6 5L
15 02100 | 02061 100 5) 0:5-1:0 | 31-38 | 6% |
The above results are taken from forty-five experiments carried out.
In each case the electrolysis was continued until after the solution became
alkaline ; after the solution has turned alkaline, the further deposition of tin
is extremely slow, only 2-3 m. grmes. being deposited by a current of 0-5
ampere in twelve hours. Although a few fair results are recorded above
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 257
(Nos. 5, 9, 10 and 13), it is quite evident that the method is scibélinblet With
a current ‘density of 0-3 to 0°5 ampere, either throughout the experiment,
or increased up to 1:0 ampere towards the completion of the electrolysis,
as in Nos. 9, 10, the deposition is incomplete, and no advantage is
gained by warming the solution to 60°-70° C. as in Nos. 1l and 12. The
deposits obtained were bright and metallic in appearance.
Series IT.
Ammonium Oxalate Solution kept just Acid by by Oxalie Acid.
; E Awmonium Oxalic acid pomneian added
-igaecam : ey oxalate solution
Pug. 7 added, c.c. At start | During experiment
0:2160 0:2160 80 40 | 65
0:2376 0°2382 80 40 60
0:1050 0:1048 100 _— 80
In the above three experiments the solution was kept acid throughout
the electrolysis by the addition of oxalic acid from time to time ; the first
addition of acid was necessary after four hours. The results are satisfac-
tory, but the deposits were somewhat powdery in appearance, and required
very careful washing. In each case a current of 0°54 ampere was em-
ployed, and an E.M.F. of 3-5 volts ; the electrolysis was completed after
9% hours, when the solutions had become alkaline.
Series IIT.
Ammonium Oxalate Solution Acidified with Acetic Acid.
: ; Tin Ammonium Acetic acid |
Experi- | Tin taken: | p 0,4, [oxalatesolu-) solution C.D io | E.M.F. | Time:
ment Grme, Ginnie. tion added, |jadded, 50 per| Ampere Volts hours
; cc, cent. ¢.c. |
1 0:2268 0:2274 100 25 0:67 32
2 0:2592 0:2576 100 25 0°68 3:3 ot
3 0:2052 0°2041 100 25 0°50 3:3 183
4 0:2052 0:2034 100 25 0°32 3:3 19
5 0°1539 01548 100 25 0-54 37 183
6 0:1539 0:1537 100 25 0:32 32 19
6 0:1026 01021 100 25 0:28 3:0 19
8 0:1026 01012 100 25 0°51 34 183
9 0:1026 0:1024 100 25 031 3:4 193
10 0:0513 00518 100 10 0:30 37 183
11 0:0205 0:0208 100 10 0°32 36 182
12 0:01025 | 0:0103 100 10 0°35 3:2 183
13 0:1026 0:1009 100 10 0°36 37 19
14 0:1026 0°1025 100 15 0°31 3:2 19
15 0:1026 071031 100 25 0:34 37 19
‘The tin solution used was the same as in the previous series of experi-
ments ; the total contents of the dish were diluted to 175 .c. in each case,
after the addition of the reagents.
Experiments 1 and 2 show that the deposition of tin from an ammo-
nium oxalate solution acidified with acetic acid is fairly complete in from
nine to ten hours, with a current of 0:7 ampere, but the deposit obtained
is powdery and difficult to wash without loss. By employing a weaker
current and allowing the electrolysis to proceed overnight, the deposit
obtained is far better ; 3 itis dark in colour, but adheres “perfectly to the
s
2538 REPORT—1896.
dish, and the results are altogether more reliable. A current of 0:3
ampere is best, and 18-19 hours must be allowed for the complete deposi-
tion even of such small quantities as taken in Nos, 10, 11, 12, for the last
traces are only very slowly separated from solution. If a stronger current
(1:0 ampere) be employed the deposit does not adhere properly. The only
way to tell whether the deposition is complete is to expose a fresh portion
of the surface of the cathode to the solution, by diluting the contents of
the dish, and to observe whether any more metal is separated after con-
tinuing the passage of the current for one hour ; none of the ordinary
tests for tin are sufficiently delicate to indicate the completion of the
electrolysis. A comparison of Nos. 13, 14, 15, in which the amount of
acetic acid added was varied, show that from 15-25 c.c. of a 50 per cent.
solution of acetic acid is mostfavourable. The larger quantity was found
the more reliable.
This method may be regarded as giving accurate results under the
conditions mentioned ; but it is extremely important to keep the current
steady, and not to exceed 0°3 to 0-4 ampere per 100 sq. cm. of cathode
surface, otherwise it is impossible to be certain of a firm deposit.
Series LY.
Ammonium Ovalate Solution in Presence of Oxalie Acid and
Hydroxylamine Sulphate.
Engel (/oc. cit.) has recently shown that the electrolytic determination
of tin is accurately effected in a neutral solution, either by the addition of
hydroxylamine sulphate alone, or of the sulphate or hydrochloride in addi-
tion to ammonium acetate and tartaric acid. The presence of such a
reducing agent as hydroxylamine prevents the separation of stannic acid
during the electrolysis. Such an action is just what is required to render
the deposition of tin from ammonium oxalate solution reliable, and the
following experiments show that it acts favourably in the desired direction.
a oo: |
d= st Oxdio toes
| z nes xa es
, Tin Tin AES ace a0 , ae
Experi- toler . | found: | 825 mem piece lene ag0 pte ae
ment | (Grime. Ginie BS eet cadeds ne Ampere olts hours
] < ~
zs rt c.c. a |
“ es
— eee — ~ 2 — 1 SSS ee aa — =
1 06986 | 0.0980 so “| 40 0-4 0:26 2:8 185
2 0:0986 | 0-0981 80 40 O-4 0:26 2°8 195
3 0:0986 | 00986 | 8a 40 O-4 0:27 3:0 195
4 00493 | 0:0497 | 80 40 0-4 0:26 31 19
5 01972 | 0:1946 | 80 40 0-4 0:27 3-0 19
ii | if
The previously mentioned solutions of ammonium oxalate (40 grme.
per litre) and of oxalic acid (80 grme. per litre) were used in these experi-
ments, and the tin solution was prepared as described. The solution of
stannous chloride was neutralised before the addition of the reagents. A
small current was purposely employed in order to secure a firm deposit ;
the deposit obtained was quite satisfactory in all cases. The deposition
is incomplete in No. 5, showing that an increase of current or continuation
of the electrolysis was required. In each experiment the solution had
become alkaline, however, and this fact is undoubtedly the cause of the
slow rate of deposition. The results are interesting, inasmuch as they
show the possibility of keeping the tin in solution during the electrolysis,
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 259
but, from an analytical standpoint, the method possesses no advantages
over that described in Series II and III.
Series V.
Ammonium Sulphide Solution.
Luckow and Classen (/oc. cit.) have both suggested the deposition of
tin from a solution of a sulpho-salt, and the latter records a number of
accurate results obtained by employing the ammonium sulpho-salt. The
following experiments show that the method is reliable and rapid. The tin
solution, prepared in the manner previously described, was neutralised
with ammonium hydrate, and sufficient pure ammonium sulphide added
to form the sulpho-salt, the whole being then diluted to 175 c.c. before
being electrolysed.
Experi- Tin taken : Tin found : C. D. 400 E.M.F. Time:
ment Grme. Grme. Amperes Volts hours
1 0°1026 0:1032 118 73 53
2 0°1026 071026 119 77 52
3 0:1026 0:1035 1:25 76 52
4 0:0513 0:0510 1:16 73 43
5 0:0206 ' 0:0207 0:96 V1 43
6 0:0103 00102 0°85 8-1 4}
The above were six consecutive experiments. In addition to being
vapid the method is reliable, and requires no supervision. The deposit is
dark in colour, but adheres well to the dish, and does not oxidise at all
during the drying. Under the above conditions no deposit of sulphur on
the cathode, as has been referred to by others, occurred ; provided the
ammonium sulphide is carefully prepared this can be quite avoided.
Summary.
The electrolytic deposition of tin from the solution of its ammonium
sulpho-salt is a convenient and accurate method for the quantitative esti-
‘Mmation of the metal. The double oxalate solution, acidified either with
oxalic acid or with acetic acid, can, when carefully worked, be made to
yield very fair results, but it cannot be regarded as reliable ; and, as an
analytical method, it is inferior in accuracy, rapidity, and convenience to
‘the electrolysis of the sulpho-salt solution, this latter being especially
handy, as it deals directly with the sulphide of tin, the form in which
the metal is always obtained in analysis when not separated as oxide.
The addition of a hydroxylamine salt to the oxalate solution certainly
renders the method easier to carry out, but it does not obviate the other
defects mentioned.
The Electrolytic Separation of Antimony from Tin.
By Cuartes A. Koun, Pi.D., B.Sc., and C. K. Barnes, B.Sc.
Bibliography.
en AE sar —
5 Metals |
Author Journal | Year! Vol. | Page | separated | Composition of Electrolyte
from
Classen, A,, and Ludwig, R.| Ber. .] 1885 | 18 | 1104 As, Sn Sodium sulphide and hydrate
Classen, A., and Ludwig, R. | Ber. . | 188 | 19 323 | As,Sn | Sodium sulphide and hydrate
Classen, A.,and Schelle,R. | Ber. .| 1988 | 21 | 9892] Sn Sodium sulphide and hydrate
Olassen,A. . 6 866) 4) Bers =. | 1994 | 27 | 2060 As,Sn | Sodium sulphide and hydrate
82
260 REPORT—1896.
Classen has taken advantage of the fact that tin is not deposited from
a concentrated solution of the sodium sulpho-salt upon electrolysis in
order to separate it from antimony. The mixed sulphides are dissolved
in sodium sulphide, 1-2 grme. of sodium hydrate added, and the
solution electrolysed, either cold with a current of 0:2 ampere, or warm
with a current of about 1:0 ampere. Any polysulphides present must be
oxidised with hydrogen peroxide. The deposited antimony is washed and
dried as usual. The residual solution contains the tin, which is deter-
mined either by boiling with ammonium sulphate and electrolysing the
solution of the ammonium sulpho-salt thus formed, or by converting the
sulphide of tin into stannic oxide, and this into the double ammonium
oxalate for electrolysis.
Behaviour of Tin in the Electrolysis of its Sodium Sulpho-salt.
A few experiments were first tried to ascertain under what conditions
tin is not deposited from its sodium sulpho-salt. The tin was first precipi-
tated as sulphide, the precipitate thoroughly washed, and then dissolved
in sodium sulphide solution of sp. gr. 1:18. The solution was diluted to:
175 c.c., electrolysed with a current C.D.,9) of 0°2 ampere and 3:2 volts
Tin taken: Grme. Tin found: Grme. Sodtinm Sol ae ae
added
071026 0:0280 10 c.c.
0:1026 No deposit 30 c.c.
0:1026 + 50) Ge;
The above quite confirm Classen’s statement that tin is only incom-
pletely deposited from a dilute solution of its sodium sulpho-salt, and not ‘
at all from concentrated solutions. Provided the presence of antimony
has noveffect on the behaviour of the tin, the addition of 30 c.c. of sodium
sulphide solution under the above conditions is sufficient to prevent the
separation of the latter.
The Separation of Antimony from Tin in Sodium Sulphide Solution.
The following method was adopted in the separation. The mixture of
antimony and tin solutions (each prepared as described above) were
precipitated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the precipitated sulphides
collected and thoroughly washed. They were then dissolved in 50 c.c. of
sodium sulphide solution (sp. gr. 1°18), filtered, 1 grme. sodium hydrate
added, diluted to 175 c.c., and electrolysed overnight. The tin in the
residual solution can be converted into the ammonium sulpho-salt by heat-
ing it with 25 grme. of pure recrystallised ammonium sulphate, the solu-
tion being boiled for ten minutes after the evolution of the sulphuretted
hydrogen has ceased, and the resulting solution electrolysed, as de-
scribed under the determination of tin (Series V.). This method of
procedure is, however, unnecessarily lengthy, and electrolysis presents no
advantages after the separation of the antimony. It is much simpler to
precipitate the tin from the solution of its sodium sulpho-salt by the
addition of acid, and to convert the sulphide direct into the oxide by the
usual gravimetric method, and weigh this. This method was adopted in
most cases. ‘The conversion into the ammonium sulpho-salt is, however,
quite reliable, and equally accurate results were obtained by both methods.
alt ie cae ed
ON ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 261
Whenever the sedium sulpho-salt solution was coloured yellow by the
presence of polysulphides these were oxidised by gentle warming with a
little hydrogen peroxide.
A considerable number of experiments were made, using varying pro-
portions of antimony and tin, from which the following typical results
have been chosen :—
; A Sodium {Sodium
Ex) Anti- | Anti- | rin Tin Sulphide] Hy- | o2 | 2! ime-| Rati
Bert tre mony: mony | taken: | found: | Solution! drate} “2 jS5 sings soy
ment} taken: | found: grme. grme. | added: ladded: Ag las hours |Sb: Sn
gre. ErMe- ec. |grme. | O*
1} 0:2104 | 0°2084 | 0:2052 | 0:2069 50 1 019 | 35} 18 dy oll
2 | 0:2104 | 0:2107 | 0:2052 | 0-2070 50 1 0:20 | 35} 17h | 1:1
3 | 0°1052 | 0:°1067 | 0°1026 | 0:1034 50 1 018 | 35} 18 Maal
4 | 0°1052 | 0°1050 | 0:1026 | 0:1039 50 1 CUS I i Sl pla i Ei iat be
5 | 0:0840 | 0:0834 | 0:0968 | 0-0964 50 1 0-19 | 2-8; 19 IL
6 | 0:0505 | 0°0522 | 0:0513 | 0:0516 50 J 0-717 | 39|. 18 LiL
7 | 0:0420 | 0:0424 | 0:0484 | 0:0465 50 1 0:20} 2:9) 172 | Lil
8 | 0°0143 | 0°0143 | 0:0193 | 0:0199 50 1 0:20 | 3:2) 19 ane
9 | 01680 | 0°1700 | 0:0968 | 0:0978 50 1 O20) eS ie ars, 2
470 | 071959 | 0:°1953 | 0°1026 | 0°1037 50 1 0:20 | 33) 195 | 2:1
11 | 0°2145 | 0:2132 | 0:0484 | 0:0515 50 1 0:20 | 28} 18 4:1
12 | 02024 | 0°:2020 | 0:0513 | 0:0517 50 1 O19) | 2:7} 1g ae
13 | 071430 | 0:1440 | 0:0194 | 0:0201 50 1 0:21 | 3:2) 18 (e5!
14 | 02045 | 02049 | 0:0020 | 0:0025 50 1 019 | 31) 183 }10:1
15 | 0°1430 | 0°1459 | 0:0097 | 0:0100 50 1 0°21. | 32) 195 | 1431
16 | 0°1024 | 0:1023 | 0°2052 | 0°2082 50 1 0°18) 3:0) 193 | 1:2
17 | 0:0715 | 0:0730 | 0:°1986 | 0°1920 50 1 0719 | 2°6| 20 2
18 | 0:0354 | 0:0450 | 0:1936 | Not de- 50 1 0-21 | 28} 173 | 1:6
19 | 0:0354 | 0:0430 | 0°1936 |termined; 50 1 0719 | 2°8) 172 | 1:6
Other experiments, the details of which need not be recorded, showed
that :—
1. The addition of 30 c.c. of the sodium sulphide solution instead of
50 c.c. for 0-2 gramme of the mixed metals is sufficient, but that there is
no disadvantage in employing a larger excess of the reagent ; it is there-
fore better to do so as a safeguard against the deposition of tin.
2. The addition of sodium hydrate can be dispensed with if 50 c.c.
of sodium sulphide solution are used.
3. The electrolysis of the warm sodium sulpho-salt solution of the
metals with a C.D.,o) of 1:0 ampere gives low results for the antimony ;
it is therefore preferable to employ the method described, and to conduct
the electrolysis overnight.
4. The current must not exceed C.D., 9) of 0:2 ampere, otherwise
traces of tin are deposited with the antimony. With a C.D.jo) of
0-3 ampere, the antimony was 6 per cent. too high from this cause.
Summary.
The accuracy of the method adopted for the separation of anti-
mony from tin by electrolysis compares very favourably with that ob-
tainable by other methods for the separation of the two metals, pro-
vided the proportion of tin to antimony is not greater than 1 to 1
«Nos. 1-8). With a larger proportion of tin (Nos. 16 and 17) the results
262 REPORT—1896.
are less favourable, and with a ratio of tin to antimony above 2:1 quite
unreliable (Nos. 18 and 19). In presence of an excess of antimony the
method is satisfactory (Nos. 9-15). Classen’s published results on his
method of separation do not give instances of Jarger proportions of tin
to antimony than 2 to 1. The method requires care and special attention
to the strength of current employed, the purity of the sodium sulphide
used, and the thorough washing of the precipitated sulphides.
Vote on the Separation of Arsenic from Antimony and Tin ciectrolytically.
It has been shown by Classen that antimony is deposited free
from arsenic from a solution of their sodium sulpho-salts, provided the
latter is first completely oxidised to arsenic acid ; but in the presence of
tin the arsenic must be removed from the solution before the electrolytic
determination of the tin can be proceeded with, after the antimony has
been deposited. Electrolysis, therefore, offers no advantage whatever
under these conditions, and no experiments were carried out with
mixtures of the three metals. The most rational method of procedure
in presence of arsenic is to first remove it from the mixture by Fischer’s
distillation method, as described by one of us (‘J. Soc. Chem. Ind.,’ 1889,
viii. p. 256), and then to separate the tin and antimony electrolytically in
the residual solution.
The Carbohydrates of Cereal Straws.—First Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor R. WarinGton (Chairman), Mr. C.F.
Cross, Mr. Manninc Prentice (Secretury). (Drawn up by
Mr. Cross.)
THe award of a grant of 50/. from the funds of the Association has
enabled us to prosecute our researches without interruption. The branch
of the investigation with which we have been occupied has been the
determination of the precise nature of the furfural-yielding constituents
of straws.
During the summers of 1894 and 1895 we made investigations on the
growing plant (barley) to ascertain the relative rate of accumulation of
these furfuroids in the plant tissues. For these investigations we selected
two of the typical experimental plots of the Royal Agricultural Society’s
station at Woburn, the one being permanently unmanured, the other
receiving a maximum treatment with fertilisers, the pair thus representing
extreme conditions of soil nutrition. For the supplies of material we are
indebted to Dr. Voelcker, the Society’s chemist. To Messrs. Voelcker we
are also indebted for assistance and co-operation in other ways, a large
part of our experimental work having been conducted at their labora-
tories.
These investigations gave us positive indications, in general terms, as to
the origin and distribution of the furfuroids, and their relationship to the
conditions of assimilation and secondary changes obtaining in the plant.
Having laid this necessary foundation, we have during the past year
applied ourselves to the particular problem of isolating these carbo-
hydrates in a condition suitable for the direct diagnosis of their constitu-
tion. The methods suggested by our general survey of their ‘ chemical
ON THE CARBOHYDRATES OF CEREAL STRAWS. 2638
habit’ were those of acid hydrolysis, and the problem resolved itself into
an investigation of the most favourable conditions of selective attack by
suitable acids. To simplify the problem we confined ourselves at first to
the celluloses proper, isolated from the straws by the usual methods of
treatment.
The results of these investigations, which occupied us for six months,
are recorded in a paper communicated to the Chemical Society, and
published in the Journal for June 1896, p. 804.
The method of attack employed consisted in digesting the celluloses
for fifteen minutes in a 1 per cent. solution of sulphuric acid, at a
temperature of 140-150° C.
By this method we are enabled to separate the furfuroids almost
quantitatively, and in a condition of molecular simplicity. As obtained
from the celluloses, the reactions cf these compounds are those of a pentose
O
monoformal CoHO5€ OH. It does not follow, however, that when
O
isolated directly from the straws themselves, or from the stems in earlier
periods of growth, the whole of the furfuroids will be found to have this
constitution. Our subsequent work has been directed especially to this
question. The problem involved may be briefly stated as follows :
The pentoses are formed in the plant from the hexoses. In this
process a terminal CH,OH group is eliminated. The mechanism of the
change, which must involve an oxidation to CO, is probably one of re-
arrangement, and not an oxidation from without. The pentose monoformal
represents the intermediate term of the series. The tendency to the
transformation must belong either to the special configuration of the
hexose, or to the special mode of aggregation of the molecules in the form
of a tissue substance or cellulose. Assuming the former, it may result
from these investigations that one of the hexoses as yet unknown will be
found to have its terminal CH,OH group ina specially sensitive condition
by reason of exceptional configuration, 7.e., disposition of its alcoholic OH
groups. It is noteworthy, in fact, that the four hexoses, as yet unknown,
are of configurations suggesting a wider divergence from the better known
carbohydrates than these show amongst themselves. Thus:
By (eth (EO
CH,OH—C C C C—COH ; and its Antilogue
OH OH OH
and
EG) oekic 2) Es «HL
CH,OH—C C C C—COH ; and its Antilogue
OH) OF). OH. «OH
Tt is, indeed, not improbable that a special equilibrium might
characterise hexoses of this configuration, either in the isolated condi-
tion, or in the form of molecular aggregates. This is, of course, a speculative
hypothesis.
Actually we do find that the furfuroids are obtained in varying con-
ditions, and an important diagnosis is their greater or lesser susceptibility
to alcoholic fermentation by yeast.
Thus, as isolated by acid hydrolysis at high temperatures from the
264 REPORT—1896.
celluloses (obtained from the mature straws), they yield only in small
part (20 per cent.) to the action of yeast (in neutral solution). On the
other hand, on hydrolysing with H,SO,.2H,0, a solution of the furfuroids
is obtained which yields much more readily to yeast, and the proportion
fermented amounted to 80 per cent.
Again, the early growth (barley) of the present year was submitted to
the treatment with dilute acid at high temperatures. In the solution the
constants bearing on this point were as under, calculated per cent. of the
total dissolved solids :
CuO reduction ay to dextrose = 100°) . : 52:1
Furfural : : ; . . 16:1
After fermentation the solution contained traces only of furfuroids, and
the CuO reduction had fallen to 7:1.
Then, again, the ovsazones obtainable from the hydrolysed solutions
indicate important variations in the constitution of the furfuroids. The
solutions previously obtained from the celluloses at high temperatures gave
osazones of m.p. 145-155°. The solutions which we are now obtaining
from the plant tissues in their earlier stages of growth give osazones melt-
ing at temperatures exceeding 180°. On the other hand again, from the
lignocelluloses (which also yield their furfuroids to the acid solution at
high temperatures), hydrolysed products are obtained, the osazones of
which melt at temperatures as far removed on the other side from the
melting points of the pentosazones, viz., at 110-120°.
It appears, therefore, that the furfuroids of the vegetable world are a
diversified group. In addition to the pertoses themselves they include
monoformal derivatives of the pentoses, and possibly also hexoses, cer-
tainly some of their derivatives. In the latter sub-group we may include
Glycuronic acid, COOH (CHOH),.COH., as it also yields furfural as a
product of the action of hydrochloric acid.
A complete investigation of these compounds therefore offers not
merely developments of the special chemistry of the carbohydrates, but
from their wide distribution in the plant world it is clear that they play
an important part in the general physiology of tissue formation. A good
deal of interest also evidently centres in the problem of their fate in
the processes of animal digestion. From the investigations of Stone,
Agr. Science, 1893, 6) it appears that the tissue furfuroids of fodder
plants are in effect largely digested (60-80 per cent.) by the herbivora.
H. Weiske has also recently contributed to the same subject (‘ Bied. Centr.,’
25, 13), and arrives at a similar conclusion. Though digested however,
it is still an open question as to what nutritive value they may have.
It needs no further demonstration at this stage that the subject calls
for extended investigation from various points of view : that it is a sub-
ject offering more than ordinary promise of positive results.
As stated above in this report, our immediate object at the present
time is the isolation of the furfuroids of the cereal stems in the earlier
stages of growth. We have already found that the process of acid diges-.
tion adopted in the case of the straw celluloses gives an equally satis-
factory separation of the furfuroids of the growing tissues. These we
have to investigate by the standard methods—1. ultimate analysis ; 2. con-
version into osazones ; 3. fermentation ; 4. oxidation to mono- and dibasic
acids ; and so forth. Such investigations have been in progress during
the last three months.
ON THE CARBOHYDRATES OF CEREAL STRAWS. 265
This concludes our report of progress. We trust to have given satis-
factory evidence of useful work, and of having taken advantage of the
opportunities provided by the Association in their grant of funds.
Lioneric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Tenth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. A. TrLDEN and Professor H. EH. ARM-
STRONG. (Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG.)
THE completion of the investigation of the fourteen possible trichloro-
naphthalenes (including the proof that there are only fourteen) by Dr.
Wynne and the writer (referred to in the last report), following that of
the ten possible dichloronaphthalenes, marks the termination of a section
of our work.—perhaps of greater importance than any other, establishing,
as it dues, two complete series of reference compounds by means of which
all other di- and tri-derivatives of naphthalene may be classified ; whilst,
at the same time, it affords unquestionable confirmation of the accuracy of
the train of argument on which our present views of the constitution
of benzenoid compounds are based, and places the symmetrical structure of
naphthalene beyond all doubt.
Although great progress has been made in collecting the material
needed for the discussion of the laws which govern substitution in the
naphthalene series in the case of derivatives containing either halogens,
or nitro or other oxylic groups, or amidogen, or hydroxyl, before entering
on the final consideration of the results, it is essential to obtain further
evidence as to the manner in which the interactions occur, and particu-
jarly as to the nature of the ‘isomeric changes’ involved in the formation
of many sulphonic acids—an all-important, but seemingly very complex,
problem.
Much has been done during the year towards procuring the informa-
tion needed, especially in the case of the naphthols, which claim attention
on account of the remarkable ‘ plasticity ’ they manifest—a plasticity that
seems to distinguish them from all other derivatives of naphthalene, due
apparently, at least in part, to the readiness with which they are con-
verted into keto-compounds of the type first discovered by Zincke.
In order to study the influence of the OH group wndisturbed, i.e., to
prevent any change taking place in it such as is involved in the formation
of a keto-compound, numerous experiments have been made with the
methoxy- and ethoxynaphthalenes in the writer’s laboratory. Dr. Lap-
worth has very kindly undertaken the study of the sulphonic acids of the
3-compounds, and his results! form a valuable addition to our knowledge,
as such substances afford well-defined crystalline sulphochlorides, sulphon-
amides, &c., a class of derivatives which cannot be prepared from the
naphthol-acids. One very remarkable result has been arrived at by Dr.
Lapworth. The initial product formed on sulphonating a cold solution cf
B-ethoxynaphthalene is the 2: 1 acid in a nearly pure state ; but if the
product be kept at the ordinary temperature it spontaneously changes into
a mixture of the 2: 1’ and 2 : 3’ acids, the change being complete, how-
ever, at the end of twelve to fifteen hours. When /-methoxynaphthalene
is similarly treated it also yields practically nothing but the 2: 1 acid,
' Cf. Proceedings of the Chemical Society, 1895.
266 REPORT—1896.
which gradually changes on keeping ; but in this case the change takes
place much more slowly, being incomplete at the end of five or six days.
The changes which apparently take place are those indicated by the
following symbols :
s s
ep OEt OEt OEt
2 >
S
It is difficult to believe that hydrolysis and resulphonation go on in
a stiff, pasty mass at ordinary temperatures, and the transformation would
seem to be more probably the result of direct isomeric change ; but much
must be done before this-question can be finally discussed.
a-Methoxy- and a-ethoxynaphthalene do not show any similar be-
haviour, and yield only the 1 : 4 acid, which apparently does not undergo
change when heated. Mr. Shelton, who has examined the acids at my
request, has prepared from them a series of crystallised derivatives, viz.—
MP. M.P.
C,, H, (OMe.) SO, Cl. 97° C,,H,(OEt.)SO,Cl. 102°
SO,NH, 225° SO,NH, 167°
SO,NH.Ph, 136° SO,NH.Ph. 176°
The behaviour of 3-methoxy- and ethoxynaphthalene towards bromine
is normal, products being obtained which correspond to those prepared
from }-naphthol ; the investigation of the crystallographic relationship of
these promises to afford interesting results, and is being carried on by Mr.
Bennett.
It was shown by Mr. Rossiter and the writer that nitro-/-naphthol
may be prepared directly from (3-naphthol by means of nitrogen peroxide ;
it appears that it may equally well be obtained by means of nitric acid. ‘I'he
acid is carefully added toa very cold solution of the naphthol in acetic acid,
and the solution is subsequently mixed with an excess of sodium sulphite.
But the yield is poor, seldom exceeding 40 per cent. of the theoretical
amount. <A better result is obtained by very carefully nitrating chloro- or
bromonaphthol and reducing with sulphite.
The nitro-bromo-keto-naphthalene formed on nitrating dibromo-/-
naphthol is readily and completely reduced by sodium sulphite, thus
making it possible to obtain a practically theoretical yield of nitro-bromo-
naphthol :
Br Br.NO, NO,
OH 0) On
a
But in many other cases the sulphite is not a sufficiently strong agent
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 267
to reduce the keto-compound ; experiments made by Mr. Rich show that it
is impossible to use it in reducing the nitro-keto derivates prepared from—
Cl Cl
OH neon OH
and
Br Cl
The formation of the corresponding nitro-derivatives—in which the
a-atom of chlorine is displaced from the nitro-keto-compound—amay, how-
ever, be readily effected by means of hydrogen iodide, and the method
appears to be of general application.
With the object of ultimately preparing 2:5 chloro-/3-naphthol,
attempts were made to ethylate
NO,
OH
Cl
But great difficulty was experienced, the yield being most unsatisfactory ;
yet the allied compound
Br
is ethylated with the greatest ease. The case is apparently another illus-
tration of the inhibiting effect of contiguous ortho groups to which Victor
Meyer has called attention so frequently.
In seeking to remove the atom of halogen in the a-position in the
derivatives of /3-naphthol containing halogens,1l-chloro--and 1 : 3 dichloro-
B-naphthol were heated with sodium as well as potassium sulphite in the
hope of obtaining a-sulphonic acids ; the desired change was effected in
the case of the mono- but not in that of the di-chloro-compound.
Experiments carried out by Mr. Davis have led to the discovery of a
simple means of converting 1 : 3’ dibromo into 3’ bromo-/-naphthol (m.p.
127°), consisting in the mere digestion of the dibromo-compound with a solu-
tion of hydrogen iodide ; but, again, in this case, we have hitherto failed in
extending the use of the method to other derivatives containing halogens.
With the object of ascertaining whether amido-/3-ethoxynaphthalene
NH,
OEt
resembles either a-naphthylamine or (-naphthol, Mr. Davis has subjected
its acetyl derivative to the action of bromine ; the results show that the
amido group is apparently without influence, the behaviour being that of
a derivative of 3-naphthol in which position 1 is occupied.
268 REPORT—1896.
Mr. Davis has made much progress in an investigation of the nitro-
and nitrobromo-/-ethoxynaphthalenes, paying special attention to their
crystallographic characters ; they are all intensely yellow-coloured sub-
stances, and apparently the colour is an intrinsic property. As the corre-
sponding phenol derivatives are colourless substances, it will be of interest
to institute an exact comparison between the two series.
It should also be mentioned that, in the course of their work during the
year, Dr. Wynne and the writer have been able to confirm Cleve’s observa-
tion that the 1 ; 3 nitro-acid is among the products of the nitration of
naphthalene-/3-sulphonic acid (‘ Proceedings of the Chemical Society,’ 1895,
No, 158, p. 238). This result is of interest, as no other case is known of
the direct formation of a meta-di-derivative of naphthalene.
Lhe Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE (Chairman), Professor
H. E. Armstrone (Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr.
GEORGE GLADSTONE, Sir Jonn Luszock, Sir Partie Maanvs, Sir
H. E. Roscor, and Professor 8. P. THompson.
Your Committee have the satisfaction of reporting that the return of the
Education Department for this year shows continued progress in respect
ef the teaching of science subjects in Elementary Schools. Under the old
régime, which existed until 1890, ‘English,’ by which was meant the
elements of English Grammar, including parsing and analysis of sen-
tences, was an obligatory subject if any of the class subjects were taught
in a school ; and as Geography has always enjoyed a considerable measure
of popularity, no room was practically left for Elementary Science.
Hence during the eight years ending with 1890 the number of depart-
ments of schools in which these three class subjects were taught was as
follows :—
Class Subjects.—Departments | 1882-83 | 1883-84 | 1884-85 |
ee |
English . . . .
| a, 4 | 7 | a
1885-86 | 1886-S7 | 1887-88 | 1888-89 | 1889-90
18,363 1,080 19,431 | 19,608 | 19,917 | 20,041 | 20,153 | 20,304
|
at
12,336 | 12,055
Geography 5 . ° “nl 12,823
45 | 43
12,775
Elementary Science ~ oH 48
51
12,035 | 12,058 12,171 | 12,367
| 36) 82
As soon, however, as full liberty of choice was given to managers and
teachers, the number of departments in which ‘English’ was taught
commenced to decrease, notwithstanding the natural increase in the
number of schools ; while the two other subjects named have been taken
up more largely, and have continued to receive greater attention year by
year. The figures up to 1894-95, which is the latest return issued by the
Education Department, are as follows :—
Class Subjects —Departments | 1890-91 1891- | 1892-93 | 1893-94 1894-95
English : - - | 19,825 18,175 17,394 | 17,032 16,280
Geography . : - . | 12,806 13,485 14,256 15,250 15,702
Elementary Science 3 | 173 788 1,073 1,215 1,712
The number of departments in ‘schools for older scholars’ for the
year 1894-95 was 22,798, of which 33 did not take any class subject,
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 269
leaving 22,765 as the number of departments with which the foregoing
table has to dea]. But it must be borne in mind that History is taken in
3,597, and Needlework (for girls) in 7,396 departments, making, with the
other three subjects in the table, 44,687 in all. This shows an average of
nearly two class subjects to each department. As, however, there were no
less than 5,872 departments in which only one class subject was taken, it
is evident that the plan of teaching one subject in the lower division of a
school and another subject in the upper division, thus counting twice over
in the statistical table, is largely adopted. This is further borne out by
the fact that, while the Education Department only recognises two class
subjects taken by any individual scholar, there are 4,458 departments in
which three, and 284 in which four or five, of these class subjects are
taught. That Elementary Science is taught in 1,712 departments must,
therefore, be accepted with the reservation that in many cases it is only a
portion of the school that gets the benefit of this instruction.
As a matter of fact, though the means of getting at the precise
numbers are not available, it can be asserted that Elementary Science has,
in very many cases, been taught only in the lower standards as a prepara-
tion for the study of scientific specific subjects in the upper portion of the
school. This arrangement has received the approval of Her Majesty’s
Inspectors, as well as of managers and teachers ; and this year the plan
has received further recognition by the introduction into the Day School
Code of 1896 of ‘alternative courses in English, Geography, and History
for schools which take other class subjects in the lowest three standards,”
the other subjects referred to (though there is nominally a considerable
choice) being practically Object Lessons or Elementary Science. Object
Lessons, in fact, are now made obligatory as a class subject in the three
lowest standards if only one class subject be taken. It is satisfactory to
find that there is an actual diminution in the number of girls’ departments
taking Needlework as a class subject as compared with former years ; not
that this art is neglected, but that it is more frequently taken now as an
additional subject for the one shilling grant, so leaving the field free for
two class subjects in addition.
With increased attention to Object Lessons and Elementary Science in
the lower portion of the schools, it is reasonable to expect progress in
the teaching of the scientific specific subjects in the higher standards ;
and the return for the last five years confirms this expectation. The
number of scholars examined in the following subjects is shown in the
table annexed :—
ss
Specifie Subjects.—Children 1890-91 1891-92 | 1892-93 | 1893-94 | 1894-95
Algebra. & - : 31,349 | 28,542 31,487 33,612 38,237
Euclid ; 5 4 ae 870 927 1,279 1,399 1,468
Mensuration : atl 1,489 2,802 3,762 4,018 5,614
Mechanics . : ; : 15,559 18,000 20,023 21,532 23,806
Animal Physiology . 5 15,050 13,622 14,060 15,271 17,003
Botany c 2 : é 2,115 1,845 1,968 2,052 2,483
Principles of Agriculture . 1,23 1,085 909 1,231 1,196
Chemistry . neat We ¢ 1,847 }+ 1,935 2,387 3,043 3,850
Sound, Light, and Heat . 1,085 1,163 1,168 1,175 914
Magnetism and Electricity 2,554 2,338 2,181 3,040 8,198
Domestic Economy . -| 27,475 26,447 29,210 32,922 36,239
Total ; a 100,624 98,706 | 108,434 | 119,295 | 154,008
270 REPORT—1896.
The numbers for the last year show a greater proportional increase
than in any previous year. , This is especially noticeable in Algebra,
Domestic Economy, Mensuration, Mechanics, and Chemistry. The prin-
cipal falling-off is in the subject of Sound, Light, and Heat, probably due
to the very wide extent of that subject. Last year it was noted that
very nearly half the students in Mechanics had reached the second or
third stage in that subject ; this year’s Report is not so favourable in
that particular, nearly three-fifths of the students in 1894-95 being in
the first stage. In Chemistry, on the other hand, there is an improve-
ment on last year, more than one-third of the whole number having been
examined in the second stage.
Estimating the number of scholars in Standards V., VI., and VIT. at
590,000, the percentage of the number examined in these specific subjects
as compared with the number of children qualified to take them is 22-7 ;
but it should be remembered that many of the children take more than
one subject for examination. The following table gives the percentage for
each year since 1882 :—
In 1882-83
y 1883-84
»» 1884-85
» 1885-86
,, 1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
, 1889-90
1890-91
, 1891-92
, 1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
The Returns of the Education Department given above refer to the
whole of England and Wales, and are for the school years ending with
August 31. The statistics of the London School Board are brought up to
the year ending with Lady Day, 1896. They also illustrate the great
advance that has been made in the teaching of Elementary Science as a
class subject, and they give the number of children as well as the number
of departments.
per cent.
WODDODADRHDONWAS
AWOL MNO HOUR OAOCS
BS BS RO eb et st et et ht
Years Departments , Children
1890-91 11 2,293
1891-92 113 26,674
1892-93 156 40,208
1893-94. 183 49,367
1894-95 208 52,982
1895-96 246 | 62,494
School Board at the last-named date was 854, showing that a somewhat
larger proportion take Elementary Science as compared with the previous
year.
The alterations that were made in the Code of 1893 for evening
continuation schools give increasing evidence of bearing good fruit. In
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 2741
last year’s Report your Committee gave in tabular form the number of
‘units for payment’ of the grant by the Education Department for the
several scientific subjects taken throughout England and Wales during
the session 1893-94, together with a similar return for the schools under
the London School Board. In the following table these figures are
reproduced, together with the corresponding returns for the session
1894-95. It may be desirable to report that the ‘unit’ means a com-
plete twelve hours of instruction received by each scholar, fractions of
twelve hours not counting.
| Units for Payment
Science Subjects England and Wales London School Board
1893-94 1894-95 1893-94 1894-95
Euclid . : 5 - . 595 1,086 10 29
Algebra . . . . e é 3,940 6,657 316 302
Mensuration . : : : ; 14,521 32,931 279 BYE!
Elementary Physiography . ‘ 2,554 4,045 37 9
Elementary Physics and Chemistry 6,500 7,850 79 200
Science of Common Things . f 6,223 10,350 231 262
Chemistry . - , 5 £ 3,484 7,814 212 455
Mechanics . 3 ¥ : edt 841 1,148 230 197
Sound, Light, and Heat. 5‘ j 500 1,046 — 15
Magnetism and Electricity . : 2,359 4,451 662 776
Human Physiology 4 : ‘ 5,695 8,395 91 68
Botany . . : : ; 2) 336 547 5 91
Agriculture . A ° } ri 3,579 4,991 oe she,
Horticulture . : : ‘ 438 1,140 — ne
Navigation . : 2 - 4 42 69 = oa
The total number of units for the year 1894-95 is (for England and
- Wales) 92,520, whereas the number of scholars is 55,132, indicating that
fully two-thirds of them must have received atleast twenty-four hours of
instruction. It will be remarked that there has been an unparalleled
_ increase in the subject of Mensuration, considerably more than double,
and that it is farand away the mest popular subject. In some of the others
the figures are more than doubled ; but it is interesting to note that the
Science of Common Things holds the second place in popular estimation ;
and that the allied subjects of Chemistry (which has considerably more
than doubled itself) and Elementary Physics and Chemistry score between
them no less than 15,664 units. It appears there were no less than
18,648 individual students of Mensuration, while the number of students
for the three other subjects above referred to were 6,638, 4,691, and 4,961
respectively. There were 5,241 students in Human Physiology. The
figures for London show an advance, but not in proportion to those for
England and Wales. The principal increase is in Chemical Science and
in Botany.
The popular subject of the Science of Common Things is no doubt one
that may be made extremely valuable by good teaching. Your Committee
are glad to know that Professor Smithells has for the last three years
conducted a course for teachers on this subject at the Yorkshire College,
Leeds. This course has included practical work.
Tn last year’s Report reference was made to the improved method of
teaching Elementary Physics and Chemistry in the schools of the London
272 REPORT—1896.
School Board in Hackney and the Tower Hamlets. The work has con-
tinued to develop, the most satisfactory element being the manner in
which the interest of the teachers themselves has been stimulated. Pro-
gress has been made in dealing with a much larger number of teachers
than hitherto ; and the teaching throughout the schools shows marked
improvement in quality and enthusiasm ; genuine efforts are now made
by the teachers to induce their scholars to think. The number of schools
attempting experimental work will soon be largely increased, owing to the
appointment of an additional demonstrator. The one in the Tower Hamlets
and Hackney Division has held classes for women teachers also in Experi-
mental Science, especially in relation to the home; thus a large number
of teachers are prepared to give some reality to their teaching in Domestic
Economy, and by it to benefit their scholars to a greater extent. It is
satisfactory to note that a request emanating from the teachers themselves
has led to the establishment of similar classes in South London under
another of the Board’s demonstrators, and it is hoped before the winter
is past that like facilities will be offered to teachers in all parts cf the
metropolis.
With regard to the instruction of pupil teachers, the expectation
referred to in the Report for 1894 has not been realised. No definite
course of practical science has been rendered obligatory, but the Educa-
tion Department has fallen back upon the old plan of giving marks
for certificates from the Science and Art Department. These certificates
must, however, have been gained either in the year of the Queen’s
Scholarship Examination or in the preceding year. It is also now pro-
vided that no student may be registered in the advanced stage of any
subject until he has passed the examination of the Department in the
elementary stage, or has passed some corresponding examination which
is considered by the Department to sufficiently meet the requirements of
the case. A change has also been made in the mode of assessing the
grants by the Science and Art Department, which it is believed will
conduce to the improvement of the study of science.
With regard to the syllabus used in the schools themselves, that of
mechanics is very largely taken, but much of it must necessarily be
taught with the sole object of giving information devoid of illustration
or experimental proof. It is not planned in accordance with modern
ideas of science teaching, and should be materially altered. The Domestic
Economy Syllabus (for girls) also needs complete reconstruction for similar
reasons.
Your Committee consider that the time has come when Educational
authorities should definitely lay down a scheme of Elementary Experi-
mental Science, to be taken by every scholar before he is allowed to
specialise into the various branches of science.
The all-important point in elementary schools is to train teachers to
regard science teaching as a means of mental culture, and to get them
to teach accordingly. The courses in the training colleges and pupil
teachers’ centres appear to work in exactly the opposite direction ; so
busy are these institutions in teaching ‘sciences’ for the sake of the
certificates issued by the Science and Art Department, that the teaching
of scientific method is apt to be almost entirely ignored.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 273
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. EH. Roscoe (Chairman),
Dr. Marswatt Warts (Secretary), Professors J. N. Lockyer,
J. Dewar, G. D. Livetnc, A. Scnuster, W. N. Hartiey, and
Wotcorrt Grpps, and Captain ABNEY. (Drawn up by Dr. Watts.)
Arcon (Vacuum TuBe).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Anzeiger Wien. Akad.,’ xxi. (1895).
‘Sitz. d.k. Akad. d. W. Wien,’ civ. (1895).
* Denkschr., d. k. Akad. d. W. Wien,’ lxiv. (1896).
Kayser : “Astroph. J.’ iv. i. (1896) ; ‘Sitz. Akad. W. Berlin,’ xxiv. (1896).
: Crookes : ‘Chem. News,’ lxxi. 58 (1895).
* Common to both ‘red’ and ‘ blue’ spectra.
+ A constituent of the third or ‘ white’ spectrum of argon.
|| Belongs to Mercury.
” ”
RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON.
Reduction to ‘
Wave-length t saben
: Ir , Previous eae eae
: avec Rare | ntensity Observations a 1 eae
(a) Valenta (b) Ne
7723°4 2 2:09 3°5 129421
7635°6 2 7646 Crookes | 2:06 3 13093-0
T5151 2 2-04 3°6 13302°9
75034 2 7506 re 2:03 5 13323°2
7383°9 2 73717 7 2-01 37 13539°3
7271°6 1 7263 3 1:97 3 13748°4
f 7146°8 L 1:95 3°8 139895
7066°6 qT 7056°4 af 1:92 ‘ 14147°3
7029°2 1 1:91 5 14222°6
6964°8 8 6965°6 oP 1:89 39 14354:0
6937°8 i 188 es 14409°9
‘ 6870°6 1 1°86 = 14550°8
6786°5 it 184 | 40 147311
6752°7 3 6754 55 1°83 = 14804°9
| 6676°5 3 6664 59 1:81 + 149747
6415°2 5 6407 # 1-74 4:2 15583°8
6384:5 2 63772 3 a “4 15658°7
6368-0 1 1-73 = 15699°3
6307°8 1 1:72 43 15849°1
6296°8 2 6302? 3 171 3 15876'8
*6§217°5 1 1:69 4-4 16079°2
' 6212°5 2 6210 Fe we hs 16092°2
*6172°9 2 6173 Pr 168 aA 1619574
6170°3 1 3 iy 16202°3
6155-2 1 Pe “5 16242:0a
6145-6 2 6143 3 1:67 iy 16267°3a
6106-1 2 6099 7 166 Ws 16372°7a
| 6098-8 1 es mi 16392:3a
6059°5 4 6056 53 165 | 45 | 16498-5¢
| 6052-7 2 files ert 16517:1a
6043-0 6043-68 4 6045 a Seb 16541:7)
/ 6031°5 6032-69* 5 6038 ” | L64 . 16571°8)
' =©60258 1 ge » | 16590-8a
1896. :
274 REPORT—1896.
RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
7 i fs Reduction to
i apg : Previous Vacuum Oscillation
(Intensity | Observations = jo a5 aq), Mrequeney,
Kayser Eder & x dy in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) A
6013°6 1 1:64 4:5 16624:5a
5999°5 1 1°63 HP 16663'6a
5987°5 1 a a5 16697:0a
5943°5 1 1:62 4:6 16820°5a
5928°5 | 5928-61* 2 5926 Crookes | 1°61 ~ 16862'70
5912-22 | 5912-48* 4 5909 5 3 a 16909°2a)
5888°93 5889-02* 3 | 5887 5 1:60 a 16976°3ab
5881°78 5883°03 | 2 5s * 16993-8ab
5860°6 5660°69 2 5858 ” “1 ” 17059:2d
5832°3 5834°63* 2 5834 ” 1:59 4:7 1713430
5802-4 5802745 1 5803 a | 1°58 or 17229°4b
5772°5 5772°52* 1 5771 1) teat 35 17318°8)
5739°87*+ 5 | 1°56 - 17417°2d
5701-19 1 bb 4:8 17535°40
5691-94" 1 pede 5 1756395
5690-1 5690-19* 1 Vege o 17569°3D
5683:0 5682-26* 1 5683 > 5 = 17593°8d
56594 5659-47* 1 | 1°54 5 176647)
6650°90 5651-03*F 4 5651 o } cf es 17691'3ab
5649-02* 3 ae x 1769735
5641-74 2 get 64 17720°20
5639°39* 1 — re 17727°6)
5637°68 1 ” ” 17733°00
5635'91* 2 z “ 17738°6d
5624-06* W 1:53 4 1777600
5621°28 2 a e 17784:8b
5618-30" 3 95 zs 17794:2b
5607:44*+ 8 Es 4:9 17828°60
5606°84 5 5610 pe = » | 1783072
5599°6 5600-91 1 - 4 17853°5b
5597-897} 5 a . 17859:0b
5589-4 1 | 1-52 a i7886'la
5582-204 3 = * 17900:2d
5581°3 1 * PP 17912:1a
5572-71 5572-8T*+ 3 5567 e 2 S 17939:4ab
5559:93*F 3 om : 17980°9b
5558-80 5559-02*+ 6 55570 —i,, % 17984:2ab
5525°2 5525°27*+ 4 5520 = lost = 180937)
5506"7 5506-42%+ | 3 5501 ff 150 |. ., 18155°7)
549602 5496:16*+ 6 54965, é 50 | 18189-5ad
5490-37* 2 A ” 18208°7)
5473-76* 3 1°49 ae 18263°5)
5467-41 3 bs os 18285°2b
5459-57 1 ms x 18311°4d
5458°2 5457-75* + 5456 7 ‘ | 2 18317°62
5451-87 5451-957} 6 n " 18337:2ab
5443-5494 3 5444 5d 2 ‘, 18365°4)
5442-1 5442°54* 1 a 4 18368°8d
5440-28" 4 z 5 18376°4)
5421°9 5421-68*+ 4 5421 es 1°48 oe 18439°5d
54128 1 i: ;, 18469°8a
5410°76* 4 5 o 18476°7)
5494-20* 1 e 51 185333)
5373°76* 3 1:47 <3 18603°8)
52753 i 1:44 5:2 18951L'la
lt erie ae
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
275
Wave-length Reduction to
‘1 | Provinus Vacuum Oscillation
: “Intensity | Qbservations § -| Frequency
Kayser Eder & | nee a in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) | A
5254:79* 2 1:44 5:2 19025:10
5254°4 5253°09* 3 5258 Crookes rh - 19031:2d
§221°9 5221°65*+ 3 5222 3 1°43 * 19145°8b |
5188-46 } 5 1°42 53 1926820 |
5187-47*+ 5 ” ” 19271:95
5ETTSl* 1) 2 1:41 - 19307:7)
5162°6 5162-59" | 4 5165 7 rE 7 19364:8D
5152°7 5151-74* =| 3 ” ” 19405°6)
51200 SITS bbe el 1:40 * 19531°40
5063-2 5060°39* 2 5065 pS 1°38 5-4 19745:9)
5054-54 1 a3 is 19778°7D
5051°3 ip ot 5 ; 19780°6a
504918 ee A * 19800°20
5010°4 es 5012 F4 1:37 55 19953:0a
4969°6 ee 4965°5 > A ie 20116°8a
489501 | 2 1°34 56 20423-4d
4889-4 4888:21* 1 ” ” 20450°8d
4882°3 2 4879 ts mE Rs, 20476'Ta
4849-9 1 1:33 57 20613°3a
4807'8 4 fats? 5 20801:2a
4768:3 4768°79 1 1:30 58 20963:9D
4753-02 2 ” ” 21033°5d
4746°82 1 ” ” 21060°9)
4738-2 4736:03*F 1 ” ” 21108°90
4732°4 1 rE e 21125'la
4702-504 4702°38* 4 4701°2 # 1:29 59 212596)
4658:04*f 4 1:28 = 21462°3d
4647-45 1 | 1:27 * 21511°3d
4628°628 4628-60 5 4629°5 . rr 6:0 21598: lab
4609-73*} 4 1:26 bs 21687:2d
4596-205 4596°30 5 45945 % re * 21750°8ab
4523°54 1 1:24 61 22100°5d
4522°389 4522-49 3 4514:0 k= 4 a 22105:9ab
4510°851 4510-90 7 4509°5 4 Be aA 22162:5ab
4510°66 1 ” ” 22207:9D
4481-09*F 3 1:23 6-2 22305°30
4431°16*+ 2 1:21 6:3 22561:2d
4430°35*+ 4 * a 22565°3d
4426°16"} 6 ” ” 22586°6b
4424-09 3 ” ” 22597°2b
4401-19*+ 5 . Ss 22714:9d
4379°79*F 4 1:20 55 22825°8b
4371°46*+ 3 ny 5 22869-3d
4663-970 4363°94 4 4 6-4 22908'6ab
4348°11*+ 8 ts) a 22992°1d
4345-322 ” 4345:27 7 43450 ” 75 a 23007-0ad
4337-20* 1 F | 5 23049:°95
4335°491 4335°42 6 ; - BS 23059:2ab
4333°714 4333°65*+ 8 4333°5 * ic 35 23068-6ab
4331:31*} 1 4 5 23081°30
432177 1 A 4s 23132°30
4312°27 2 1:18 45 23183°26
4304033 1 ee 6:5 23227°6a
T2
276 REPORT—1896.
RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction to
Wave-length Ones Vacuum Oscillation
Intensity ona Frequency
Kayser Eder & a xe ive in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b)
4300:249 4300718 8 4300°5 Crookes} 1:18 65 23248°5ab
4288°06 1 0) 4 2331416
4278-21 i 1 I ke a” 23367°8d
4277:°65* 1 a9” AL eng 23370°8D
4272°304 4272-29¥+ 8 4272:0__,, ane Wee 23399'6ab
4266°425 4266:44*+ 8 42660 ,, ape Wes 23432°3ab
426538 2 o 55 23438°16
4259 491 4259-50f 9 42595, 3 sy 23470°5ab
4251°329 4251:27 5 42515, ” 66 23515'6ab
4247-68 i ayer WIAs 23535°7b
4228:27*} + 1:16 a 23643°76
| 4212°37 1 ” ” 2373305
4210-14 1 ” ” 23745:6b
4205007 1 ” ” 23774: 6a
4202°11*f 4 1:15 s 23791:06
4200°799 4200 75*+ 10 42010 =», = * 23798 :5ab
4198°162 4198-40t 10 41980, ” 67 23812'6ab
4191°841 j 4191-02*+ 10 ah oil os 23851:5ab
4190°841 | 4190°85*+ 7 41905 5. Te es 23854:8ab
4182-002 4182:03*+ cf 41830 __,, aS = 23905:2ab
4164:309 4164:36*+ if 41645, PeeL | 24006'6ab
4162-906 1 3 24015-0a
4158°722 4158°63* 10 cM G33 Disa Lee. 24039°3ab
4154°657 1 41566, - ™ 24062°6a
4154°663 2 * ’ 24062°6ab
4152:97 5 ” ” 24072°5d
415018 1 i 53 24088°64
4147°36 2 Ps 6:8 24105:0b
4141°65 ig i s 24138°2d
413448 1 25 y 24180°0d
4131°95* 2 ” ” 24194°8b
4104:10* 3 LAS a» 24359'1d
405591 1 1:12 69 24648°5b
4054°65 4, 1-11 » | 24656:°1d
4050'18 3 ss 70 24683°3d
4046-620 2 ” ” 24712-0a
4046:027 4046:04 3 Ae * 24708'6ab
4044-565 4044:52+ 8 4044-0, si ¥ 24717:7ab
4033°11 3 ” ” 24787°8b
4013-97*+ 4 STO tS ES 2490606
3979°57* 5 SONS eel 2512126
3960°24 1 1:09 * 25243:9b
3954°77 1 mf 12 25278°7b
3949:107 3949-08+ 8 3948°5 yy be a 25315'lab
3947-645 3947°75 5 ” ” 25324:0ab
3943°55 2 ae tate, 25350°6d
3928°78*+ 4 1:08 - 25446:0b
3914-93*+ 1 a E 25536:06
3900:065 3900-04 5? As 73 25633-4ab
3894-795 3894:78 3 1:07 os 25668 :0ab
3868°68* 3 3 5 25841:30
3866°353 386623 1 9 ” 25858°3ab
3850 693 3850°70* f 3 L0G tee 25962-0ab
3834-768 3834:83 8 38355, a = 26069°7ab
3809°58* 2 1:05 Te 26242°26
et ee a
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 277
Wave-length
RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
| Reduction to |
Taseieee Previous Doe Usiectels
= ——| Intensi e requeney
a Eder & ¥| Observations “a | - = Spe
(a) Valenta (b) | A
3801-049 1 105 | 74 | 26301-1a
3781°461 3781°50 3 Tas eyes 26437°3ad
3781:07* 2 2 Rs 26440°10
3775°476 3775°62, 2 1:04 s 26478°3ab
3770°440 3770°80* 4 3771°5 Crookes + 75 26513°3ab
3765°48* 2 - . 26549°5d
3760°43 1 - “ 26585°2b
3743-808 3743°95 1 “ » | 26702°8ab
3738-030 3738:04+* 1 aS » | 26744:5ab
3729°52*+ 3 1:03 : 26805°6d
3696°587 3696-70 PA . 76 27044:0ab
3691-001 3691-09 3 1:02 -e 27085:0ab
3680°30* 5 An et 2716400
3678°43* 6 - me 27177°8D
3675°353 3675°38 2 * ra 27200-5ab
3670°783 367098 2 4 “a 27234-0ab
3663-392 1 “i ” | 97394-4a
3659-632 3659°70 3 : + 27317-ladb
3654:962 1 1-01 % 27352740
3650-258 | 3649-99 3 is ” | 97388-6ab
3643-227 | 3643-30 3 i "| 27440-2ab
3634:586 363464 6 ; re 27505-5ab
3632°766 3632°82 4 36325, os s 27519:2ab
3606-677 3606-69T 3 36050, 1:00 S 27718 :5ab
3599822 3599-19 1 a “5 27773 :8ab
3588-64* 2 FS rps, 27857'8d
3582-72 1 % 4 27903°9D
3582°54* 2 * * 27905°3d
3581:82* 1 ‘ ” | 97910:95
3576-80* 3 099 | 3 | 27950-15
3572-416 | 3579-44 3 os ” | 97984-2ab
3567°789 3567°88 ah 35665, e S 28020°3ad
3564-423 3564°54* 3 a a 28046°7ab
3563°362 3563°50 6 3562°8,, 0:99 79 28055°0ab
3561°51*} oe “ 2807010
3559-601 3559°69* 2 3 x 28085°4ad
3556135 | 3556-16 2 ” | 98119-4ab
3555755 2 = + 28117:10
3554-435 | 3554-48 5 35545 ,, ” | 2 |. 981958ab
3551-95 1 . ” | 98145-5b
3545-947 3545°87 3 + 8:0 28193'5ab
3514°513 3514°53* 2 0:98 os 28445-4ad
3509°934 a “p 28487-3a
3506-650 3506°64 2 “e 81 28509°2ab
3493-435 3493-40 2 0:97 a 28617:2ad
3476894 | 3476-96* 2 i ” | 98752-9ab
3461:192 3461:23 3 A 8-2 28883°4ab
3455-076 345514 1 0:96 és 28934:5ab
3442640 | 3449-77 1 ‘ ” | 99038-7ab
3406-287 340629 1 0:95 8:3 29348°3ab
3398-016 1 » | om | 29420°6a
3393°848 3394 03 3 =n 8-4 29456:0ab
3392-885 3392-94 2 e 4 29464-8ab
3389:955 | 3390-05 1, ” 1” | 99490-1ab
3388-464 ee 1 29501 5a
278
REPORT—1896.
RED SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction to
=
Wavedlengie : Prdvious Vacuum eae
ntensity ; ‘requency
mayest erage Observations 7 1 y i
(a) Valenta (b) rz
3387°698 3387°80 1 0:95 8:4 29509'Tab
3381°573 3381°67 1 ‘ 4 29563:2ab
3373586 3373°65 2 0°94 ‘ 29633'4ab
33607146 1 F 8:5 29752:9a
3341°637 1 i 5 29916:9a
3325°626 3325°63 2 0°93 - 30061:0ad
3323°91 1 * 86 30077°5d
3319°459 3319-42 2 3 2 30117:0ab
3303-08 1 - x, 30266-4a
3302°50 3 F's + 30271:5a
3295-44 P4 0:92 s 30336°4a
3244-51 a 0-91 88 30812:5ab
317511 1 0:89 9:0 31486:la
3131-90 2 0°88 91 31920:4a
3125°70 4 és . 31983°8a
3034:7 4 0°86 9-4 32943°8d
3029°10* 2 x “s 33003°7b
3027:07* 1 9 4 33025°8b
3021-52 3021°9 4 0°85 9°5 33085'4ab
2979°35* 2 | 0°84 9-6 335547)
2972°60 1 i = 33631-1a
2968°39 2 PA She 33678'6a
2967-35 2967°3 5 ee bs 33690°4ab
2943:17* 1 é 9°8 33967'1b
2893°5 1 0°82 | 10:0 34550:2b
2891:87* 3 Ae 5 34569°7b
2873'5 3 5 ss 34790°8b
2866:0* 1 ‘. 101 34880°70
2833°6 3 0°81 | 10:2 35280°6b
2802:2 3 0-80 | 10:3 3567596
2614:6 4 0-76 | 11-1 38235°7b
2614:2* 1 se se 38241:7b
2577°6 1 075 | 11:3 38784:5b
2571-5* il _ x 38876°6D
||2536-7 8 O74 | 11-4 39409°8d
2516°3 4 0°73 | 11°6 39729°3d
247865 3 a 11°8 40332°8)
2476°35 2, Be 40370°20
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON.
Reduction to
Wave-length , mead Vacuum | Oscillation
ntensit : requency
Rayass Eder & Y| Observations eet: | 55 dens
(a) Valenta (b) A
6684:°2 2 1°82 40 14956°7
6644°2 3 1:80 4-1 15046°6
6638°6 2 6628? Crookes if % 150593
6482'8 1 1:76 4:2 15421:2
6243°7 2 6232? ,, 1:70 4:3 16011°8
6215°6* 1 1-69 44 16084°3
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 279
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Wave-length
Kayser
(a)
6172°3*
6140°9
6114-1
Fder &
Valenta (b)
6032:69*
5928-61*
5912-48*
5889:02*
5834-63*
5772°52*
5739-87*F
5691-94*
5690:19*
5682:26*
5659:47*
5651-03*t
5649-02*
5641-74*
5639°39*
5635:01*
5624:06*
5618:30*
5607°44*+
5597:89*+
5582°20*+
5577-98
5572°87*+
5559-93*+
5559:02*+
5554:37
5534:73*
5529:18*
5525°27*+
5506-43*+
5498-55
5496°16*+
5490:37*
5473-76*
5467°41*
5457°75*
5454-71
5451-95*}
5443-544
5442-54"
5440:28*+
5421-68*+
5410-76*
5407°70
5402-95
-5397-90
5394-20*
5375:76*
5306-04
5287-24+
526505
5254-79*
Intensity
HR ORE RE DDN D RD EN EDN REP RP RON KUNDEN ON RNP WOR EE RRR ONE RP EDR RP Re Eb
Previous
Observations
6173 Crookes
6120 %
Reduction to
Vacuum Oscillation
——| Frequency
1 in Vacuo
AF =
1°68 4:4 16197°1
1:67 bs 16279°9
1°66 | ...,, 16351°2
1°64 4:5 16571°8
161 46 16862 7
< 3 16908°8
| 1°60 ” 16976°2
| 1:59 4:7 17134:°3
io vaplewe 17318°8
1°56 e 174173
1°55 48 | 17563°9
F - 175690
” 99 17593°8
1°54 % 176647
pe a 17691°1
= 17697'3
ms ie 17720°2
ms S 177276
“ - 17738°6
CET rad 17776:0
6 - 17794°2
wb 4:9 17828°6
¥ 2 17859°0
1°52 “4 17909°2
a 17922°7
z = 17939°2
y Pe 17980°9
Fs - 17983°8
. 17998°9
e is 18051°0
‘ ‘ 18093°8
1:50 i 181556
5:0 18181°6
a i 18189:0
4 i 18208:0
1:49 “s 18264:0
ie is 183852
se a 18317°6
" fe 18327°8
es ie 18337°1
3 + 18365°4
“ x 18368°7
¥ 4 1837674
1:48 Fe 18439°5
zs Fs 18476°7
ss "A 18487°1
. * 18503°4
~ 35 18533°3
i i 18603'8
1:45 a 18841°3
ba 5-2 18908°3
“ :! 19025°1
80
REPORT—1896.
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON —continued.
| Reduction to
ee ee, Vacuum | Oscillation
——|Intensity! Qbservations | Frequency
Kayser Eder & Path Aes in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) | A
} |
5253-09* 2 1:44 | 5:2 | 19031-20
5221-65*+ 4 143 | 5:2 | 19145°8b
5217°17t 3 A ES 19162°3)
5187:47*t 3 1:42 | 5:3 | 19271:9D
5177'81* 1 ~ % 19307-9b
5176°56+ 4 _ + 19312°5d
5166:03f 5 | 1:41 i 19351:9D
5162°59*+ 37} e i. 19364:8)
5151°74* oe ai = id 19404-7
5145-565 5145°57 Ts ; 5 19428-9ab
5141 909 514220 4 | 5140 Crookes | _,, if 19442-2ab
5126714 De 1:40 bi 19502°5b
5118°55* 1 i < 19531°40
5090'81 2 1:39 | 5:4 | 19637°85
5076°25¢ 1 * # 19694-0b
5062°199 5062°35t 5 5065 a 1:38 Fs 19748'6ab
5060°39* 2 ‘ x 19755°9b
5024°47 3 1°37 | 5:5 | 19897-1b
5017°331 5017-46+ 4 5012 pS i ia 19925:2ab
5009-426 5009°63r 5 5007 + it i 19956-5ab
497240¢ | 4 1:36 ee 20105°5d
4965:239 4665°38+ 4 49655, A e 20134:2ab
495531 | 4 | “i & 20174:9b
494953 | 2 1:35 “I 20198'4b
4943-17 | 4 if 202243
4933406 4933-49 | 4 4938 ¥ ry 5:6 | 20264-2ab
490505t | 4 1°34 a 20381°60
4893:57 4 1 20429:4b
4888 88t 4 i s 20449-4D
4888-21* 2 m ie 20451'8d
488246 4 A - 20475°9b
4880-004 4880°14t 8 4879 - 3 te 20485:9ad |
4867-72 5 1°33 5 20537:9b
4866'14+ 6 ei a 205446
4861-44 2 i vs 205643) |
4847-963 4847-94+ 6 48475, rf 57 | 20621-5ad
4834-32 1 1:32 a: 20679°7b
4819°43 2 ” ” 20743'6)
4806:173 4806°17t 8 4805-0, ¢ 20801:4ab
4792°29 1 1:31 ss 20861°10
4791°49 1 a ie 20864°7b
4771 75t 3 :: 5°8 | 20950-90
4765:028 4765-044 4 47630 _,, i - 20980-4ab
4754°64 2 1°30 _ 21026°3d
4736-065 4736-037 6 4) saga US is a 21108'8ab
4727-027 4727 90+ 4 AT266 es, 1:29 as 21149-2ab
4708-66 3 DI ss 21231-6)
4702 40* 1 x 59 | 21259-8b
4658-079 4658-0474 4 46565, 1-28 a 21462-4ab
4640-21 2 1:27 se 2154480
4637°351 4637°35t 3 x x 21558'1ab
4609°742 4609°73*+ T 46080, 1:26 | 60 | 21687:2ab
4590-081 4590-05*+ 5 45869 _,, } x 21775:8ab
4579527 | °4579-53t 6 45795, 1:25 ~ 21830-0ad
4565°42 2, ‘ 21897°8b
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 281
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction to
ease Briones Vacuum Oscillation
7 Intensity} Observations Ten eeann e eregueney:
Kayser Eder & ren ue in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) A
| 456455 3 | 1:25 6:0 21901-9)
| 4563°87 3 £ % 21905°1d
4561°20 1 _ 61 2191800
| 4547-88 2 Mees) ” 21982°1)
4545-220 | 4545-26t 6 4543°5 Crookes ,, F 21949-9ab
| 4535-70 3 | 1:24 as 22041-2)
4530°73 3 [veg : 22064°1b
4503°111 4503°15 5 1:23 re 22200°Tab
449368 4 ” ” 22222'6d
4491-221 4 3 62 22259°5d
4482-003 4481-99+ 5 4478°3 a | sens a 22305:2ad
4475°015 447515 2 ; OX - 22339°8ab
4460-682 4460°70 2 1:22 5 22411°9ad
4449-123 444913 2 ” ” 22469°9ad
4443-545 4443-50 1 ” ” 22498'4ab
4439°539 4439-50 1 ” ” 22518:9ab
4434-037 4434-10 2 ” ” 22546:5ad |
4431:172 4431:16*t 3 ” ” 22561°8ad
4430°355 4430°35*f 5 4426°5 4 | 1-20 63 22565:3ab
4426°165 4426°16*} 8 4422°5 +3 | a - 22587:2ab
4421-113 4421-06} 1 | PR a 22612:5ab
4408-095 4408-06 1 ” ” 22679°3ad
4401°156 4401:19*+ 5 4399-5 iy $4 22715:0ab
4400°271 4400:25*+ 3 } » . 3 22719°Tab
4383-900 438394 2 1:20 es 22803 :3ad
4379°827 4379-79*F 5 437675 a x i 22825'7Tab
4376:112 4376°15t 3 “ 3 22845-4ad
4375-201 437525 1 me ‘ 22849-Tab
4371°504 4371-46*f + \ 4369-0 an sé 22869:4ad
4370°928 4370°92+ 3 Ve 2] ss * 22872°2ab
4367°952 4368:04t 1 uf a 22887-4ad
4362°229 4362°20t 2 a 6:4 22917-Tab
4352°368 4352°40t 4 1:19 -f 22969-5ad
4348:°222 4348-11*f 9 4348-5 a AF 5 22992-3ab
4343-904 4343-90 2 e os 23014-4ad
4337°244 4337:20* 1 id oS 23049°9ad
4333-70 4333°65*} 4 a oR 23068°7ab
4332-205 4332715 3 5 +. 23076-7ab
4331°354 4331:31*f + 4333-5 a Py F 23081:2ad
4309°311 4309-31} 2 1:18 5 23199-2ab
4300°824 4300°82+ 2 4299:0? ,, * 6°5 23244-9ab
4298-222 4298:20 1 3: 7 23259: 0ab
4283-054 4283-03} 3 as ie 23341-3ad
4277-718 | 4277-65* 6 4277:0° —%, 1:17 ss 23370°6ad
4275°327 4275°34 1 ” ” 23383:'5ad
4266-684 4266°44*+ 6 42660 _ ,, 5 - 23431-6ad
4255-73 1 # ks 23491-2D
4237°395 4237°34 3 1:16 66 23593:0ad
4229-813 1 K - 23636-la
4229-015 1 % % 23639-6a
4228:310 4228:°27*f 5 4228°5 is ‘ a3 23642:5ad
4227-146 4227-14 2 e 4 23650°6ad
4222-839 4222-76 3 i a 23674-4ad
4218-843 421879 3 a 7 23696'7ab
4203609 4203°54 1 115 * 23782°Tab
282
REPORT—1896.
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
is 4
Wave-length a Vacuum Oscillation
invest Eder & Intensity Observations ae 1 MJ une
(a) Valenta (b) A
4202°106 4202-11*4 2 115 66 23791:0ab
4189°774 4200°75*+ 1 5 9 23798°6b
4191:02*t 1 5 67 23853°8d
4190°85*t+ 1 + os 23854°8b
4183:106 4182-03*+ 2 4183:0? Crookes} ,, + 2390516
4179:479 4179-45 3 a - 23919 9ab
4178:504 4178-53 3 : RS 23925-lab
4164:36*t+ 1 1-14 Ny 24006°62
4158°65*f 1 5 i 24039°6)
4156°295 4156-36 2 FS A 24053-2ab
4146-761 4146-68 1 3 6:8 24108 '4ad
4131:913 4131°95* 3 41315, Pe 45 24195:0ab
4129-89 2 1:13 “4 24206:9b
4128-874 4 e * 24212:9b
4112-916 4113:04+ 3 - + 24306:5ad
4104:107 4104-10* df "4105°0 é 35 a 24359 6ab.
4099-602 4099-59 2 oe _ 24385°8ab
4098°33 3 > 69 24393:°2d
4097°265 4097-36 1 % ” 24399-4ab
4089 041 4089-04 1 1:12 +, 24448:Tab
4082°535 4082-59+ 2 pe a 24487-5ab
4080°872 4080°85 1 5 ee 24497:'Tab
4079-712 | 407990/t | 2 " , | 84504-4ab
4077:207 4077-15 2 s oe 24519-9ab
4076°854 4076°85 5 ” ” 24521'8ab
4072°579 4072°58 | 3 Oe 23 24547:5ab
4072°159 4072718 | + 4 4072°5 $3 “3 a 24550:0ad
4068°171 1 a 24574:Ta
4053'111 4053'12 4 111 bs 24665°5ab
4043°039 4043 04 3 4044-0 ” ” 70 24726:9ab
4038°966 4038-99t 4 Be 4 24751-Tab
4035°624 4035-58t t i re 24772:4ab
4034022 4033-99t 4 40330, se “6 24782:2ab
4023°730 4023°68 3 a a 24845'7ab
4017986 1 ¥ “i 24881:la
4014-002 4013-97*+ (6 40130, 1:10 a 24905:0ab
4011°527 4011°38 1 ” ” 24921-6ad
4010:052 1 5 i 24930°3a
3995°035 3994-81 3 ss T1 25024:Tab
39927196 3992-17 4 i * 25041°8ab
3988°378 3988°37 1 a Ss 25065°8ab
3979°541 3979°57* 5 SOKO” |, or “ 25121-3ab
3974859 1 1:09 5 25151:0a
3974646 3974-70 4 ” ” 25152°2ab
3968-496 3968754 2 3967-8 i bs = 25191°3ab
3960°591 3960-62 3 ” ” 25241-6ab
3958°529 3958-58 3 BS A 25254-Tab
3952°892 3952-82 if 7-2 25290°8ab
3946:290 3946:20 4 ” ” 25333°3ab
3944-409 3944-50 4 39435, + a 25344-8ab
3937-208 1 9 ” 25391-5a
3934-20 3 1:08 + 25411°0b
3932-717 3932°71 4 39318 ,, : a 25420-5ab
3931°382 3931:32f 2 ” ” 25429-4ab
3928°749 3928°78*t 7 39285 6,4, 25446:lab
Reduction to
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 283
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
| Reduction to
ee Prcvicua | Vacuum Oscillation
Intensity! Observations | Ereineney
Kayser Eder & A+ de in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) A
3925-903 3925°93 3 3927:5 Crookes | 1-08 72 25464°6ab
3924°798 1 here 25471°8a
3914-931 3914:93*+ 3 3915-4 as ee ty 25536-0ab
3911°721 3911°69 1 a 3 25557-1ab
3907°896 3907°80 1 3 73 25581°9ab
3900-763 2 . x 25628-7a
3892-128 3892°15t 4 3892°6 i, 1:07 n 25685:5ab
38917550 3891°53t 2 =n 25689'6ab
3880-432 3880°46 3 7 - 25762°9ab |
3875°406 3875°40t 5 38755 i, =F 5 25796'4ab
3874°288 1 is a 25803:°9a
3872°326 3872°26 4 3871°8 + * a 25817:2ab
3868-718 3868°68* Zi 38685, - - 25841:2ab
3858-456 2 ” ” 25909°8a
3856:210 1 1:06 eS 25924-9a
3855°366 1 be 4 25930-5a
3854°522 1 Z * 25936°3a
3850°715 3850°70*t 8 38515, 2 # 25961:9ab
3846'860 1 * Hs 25987-9a
3845535 384551 3 38455 oy, r - 25997 :0ab
3844:921 3844:90 3 fe 26001:8ab
3841°709 3841°63 3 6) Ss 26023:1lab
3830°585 3830°58t 3 ” ” 26099:4ab
3826°976 382692 3 382775 yy x Me 26123:2ab
3825°865 3825°89 1 3 = 26130°5ad
3819-300 3819°15 l 3 As 26176:ladb
3809°649 3809°58* 3 3809°5 » 1:05 T4 26242:0ab
3808746 | 3808:72t 3 . » | 26248-1ab
3803°381 3803'38 3 38035 4, 3 a 26285'6ab
3800°429 3800°40f 2 Bs sf 26305'5ab
3799596 3799°65 3 37995 a5 i a 26311:0ad
3796°882 3796°83 2 a 7 26330°'lab
3795°509 3795-56+ 3 ‘ 3 26339°3ad
3786536 | 3786-60+ 4 3 » | 26401:8ad
3781:018 3781-07* ie 37803 4, s i 26440-4ab
3776°885 1 1:04 55 26469-5a
3770°719 3770°80* 2 37705, $ 3 26512°3ab
3766°286 3766°30 3 4 7 26473'Tab
3765°463 3765°48* 5 3766°0 ” x. 75 26549°6ad
3763715 3763°76 4 “ fs 26561:°8ab
3756541 1 F as 26612°7a
3754-28 3 fe ¥ 26626'8b
3753-722 3753°60 3 o , | 26633°3ad
3750'428 3750°79 2 es Se 26654°8ab
3747-135 3747-25 1 . a 26679:lab
3739°88 2 . | -26731°35
3738-094 3738°04* 3 373835 gy Be 26744:3ab
3735°542 1 1:03 of 26765°2a
3734-70 5 + 3 26768°20
3733122 1 =) ae 26780°5a
3729°450 | 3729:59*+ 9 37298 % , | 26805-9ab
3725665 1 a. 76 | 26833:2¢
3724697 | 3724-67 3 ns » | 26840:3ab
3720°617 | 3720-61 1 nf , | 26869:6ad
3718°403 3718-39 5 3718-0 26886°7ab
REPORT—1896.
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Intensity
284
Wave-length
Kayser Eder &
(a) Valenta (b)
3717°367 3717°36
3716°704
3714:744
3712°941 371319
3710-167 371011
36967160
3692°739
3680°124 3680-30*
3678478 3678°43*
3670-071.
3669-700 3669°63
3660°635 3660-70
3656°270 3656:26
3655-474 3655°52
3651:141 3651:04
3650°313
3640:022 3640:00
3638-015
3637-212 3637:25
3622°354 3622°31
3612-00
3611-11
3606-056
3605°05
3603°981 3603°70
3601°68
3601°10
3600:24
3598-60
3592-198
3588°633 3588 :'64*
3587122
3586°122
3585203
3582-547 3582°54*
3581-802 3581°82*
3580°439
3579-000
3576°808 3576°80*
3573°290
3566°221 3565°20
3564586 3564°54*
3564-50
3563-198 2563°46
3562°388
3561°213 3561°51*+
3561-20
3559-695 3559°69*
3558670
3557-029
3556167
3555107
3548680 3548-69
3546°005 3546-03
3545-792 3545°78
=
NWO H RHP OMIE EP RN WH DOPE ERNE EHO HP EDEN HEWN ENN WN NDE ROWE NRE DE eee bee
Previous
Observations
3631°7 Crookes
35870,
35803,
35750,
35640,
35600,
35582 ,,
35475,
3544-5,
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
” TT
26893:lab
26898'0a
26912:2a
26925'lab
26945:°2ab
27047:5a
27072°6a
27164:7ab
27176:8ab
27239-Ta
27242°7d
27309'7Tab
27344:lab
27348-4ab
27381-4ab
27387-0a
27464:7ab
2747984
27485:'Tab
27598'6ab
27677°7b
27684°5b
27723°3a
27731:1D
27740:4ab
27757:0b
27761°53 ©
27768:1b
27780°7b
27830°2a
27857:8ab
27869:6a
27877 :4a
27884-6a
27905:2ab
27910:9ab
27921-6a
27932°9a
27950: lab
27977-5a
28041-0ab
28046:0ad
28046°5d
28055°8ab
28063:-2a
28071-3ab
28072:5d
28084:3ab
28092-5a
28104-7a
28112-2a
28120-5a
28171-5ab
28192-5ab
28194 5ab
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
285
| Reduction to
Nate Previous | 2002 | Oscillation
‘Intensity | Observations Frequency
Kayser | Eder & ae ee in Vacuo
(a) Valenia (b) r
3535°514 3535°53 4 3534°3 Crookes 0:98 8-0 28276:4ab
3522°100 3522°14t 3 ” ar 28384: lab
3521-431 3521-46 3 eS a 28390°5ab
35207191 | 3520715 5 ‘s * 28399'Tab
3519°52 3 ef = 28405-0D
3518-079 | | 1 ” ” 28416°6a
3514576 | | 3514:53* 4 35135, eo + 28445-lab
3514-351 | 4 » |» | 2844680
3511-804 3511-79 1 Be # 28467-4ab
3511-286 3511°35 6 3508°8 ” = * 28471:3ad
3509°961 3509°93 5 ” " 28482-4ab
3509°475 3509°54 3 3 81 28485 9ab
3507-795 1 Fp i 28499-9a
3507-268 1 Pe a5 28504:1a
3506-426 1 re x 28510°9a
3503°730 3503°76f 2 A “i 28532:8ab
3502°841 3502-00 2 = i 28543 '6ab
3500°724 1 co 5 28557'5a
3499°815 3499°85t+ 3 ” ” 28564°7ab
3498-419 1 0:97 x 28576 3a
3497-219 1 7 ss 28586:la
3495°193 1 A x 28602-7a
3493-562 1 55 x 28616-0a
3491-723 3491-71+ 9] 34900, as ' 28631-lab
3491-440 5 J * ms 28633:-4a
3491-030 2 s * 28636°Ta
3488°316 1 3 of 28659-0a
3484121 1 ” ” 28694:3a
3480°636 3480:°69+ 5 - 3 28722:0ab
3478-410 3478-42+ 2 “i Fe 28740°7ab
3476-926 3476:96* 6 3475°T gy . % 28752°9ab
3473°368 . 1 3 3 28782-4a
3472°713 1 nt +: 28787 3a
3471°443 1 . 2 28798-4a
3466533 3466°40 3 s 8-2 28839°6ab
3466-07 4 # ae 28842:95
3464-364 3464°33 2 ” ” 28857:°3ab
3455°572 1 0:96 i 28930'6a
3454:298 3454°30 4 34535, 5 “5 28941-2ab
3450°223 1 s 5 28975'Ta
3448-46 2 7 # 28990°2
3445°254 1 fe + 29017:2a
3438°174 2 Fe Be 29077: 1a
3432°75 2 ” ” 29122'9
3430°650 3430°58 1 = 8:3 29140°7ab
3429°846 3429-81 3 rf 5 29147-5ab
3424-385 3424-41 2 ” ” 29193'9ab
3421°821 3421-80 4 ” ” 29216-0ad
3417-608 al 0°95 ir 29251°9a
341461 3 Fs é 29277-6b
3413-665 1 _ is 29285°7a
3406-43 2 - . 29347:9D
3404-432 1 - , | 29365°2a
3397-97 2 29421-0b
86
REPORT—1896.
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction
Wave-length =n eoUUaenten Oealehien
Intensity | Observations Sy Frequency
Kayser Eder & aan ce in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) A
3393°46 i 0-95 8°4 29460°1)
3388-706 3388°65 5 3388'0 Crookes ” ” 29501:8ab
3384-94 2 ” ” 29534:20
3383-87 1 ” ” 2954360
3381-27 2 ” 9 29570°3h
3379674 B379°73 2 ” ” 29580:0ad
3376°618 3376 61 5 0°94 | 9» 29607'ladb
3371:077 3371-07 3 ” ” 29655°8ab
3366°758 3366°75 3 idler 29693°8ab
3365°660 3365°67 2 ” ” 29703'4ab
3361973 3361-33 1 ” ” 29738:9ab
3361°418 2 9 ” 29740-6a
3358°633 3358°67 4 ” 85 29765'5ab
3355°298 1 ” ” 29795: la
3352°248 2 , ” 29822°2a
3351°112 3351-10 4 5 5 29832-4ab
3348161 i ” ” 29858 -6a
3344°857 334489 5 “e a 29888-0ab
3342°532 1 ” ” 29908 5a
3341°518 3341-88 1 » ¥ 29916:4ab
3339°602 1 9 ” 29935:2a
3336°269 3336°32 4 0:93 i‘ 29964:9ab
3332972 1 ” ” 29995:0a
3327°441 1 ” ” 30044°6a
3323°671 2 ” 86 30078 6a
3314:622 1 ” ” 30160°8a
3311°318 3311-34 5 ” ” 30190:7ad
3308:040 1 ” ” 30220°7a
3307°368 3307'37 5 ” » 30226°9ab
3306°499 1 ” » 30243'9a
3305°720 1 ” ; 30242:0a
3305°249 2 ” ” 30246°3a
3301°938 3301°97 6 ” is 30276°5ad
3298-652 2 0:92 ay 30306°8a
3293°768 3293-82 4 ” 3 30351-5ad
3289-201] 2 ” ” 30388 4a
3285:913 3285-9) Os ” 87 30424-3ad
3282°661 2 ” ” 30454:4a
3281°867 3281°83 5 » “F 30461:9ab
3273:476 3273°40 2 ” ” 30540°2ad
3271:122 1 ” » 30561-8a
3263°953 1 ” ay 30629-0a
$261°722 3263°71 3 7 » 30631°2ad
3259 73 1 0-91 a 3066810
3258°95 u ” ” 30776:00
3251-888 3251:90 2 ” 8:8 30742°5d
3249-972 3249°95 4 5 as 30760°8ab
3245°638 1 3 y 30801°8a
3243-845 3243 85 3 ” ai 30818:8ad
3237-920 323705 2 ” ” 30879:4ad
3236812 1 A a 30885°8a
3230°30 1 Py “A 80948:10
3226:16 2 ” ” 30977°6)
3222-183 3222°62 1 s i. 31026-9a
els oe
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 287
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction to
peawe-teneth. Brovions | Vacuum Oscillation
Intensity Observations = Frequency
Kayser Eder& | ae om in Vacuo
(a), Valenta (b) A
3221-41 2 0:91 | 88 | 31033°3b
3217:89 1 O:900 ines 31067-4b
3216°98 2 tee Ss ” 31076°2b
* 3212'737 3212°76 3 i: 89 31117:ladb
3210°678 1 ” ” 31137°2a }
3207°85 1 ” » 3116465
3204:469 3204-49 4 ty as 5 31197 :5ab
3196°109 1 8p ” 31279:la
3194-400 3194:52 3 » ” 31295°3ab
3187-970 1 ar) ” 31359°3a
3186742 2 ” ” 3137420
3183171 1 7 ” 31406°4a
8181:174 3181°26 5 0°89 ” 381425°5ad
3179°30 1 | 3s 9:0 31445°5d
3173°26 1 ” ” 31504°3d
3171°767 1 A lise 31519'1a
3169°812 3169-88 4 » | » | 81538-6ad
3167°70 2 ” | ” { 31559°6b
3165-480 3165-36 2 Vx sch his. *|, ELDR2 ab
3161°519 3161°64 5 Fy thes | BL620:8a0
‘ 3159°47 1 » | » | 381641°9d
3157-577 3157-13 2 | » | 9 | 31663-1ad
315406 2 fk a5) se 31696°20
3152°89 1 } ‘99 » 31707°9d
3150°70 1 te tess + 31729°95
3148°53 it ” ” 31751-°8b
3146°63 1 ” ” 81770°95
3139°156 3139°26 5 | 088 971 31846:5ab
3137-88 2 ” ” 31859°5d
3127:996 1 ” » 31960°2a
3125-980 1 e » | 81980°9a
3116°162 1 » “A 32081-7a
31107441 1 ” 9-2 32140°6a
310463 2 ” » | 32200°76
3102°88 1 ” » 322189)
l 3100°21 1 0-87 3 32246'7b
30937478 3093-57 6 3092°T Crookes ES is 32316:3ab
308529 1 ” » 32402°7b
3083-720 3083715 2 30848 3 7 » | 932421-°9ab
3078-212 2 ” 9:3 32477 la
3066°998 3067°16 2 ” ”» 32595°0ab
3064°830 2 3064:7 » ” ” 32619°9a
3054°846 3 0°86 9-4 32725°3a
3048-552 1 ” ” 32793 la
30467130 3046-28 2 ” ” 32818-4ab
38039°477 if » af 32819'0a
3033°620 3033°76 3 9 » 32953°8ab
3031°759 1 a ” 32974°8a
3029-015 3029°10* 4 ” » 33004:2ab
3027:181 3027:07* 2 ” ” 33025°3ab
3024-078 3 a 9°5 33058-4a
301470 1 0°85 iS 33161°3d
3002-67 4 “ oa 33294:2a
3000°63 3000:70 3 2998°2 ” ” ” 33316°6ab
2979-716 2979°35* 6 29786 F | O84 9°6 33555°9ab
288 REPORT—1896.
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction
Wave-length ae a to Vacuum Oscillation
- ntensity ae ‘requency
Kayser Eder & oe alt a in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) ; oN
296045 2 | O84 9-7 33768:9)
2955°37 2945-67 4 He 2 33825°3ab
2942-94 2943:17* qT 2942:7 Crookes “ 98 33968'5ab
293290 2 0:82 ” 34086°10
2931°52 2931:72 3 2929°6 3 * ” 34101-0ad
292468 2924-92 4 4 5 34180°6ad
2916°3 2 a 9:9 34280°1D
2896°91 2896°97 4 = a 34509:2ab
2891°73 2891-87* 4. =] 10:0 34570°5ad
288424 2884-1 4 5S ” 34661°2a
2879-0 + - % 34724:3)
287879 2- 4» ” 34726°8a
28746 3 ae ” 2477740
2866 0* 5 a 1071 34881°7)
2860°9 1 0:81 ” 34943-9D
2855:29 2855-4 3 Ay ” 35012°Ta
2853°27 2853°5 2 3 35037 5a
2847°0 3 = 10:2 35114:5d
2843°7 3 33 ” 35155°2b
2842-88 2842°6 3 get Ry 35165:4a
2824-47 2824:2 1 2830°2 is 0:80: |. 5 35394 Tab
2818-4 a + 10:3 35470°8D
2809°7 1 7 ” 35581b
2806°3 8 f = 35624d
2800-7 1 Re Palo) to 35695D
2796°66 2797-0 3 2794-4 a ¥ 10-4 35746'5a
2795°65 3 5a > 35759°5b
278971 1 i oo 35844)
2785°3 il 3 = 35893)
27846 2 - ” 359020
2774:90 27751 1 0:79 ” 36026°8a
2769°7 8 * 10°5 360940
2764:5 4 Rs ” 36162)
2762711 27621 3 3 ” 36193°Ta
2757°2 3 3 by 36258)
27539 8 3 A 363020
274488 8 eo 10°6 36420°8)
2741°1 2 0:78 ” 364710
2732°67 6 4, 4 36583°6)
27248 1 S 10°7 36689)
2720-4 1 33 Be 36748)
270840 8 45 ” 36911°40
2701°8 1 5 10°8 37001)
2692°8 4 O77 ” 37125b
2683°6 . 2 - a 37252b
2678°6 2 5 ” 37322d
2674:3 2 ; 10°9 37382b
2663°7 3 4) = 375310
2662:9 1 " . 375440
2660°8 1 :. ‘. 37572b
2660°3 1 ess - 37578)
2654:°8 2 | 0:76 % 37657)
2652-4 1 . 11:0 37691)
26500 2 ‘ i 377250
2647-6 8 3T759D
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 289
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON— continued.
Reduction
. th
aimee ee to Vacuum | Oscillation
‘Intensity Observations Se Ae
Kayser Eder & <geint £e in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) A
2640'9 1 0-76 | 11:0 37855
2637°7 1 ” ” 37901
2634°4 1 3 43 37948
2632-3 1 4 i 37979
2627°8 2 99 11-1 38044
2625-0 2 9 % 38084
2621-4 3 3 3 38137
2617°0 2 ” ” 38201
2614-2* 1 5 5 38242
2592°3 2 0-75 | 11:2 38565
2585-0 i » | 11:3-| 38674
2579°7 1 7 5 38755
2571°5* 4 5 5 38877
2570°0 2 3 5 38900
2569°3 2 eS 8 38910
25681 1 iz 35 38928
2566°4 1 a 114 38954
2565°8 1 - cr 38963
2564-7 4 | 0-74 + 38980
2562°3 6 5 39016
2559°5 3 3 + 39059
2556°8 3 a A. 39100
2553°6 1 oF 3 39149
2549°8 3 A, 5 39208
2547-4 1 os 115 39244
2546-0 1 3 ie 39266
25448 6 ib 95 39284
2540-1 3 3 9 39357
2536:0 3 Pr i 39421
2534°8 5 93 5 39439
2528°6 4 re 116 39536
2525°6 4 ag ® 39582
2522°5 3 ” ” 39621
2516°8 8 0-73 a 39721
2515°6 8 3 is 39740
2512°3 3 ” ” 389792
2510°6 3 i 11:7 39819
2507°3 2 ¥ i 39872
2504:7 1 3 Pe 39913
2503°9 2 ” ” 39926
25018 3 3 em 39959
2500-4 5 ” ” 39982
2499°5 4 Pe Fe 39996
2497-2 2 ‘iv - 40023
2496-0 3 F Pe 40052
2494:2 2 a Pe 40081
2492:0 2 3 11:8 40116
2491:0 6 F is 40123
2488:9 2 a ‘ 40166
2487-0 1 2 - 40197
2484-1 1 a fe 40244
2483-2 1 - * 40259
2482°3 4 a . 40275
2481°6 4 a is 40284
2480'9 5 a ” 40296
1896. U
290
REPORT—1896.
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Wave-length
Kayser
(a)
Eder. &
Valenta (b)
2479-2
2477-0
2475°6
2474-2
247371
2470-4
2468°8
2460°2
24582
2457°6
2456°4
2455°3
2454-5
2453-0
2447-9
2444-9
2443°2
2442-7
2441°3
244071
2438°8
2436°9
2432°8
2430°5
2430-1
2429°4
2425°4
2424°5
2423°9
2423°6
2422-7
2421°6
2420°6
2418-9
2417°3
2415°7
24143
2413-2
2412°6
2411-2
2410°4
2409°6
2408°2
24067
24052
2404-4
2403°4
2403°3
2400:0
2399°3
2398-4
2397°5
2395°7
2391-0
2388°2
Intensity
Previous
Observations
Reduction to
Vacuum
A+
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
DE PH WWE HDR WEEN RH WOAHDWRNH HH OHNE NE RN AWHNNNEHEAWHENWHN HR wWH OH
_
to:
bo
40324
40359
40382
40405
40423
40467
40504
40635
40669
40679
40698
40716
40729
40754
40839
40889
40918
40926
40950
40970
40992
41024
41093
41132
41138
41150
41218
41233
41244
41249
41264
41283
41300
41329
41356
41384
41408
41427
41437
41461
41475
41488
41512
41538
41564
41578
41595
41597
41654
41667
41682
41698
41729
41811
41860
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 29]
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Wave-length
Kayser Eder &
(a) Valenta (b)
2386'8
23383°6
2382°6
2381°2
2380:0
23720
2369-4
2367-1
2364-2
2362-9
2361°9
2360°2
2358°5
2357-7
23551
23543
23537
2350°6
2346°7
2345°4
2344-4
2339°9
2337°8
2333-2
2331°7
2328-2
2324:7
2319°5
2318:0
2317°6
23165
2315:0
2314-0
2309-4
2307°5
2305°8
23021
2300°9
2300°3
2295:4
2293-0
2292-2
2290°6
2289°9
2288°8
2287°1
2285'8
2284-0
2283°3
2252°6
22753
22750
22727
2269°8
2268°7
Intensity
Previous
Observations
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
RENE OWN NDE WN DEEN EON EP ROR DDE Ee Re Te RE Eee Ree
_
to
“1
t
41885
41941
41958
41983
42004
42146
42192
42233
42285
42308
42326
42357
46387
42402
42448
42163
421474
42530
42600
42624
42642
42724
42762
42847
42874
42939
43003
43100
43128
43135
43156
43184
43202
43288
43324
43356
43426
43 148
43459
43552
43598
43613
43644
43657
43678
43710
43735
43770
43783
43796
43937
43943
43987
44043
44065
v2
292 REPORT—1896,
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction
Wave-leneth
a ei, eaten to Vacuum | Qseillation
Intensity Observations Frequency
Kayser Eder & ee in Vacuo
(a) Valenta (b) | Aa lien
226771 1 0-68 13:3 44096
2265°2 3 a 5 44133
22630 2 “3 13-4 44176
2257:0 1 5 a 44293
2256°6 “al + Ab 44301
225574 1 +s a 44325
22544 2 > is 44344
» 2252°4 4 “3 ” 44384
2251°5 1 ra 7 44401
2249°4 1 e 13°5 44443
22461 1 “H “ 44508
2243°7 4 ” ” 44556
2241°8 1 i - 44594
2241-1 3 A x 44607
22379 1 7 13°6 44671
2236°6 1 ” ” 44697
2235°7 3 ss = 44715
2234°7 4 ” ” 44736
2233°6 1 ” ” 44757
2231°6 2 a + 44797
22301 1 ” ” 44827
2229°7 3 0-67 + 44835
2227°4 3 x: ” 44882
2225'8 3 Ee 13-7 | 44914
2221-7 1 op is 44997
9291°4 1 4 ‘ 45003
i 2219°9 4 ‘ F: 45033
-2219°0 2 7 + 45052
22163 2 ” ” 45107
22110 1 > 13:8 45215
2210°5 2 a ” 45225
2205°8 2 a ¥ 45321
2195°6 2 “t 13°9 45532
2191°7 1 J 14:0 45613
2181°4 1 * or 45619
2190°6 u ¥ = 45636
2187°3 2 E- - 45704
2185°5 2 rT - 45742
2181-2 2 x 14:1 | 45832
2175°6 3 0°66 4 45950
2174-7 2 5 a 45969
21715 3 fe * 46037
2165°8 3 = 14:2 46158
21646 1 Es 5 46184
| 9162" 1 if » | 46237
2159°3 1 oa 14:3 | 46297
21541 1 . % 46409
2153°3 1 | c. 46426
2151°2 2 "4 , 46471
2130-6 3 0°65 14:5 46921
2129°5 1 :, x 46945
2126°7 2 * 14:6 | 47007
#21209 1 - * 47155
2116-1 ul pe 14:7 | 47242
| 210671 1 4 148 | 47466
On
ea
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES, OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 293
BLUE SPECTRUM OF ARGON—continued.
Reduction to
Wave-length ad Wacnnn Oscillation
Intensity ; requency
ee Eder & y Observations < i TmvatO
(a) Valenta (b) | A
2103°6 1 065 | 148 | 47523
209271 1 » | 1£9 | 47784
2078'3 1 » | 15:0} 48101
2077°2 1 % | 5; 48126
2063°9 1 064 | 15:2 | 48437
2057-6 1 ore Nhedatte 48585
2050°5 1 » | 153) 48753
Tiranium (Arc SPECTRUM)
Hasselberg : ‘ Kong]. Svenska Vetenskaps—Akadem. Handl,’ Bd. 28, No. 1, 1895.
* Coincident with a solar line.
ren eee.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity | Previous Observations i es fis - Oscillation
length and (Rowland) TTY Wa pea Frequency
(Rowland) | Character Bes we in Vacuo
A
*5899°56 6 5900°2 Thalén 161 | 46 16945°8
5880-55 3 160 % 17000°6
*5866°69 7 5866°5 * . mo | 17040°8
5823°95 3 159 | 4:7 17165°8
*5804-45 6n 1°58 3 17223°5
*5786:21 6n be ee 17277°8
*5781-04 3 it w= | 17293°2
*5774:27 6 1°57 Pine al 173135
*5766°56 5n 2 et 17336°7
*5762°52 5n fo 9 17348°8
*5757-08 3 cf ae | 173652
*5740°20 3s 1-56 Tet 17416°3
*5739°69 5 57392 + r teal 174178
*5720°70 4s 3 4:8 174756
5716-71 4 5 mul 17487'8
*5715°30 5 5715-2 Pe Ss - 174921
571412 4 4 5: 174957
*5712:07 4s ra 3 17502°0
5708°46 4 as 3 17513:1
*5702°92 5 67027 —si,, 1°55 5 17530'1
*5689°70 6 5689°8 5 “2 As 17570'8
*5680°15 4 5680°3 - i * 17600°4
*5675°61 vg 56757 =, re Foe 176145
*5663°16 4 1:54 Slee | 176532
*5662:°37 6 5662°8 a - x 176556
*5648°81 5 56483, 35 * 17698-0
*5644:37 6 56443, .. Pe 177120
*5565'70 6 5566-0 e 152 | 4:9 17962°3
*5514'78 6 , 1:50 + 18128:2
*5514-58 6 \ S148, ” i 18128°8
4 *5612-72 6 5513-2 s A i lvoe 181350
294, - REPORT—1896.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to :
Wave- Intensity | Previous Observations vera O-c'llation
length and (Rowland) 7") eae Frequency
| (Rowland) | Charac'er xf | ie in Vacuo
i A
5512-00 3 150! 4-9 18)37°3
*5504:10 5 5504-2 Thalén a. | 0 18163°3
*5490°38 6 5490-2 i, ones 18208-7
*5488°44 5 54881, | 1821571
*5482-09 5 5481-5 fet | ee | 182362
*5481-64 5 } " Bets, a 18237:7
*5477-92 5 54778, kee rae 182501
*5474-43 4 54746 gs [E49-| ~~ Set 18261°7
| *5472-90 3 .; 182668
| *5471-43 4 54718, - e 18271-8
*5460 72 3 a P 18307-6
*5453°88 3 ieee’ “ 18330°6
| 5449-40 3 54493, - ee 18345°6
| *544680 | 4 ey GC re ee x 18354°4
|- 5138-53 3 : 1-4 £ 18382°3
543693 | 38s 5 . 18387°7
| 5429°37 5 51299, es te 18413°3
| *5496-48 | 3 54263, _ ont 18423-2
| 541900 | 3 5419-2, ss 5 18448°6
| *5409 81 5 5409-9, “ " 184799
| 5404-25 3 5404-4, ; yrel 18499-0
| *5397-28 4 53973, | 1:47 | 61 18522°7
| #5396-78 3 Ea Pa 18524°5
| *5390-23 4 [ae . 18547-0
5389-36 3 vi y 185500
| *5381-20 3 | 6381-4, eo. A 185781
| *5369°81 5 53700, A - 18617°5
| 5366-85 3 lies ia 18627°8
| *5351-28 4 58517 | ,, 1-46 s 18682-0
5341-68 2 | ‘ e.. 18715°6
| *5338-54 2 Vike es 4 ie 18726°6
| *5336-96 3 jos3s1 sy "| -18739-2
#5300°18 2 eck | 145 | 5-2 18862-1
5298-61 4 \ p20e6 o> a » | 188677
*5297-42 5 52978, s eT 18871-9
*5295 95 4 5296-6, 5 - 18877°2
5289:02 3 52889, nl 5 18901-9
*5284-61 3 44). ,, 4 18917-7
*5283'63 5 5283-9, = ee) 18921-2
*5282'61 3 ik 9 bet 189248
*5266:20 5 52661 ,, ai tse 7 18983°8
5263 71 3 52640, has ore 18992°8
526018 3 52607 ,, ae ar 19005°6
5256 OL 4 5256-1, . eu 19020°6
*5252°26 4 52521, (ea, Ce! 19034-2
*5251°14 2 a 5 19038-3
*5247-48 3 wake 1:43 Zs 19051°6
524675 2 } eeer2 in a * | 190542
5246°30 2 ” ” 19055°9
*5238 77 4 52396, a - 19083-2
*5226°70 3 5227-1 ,, ee 19127-3
*522515 5 ‘ A 19133-0
*5224-71 4 | mb ite ce 191346
*5994-46 5 52241, a J 19135°5
| *5223-80 3 ||
an ees . 191380
i
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES, OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 295
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity 4 : Vacuum Oscillation
length and Previous Observations — Frequency
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) A+ ohm, in Vacuo
A
*5222'87 £ 1-43 5-2 19141°4
*5219°88 4 * 19152°3
*5212°50 3 leb4? | ,, 19179°5
*5210°55 6 5210°6 Thalén rite 19186°6
*5208-08 3 a 53 19195°6
*5206°30 3 52066, “O: |teen 19202:2
*5201°32 3 52016 ,, a . 19220°6
*5194°25 3 RS ‘ 19246°8
*5193°15 6 51934, r 19250°8
*5188'87 4|| 5189-4, 9 oe 19266°7
5186°57 3 5186-2 so, 2, a 19275'3
*5173°94 6 51741 =, 1-41 19322°3
*5152°36 5 51523, ts oF 19403:3
*5147°63 5 51481, Pe eller 1942171
*5145'62 5 51456, 7 % 19428°7
6133°12 2 1:40 = 19476°0
*5129°32 3 5129°7_—s,, 5 _ 19490°5
*5120°60 5 5121:0_,, He a 19523°7
*5113°64 5 5114-1, % 54 1955071
5109°65 3 51097, : S 19565-4
5103°39 2 58035 », a 19589°4
*5087°24 6 5087°5,, 1:39 = 19651°6
508555 3 ” ” 19658°2
*5071°66 4 5071-2 =, . a 19712-0
*5069-°56 3 » 5 19720:2
*5068°47 3 : 4 19724°4
*5066°12 4 50665, is 19733°6
*5064:82 7 50654, FS a 197386
5064:26 3 ry 19740°8
*5062°30 4 5062°3_—C,, 1:38 19748°5
5054°30 2 4 4 19779°7
*5053:06 4 5053°3 i, ‘ is 19784°6
*5045°58 3 ” ” 19813°9
*5043°77 4 5044-4, > cS 19821:0
*5040'78 — 4 ;, e 19832°8
*5040:12 7 50402, ie 19835-4
*5038°55 7 50392 si, hy 19841°6
*5036°65 {6 } 3, . 1984971
*5036'10 7 eae ON ros 2 4 19851-2
*5025:72 6 50258, 1:37 | 5:5 198921
*5025-00 6 50248, ae e 19895:0
*5023:02 7 5022:2—,, 4 i 19902°8
*5020:17 7 50204 ,, 5 Pr 19914°1
*5016-32 7 50163, " Ps 19929°4
*5014'40 8 50143 —C,, b. - 19937°1
*5013-45 6 5013'2,, a i 19940°8
*5009°81 4 _ 19955°3
*5007°42 8 50076, “ re 19964°9
*5001-16 5 500270 ,, 3 55 19989°9
*4999°67 8 49996 ,, i . 199958
*4997:26 5 ” ” 20005°5
*499T-24 8 49911 ,, i a 20029°6
' Ca 5189-05.
|| Solar line double { Ti 6188°97.
296 REPORT—1896,
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
Wave- Intensity Previous Ob-ervations to Lees Oscillation
length and (Rowland) RATES iar ai Frequency
(Rowland) | Character a pea in Vacuo
A
*4989°33 6 4989'1 Thalén 1:36 55 20037°3
*4981°92 8 49818 ,, ay “n 200671
*4978°39 4 4978-6 < : 200813
*4977-92 3 t i 200832
*4975°52 5 49760 ,, 5 20092°9
*4973:25 4 49730 ,, sy +) 20102°1
*4968°75 4 49685, sy = 20120°3
4964:90 3 49653, a + 20135°9
*4948-40 3 49478, 1:35 . 20203'1
4941-77 3 , | 56 20230'1
4938°51 + 49380 ,, on A 20243°4
4937°94 3 ” ” 20245-8
¥*4928-50 5 49283, < 4 202846
4926-31 3 id 20293°6
* 4995-53 3 i A220°S- on * fd 202968
*4921-90 5 49216, kK, . 20311°8
*4919°99 5 49198, 9 5 20319°6
4915-40 3 1:3: = 20338°6
*4913°76 6 49140 ,, . * 20345-4
¥*4911:38 3 be * 20355°3
4900-08 6 49001, a _ 20402-2
4893-62 2 i rn 20429-2
4893-25 3 x dt 204307
4892-03 3 ss é 20435°8
*4885-25 7 4885-4, é * 204642
4882-53 2 ee 204756
*4881:08 3 a Bs 20481°7
*4870°28 6 4869-9 > 1:33 - 205271
*4868-44 6 4868-4, 3 A 205349
4864:37 3 i 5 20552-0
*4856°18 6 4855°9 + A 57 20586°6
4848-62 4 4848-9. i , 20618'7
4844-13 3 =. i 20637'8
*4841-00 r¢ 4840°9 “4 1:32 5s 20651°2
*4836-25 4 41359, a : 20671:5
#*4897-74 3 af 20707°9
#4895-62 3 ni : 20717-0
*4820°56 6 48204, i it 20738:2
4819-20 3 “A oH 207446
4812°40 3 A 3 207740
4811-24 4 s : 20779-0
*4808°70 + fH = 20789°9
*4805°56 5 A i 20803°5
4805-25 3 48052 if + 20804:9
*4799-95 Bl | 20827'8
#479813 4 4798-3, 4] # 20835'8
*4796°36 4 _ p 208434
*4792°65 5 4792°4 + ay " 20859°6
*4781°91 4 5 58 20906°3
*4778-44 5 4 2 20921°5
*4769-94 4 . ‘ 20958'8
476648 4 1:30 FP, 20974:0
Fe 4800-05.
|] Solar line double Ti 4799-95.
oe ae
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 297
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity Previous Observations Vacuam Oscillation
length and (Rowland) Frequency
(Rowand) | Character KE Bes in Vacuo
r
*4759°44 6 4759°3 Thalén 1:30 | 58 210051
*4759-08 3 " ” 21006°7
*4758°30 6 47578 ~~, , “6 2101071
*4747-84 4 % 5 21056°4
"4742-94 6 47426 4, Fr 210782
4742°28 4 ” ” 21081°1
¥*4734-83 3 ” ” 21114°3
*4733°58 4 ” oS 211199
*4731:33 5 ” ” 21129°9
*4723°32 5 47236 1:29 7 21165°7
¥4722°77 5 3 21168°2
*4715°46 4 ” ” 212010
*4710°34 6|| 47098 ,, ” 21224°1
*4698°94 6 46989 gy A 59 21275°5
_ 4697-10 4 iz i 21283°8
*4693°83 5 ” ” 21298-7
*4691°50 6 46915 ,, 1:28 5 21309-2
4690°97 4 ” ” 213117
*4688°56 3 ” ” 21322°6
4687-97 3 ” ” 21325°3
4687:08 3 ” ” 21329°3
*4684°68 3 * -s 21340°3
*4682°08 T 4682-4, = 21352°1
*4675°27 5 ” ” 21383'2
466854 3 ” ” 21414-1
*4667°76 8§ 46674, 7 21417-7
*4657°35 3 ” ” 21465°5
*4656°60 7 46569 ,, “5 + 21469°0
*4656°20 4 ” y 21470°8
*4655°82 4 ” ” 21472°6
*4650°16 5 1:27 5 21498°7
*4645°36 5 46449, » p 21521°0
*4640°60 2 + i 21543-0
*4640°11 5 9 a 21545°3
*4639°83 5 ; A a 215466
#463950 | 5 { aoe tas tlle 21548°1
*4638:°04 3 ” ” 21554°9
*4637°34 2 - a rE 21558°2
*4635°71 3 ff fy 21565°8
*4635°04 3 * 6:0 21568°8
*4634-87 FA < ae 21569°6
*4629°47 5 46299 ,, “: ” 21594°7
*4623°24 6 46239, 7 oF 21623'9
*4619-67 3 ” »” ‘216406
*4617°41 7 46176 ,, 1:26 Fe 216512
4614-47 2 + 9 216650
4609°55 3 ” ” 21688'1
*4599°40 4 ” ” 21736'6
*4594-28 2 ie 7 21760°2
*4590°11 _ 4 A * 21780°0
4575°71 2 1:25 Ay 21848°5
*4572°15 6 45724, ” ” 21865°5
- ay r44, * Ti 4667-75.
|| Solar line double {Tt iad § Solar line double { Fe 4667°60.
298
REPORT—1896.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Redes to
Wave- Intensit: J 5 ZEEE Oscillation
length ae y Ee [apie Ticapaien
(Rowland) | Character Say ee in Vacuo
A
4571-07 3 1:25 6:0 21870°7
*4563'°94 5 4564:1 Thalén a 61 219048
*4563°60 3 An 35 21906°4
*4562°80 4 5 a 21910°7
*4560°08 4 x ‘a 219233
*4558°28 3 ; . 21932°0
4558-02 3 4 ‘ 219333
*4555°64 6 45562 ,, x es 21944-7
¥*4552°62 7lI 45527, - ts 21959'3
*4549°79 6§ 4549°8 3 > cr 219729
*4548°93 vi % = 2197771
¥*4544-83 z 45444, 3 6 21996:9
¥4536°25 6 1:24 He 22038°5
*4536°12 é| nite & r % 22039'2
*4535°75 6 a Ph : a = 22041:0
*4534:97 7 ae “ és 220448
*4534°15 5 : ” eh fc 22048'8
*4533+42 7 z 220523
*4527-48 6 45271, 4 x 22081'2
*4529-97 6 45229, % i 22103°3
*4518°84 4 a : 22123°5
*4518-18 7 4518-4 4, . - 2212967
4515:76 3 és a 22138°6
*4512°88 6 4512°4 “4 + . 22152°7
4511°32 3 ii 74 221604
4508-21 2 i‘ i 22175°7
¥*4506°51 3 ni is 22184-0
*4503'92 4 1:23 * 221968
4501-43 6 45016, x 4 222091
*4497-90 3 % - 22226-R
*4496°33 6 4496-9 4, ol @2 22934-2
*4495-19 6 is - 229398
*4499-70 8 ‘s 2 222521
*4489-94 5 ¥. : 22269'3
*4488-47 3 9 % 22273-1
*4489-84 4 i “4 2230171
*4481-41 5 44813, a és 223082
*4480°72 4 is 5 22311°6
*44 79-86 4 i 223159
*4475°00 5 , # 22340-2
*4471-40 5 i fi 293582
*4471-00 3 i 4 22360:2
*4469°32 2 4 . 22868°6
*4468°65 6 44693 yy 1:22 a 22371°9
*4465°96 5 ‘ Ps 22385-4
*4464-60 3 4 . 223922
*4463-70 4 a 22396-7
*4463°52 4 i i 22397-6
4462°26 3 33 Ba 224040
4459-62 2 . > 22417-2
*4457-59 7 44583, i“ * 22497-4
Fe 4552°72. (eee
I! Solar line double {
Ti 4552-62.
§ Solar line triple {+ Ti 4549-79.
Fe 4549-60.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
299
Vacuum
ae gp Previous Observations og ee
en, an enc
(hewsnd) Character ea ah i sft aio
A
*4455°48 6 4455°8 Thalén 1:22 | 62 224381
*4453°87 5 ” ” 22446°2
*4453-48 6 44533, 3 7 22448°2
*4451-40 3 eee 5 22458°6
*4451-07 6 As 7 22460°3
*4450°66 4 lL) <3 - 22462°4
*4449-33 6 \ 4450°3 4, her ky a 224691
*4444-72 2 1D 3s i 224924
*4444-417 3 I "33 + 22494°0
*4443-97 6 4443-8, " > 22496°2
*4443-16 3 a i 22500°3
¥*4441-86 3 (i a 225069
*4441-45 4 oe ad 22509:0
*4440-49 5 a ve 225138
*4438°38 3 % Rs 22524°5
*4436°75 4 ve ‘ 21532'8
*4434-54 2 + a 225441
*4434-15 6 4 ws 22546:0
*4433°75 3 i <% ta 225481
*4432°76 3 be Pde - 225531
4431-46 4 aes 63 22559°6
*4430°55 5 | 1-21 % 22564'3
*4430°19 3 pe = 285661
*4497-28 8 44976 yn s es 22580°9
*4496-24 5 rs vi 22586:2
*4426-01 3 “ s 22587'4
4494-58 3 ” i 225947
*4493:00 5 ” ” 22602'8
*4421-92 4 | S % 226083
*4418'52 3 » ” 22625°7
4417-88 | 5 : | ; 22629 0
*4417-46 | 6 } 2 2 bess]. 3 22631:
*4416:70 4 bred, “ 22635°0
*4414-29 2 Ne a 22647-4
*4412°61 | 3 bone fda 22656-0
*4409-71 2 heels 4 22670°9
*4409:4) 2 og am 226725
*4408-70 | 3 m3) oe 226761
*4408°39 3 ! ee ss 22677°T
*4407°85 3 huey . 22680'5
*4405'86 4 me ss 22690-7
4405-07 4 ae a 226948
*4404°57 4 ‘ be 22697-4
*4404°49 6 44038, 5 ae 22698'2
*4400°74 3 bh - 227172
*4399-92 5 43993, fe fs 22721-4
*4395:99 3 1, ie 22741°7
*4395°17 q se i 22745°9
4139419 3 a es 227510
4394-04 6 43938, i 5 227518
*4390-11 4 1:20 = 22772°2
4388-69 2 , - 227795
4388-22 3 is s 22782:0
*4387-00 2 He oe ; 22788'3
*4384-85 4 | 22799'5
300
REPORT—1896.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
*4379°40
4375°61
*4374:97
*4372°54
4369°82
4369°1i
*4367°81
4361°31
*4360°60
*4355°44
4354-20
4353-01
*4350°99
*4346°76
*4346°76
*4344-47
434393
*4341°51
*4338°62
*4388°05
*4334°98
*4330°85
*4327:12
*4326°50
*4325°30
*4321:82
*4321:12
*4318°83
*4316°96
*4315°16
*4314°95
*4314°50
*4313°01
4311°80
4308-64
*4306:07
*4302'08
*4301-23
*4300°73
*4300:19
*4299°79
*4299'38
| *4298-82
*4295°91
*4294:28
*4291°32
*4291:07
*4290°37
*4290:07
*4289:23
*4288°29
*4287°55
¢ See Calcium.
Intensity
and
Character
Bm bo oo OU HE bo bo
a]
NSANQIWARAEANNAIAARAANNOHOWWATINEENWARAAWWWANWNHWRN DD WL
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
43383 Thalén ”
4287°6
”
Reduction to
Vacuum
=
A
1:20 | 63
|| Solar line double 1
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
22827°9
22847°7
22851'0
22863°7
228779
22881°7
22888:4
22922°5
22926-2
22953°4
22959°9
229662
22976°9
22999°2
23001°9
23011°4
23014°2
23027°1
23042°4
23045°4
23061'8
23083°8
23103°7
23107:0
23113°4
23132°0
23135°7
23148°0
23158:0
231678
23168°8
23171-3
23179°3
23185'8
23202-7
232165
23238°1
23242°7
23245°4
23248°3
23250°4
23252°7
23255°7
232715
23280°3
232964
23297°7
23301°5
23303'1
23307-7
23312°8
23316°8
/ Fe 4315:28.
Ti 4315°15.
———
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 301
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity Previous Observations Vacuum Oscillation
length and (Rowland) Frequency
(Rowland) | Character a Bye. in Vacuo
A
*4986°15 Ui 118 65 23324°5
*4285°15 5 ” ” 23829°9
*42823°85 6 4282°6 Thalén ” ” 23342°4
*4281:°49 5 ” ” 23349°9
*4280°17 3 117 ” 23357°1
4278°95 2 ” ” 23363°7
*4278°34 4 ” ” 23367°1
*4276°55 4 ” a 23376°8
*4274:73 6 4273°6 ” ” ” 23386°8
*4273°45 ie ” » 23393°8
4272°57 4 ” af 23398°6
*4270°30 4 ” ” 23411°1
*4266:37 3 ” ” 23432°6
*4265°85 3 ” ” 23435°5
*4965°42 3 *” » 234379
*4263°28 6 4263°6 » Pr as 23449°6
*4260°91 2 ” ” 23462°7
*4258°68 4 ” ” 234750
*49256°18 5 ” ” 23488°7
*495 1°93 4 ” 66 23512:1
*4251°77 4 ” ” 235130
4249-29 4 ” ” 23526°7
4245°66 3 ” ” 23546'9
*4238°00 5 4237-1 ” 1:16 ” 23589°4
4227-80 4 ” ” 2364674
4224-96 4 ” ” 23662°3
*4211°85 3 ” ” 23735°9
*4203°58 4 115 » 23782°6
*4200°88 3 ” ” 23797°9
418884 4 ” 67 23866°3
*4186°27 7 4185°6 ” fc a 23880°9
*4183°45 3 ” = 23897:0
*4174-61 3 ” F 23947°6
*4174:20 2 ” ” 23950°0
*4173°66 3 ” ” 23953'1
*4172°04 4 J ” a 23962°4
#417115 | 5 } sd a sagt ae 23967°5
*4169°46 4 ” ” 23977°2
*4166°45 4 1:14 + 239945
*4164:S0 2 ” ” 24004+1
*4164:27 3 ” ” 24007°1
*4163°80 5 4163°6 ” “A i 24009°8
*4161-67 2 ” ” 24022°1
*4158°79 5 ” ” 240330
*4151-11 5 A + 24083°2
4143°16 3n oF 68 241294
*4137-39 5n fp * 241630
*4134-60 3 | i “ 24179°3
4131°38 3 ” ” 24198-2
*4129°30 3 1:13 Pr 24210-4
4128-20 oa ” ” 24216°8
| Solar line double {ie oan
302 REPORT—1896.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
| | Reduction to
Wave- Intensity | Previous Observations aa Oscillation
length and (Rowland). Frequency
(Rowland) | Character ae atins in Vacuo
A
4127°67 5 TeVS 68 24219°9
*4123°68 5n ” ” 24243°4
*4123°42 4n ” ” 24244-°9
*4122°31 4 % ” 24251°4
4121°79 3s ” ” 24254°5
*4116°64 3 BY ane "as 24284-9
*4115°32 4s aes 5 24292°6
*4112°86 5s eee ch 24307°2
*4111°91 5s 1 +3 ” 24312°8
*4109-92 3 ite Aly ” 24324°6
*4105°31 3 ee 49 24351°9
*4101-08 2 | 5 5 24377-0
*4(099-°94 3s oy ” 243838
*4099-32 4 > 69 24387°4
*4095°65 2 * ” 24409°2
*4090-73 2 ” ” 24438°6
*4082-57 5s ” ; 24487°5
4079°85 4 ” ” 24503°8
*4078'61 6|| ” ” 24511:3
*4077°30 2 ” ” 24519°1
4076°50 2 ” 9 245239
407450 2 1 ” 24536'0
*4065:23 4s ” ” 24592:0
#406436 4s ‘ 5: 24597°2
*4060°42 5 | ” ” 24621°1
4058°28 4n | i " 246341
4057°76 3n | ” ” 24637-2
*4055°18 5 | ” ” 24652°9
*4053-96 3 111 VY 24660°3
4035:98 4 ” 70 24770°1
*4035'05 3 ” ” 24775°8
*4034:05 3 i ”» ” 24782°0
4030-60 5n | 4 7 24803°2
*4028-48 3 on » 24816:3
4027:°66 3 ” ” 24821°3
4026-64 5n A ” ” 24827°6
*4025°26 2 ” ” 24836°1
*4024-71 6 ” ” 24839°5
4021°98 5n ” ” 24856°4
4017°93 4 > ” 248814
4017-13 2 ” ” 248864
4016°44 3n ° ” ” 24890°7
4015°56 4n 1:10 ” 24896°1
4013:°72 hn ” ” 24907°5
*4012°55 3s | ” | ” 24914'8
4009:°80 4 | aah) tl) eases 24931°9
*4(009:06 6 ” ” 24936°5
4008-20 4n | #5 24941°9
4007°38 3n p a 249470
4006°14 3n | | ” ” 24954 7
4003°99 4n | eS 59 24968°1
: Ti 4078°61.
Solar line double Fe 407850.
SEES rr er ee bs
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
303
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity Previous Observations Vaca
length Q and (Rowland) F
Rowland haracter Ae
(Rowiand) xe [4
4002°63 4n BIOS | FE
3999-53 3n 3999°6 Lockyer ” ”
*3998°77 8 3998°9 5 ” ”
3994°84 3n ” ”
*3989°92 8] 3990'1L aa ” ”
3985-76 3n ” ”
3985°57 3n ” ”
3984:48 3 | ” ”
*3982°62 5 3982-4 ” ” ”
*3981:91 7 3981-7 ” ” ”
*3964:40 5s 3964-2 ar 1:09 ”
*3962:98 5s 3962°6 ” ” ”
*3958°33 7 39581 ” ” ”
*3956°45 7§ 3956°4 ” ” ”
*3948:80 Tt 3948-6 a fc 72
*3947-90 6 3947°7 ” ” ”
*3938°'18 2 ~ 48938°1 “Fl yy tf ogy
3934:37 3 3934'1 on 1:08 “
*3930:02 5 3929'9 ” ” ”
*3926°48 5 3926-4 6 ” ”
*3924°67 5 3924°7 + ” ”
*3221°56 4 3921:3 mn ” ”
*3919-95 3 3919°8 a ” ”
3916:27 3 ” ”
3916-00 3 ” ”
*3914°86 3s ” ”
*3914-45 5 3914-3 ” ” rt
*3913:°58 5 3913°5 ” ” ”
*3911:34 4n 3911-2 ”» rh =
*3904:95 7 3904°9 An - 73
*3901-13 5 3901°2 * 7 ”
*3900-68 5 3900°7 aS p oF
*3898°68 4s ” ”
*3895 42 7 1:07 A
*3890:12 4s ” ”
*3888-20 4n ” ”
*3883°02 Tn ” ”
*3882-49 5n ” ”
*3882-28 6n of ”
*3881:58 3 99 ”
3877-75 3n oo OF
*3875°44 6n - =
387432 4 ay
5873°40 5n cf os
*3870:28 3 + A
*3869°75 3 ” ”
3869-47 5n | os a
3869-13 2 a re
, Fe 3990-00.
l| Solar line double 4 5 3989-99" + Solar line triple
{ f 3957°10,
§ Solar group Fe I agate
lai 3956-45,
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
24976°5
24995°8
25000°6
25025°2
25056°1
25082°2
25083°4
25090°3
25102°0
25106°5
25217°4
25226°4
25256°1
25268°1
25317:0
25322°7
25385°2
25409°8
25438:0
25460°9
254727
25492'9
25503°3
25527°3
25529°1L
25536°5
25539°2
255449
25559°5
25601°2
256263
25629°3
25642°4
25663°9
25698°8
25711°5
25745'8
25749°4
25750:8
25755°4
25780°9
257962
25803°7
25809°8
25830°6
258342
258360
25838°3
3949:00.
Fe 3948-90.
Ti 3948:80.
t
304 REPORT—1 896.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity | Preyious Observations vaccine Cszillation
length and (Rowland) Frequency
(Rowland) | Character a: be in Vacuo
A
*3868'56 5n 107 | 73 25842°1
*3867°92 4n 7 > 25846°4
*3866°60 6n 4 % ” 25855°2
*3866:17 2 > 0 25858'1
*3864°66 2 : ” ” 25868°2
*3862 98 5n ” ” 25879°5
*3861°89 3n > ” 25886'8
3861-25 4 ” » |° 25891-1
*3860°61 3 oy » 25895°3
*3858°26 5n 5 » 25911-1
*3858:04 3 4 2 25912°6
*3855'99 3 1:06 - 25926°4
*3853°87 5n » 25940°6
*3853'18 5n % rf 259453
*3848'48 3s > 259770
*3846 57 4 : "5 ss 25989°9
*3845°28 3 ”» ” 25998°6
3842:77 2 ” ” 26015°6
3841-79 | 2 ” ” 26022°2
*3840°90 2 4 5 26028°3
3840-48 2 ” ” 26031-1
*3836:90 4 a rr 260554
*3836°22 3s * £ 26060:0
3834-06 3 ” ” 260747
*3833'80 4s * ” 26076°5
*3833'33 4s ” ” 26079:7
3829°87 3 ” ” 26103:2
*3828°31 4 9 ” 26113'9
*3828°16 3 ” ” 26114°9
3827°80 2 “4 ” 26117°4
3827-61 2 ” ” 26118°7
*3827:12 3 > ms 261220
*3823-03 2 7 3 26150:0
*3822'16 5s§ x 3 26155°9
*3821°86 2 + 7 26158-0
*3818°38 4 ” ” 26181°8
*3817°78 4 . (aes 26185°8
*3815°01 3 | 1-05 ” 26204-9
*3814:°72 4 | es 5 26206°8
*3813-54 3 i 5 262150
*3813-42 3 + 26215°8
*3811:56 2 ” ” 8 26228-6
3807-93 2 ” ” 26253°6
3807°37 2 > 26257°4
*3806°60 2 “S + 26262'8
3806:19 2 - : 26265°€
*3805°64 2 5 ss 26269°4
3805°25 2 + = 26272:1
*3801°73 28 - a 26296°4
*3801:25. | 3s i = 26299°7
*379847. | 3 -, : 26319:0
Ti 3822°16.
§ Solar line tripley Fe 382206.
Ti 3821°16.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 305
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM) —continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
Intensity Previous Observations
chan (Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
*3796°06
3789:46
*3786°44.
*3786:20
*3782°26
*3776'20
*3771°80
*3766°60
*3762-01
*3761°46
*3759:42
*3757°82
*3753°75
*3753:00
3748-26
*3741°78
*3741°19
3739°17
*3735°84
*3733-96
*3729-92
*3725:28
*3724°70
*3722°70
*3721°75
*3717-53
*3710:10
3708'83
*3707-68
*3706°37
*3704-84
*3704:42
370313
*3702-42
3700-22
3698'33
*3697-05
*3694:58
3692°35
*3690 04
*3688 19
3687-48
3686-10
*3685:30
*3681:38
*3679°88
3677-90
*3671°82
*3669-08
*3666°71
*3663-82
1896.
ee
7)
n
n
i=]
i=}
PSI OE Ge Nm YS Gra Fe CoB RS Cio Cio TES TBOTESYNS SP), 00 (C7 CS Or Sx St! 8C0 C9 C0 pi He Aa) Ore 9) -Qiko NO 'ST'F
[ Fe 378634.
§ 4 Ti 3786-20.
| Fe 378612.
Frequency
Oscillation
in Vacuo
26335°7
26381°6
26402°6
26404:3
26431°8
264742
26505-0
26541°6
265740
265779
265923
26603°7
26632°5
26637'8
26671°5
267178
267220
26736°4
26760°2
26773°7
26802°7
26836:0
26840-2
26854°6
26861°5
26892:0
26945°9
26955-1
26963-4
26973°0
26984:1
26987-2
26996°6
27001°8
27017°8
27031°6
27041:0
27059'1
270754
27092°4
271060
27111°2
271213
27127-2
27156-0
2716771
271817
27226°8
2724771
27264°7
27286:2
306 REPORT—1896.
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
ec eae Previous Observations Vern ee an
re en
(Rowland) Character ea Xe fer in wvaeub
A
*3662°37 . 102 | 7-7 27297-0
#3660°75 6 ‘ A 273091
*3659-91 5s 273154
*3658-22 7 E : 27328°0
| *3654-72 6 1-014) os 27354-2
| #365361 | 10n s é 27362'5
#364632 Bs : 274172
#3644-87 4 x : 274281
#34982 | 10n 2 5 27443'6
3641-48 Bs thre : 27453°7
383810 4 fae eh ree 274791
“363561 | P| 2 | sagre
#3635-33 4 i : 275000
3633-60 4 ie 275131
#369622 3s eit: 275691
3624-97 4s] és es 27578°6
3623-25 an : Y 27591-7
3621-37 dn a 27606'1
#369015 2 is i 27615-4
3614-35 4n 1-00). 27659'7
3613-89 4 i é 27663'2
3612-40 3n 276746
*3610-29 6 : ‘i 27690°8
360972 | 3 Aaa Beets 27695°2
epee is ct)
c ” ” 7 22°
#3.G05°46 4s # if 277279
*3604-39 3s e ‘ 27736 1
3603-98 3 27739°3
*3601-52 9 : ‘ 277583
*3601°31 2 se . 27759°9
*3599-25 5 27775"
3508-87 = ad i pia
*3596°17 5 s : 27799'6
#359413 2 » 1 79 27815°2
ae i | a
. d ” ? 7 6
#357600 2 099 | 2 27956°3
#357385 | 48 2 Ae oe
#3566-16 3 : is 28033°5
#3561-72 3 4 e 28068°4
3558-66 4 ‘ 28092'6
355632 3n bs 8111-1
=a5eris 5 » | 80 28183'6
3549-69 3 2 ped
*3535°56 9 i ;
353551 5 098 | |. 282761
#352618 3 i - eo
2 i . 28351°3
( Ti Fe 3625-00. ( Fe 357405.
|| Solar line double
(Ni 362487.
§ Solar line double
| Ti 3573-85.
i.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 9307
TITANIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Reduction to |
Wave- | Intensity |! Previous Observations | Vaeuam Oscillation
length and (Rowland) ated a lal Frequency
(Rowland) Character eae glo in Vacuo
r
Sso2zp28 | 3 0-98 | 80 28358°5
*3524°37 4 Veep bat Wea ce 28365°9 |
*3520°39 4s nT ee 28397°9
#352015 | 3n eh tes 28399'9
*3516:97 3 alee 28425°6
*3512-23 4b is . 28463-9
*3511-74 2 Ta 28467°9
*3510°98 6s & i: 284741 |
| "250755 | 3 = | toed 28501°8 |
*2506°76 4 pat | f 28508*8
* 3505-02 6 ! | cy 28522'4
| *3500-48 3 YF "| 985594
*3499-24 4 % | ce 285695
*3495°88 4 0:97 a 28597°0
*3393-44 2 , y i! 28617-0
*3491-20 6s | cy ieee 28635°3
| *3489-90 3 | ag Vis 286460
#348584 3 Oe Rie 286794
| 3481-83 2 bl ay pe eee
| *3480-67 5 a eee | 287220
| 3479-07 3 a) | oe Ube 2BTRR2
5 1 dei 28749°6
*3477°33
ae. { Ti 3506-77.
|| Solar line double | Fe 3506°66.
562 Titanium lines coincide with solar lines, and 156 are doubtful or do not
coincide.
Rowland’s Normal Solar Lines (on which these measurements of the Titanium
Lines rest): 5893:10, 5884-05, 5831:84, 5805-45, 5791:21, 5772-36, 5754-89,
5731-98, 5688-48, 5658-09, 5569°84, 5513-19, 5487-96, 546660, 5447-12, 542427,
5397°34, 5867-67, 5300'S2, 5266-73, 5230:01, 5202-49, 5155-94, 5121:80, 5090-96,
5060:25, 5036:10, 5007-42, 4978-78, 4934-24, 4903-48, 4890-94, 4859-93, 482431,
4805-25, 4783-60, 4754-22, 4727-62, 4703-98, 4679-02, 4668:30, 4637-67, 4611-44,
4578°72, 4563-94, 4536-25, 4508-45, 4494-72, 4468-65, 4447-90, 4425-60, 4407:85,
437610, 4843-98, 4818-83, 4293-24, 4267-94, 425449, 4215-65, 4185-05, 4157-94,
4121-96, 4088-71, 4062-60, 4048-88, 4029-79, 4003-91, 3971-48, 394255, 3924-67,
3897°60, 3875-23, 3843-40, 3821:32, 3794-02, 3770-12, 3747-09, 3716-57, 3695-19,
aie 8658-68, 3640:53, 3612-21, 3583-48, 3564-68, 3540-27, 3518-48, 3491-47,
x2
308 REPORT—1896.
Copper (Spark SPECTRUM).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. zu Wien,’ 1896.
Exner and Haschek: ‘ Sitz-ber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissench. Wein,’ civ. (1895),
ev. (1896).
* Observed in the Arc spectrum by Kayser and Runge.
+ Observed only in air; the spark was usually taken between copper poles im
hydrogen.
| | Reduglian
| ; to Vacuum ats
| Mie ars ae Previous Measurements oe shale
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
A+ a
| 6381:1 6s 6381:2 Thalén 1:73 4:2 1566771
| 6219°5 4s 6219°7 1:69 4:4 160741
| *5782°30 8s 578274 oy, 5782°5 Neovius | 1:58 4°7 17289°5
| 5768°65 Inb 1:57 | ,, | 17280-4
| 5760°49 1Inb e si 173549
| *5732°50 inb 1°56 Ks 17439°7
|’ *5700:39 6s 57018 , 57008 ,, 1:55 | 48 | 17537-9
| 5696°68 3b a PA 17549 3
| 5685:03 1b 5 A 17585°3
| 5679:42 3s * 5 17602°6
567585 2b $3 a 17613°7
| 6672°92 2b a3 - 17622°8
5668°77 2b ” ” 17635°7
5666°62 3s a 33 17642°4
5663°52 In 1:54 5 176521
| 5652°16 4b ” 5 17687'5
| *5646:13 3b s +5 17706°4
564439 Jn ” An 17711°9
5639-50 In ns 17727°3
5636'84 1b a 53 177356
562471 1b 1:53 - 177739
5621°17 3b 5 a 17785°1
561870 ‘| 3b ” 4 17792°9
560883 3s a 4:9 178241
557410 3b 1:52 os 17935:2
5571:47 In ny i 17943°7
5566°35 3s 5 - 17960°2
556383 2s ” 4 17968°3
¥*5555°15 2b 5 = 1799674
554311 2b 1°51 ;; 18035°5
*5535°90 3b Ps 55 18059:0
5500:09 2s 1°50 50 181765
549814 2s 3 5 18183°0
549512 4s a is 18193°0
5487°30 3s s rn 18218°9
| 65475°49 2n 1:49 a 18258°2
5472-00 3b = 9 18269°8
5463°55 4b ” 4 18298'1
5460°25 2b te 5 18309°2
| 5456:02 2s - ‘3 18323°4
545393 In x . 18330°4
5450°62 2s 3 18341°5
544090 1n ot ni 18374°3
5438°79 4s 1:48 =< 18381°4
4#5432°26 2b ‘ > 6 18403°5
5429-01 1b ay » | 184146
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
5422-93
5418°61
5410-97
*5408°55
#5391°92
5389°70
5380°75
5369°63
*5360°20
5357°27
#5355°10
#5352°85
5340°71
5338°19
5325°38
531760
5309-41
5295°71.
#529275
5287°66
5285°77
528234
5270°13
5268°38
5255°62
#5250°82
5232°80
#*5220°25 |
¥*5218°45 |
5208°37
520374
*5201'14
*5153°40
*5 144-40
513903
513386
5130-97
5124-70
512000
5112-18
*5105°75
5095-08
5094-29
5089-54
*5076-49
5067-33
5060'86
5059°58
5053-02
#5034-49
501699
5013-40
5007-49
500538
500150
CoPpPpER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Intensity
and
Character
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
5293'1 Thalén 5293:0 Neovius
\ sais + ie BTL eh
51533 ,, ~«©5153°6 +
51055 =, = 51059 ”
309
Reduction
to Vacuum
| Frequency |
18435°2
Oscillation
in Vacuu
18449°9
18476:0
184842
18641:2
18548'8
18579:7
186182
186509 |
186611 |
18668:7
186765
187190
187278
18772'9
18800°4
18829°4
18878-0
18888°6
18906°8
18913°5
18925°8
18969°7
18976:0
190221
19039°4
19105:0
19151:0
19157°6
191946
192116
192213
19399°4
19433:3
19453°6
194732
194842
19508-0
19526:0
19555°7
19580°4
19621-4
196244 |
196427
19693:2
19728°9
197541
19759°1
19784:7
19857-6
19926°8
19941:0
199646
19973-0
19988:5
310
REPORT—1896.
CopPpER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave- Intensity
length and
(Rowland) | Character
| 4986-94 | on
4954°83 4n
4945-17 In
493856 ib
| 4932°86 4b
| 4927-66 1s
4921-82 In
4919-65 In
4913-98 In
| 4910°77 3n
| 4889°89 2s
*4867°33 2n
485648 In
| *4767°74 In
| 4758°61 Qn
| 4748-85 238
| §*4704-76 5s
| §*4697°83 3n
4683°35 Qn
*4674°98 6s
§*4651'29 8s
4649-31 2s
| *$643-05 2b
| 4634-47 In
4630°77 4s
i 4623-26 In
4621°52 2s
4614-30 2n
| 4607-45 2s
| 4601-80 2s
§$*4587:17 8s
| §*4555°94 In
| §*4539-60 3b
t §*4630°98 2s
§*4509-50 4b
*4507-77 In
4505°65 In
| £492°57 2b
| $*4480°52 3b
$*4416:06 1b
§*4378°30 In
§*4275°36 10s
| §*4260°17 In
§*4249-17 3b
§*4228°37 In
§*4177-92 2b
§*4062-89 Tbv
§4043:°70 3s
§*4022°91 4s
398331 In
398184 In
3979-74 In
§3962°77 In
3959-60 in
395498 In
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
Reduction to |
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
4956°5 Thalén 4955°8 Neovius
49334 ,, 4932°5 ds
49123 ,, 4911°0
4758°5 Neovius
4704-0 Thalén 4703:2 Neovius
4651-5 ,, "4651:3 =,
4587-4 Neovius
45562 ,,
4540-1
45311 i
45099 $
4480-6 +
| 4378-2
4275°5 Thalén 4275°3 Neovius
4249-4 Neovius
4063-0 mh
4022°9 x
20050°9
201768
202163
202432
202666
20288-0
20312°1
20321:0
20344°5
| 20357°8
20444°8
| 90539°5
| 20585°3
20968°5
210087
210519
21249°2
| 21280°5
213463
21384°6
21493°5
21502°7
215317
21571-4
| 21588°7
21623°8
_ 21631-9
21665°8
| 216980
| 21724°6
| 21793°9
21943°3
| 22022:3
| 22064:2
22169°3
| 22177°8
22188°3
22252°8
22312°6
22638°3
22833°6
23383°3
23466°7
| 23527-4
23643°2
23928°7
246061
24722'8
24850°6
25097°6
251069
25120°2
252278
252480
252774
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
CoPpPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Previous Measurements
Wave- Intensity
length and
(Rowland) | Character
3952-02 In
3948-18 In
§3934:15 2s
3923-10 2s
3919°72 2n
3917-67 In
3914-00 2n
3912°35 in
*3899-90 2s
3894-64 In
3888°77 In
Several
388712 In
§*3861°88 1s
§*3860-95 2n
3839-03 2n
383486 In
3831:97 In
3826°40 2n
§3813-77 2n
§*3812-05 In
§3809-29 3n
§3807°84 2n
§3804:50 In
§3801-29 In
3799°47 In
§3791:12 4n
378424 2n
3781°97 In
3780'31 In
§3777 17 3n
§3775:15 2n
§3772°17 In
$3764°21 In
* { 3762°23§ In
3754°78§ In
§3752:29 2n
3748:50 In
§3744-94 2n
§*3741°44 2s
3737-62 In
§*3734°68 2s
3726:43 In
§3720°32 In
$3715°27 In
3703°10 2n
§*3700°56 In
3697-99 In
*3687°75 2b
*3686:70 3s
*3659-54 In
*3656°22 1s
*3654-59 in
$*3645-00 In
§*3642-00 In
3686°6
(Rowland)
”
dll
Reduction to
Vacuum
1
At z
1:09 72
” ”
1:08 Pp
” | ”
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” ”
er 73
1:07 nF
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:06 3
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:05 74
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
» ”
” ”
1:04 5.
75
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:03 rs
” ”
” 76
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:02 +:
” ”
” ”
oc TT
1:01 “
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
25296'3
25320°9
25411°3
25482°8
25504'8
25518°2
2554271
25552°9
256344
25669:0
25707'8
25718°7
25886°8
25893°1
26040'9
26069°3
26088°9
26126°9
26213°4
26225°2
26244-2
262542
26277°3
26299°5
26312°1
263700
26418:0
26433°8
26445°5
26467°4
264816
26502°4
26558°5
26572: 5
26625°2
2€642°9
26669°8
26695:2
26720°2
26747-5
26768°6
26827°7
26871°8
26908 3
26996'8
270153
27034°1
271092
27116°9
273181
273430
27355°2
27427:1
27449°7
312
REPORT— 1896,
COPPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
an ae Previous Measurements
(Rowland) | Character ere)
3639°47 In
§*3636°10 Qn
§3633'14 In
§*3627-64 In
3625°61 In
$3624-44 In
§*3621°31 Qn
§*3620-46 In
§*3613-89 2n
§3611-08 In
§*360210 | 4n
* 24 3599'7 Neovius
Sees) 1) le 1 35096 Hartley & Adeney
3549-09 2n
§*3533-'79 | 2n
§*3530°44 3s
§*3527°56 2s
§*3524°36 3s 3524-4 H. & A.
§*352020 | Qs
3516°86 Is
§*3512°16 38 35112 —,,
§*3483°82 4s 34838,
§*3476°03 3s 34788,
§3472-26 In 3472.4 ,,
§*3454-64 In 34558,
§*3450°43 3s 34506,
§*3416-74 1b
§*3413-27 1b
§*3404-62 1b
§*3402-31 1b
*3393°51 3s
§*3381-43 Qn 3382-0,
§*3365°45 3s
§*3349-43 2s
§*3338-00 | 4s
§3335°59 1b
*3329°64 1b
§*3319-74 2s
§*3317°35 2s
§*3308:10 | 7s 83078 ~ .,
§*3292°77 In
§*3290-60 3b 3290°7 ss,
§*328279 | 2s 3282-4,
§*3279'89 | 35 32804 ,,
§*3274-09 | 8s 32750 ,,
§*3266:03 Is 32670,
§*3247-65 10s 32484,
§*3243:13 | 3b 3245-4,
§*3235-68 3s 3235-2,
§*3231-25 2s
§*3226°60 | In
§*3224-67 | Qn
§*3223-47 2n
§*3208-41 In
g3204-64 | 2b
Reduction to
Vacuum
Nat oe
N
1:01 JC
3 78
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1-00 5
” ”
” ”
0:99 8:0
0:98 *
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
0:97 81
” ”
” »”»
0:96 8:2
095 | 83
” ”
” ”
” ”
a 8-4
ou
9» 85
0-93 | ,,
” ”
ge
” ”
092 |”
| 87
” ”
” ”
0:91 8:8
” ”
” ”
” ”
0:90 89
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
27468°8
27494:2
27516°6
27558°3
27573°'8
58272°7
27606°5
27613°0
27663°2
27684°7
27753'8
27775°8
28168:2
28290°2
28317°1
| 28340°2
| 28365°9
28399°5
28426°5
28464°5
28696'0
28760°4
28791°6
28938°4
289737
29267°9
292891
29363°6
29383°5
29459°6
29564°9
29705'3
| 29847°3
29949°6
29971:2
30024:8
301142
30135°9
30220 2
30361°0
30381-0
304532
30480°1
30534°1
30609°5
30782°7
30825°6
30896°6
30939:0
30983°6
31002°1
310137
31159-2
31195°9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 313
COPPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
eo aoe to
: yacuum “T7048
es invenaty Previous Measurements one
(Rowland) | Character Cine x¥ 1__| in Vacuo
A
3200-20 Qs 0:90 | 89 | 31239-1
$*3194-15 Gis & » | 312983
§*3169°68 3n ‘ 0:89 | 9:0 | 31539-9
*3159°85 6n is » | 316381
§*3146 84 In a 9:1 | 317688
§*3142°38 In - i » | 31813-9
§*3140°33 In 3139°7 H. & A. 0-38] ,, | 3183847
§#3126-16 6s . » | 319790
§*3116°34 In 3116G =, if » | 32079'8
§*3108'55 5s 3108-2 __,, ‘ 9-2 | 321601
§*3099-93 5s 30987 087 | ,, | 32249°6
*3094-01 3s vi » | 323113
§3088°10 In {i » | 323732
§$*3073'82 Is ts 93 | 32523°5
*3070°86 1s NM » | 325549
§*3063°50 3s A | 826331
§*3036°15 3s 30369 __,, 0:86 | 9:4 | 329271
§*3010°93 3s 0°85 | 9:5 | 33202°8
§3007:42 In 5 » | 382416
§*2997-47 Is ; 9:6 | 33351°9
*2989-21 In 0-84) ,, | 335226
§*2979°31 In ie » | 335552
§2976:00 In A | 335925
2971-80 In fs » | 33640-0
§*2961-20 5s 29596, ; ‘: 9-7 | 33760-4
§2884-50 In “ 0°82 | 10:0 | 34658-1
§*2883:05 Is 28829 ,, a é » | B4675°5
§2878-02 3s 2878-0, i » | 347361
2860-45 3s ; 081 | 10°1 | 349494
2858-28 In : » | 34976-0
| §2837-66 2n eri ,, » | 102 | 352301
| §2824-47 6s 030] ,, | 35394-7
| §2813-25 2s » | 103 | 35535°8.
§ 2799°55 1b » | 104 | 35709°6
2795-60 ‘2s ‘ iS » | 35760:1
2780-25 Is ‘ 0-79 | ,, | 35957-6
2777-15 Is M » | 35997°7
-§*2769°88 4s 27694, » | 105 | 360921
| §*2766-45 2s 27665, e is » | 36136°9
| 2763-80 ls : %3 . | 36171°6
§*2751°30 2b » | 106 | 36335-9
§2745'54 6s 27463, , ‘s » | 364121
§2739-98 3s O78 | ,, | 364860
§2737°63 3s :- » | 36517°3
| §2734-07 2n 36564:9
| §2731-8 2n len || SB59RS
2730-4 In c , | 36614
§*2724-1 2n - » | 10:7 | 366987
§2721-98 4s 3721-3, a » | 867273
§2719-14 5n 27189 a » | 33765°6
§2713°82 8s a713°7 3 » | 36837°7
§2703-48 9s 27030, , = » | 369787
§2701°34 | 10s 27013, » | 10:8 | 37007.9
26988 1s 077 | ,, | 37042:7
| §*2696-70 =| Qs. ,. 5S + 370716
314
REPORT—1896.
CopPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
“elear eve Previous Measurements
Rowland)
(Rowland) | Character (
§2689°66 10s 2689°4 H.& A.
§*2680°0 In
§2666°61 6s 26667 SCs,
2658-7 In
$* 2649-9 1n
§2644°10 5s 2643°8 ‘45
§2641°75 2s
*2635°1 In
*2630°1 In
2624°4 In
§*2618°46 8s 26183 ,,
§2609°43 7s 26094 ,,
§2600°51 | 10s 26003,
§$2599°15 8s 2598°9 ~
§ 2592-9 In
§2590°78 5s 2590'S sy,
$2587°6 In
§2586°5 In
2584:0 1n
§2581°3 1s
§*2580'3 1s
*2578'1 In
2576°8 In
25752 2s
§2573-4 3s 25734 4
§2572 0 4s 25724 45
ae Tn 2b71s3: yy
69°7 In
§*2566°5 5s 2565'7
2564-4 1s :
*2563'1 1s
2561°5 In
2557°4 in
§$2554-4 2s
§*2553:2 2b 25543 yy
2552°9 ln 2552°6 9
2552-1 ln
§2550:4 2b
§$2545-08 10s 25449 iy
§$2538°8 4s 2538°6 oF
S2585'5 4s
§2533-8 In 253844 gy
2533-0 2n
253271 2n 25319 45
$2529-60 8s 2529'3 3,
§$2526-90 5s 25266 55
§2523°3 4s Bozo | yas
§2522-4 4s 25223 45
2521-2 2s
§2519-1 2s
§$2518:5 3s 2518'S sg,
§2517-0 2s iy
2516-6 2s
2515-0 Is
Reduction
to Vacuum
anal eae
077 | 10°8
” ”
Ee 109
” ”
0-76 | 11:0
” ”
”» ”
” ”
33 19 Bl
” ”
” ”
075 | 11:2
” ”
”? ”
” ”
” ”
* abs?
” ”
” ”
” ”
» ”
” ”
” ”
9 ”
” ”
” ”
> ”
” ”
* 11-4
0:74 a
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
5 1:5
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
3” ”
x 11°6
» ”
” ”
» ”
” ”
»”» ”»
» »”
” ”
0-73 &
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
37168°6
37302°6
37489°9
37601°5
37726°3
37809°1
37842°7
37938°2
38010°3
380929
38179°3
38311°3
384428
384629
38555°7
38587°2
386346
38651:0
386884
38728'9
387439
387770
38796°5
38820°6
38847°8
388689
38881-0
38903°8
38952°2
3898471
39003°9
390282
39090°8
39136°7
3915571
39159°7
391720
39198-1
392800
393772
39428°5
39454°9
394674
39481-4
39520°3
39562°6
39589:2
39619-0
39633°2
39652°1
39685°1
39694°6
397182
39724°6
39749°8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 315
COPPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
Wave- Intensity é to Vacuum | Osciliation
peng aa eee a “in eal ; Frequency
(Rowland haracter in Vacuo
a+ | ==
A
2513-2 5s 2513-4 H. & A. 0-73 | 11-6 | 397783
§2511°5 6s 2511-7, » | 11-7 | 398051
§2508-7 6b 25090 > late! | S9B4Bs
§2506:50 | 10s 25066 |. » | os» | 398846
20048 Ib ki ” | 399116
2503" In » | | 39930°8
2503'1 In » | 3, | 399388
2501-0 Qn ; », | 399723
2497°7 3s 24978 ,, > lot) | 40086
$2496-2 4b 24963 » | 3 | 40049°2
2493-6 In » | 118 | 40090-9
§*2492-2 6s 24919, oo 'lehtp) | S04aes
g248975 | ss | 24895, » | 9 | 40152-9
Be |e jen = ie | a
§2482'5 bs if age, » |. | 40270-2
2481:°2 ls ” ” 40291°3
2479-8 Is * , | 403140
§2478-4 3n 24785, » laGa! | dOaaee
2475-4 In 24755 |. » | 119 | 40385-6
§2473°6 &s 24736 ,, notes, | 4ehae
§2468-7 8s 2469-0 072} ” | 40495-3
§2466:0 4n 24657 | » |» | 40539:6
2464-1 Qn » | | 40870-9
2463-2 Qn és 405857
-¥2462/1 3n 24619, » | on | 406038
2460°5 In ; | 40630-2
§2459:4 2s , | 120 | 40648-3
2458-9 4s 24585, » lm. | 406566
2457-9 In eo fee | aoagee!
§2453°1 Bs 24526 ,, » «| | 40759-7
2451-9 1s 407727
2449'5 Is Pe dat «ion
§2447°6 Qn J 408443
24468 Qn 24470, Ly | 40867°7
2445-5 Qn » | a | 408794
§2444-54 5s 2444-4, ” » | 40895°5
2443-5 Qn | 121 | 409198
2442-6 Qn 1 y |» | 409279
g*244172 | 6s 24419, » | » | 409426
§2440-2 3b 2440-2 > » | a» | 409682
§2436-0 Bs 24360 |. » low | 410388
2433-5 3s 2 410810
§24305 4s 24308 ‘i ” |) 4131-7
2499: Qn Say, {eget
2428:3 Qn 24287, es ” | 41169-0
§2424-70 | 5s 24958 | | 132} 41230-0
2421°8 3s 2429-7 O71) , | 412794
2420-0 In Wet) | 24180021
2418°5 In eat | SBBSET
re In 413974
2414:3 2s i "| 1407-7
2413-2 1s ke cl. | 426
g2412-45 | 5s 24125 , | 123 | 414393
2408'6 In » Why | SROORG
316
|
REPORT—1896.
CopPpER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
Wave- Intensity ‘ to, Nae
length rele Previous Measurements
(Rowland) | Character Ce pranihy) Nii =
*2406°8 Is O71 | 12°3
§2405°64 4s 2405°3 H. & A. ” ”
§$2403°63 6b 2403'5 5 ” ”
§*2400°23 6s 2400°5 a ” ”
§*2392°8 4 23083. 4s » | 124
§2391°8 | 3 Is 23925“ , ‘5 »
2385°1 2s 2385°5 ae ” ”
§2376°6 5s 23771 sy, » | 125
§2370°9 2n 2372:0 55 0:70 ”
§*2369-97 10s 2369°9T.&.8. 2370-6H.& A. “4 33
2368°8 2s 2368°8 cr 23691 =, ”” oF
2368-4 2s » | 12
Ses In 23663, ” ”
*2363°3 In ” »
2362°8 In ” ”
2361°6 In ” ”
§*2356°68 6s 2356°7 7 23577 ~—Sy ” ”
§2355°2 4n 2355°2 “ 23553, ” ”
§2348'8 3n 23491, » | 127
§2346-2 2s 23462 Pa 23465, “ ”
23391 In » | 12°8
§2336°3 4s 2336°3 5 2337°0 =, ” ”
2324-1 In 0°69 | 12:9
2323'1 ln ” ”
2320°4 2s ” ”
2319°7 1s ” ”
23159 In ” ”
2315'3 1s ” ”
2312:3 1s » | 13:0
§$2309:7 2s ” ”
§2303°18 4s ” ”
§2299°6 2s 2299°6 be 2300°8_ si, | eS
2298 5;
$2294-40 6s 2294°4 9 22953 —S,, ” ”
2293:°93 3s 2293°9 ‘; 22949 | ,, bid 2
§2291-1 4s 2291°1 " PMT ne ” ”
§2286°7 4s 2286°7 A 2287:0_ =i, - 13°2
2280°9 1s ” ”
§2278-4 2s 2278°4 3 2219'9) ass ” ”
§2276°30 6s 2276°3 ie 22773 i, 0-68 Ar
2274-9 1s » | 13:3
§2265°5 2s 22655 ” 2266°1 ” ” ”
§2263°7 3b 2263°9 ” 2264-2 ” ” ”
22632 2b 22632 % 2263°5 s,, = 13°4
2260°6 2b 22600 __—sé,, ” ”
§2255:1 2b 2255°1 of ” ”
2252-0 lb 2250°3 ” a” »”
§2248-9 3b 2249:0 a 22485, oe 13°5
§ 2247-14 7s 2247-0 x 22480 ,, %
§2244-4 1s 22443, a
§2242°6 qs 2242°7 aS 2243'8,, ”
2231°8 1s 22333, > 13°6
at 2s 2231:0 x 2231°5,, a 3
§2230°2 3b 22301 Hh 22305, ” ”
§2229-0 4b 2228°9 = 22294, 0°67 “p
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
415366
415567
41591°4
41650°4
41779°6
417971
419146
42064:4
42165°6
42182:
42203-0
42210-0
42285-0
423011
42310°1
4331-6
42420-0
42446'6
42562:2
42609-4
42738°7
42789'9
43014°5
43033-0
430831
43096'1
43166 9
43178-0
43234-0
43282-7
43405°2
43472°7
43571°3
435804
43634:1
437179
43829°1
43877'3
43917°7
43944-7
44127-1
44162°2
44171°8
44222°6
44330°5
44391°6
44452°7
44487°5
44541°8
44576'8
44793'3
44807°3
44825°4
44849°6
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES. OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 317
CoPpPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave- Intensity
length and
(Rowland) Character
§2227-9 Qn
§2227-0 3n
2225'8 2s
§2294-9 2s
$2218-2 6s
§ 2215-4 3s
2214-6 3s
2212-9 1s
$2210'4 5s
§2200°7 Is
2199°8 3s
§2195:9 3s
§2192-4 Bs
§2189'8 5s
2183-0 Is
2181'8 Is
§2179-45 5s
2175-15 3s
2165°2 Is
§2161°6 Is
2157-5 2s
§2152-0 38
§2149-05 4s
2147:2 2n
2145-7 2n
2144-9 in
§2136'1 3s
§2134-6 2s
2130°2 In
§2126:1 3s
2125°3 3s
§2123:06 3s
2117-4 Qs
§2112-20 2s
§2104:88 2s
2098°7 2b
2093°1 1s
2088-2 2s
2085-4 3s
2079:0 2s
2070°4 In
2066-5 In
2062-7 in
20551 2s
2044-0 2s
2037°28 2s
2036-0 2s
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
22273 T.&S. 2228:4H.& A.
22269 __,, 222773),
222378 55 2226°3 —,,
22248,
22196
22182 —,, { o188
(22168
22153, 1 Soeur
9144 ,, 99144,
2213-0 |, 22116 ,,
(22111,
22103 99091”
22006 ,, 22006 ,,
21998 |, 22001 |.
21959 3 21968,
9199-3?
aortas 1 9191-5 |,
21899 |,
sierra 4) Wore
21818 ,, 21813 »
21755 «, 21793 ,,
21783 |.
21752 sy PATS em 5
21492 ,, 21491 ,,
21361 5 213861 ,,
21346 . 21345 ,,
21262
919
21253, Piet ‘
21224 |
Seay { 51918
TRE ae es he ee
21122 3, 91195 |,
21049 |, «21033,
20986 ),
20939 |,
20881 |,
20855 |,
20788 ,
20670,
20627 |.
20551
20440 |)
20373
Reduction
to Vacuum
fos
A ae
0°67 | 13-6
» | 187
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 13'8
” ”
” ”
” 13-9
” ”
” ”
” 14:0
” »
” ”
+d ”
066 | 141
” ”
” 14:2
” ”
” 14:3
” ”
» | 144
” ”
» | 145
” ”
0°65 a.
” 14:6
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 14:7
” 14°8
” ”
” 1:49
” ”
” 1:50
0-64 | 151
” ”
” 15:2
” 15:3
” 15:4
” th]
” 15°5
' 47873:2
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
44871°7
44889'9
449140
449321
45067°9
45124:9
45141°1
45175°8
45226°9
454262
45444°8
45525°5
455981
45652°3
457945
45819°7
45869:0
45959-7
461709
46247°8
46335°6
46454°1
46517°9
46557°9
46590°4
46607'8
46799°8
46832°7
46929°5
47019°9
470376
470872
47213°1
47329°3
47493°8
47633°7
477611
47937°4
48085:0
48284°7
48375°9
48465:0
48644°}
48908°3
49069°7
49100-4
318
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
REPORT—1896.
CoPpPER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
Intensity to Vacuum
and
Character
|
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
At
2031°3
2025-7
201773
2016-0
20142
2013719
1999'68
1989-24
1979°26
1970°5
1943°88
2030°9 T. & S.
2025°7
492141
49350°1
49555°5
49587°5
49631°8
» | 49656-7
» | 15:8 | 499992 |
16-0 | 502545 |
161 | 505078
16-2 | 507323
1165 | 51427-0
| !
| 2016°0
| 2015°8*'",,
mire
2013-2
| 1999-9
2s | 1989-4
Qs | 1979-4
| 1970-4
| 1944-1
§ Observed
4590:2, 4552°5,
4384-6, 4355:5,
3940°6, 39286,
3810:°3, 37596,
86559, 36523,
3492°1, 3487°8,
3342°6, 3327:2,
3282-7, 3277-4,
3201°8, 3192-2,
3160°2, 3158°9,
3132-4, 3128°9,
3065-9, 3055-9,
2989°2, 2983:9,
2621-0, 2602°8,
also by Exner and Haschek, who give also the following lines:
4525°5, 4520-3, 4513-5, 4494-6, 4485-7, 4458-2, 4437°5, 4420°8, 4896-2,
4348-2, 4829-0, 4253-8,4182-9, 4144-2, 4057-1, 4003:1, 3973:3, 3964-6,
3925°3, 3921-3, 3907°6, 3866-1, 3851-1, 3848-1, 3842°8, 3825°3, 3820°9,
3711-9, 3695-4, 3684-8, 3681-5, 3677-0, 3676:8, 3671-8, 3665-8, 3664-2,
3648-4, 3629°8, 3589-1, 3546-4, 3545-0, 3529°3, 3514-6, 3500-3, 3498-3,
3465'8, 3459-7, 3440°8, 3422-3, 3420-4, 3395-4, 3384:9, 3375-6, 3344°7,
3324-2, 33229, 3821-9, 3318-8, 3315-6, 3301-2, 3293-9, 3288-4, 32845,
3276-4, 3268-4, 3262°7, 3238-9, 3234-1, 3228-2, 3220-9, 3211-7, 3207-4,
3189-4, 3187-8, 3186-2, 3184-7, 3181-7, 3176-0, 3171-4, 3168-4, 3165°5,
3157'5, 31569, 3154-7, 3151-6, 3149-7, 3147-9, 3144-9, 3138-4, 3135-2,
3120-6, 3118-3, 3113-6, 3105-1, 3103-7, 3100-1, 3094-1, 3082-7, 3081°8,
3053-9, 3047-1, 3038°5, 3025-0, 3023-5, 3022-7, 3021-7, 30150, 3012°0,
2978-4, 2874-4, 2858-2, 2762-9, 2735-6, 2731-9, 2725-7, 2647-7, 2646-4,
2388-3, 2387-3, 2365-7, 2279-8, 2273:3, 2269-1, 2250°3, 22460, 2176:5.
Notr.—The spark employed by Eder and Valenta was of extraordinary power
from a large Ruhmkorff coil, actuated by a current of 8 amperes at 110 volts in com-
bination with a
large condenser.
The number of lines observed is thus greatly in excess of the number of those
observed by Thalén and other observers.
Sitver (Spark SPEcTRUM).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. zu. Wien.,’ 1896.
Exner and Haschek: ‘Sitzber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Wien.,’ civ. (1895), cv. (1896).
* Observed by Kayser and Runge in the Arc spectrum.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity : Vacuum | Oscillation
length Pail Previous Measurements Frequency
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
| A+ mG
6037°3 2n 6037-4 Thalén 1:64 45 | 16559°2
56787 | In 1°55 48 | 176049
*5667-9 In , , | 176384
5656°99 1b 134 | . | 17672+4
5646°50 In 56463, ie , | 17705-3
5628'40 2n 5627'2,, - 3 17762°2
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
5623°34
5621°25
561185
5602°93
5597-99
5593-11
5590°37
5580°89
557521
5570 63
5558-98
5552°79
*5544-5
* 5535°41
5538348
553023
5528°72
§521°25
5494-75
5489-05
5480°81
5479°34
*5471-70
*5465'64
5454-41
5450°42
5424°9
5412-62
§404:13
5401°10
*5209°19
*4874:42
467823
467804
§*4668°58
4630710
4620°57
4620-08
*4616:0
*4556°09
4552-41
4511°39
§4509°84
§*4476°31
4447-08
§*4396°30
43 411
§4385°16
4363-46
4358'14
§*4311-35
4226-55
§*4212-76
4210°87
§4085:92
Intensity
and
Character
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
5624:0 Thalén
56120,
\ 5591-4 4
5569-4,
BBB76
55526,
5523-2
B48ST-6 _ ,,
BAIL 4s
54653 |
54246,
54122”
5402-7,
52098
4874-9
46676 ,,
4396°8 Lecoq de B.
42120 L. & D.
42085 Lecoq de B.
Reduction to
Vacuum
Reta
A
153 | 468
” cb)
a eo
” ”
Lio) 4,
” ”
” ”
150 | 5-0
” ”
” ”
149°| ,,
” ”
14g |,
” ”
147 | 51
1-42 | 52
1:33 | 5-6
128 | 5-9
” ”
127 | 60
” ”
136 | |
125 | 61
” ”
124th ae
1:23 | 62
1-22 | ,,
121 | 63
” ”
120 | >
7 ML Ba
” ”
rast J
116 | 66
” ”
” ”
112! 69
Oscillation |
Frequency
io Vacuo |
177782 |
17784:8
178146
17842-9
17858-7
178742
17883-0
17913-4
17931-6
17946-4
179840
180041
18031-0
18060-6
18066-9
18077-5
18082°5
18106-9
181942
18213'1
18240°5
18245-4
18270:9
18291°1
18328'8
183422
18428°5
18470:3
18499-4
18509°6
19191°6
20509:7
21369°7
21370°6
21413-9
21591'8
21636-4
21638°6
21657°8
21942°5
21960°3
22120'8
22167°6
22333'6
22480°5
22740:1
22751-4
22797°9
22911-2
22939:2
231882
23653'4
23730°8
237415
24467°4
319
}
i
320
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
$*4055°46
4046°45
3994-96
$3985°18
§*3981-35
§3968-34
3961-27
§3933-60
§3919-95
3918-41
§*3914-01
§*3607°76
§*3840°74
§3838°38
$*3810°86
3714-37
$3683'40
3682-49
3649-97
§3616-20
§3596:38
§3580°77
$*3542-65
$3513 44
3503-05
§*3502-02
$3495:57
§3475°89
§3469°52
§3468-0
3437-45
$3429-59
3425°56
$3421-69
3419-43
3412-91
$3405:20
3401-56
3400-34
$3397:56
3394-05
3392-56
3389-44
3387-22
$*3382-98
3376-28
§3373'59
§3367-04
3864-94
3363-69
3361-98
3361-18
3360°36
3358-79
3356-90
REPORT—1896.
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Intensity
and
Character
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
6s
2s
1s
3s
2s
5s
Is
5s
Is
| 340
4053'9 L. & D.
3542'3 H. & A,
or
bo
”?
3391-4 s,
3383'5 ss,
Reduction to
Vacuum
A z =
Eas
1:12 6:9
111 70
1:10 71
” ”
” ”
1:09 %
” ”
1-08 72
be) ”
” 9
a 73
1:06 a
” ”
1:05 TA
1:03 76
1:02 dem
” ”
1:01 +5
1:00 78
a 79
0:99 8:0
0:98 a
er 81
0:97 »
” ”
5 8:2
” ”
0:96 of
> 8:3
” 3)
0°95 y
” ”
” »”»
” ”
» 8:4
9 ”
” ”
” »”
” ”
0-94 5
” ”
»” ”
” ”
”? bb)
»” ”
s 8:5
Oscillation
Fre quency
in Vacuo
24651:2
24706-0
25024-4
25085°9
25110-0
2519-4
25237°3
25414-8
25503°3
25513-4
25542-0
25582°8
26029°4
26045-4
26233-4
26914-9
271411
271478
27389'8
27645°5
27797°9
27919-1
28219°5
28454-1
28538°5
28546°5
28599°5
28761°5
28814-2
288269
29083°1
29149°7
29184-0
292170
29236'3
29292-2
29358'6
29390-0
29400°5
294246
29454-9
294679
29495-0
295143
29551'3
29610-0
29633'6
29691°3
29709°8
29720°9
29736:0
29743'1
29750°2
297641
29780:9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 321
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
° Vacuum e170 48
Wave- Intensity eeotane Meesaneantonts Oscillation
length and Rowland) Frequency |
(Rowland) | Character Howls ns 1_ | in Vacuo
A
3354-41 2n 0-94 | 85 | 298030 |
3353-45 2n *. » | 29811°5
§3352°16 4s 33535 H. & A. ¥ f 29823-0
3347-60 Is a es 29863°6
§3344-78 2b a tes 29888-8
3343-28 2s f » | 299022
3341:34 1s 2 » | 26919°6
§3339-30 2s ” ” 29937°9
§3433:76 2s 0:93 is 29987-7
§3331-91 3s » | 300043
3330°69 1s a » | 30015°3
§3329-84 ls i » | 300230
3325-90 ls es » | 80058-6
3322-93 1s » | 86 | 30085:3
§3321°81 2s a » | 30095°5
§3318-26 2 Be ww | BOLZT7
3316-73 9 te 5 301416
§3315°54 In , » | 30152-4
3313°75 In - i 30168-7
§3312°65 4s 33138? ., 4 » | 30178:7
3308-58 2s cs . 30215°8
3307°31 2s 33084, a » | 30227°5
*3305-32 In <4 » | 30245°7
3304-75 In fs » | 30250-9
3304-14 In = » | 302565
§3301°61 5s 33028, 0:92 » | 30279-7
§3299°51 4s es » | 30298-9
§3297-74 2s ww lode) (pete
§3295-60 2s > toe ht lOsBeed
3294-40 2s (Pe eee onaate
§3293-22 3b 32941 .,, » | &7 | 303568
§3289-26 3s 3290-4? ,, » | 9 | 303934
3288-0 1s - » | 30404-9
§*3280:80 | 10s 32816 ,, ee ankt aed
ert 3s 32746, A. ee: 30531°2
3272:16 In » |.» |. 30552-2
§3270-05 In ki | BOBTL-9
§3268-43 1s fe » | 305870
gs267 40 1s a » | 305967
266: 30609:
$3264.20 2s } Sa » |» {) 306267
§3262°75 1s 32620, jy Lyn hues
ee 1n o-v1 » | 30668-0
58° 1s pee PO Sogaes
§3257°36 1s F ” | 30691-0
§3256-47 1s x » | 30699-4
§3254-88 In 2 » | 307144
§3253-80 2s 32538, Bs » | 307246
ts 5s a 8:8 | 30735-4
; 1s n » | 30750°5
§$3249-78 1s # » | 30762°5
§3249-14 2s ‘A » | 307686
§3247-12 3s a » | 30787°7
§3244-77 4s 32453, eel 308100
Brae” 2s double) wat.) | s0seea
Y
322 REPORT—1896.
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements to Vacuum | Oscillation
length and (Rowland) Frequency
(Rowland) | Character si 1__ | in Vacuo
ar
ipo pro-
3240-83 bably 091 | 88 | 30847-5
} double |
3237°52 1s re » | 808790
§3233:69 Is X » | 80915°6
§* 3233-07 3s 3233'3 H. & A, s » | 30921°6
$3231:24 2s ss » | 30939°1
§3229:90 38 32303, 5 » | 309519
3228°88 Is <4 , | 30961:7
$5004.87 Is » 6s | 810002
§3223-37 3s 32238, me » | 310146
_ §3221-46 1s bs » | 310330
§3217:86 1s 0:90 | ,, | 31067°8
§3216°65 4s 3217-5, x » | BL079-4
BT cons | aes
2320816 3s } a ” » 1] 311616
3207-44 2s : » | 311686
3203-63 Is Ca) iO
§3200°80 38 31996, 5 » | 312333
§3200-01 1s ¥: » | 31241-0
§3193-34 Is S » | 313063
§3191-80 2s 31912, . » | 313214
§3187°75 2s iy » | BI361°2
§3185:08 2s ; » | B1887°5
§318415 Is 31843, rf » | 31396-7
§3181°50 2s 089 | ,, | 31429°8
3180-69 2 | | 31430:
3179-28 2s \ SYIOT » 90 adds?
§3176:22 2n | ; » | 314750
§3173:52 Is 131749 a » | BI501-8
$3172-22 1s | . » | slale?
§3158:73 Is ig » | 31649°3
§3153-09 2s | 5 » | 317059
ee eS > ha Hone
é “$2 n “4 5 ‘oO
$3142-08 Is i » | 31817-0
§3130-10 2n | §31349__,, 0-88 | ,, | 319388
3129°19 In | 31292, -: » | 319481
3123-97 In ‘ » | 320014
311782 1s ‘ » | 32064-6
3116-93 Is % » | 32073°8
§3115-65 1s ‘4 » | 320869
§3113°10 Is » | 92 | 821131
§3102-74 Is 4 » | 32220°4
3098-10 Is 0:87 | 4, | 322686
3096:50 Is ; » | 322853
BB ORE 42 2s "| | 39390'8
ee |e ae
5 5) Ss ’ ;
oa on | Bae
2° n . 2534:
§3064:69 1s : ” | 39690-4
§3052'71 In o:s6 | 9-4 | 327484
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 323
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction |
| educ |
Wave. | Intensity to Vacuum | Oscillation
length pope and Previous Measurements —— | Frequency
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) ee 1_ | in Vacuo
r
$3047-04 Is 0°86 94 | 32809°3
8303782 In H » 829089
303603 | In | | 889284
3035°29 In “5 “6 32936°4
3031-75 in » ” 329748
3030°51 In oo » | 329883
§3012°85 Is 0°85 9°5 331817 ,
3011-89 1s cn oh 33192:2
$3000°67 In | * z 358164
2999-67 In | as . 33327°5
299913 | In Aa A 33333°5
2986-20 | Is aS 9°6 33477°8
§2982-16 Is 0°84 ” 33523 1
2943-93 In H 5 9:8 33958°4
2942:06 | In 29380 H.& A. 0°83 “; 33980-0
§*2938-53 | 3b 29342, Fr a 34020°8
§2934-23 4b 2929°! 5 95 - 34070°7
§2929:33 5s 29199 : » | B4127°7
§2920:0 3s 29022, » | 9:9 | 34236-7
§2902:08 4s | 0°82 A 34448'1
2886-44 5s 10:0 34634°7
2883-99 2b i as 34664 2
$2878:88 In aT | B4725°7
§2873-65 | 5s W732 4 ae » | 847889
§2853°0 | In O81 |} 1071 35040°7
2828-74 In , | 102 | 35341-2
§*2824-06 2n 080 | ,, | 35399:8
eee. ‘e 28149 =a, : 5 10°3 Sees
S “76 8 ” ” oo
2801°69 In é | 3682-4
$2799-63 5s 27993, i » | B5708-7
2795 60 4s 104 | 3576071
$2786'53 2n Z » | 38876:5
§2767-60 8s 27668, 0-79 | 10°5 361219
§2756-46 45 27558, x 3 aea67-8
_ -§2753-3 2s xy 9 36309:
§2749-4 4s | PROG 363610
§2746-9 3n » | 363941
27466 3n e , | 363981
2744-06 | 4s ae ” | 36431°8
27433 2s Q743'3, i ” | 36441°8
$2740-0 4s 078 | . | 36485-7
2737-2 In és ” | 365231
2727-5 2s ” | ? | 36653-0
§2721-84 3s 27212 =, A 10°7 aA
2719: Is = » | 36766:
27163 1s e ” | 36804-1
2714-5 Is i ” | 36828-5
g2711-94 | 8s T1188 ,, WE 36863'3
§2711:34 | Qs ea SF
§2688:40 In 077 | 10°8 | 37186:0
2684°8 Is ba | 872889
$2681-43 5s 26811, ee ” | 372827
2666-4 1 Cu? ” | 16:9 |. 374929
2664-6 In 3 » | 375182
y2
324. REPORT—1896.
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
Wave- Intensit
length a y Previous Measurements fo Npenem Oscillation
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) Frequency
es 1_ | in Vacuo
A
§2660°52 8s 2660°2 Go ee
§2657-0 4b 2656-7 H. & A. 0:77 10°9 375757
2651:3 1s du ” ” 37625°5
$2628°62 1s 2627-7 0-76 | 11-1 37992°9
§$2625°75 3s 2 ” ” 38031-7
§2621°6 1s ” ” 38073°3
§$2617°8 as ” ” 38133°5
§2614°55 6s 2614:3 ” ” 38188°9
2613'8 2s ue ” ” 38236°4
§$2612-0 2s ” ” 38247°4
2607°0 Is ” ” 38273°7
$ 2606-20 63 2605'S 0-775 | 11:2 | 383471
§2599°26 2s a ” ” 38358'8
§2598°79 2s 25988 ” ” 38461°3
§$2595'60 1s 25953 | ” » | 384683
2592°6 1s » ” ” 38515°5
25914 1s » ” 385601
§2585'8 25 ” ” 38578°0
2584-2 2n ” 11:3 38661°5
§2580-66 8s 2580: ” ” 38685-4
| §*2575°5 in he » |» | $8738
§2567:0 28 2566: ” ” 8816-71
§2564:34 3s poi ihe ” 11:4 38944°6
2563°5 1s sg O74 » 38985-0
§2562°83 2s 2561: ” ” 38997°8
$2562°6 ls “4 4 ” ” 39008:0
2556°8 4s ” ” 39011°5
$2553°30 2s 5 ” ” 39100°0
2538°8 ls epee ui ” ” 39153°6
2536°7 25 ” 11°5 39377°2
$2535°50 6s 2 ri ” ” 39409°8
2534:°5 1s Bae en ” ” 39428°5
2533°8 2s ” ” 394440
2529-7 1s ” ” 394549
2526:3 Is ” 11:6 | 39518°8
2525°5 ls ” ” 39572:0
§2523°1 1s ” ” 39584:5
2516-2 1s ” ” 39622:2
2514-4 1s 0°73 » 39730°9
2511°9 1s 2506: ” ” 39759'3
§2506:74 9s Senne ty ” 117 397988
§$2504:7 ls He ” ” 39830°7
25041 35 : » ” 39913°2
2502°3 In SBE kee ” ” 39922°8
2498:9 1s ” ” 39951°5
2493°2 9s ” ” 40005'9
2489°9 1s ” ” 40137°6
2488:°2 1s ” ” 40150°5
§2486°6 2s 24 . ” ” 40177'9
§2485°8 3s aiee os ” ” 40203'8
2484°3 ln oY ” ” 40216°7
§ 2483-4 1s ” ” 40241:0
§$2480°55 5s 2480: ” ” 402556
2478-6 . | Is oe ale ” |” | 40801°8
40333°6
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
§2477-36
§2473-93
§2472:5
§2469-7
§2466°8
§2462-25
§2461-4
§2460-4
§2458°9
§ 2453-36
§$*2447-94
§$2446-45
2445°6
§2444:3
§2439°6
§*2437-84
2436°5
2434-7
$2433°6
§2432°3
§2430:25
§2499-6
§2428°3
§ 2424-2
§2499-4
§2420:10
§2415-43
§*2413-20
§$2411:37
§2410°6
2410:2
§2409-0
2406-6
§2405-0
§2402-6
2399°3
§2395:64
§9392-94
§2390:56
§2387-0
2386°6
§2383:3
§2389-2
2380:9
2379°4
§*2375°3
§2373'8
2368:7
§2365'8
2364-9
§2364-1
§2362°3
§2360°4
§2358:86
325
Reduction to
i Vacuum
se Previous Measurem ents
Character (Rowland) Rs 1 i.
6s 24772 H. & A. 0:73 11:8
8s 2473-7 i . 11°9
1s o ;
2s 24696, 0-72 a
m ” ”
5s 2462°6__s, i f
2 ” ”
4s 2460-1 Li : :
28 112-0
7s 2453-2, ‘ i
8s 2447-7,
5s 24460, ‘
2a ” ”
5s 2449-2, ‘ 7
in eee
10s 2437-7, a A
Zn > ”
Fs : ”
ns ” ”
- ” ”
2s "
bs 2430°3 a, ” ”
5s 2429'°3 3 :
is | | 122
3s 2423-1, : {
8s 24203, 071 ?
2s 24162 ,, :
10s 24140, : 4
8s 24116 ,, ” | 13'3
re 2409°7 3 ” ”
= ” 2
ae a) ‘
ns aps a »” ”
4s 24049, < E
cs ”? 3)
a »” ”
5s 23959 - ,, fs 12°4
2b 2393°6 : 4
a ee pe ” ”
$ ” ”
| 23869
Pies sake. | a ;
4s Das. sy s .
oe nib
a ” ”
1s :
2b 23759, a i
- 070 | ,,
bd » | 126
3s 23663, : ‘
7 23648, . a
: ? ”
Sy 2362°6 ae as ”
ey ” ”
6s 2352°6
40353°8
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
40409°6
40433-0
404789
40526°4
40601°4
406154
40631°9
40656°6
40748°4
40838°7
40863°6
40877°8
40899°5
409782
41007°8
41030°4
41060:7
41079°3
41101°3
41135°9
411469
41169°0
41238°5
41269-2
41308°4
41388°3
41426°6
41457°9
41471:2
41478-0
41498°7
41540°1
41567°7
41609°3
41666°5
41730°1
41777-2
41818°8
41881:2
418882
41946°2
419655
41988°4
420149
42087°4
421140
42204'6
42256°4
42272'5
42286'8
42319°0
423531
42380°'8
326
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
§ 2357-94
§ 23568
2348°3
§2343'8
| 2343-5
§2341'8
2340:7
§2339:1
2337°9
§ 2332-9
*2331°9
§2331°34
2327-4
§ 2325-0
§*2324-69
2321°6
§*2320-24
2319-2
§2318°6
§*2317:03
23161
§*2309°7
§2296°8
§ 2296-1
§ 2291-0
§2286°5
§2282'5
§2280-0
§2278-9
§2277°4
§2275-4
§2273°3
§ 2257-3
§2253'5
§ 2250-2
§*2248'80
§*2246-46
§2243:5
§ | 2241°9
§ | 2241-4
§2240°5
§2238'5
§ { 2229-6
(oes
§ 2226-2
2223-2
2220-9
§2219-7
§2211:3
§2208°6
§ 2206-2
§2204'7
§2203°7
§2202:3
§21921
REPORT—1896.
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Intensity
and
Character
8s
In
no
n
KH
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
23585 H. & A.
2344-1
2342°5
2339°5
2332°8
233271
2326°3
2325°8
2322°8
2321-1
2320°0
2317°9
| 2310°5
2297-0
2287-0
2281°3
22780
2275'8
2254-4
2250:2
2247°9
2230°9
2206°3
2202°3
”
”
>
Reduction to
Vacuum
| Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
423973
424178
42571°3
42653°1
42658°5
42689°5
42709°5
42738°7
42760°6
42852°3
42870°7
42881:0
42953°5
42997°8
43003°6
43060°8
43086°1
431054
43116°6
43145'8
43163°1
432827
435257
43539°0
43636'0
43721°8
43798-4
43846-4
43867°6
43896°5
43935°0
43975-6
44287°3
44362°0
44427:0
44454°7
44501-0
44559°7
44591°5
44601°5
44619-4
446592
44837°5
44855°6
449059
44966°5
45013'1
45037°4
45208°5
45263°8
453130
45343°8
453643
45393°2
45604°4
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 327
SILVER (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Reduction to |
uum | . :
Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements | bie | Oscillation
length and (Rowland) | ; Frequency
(Rowland) | Character ae _*_ | in Vacuo
a
§2187-0 38 2186'°3 H. & A. 0 67 | 140 | 45710-7
2173°6 In (066 | 141 | 45999°5
2171°9 In | ” ” 46028°5
§2171:0 In | tys ” 46047°6
§2169°6 In | 5, | 142 | 46077°2
§2166°6 4s 216671 _——s,, » | oo» 461411
§2162'1 2s P1616 © ,, > eae
§2149°3 Is ” 143 | 46512°5
§2145-71 3s 21457 =Cs, lv bs 144 | 46590°2
2144°9 | Is | ” 46607'8
§2129°3 | Is 0°65 | 145 | 46949:3
§2125°5 | 1b ” 14:6 | 470332
§2120°5 4s 21193 45 AD Barr 1” 47144-1
§2113°9 3s 21123, i ees 14-7 | 47291-2
2106°7 2s | ” ” 47452°9
2084°3 1b » | 15:0 | 47962-7
2081°5 1b so A sy 48027°3
2075°9 1b 9 481569
_ 2066-2 4s | O64 | 15:1 | 48382°9
2056°9 1 7 15:2 | 48601:7
2053-9 In Vie 15:3 | 48672°6
2053°2 In x » 48689°2
2033°1 2n » | 15:5 | 491705
201671 2s | O63 | 15-7 | 495850
2000°6 | 2s less 15°8 | 49969°2
1999-6 2s Paes is 49994°2
1993°5 Is ° 159 | 501471
19752 Is T 16-1 | 50611:7
§ Observed also by Exner and Haschek, who give also the following lines:
44434, 4411-0, 4355-4, 4326:8, 4209-4, 4182-7, 4159:2, 4113-7, 4081-7, 4057-9, 4054:9,
4045:'7, 3973°3, 3949- 5, 3943:0, 3863: 8, 3860:0, 3856°5, 3851- 0, 3848-0, 3843-0, 3830: 3,
3825°9, 3820-4, 3815: 8, 3759°8, 3758°5, 3745°8, 3740- 3, 3737- 3, 3735:0, 3732: 5, 3720°1,
3709°5, 3674-0, 3655- 0, 3623-5, 3619:0, 3570: 4) 3557-2, 3519-0, 3505°3, 3499-9, 3471: 0,
34457, 3390-0, 3245: 9, 3236: 5, 3227-9, 3216:8, 31981, 3196-1, 3185: 8, 3177: 7, 31752,
3170°5, 3167-9, 3166-3, 3157: 8; 31558, 3155°3, 3146: 3, 3142: 6, 3122°8, 3114-6, 3101-7,
3099°3, 3094:8, 3093: 1, 3092: 0, 3067: 9, 3067-0, 3051: 1, 8047:6, 3038:°3, 3034-2,.3028- 6,
30241, 3021-2, 3020°8, 3010:8, 3009°3, 3002-6, 2994-4, 2990°6, 2983: 6, 2973'3, 2967-1,
2949:1, 2930:1, 2896-4, 2885°6, 28823, 2877°8, 2872-1, 2870-6, 2863:5, 2862°3, 2857°3,
2852-1, 2849:°6, 2848-3, 2845-0, 2844-1, 2840-0, 2837-8, 2837:2, 2820-9, 2775:2, 2761°8,
2735°8, 2732:6, 2708:5, 2707-4, 2704-6, 2675:9, 2659-3, 2637: 6, 2620:8, 2619:5, 2617:2,
2602-1, 2560°8, 2559: 0, 2557-5, 2505-6, 2501-4, 2499-8, 2497-3, 2471-5, 2470°6, 2468'8,
2465°6, 2463:8, 2456-7, 2449-7, 2431:5, 2422-0, 2408: 0, 2394-1, 2392:5, 23748, 2867-2,
2361-2, 23556, 2355-1, 2354-7, 2328-2, 2323-5, 2313-8, 2312-5, 2289°8, 2283-2, 2281°7,
2277-7, 2272-4, 2265: 3, 2256- 7, 2252: 0, 2233-8, 2233-1, 2232-8, 2219:0, 2196-6, 2190:0,
2181°8, 2164-0, 2163-2, 2148:9, 2147°5, 21438:1, 2138°3.
3828 REPORT—1896.
Gop (Spark SPECTRUM).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr. kaiser]. Akad. Wissench. zu Wien.,’ 1896.
* Observed in the Arc Spectrum by Kayser and Runge.
t+ Observed also by Kriiss, ‘ Untersuchungen iiber das Atomgewicht des Goldes,
Munich,’ 1886.
{ These lines appear only in very powerful sparks.
meters
. | to Vacuum “Wat
Wae- rs gs / Previous Measurements eecaton
i pein Be (Rowland) frequency
(Rowland) | Character an 1__ | in Vacuo
A
*6§278°37 = _ 6277°8 Thalén, &c.t 171 43 | 15923°4
5961-40 2 | 5961-2 ws Tt 1:62 46 | 16770°0
*595 1-24 2 5956°7 5 iF 5 i‘ 16781°7
5921°43 In | 5920°8 Huggins +t 1°61 ap 16883°2
588157 1b | 5881 oa 1 1:60 - 16997-7
*5863'23 3s 5863 eA i + me 17050°8
*5837°69 6s 5837'7 Thalén, &c.t 1:59 47 eee
5819°64 In a » | 17178:
578911 2b | 5791 Huggins 1:58 & 17269'1
576746 In 1:57 a 17334:0
576221 In + - 17349°7
5760714 5s bee)! .. os 2 17356°0
5742°25 2b s an 17410°1
5732°5?, 2n 156 | ,, | 174396
5730°88 In ” ” 174446
572711 3s 5725°8 L. de B.t 2 pi 174561
571114 4b > 4-8 | 17504'8
5692-49 In 1:55 | ,, | 17662-2
5688-70 38 5 » | 175739
567965 In i é ep 4
5666°82 In =, » | 17641:
5662-90 In 1:54 * 176540
| *5655°95 6s 5654-2 Huggins t ” ” 17675°7
5651-02 In ‘ ,, | 1769171
| 5649-44 In 2 » | 176961
| 564811 1b > » | 17700-2
| 5645-91 3b ¢ » eh 0TA
| 564451 3n of i Tae
| 5641-61 3s x 4 7720
' 5619-99 In 1°53 ,. 17788°8
5600-36 2b x 49 | 178511
} 5598748 4n ” ” 17857°1
| 5594-50 3b - , | 17869:8
5593°93 3s ” ” 17871°6
559)-49 2b * i 17879°4
: 5588-08 4b 1:52 s 17890°3
| 5585-87 In ' » | 17897-4
| 6557872 5b | 5581-3 53 t $ x 17920°4
| 5576-42 1b 55 “4 17927°8
| 5566-92 In a » | 17958-4
5565°38 2b . » | 179633
5559°82 3s > , | 17981-3
5550°47 1s 1a = 18011°6
554393 4n 53 < 18032°8
5532°69 3s ” ” 18069°5
5520°67 3s ui ss 18108°8
5514-60 In 1:50 _ 18128°8
5511-70 In 18138'3
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 329
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
f Vacuum Oscillation
Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements Frequency
length and (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
(Rowland) | Character ae
1:50 | 4:9 | 18155:7
5506-42 In ; 5:0 | 181905
5495°86 In - » [etearro
5487°87 In 1-49 3 18290°3
5465°87 In t 1:48 ; 18415°8
5428°64 - 4 - 184327
5423°66 n 8449-4
541877 | bn 5419 L. de B. a Beare
5413-42 Ds - PA 18480°0
5409-80 ls 1:47 | 51 | 185316
539469 3n ; ve 18569°4
538373 | In Sn ed Meise
538138 | 2n 146 | 5, | 18629:
536363 | 2n » | 18668°9
535505 | 2n 5 UP. Weng
526941 | Ib » | 18985-2
5265°83 * ae = 18998'8
5262-05 s =. 43° | 2” | 191133
*5230°53 8s 5231-1 Thalén, &c. ae 53 | 192136
5203°21 Is 141 | , | 19420°6
5147°76 35 ‘ 19440°0
5142-62 In 5144 L. de B. 1:40 | 64 | 195710
5108-20 2n 139 | ,, | 19649-2
5087'87 1b 19738°9
+*5064°76 5s 5067-6 Huggins f 1:38 | | | 198287
504183 | In 1:37 | 5:5 | 199987
501651 | In » | 199741
500510 | 2s 5 espe
500139 | 2s 136 | , | 20100'5
497363 | In 135 | ., | 20200-4
4949-05 2n 56 | 20317-5
4920'50 2s 134 » | 203924
4902°45 4s 1:32 | 57 | 20703:8
4828-70 1s . » | 207689
4813°58 an ints ie | 207775
4811°57 Ss r se a . 20859:0
*4792°79 8b 4792-7 Thalén a 5:8 | 21001-1
4760°34 2s » | 21029°6
4753°90 38 1:29 » | 21201-2
4715-43 1s b » | 21212°5
4701°63 2s * » | 212775
4698°50 3s 2 BO hae oc cch
4696712 2s 1:28 » | 21329:9
4686:96 Is » | 213420
4684°30 6s é > Peet -1
4683°84 6s 2 » | 21365:2
4679:21 1s a » | 21392:5
4673°24 6s 1:27 y» | 21499°7
4649°96 3b » | 21530°7
4646-26 3s i » | 21642°5
4640-72 1s i » | 21558-0
463737 | 3s » | 60 | 215772
4633-23 | 3s : 21589'6
4630°58 3s
330
- REPORT—1896.
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
4627°98
4622-02
461485
4614/19
4611-98
4607:80
4601°57
4587°91
4583°87
4582-05
4BTT-T4
457615
4573'14
4570°85
4559-05
4549°64
4543'86
4541:40
4523°20
4492-49
*4488°43
*4437°37
4420:69
441055
4395°72
438225
4373°70
437046
4328°65
4315-34
4310°70
4309-21
4303°15
4292-80
429020
4280°60
4279°24
42760
4260-01
4255:0
*4241°95
4221°87
4219-11
4211-0
4199-54
4186°29
4184-65
4175:28
4172-90
4171-42
41700
4142-30
4128°80
412631
4118°52
Intensity
and
Character
Previous Measurements
(Rowland )
4609 L. de B.t
4489°3 Hugginst
44377 L. de B.t
1) er |
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
21601°7
21629°6
21663°2
21666°3
21676°7
21696°3
21725°7
21790°4
21809°6
2181873
21838°8
21846°4
21860°8
21871°8
21928°3
21973°7
22001°6
22013°5
2210271
222532
22273°3
22529°7
226146
22666°6
227431
22813:0
22857°6
22874°6
23095°5
23166°7
23191°7
23199°7
23232°3
23288°3
233024
233547
23362:1
23379'8
23467°6
23495°3
23567°5
23679:6
236951
23740°7
238054
23880°8
23890°2
23943°8
23957°5
23966°0
239741
241344
24213°3
24227°9
24273°8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 351
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave- Intensity
length and
(Rowland) | Character
4089°95 2n
*4084°31 4s
4076°60 3s
4070°76 Is
*4065°20 10s
40530 6s
*4041:07 4s
4028°66 2s
4021°83 In
4020°86 In
4016°27 8s
401287 2s
401063 Is
4002°57 3s
4001-60 3s
3996-96 1s
3991-64 Is
3990-0 1s
3986°48 - In
3986:04 In
3984°18 In
3982°87 2n
3979°72 3n
3976°80 3n
397180 3nt
3959°35 5st
3950°19 2s
3945°69 2n
3945°19 In
3937°80 In
3936:42 In
393316 4s
3927-82 3s
3922°66 Is
3920:28 Is
3919-08 Int
3916°15 6st
3915-03 2s
*3909-60 3s
3903°47 2s
3900-72 2s
*3898:03 10s
3895°65 In
389352 In
3892°65 3s
3889°58 2n
3880°34 3s
3877°45 4st
387496 4s
3872'81 2st
3868°50 2n
3865°70 4s
3859°53 3st
385660 2n
3853°76 6st
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
40646 L. de B.
4009 Kriiss
Reduction to
Vacuum
ut
A+ 5
112 69
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
nila #
%3 70
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:10 n
” ”
a WI
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
7, ye ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:09 ss
” ”
A 72
” ”
1:08 a
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» 73
” ”
” 3”
1:07 a
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ’
1:06 7
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vaeuo
24443°3
24477-0
24523°3
24558°5
24.592°1
24666'2
24738°9
24815°1
24857°3
24863°'3
24891'7
24912°8
249267
24976°8
24982°9
25011°9
25045°3
25055'6
25077-7
25080°5
25092:2
25100°4
25120°3
25138°7
251704
25249°6
25308-0
25336°9
25340°1
25387°7
25396°6
25417°6
25452°2
25485°7
25501°2
25509-0
25528:1
25535'4
25570°9
25610°9
25629°0
25646°7
25662°4
25676°4
25682:1
25702°4
25763°6
25782°8
25799°4
258137
25842°5
258612
25902°6
25922'3
259414
O02
REPORT——1896.
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave- Intensity
length and
(Rowland) | Character
3845-02 4st
3839°60 Ist
3838°66 Ist
3837-70 Int
3834-42 Int
3831-31 4st
3829°52 3st
3828°56 2st
3825°87 8st
3823°20 4st
3822711 6st
3820°45 2st
3816°50 5s
3814-30 2Qnt
3811-60 2nt
3810°41 2nt
3806°95 2bt
3804:22 4s
3800°75 3st
3799°44 2nt
3796715 3n
3787-37 2st
3783°30 Ist
378013 5st
3777°25 2st
3773°31 4st
3771:12 3st
377014 4st
3765°76 4st
3765°10 3st
8763°10 2st
3759°U3 3s
3754°85 3s
3752-90 3st
38746'5 Int
3744°54 Qst
3736°82 2st
3732-68 2st
3730:92 Ist
3724-46 2st
3718-02 9s
371689 Ist
371496 1st
3708-30 4st
370699 4s
3702°49 3st
3698°65 2st
3695°68 2st
369414 2nt
3691°66 2sf
3690°18 1st
3687-60 3st
3686°21 2st
3684:0 Int
3681°39 2bf
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation |
Frequency
in Vacuo
26000°4
26037°1
26043°5
.26050:0
26072°3
26093°4
26105°6
261122
26130°5
26148'8
26156°3
26167°6
261946
26209°7
26228'3
26236°5
26260°3
26277°2
26303°2
26312°3
263351
26396°2
26424°6
26446°7
26466°9
26494-4
26509'8
26516°7
26547°6
26552°2
26566'3
26595'1
26624°7
26638°6
26684°1
26698'0
26753'2
26782°9
26795°5
268419
26888'4
26896°6
26910°6
26958:9
26968°5
27001°3
27029°3
27051:0
27062°3
27080°5
27091°3
27110°3
27120°5
27136°8
271560
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 333
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements & acon Oscillation
length and (Rowland) ————| Frequency
(Rowland) Character A+ _1_ | in Vacuo
A
3677°62 Ist 1:02 | 7-7 | 271838
367662 Ist és » | 27191-2
367511 Ist 2 "| 972094
36740 Ist : | 979106
3672.93 2st - , | 272185
3671-34 2st es , | 979303
366461 Ist i | 272803
3663:70 Ist = ” | 97987-1
3662:57 Ist i , | 272955
3661-79 Ist be ” | 973013
3658-05 Ist i | 273293
3657-35 at 1:01 | ;, | 27334:5
s | | 273564
354-22 2st A ” | 297357-9
ane le |e
“¢ 3 ; : 27382:
3649-25 4st é ” | 97395-2
3647-90 Ist pS | 27408-3
3642-66 2n i‘ | 274448
3637°57 3s » «6| 8 | 27483-1
3635-21 4s - » | 275009
3633-40 5s is , | S75146
363281 2s ¥ | 275191
3631-02 Ist = » | 275327
3627-47 Int a 3 27559°6
3625°32 2nt » | 275760
3623-73 3st ss » | 275881
3622°93 6sf - es 275942
3620°13 In e » | 276155
3620-11 2n : = 27615°7
361417 ef 100) ,, | 27661-1
6 s s 27685°7
3607-59 38 s "| 97711°5
3604-94 2st . | 277319
3601-17 4st » | 27760:9
3598-28 2n is » | 27783°3
3594-20 2st » 6| 79 | 27814-7
ae = en fee
3581-45 4n + ” | 979137
357611 Ist 0-99] ., | 279554
573- n : ) | 279724
3565-99 | 2s » 6| 2) agogag
355713 2n . »» | 281047
3555°58 3st * , | 281169
*3553°72 6st i », | 281316
ae : | da | Bae
3541-71 | 3st ” |” | 99997-0
3539-18 3nt as » | 282471
3528-25 an 0-98 | ., | 28334-7
s ; | 283735
3516-40 Int re "| 284302
3515°19 Int s "| 98440-0
3506'17 Int , | SL | 28513-0
334 REPORT—1896.
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
7
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements | ce Oscillation
length and (Rowland) | ideal Frequency
(Rowiand) | Character at | J — | in Vacuo
| Ar
a2 ~ le |
3504'62 Int | 0°98 | 81 | 28525°7
3501°85 Int ee a iy?
3496-08 2st | 097) ,, | 2859574
3492-99 Ist |} os deaey Noeeeee
3487°34 Ist eee 3 28667°1
3484-60 Ist ice a 28689°6
347658 Int . 1 aes As 28755'8
3474-36 Int i » | 287742
3471-76 Ist HE De iI
3470°47 1st Hh ss 8:2 | 288063
3452-27 .| 2st 0°96 | ,, | 289582
3437°32 Ist 5 » | 290842
341097 Int 0:95 | 83 | 29308-9
340028 2st Pee apr ie 208)
3398-95 2st ie, Mies 294126
3393°87 1s | ed 8:4 | 29456°5
3383-05 38 is » | 29550°7
3382-26 1 ee » 29557°6
3360-47 2nt | 094 | 85 | 29749°2
3358-61 1s | hen » | 29765°7
3355'35 Ist ere » | 297947
3331-74 Ist 093 | ,, | 300058
*3320°32 2b * 86 | 30109-0
3310°34 2st ees » | 380199°8
*3308-36 38 It as » | 30217°9
3286°56 2bt | 092 | 8&7 | 30418°3
3280°72 6s is » | 30472°4
3277-88 2nt i » | 304988
3273°84 4bt H's 3 305365
3271-63 2bt | 35 » | BO557°1
327017 2b ik » | 30570-0
326696 4s Za » | 30600°8
*3965°18 4s HP aes » | 80617°5
3253'86 2bt | 0-9 fs 307240
3251:73 2bt 33 8:8 | 30744°1
3243-34 2bt i= » | 80823°6
*3230°73 8s | es » | 309440
3228-0 5st » | 309701
3223-03 2n | * » | 81017-9
3221°94 4s 5 » | 31028-4
3219-59 3s | 0:90 | _,, 31051°1
3217°69 2s | oes » | 310694
3216714 2s . 89 | 310843
3212-0 Is i » | 311244
3211-03 4s ss is 31133°8
*3204-75 8s | ges » | 311948
*3194-90 5s | ae é. 31291-0
316502 2s 0-89 | 9-0 | 31586-4
3156°73 5s f » | 316694
3146°52 38 i 91 | 31772:0
314577 1s | » | B1T796
3138-93 3n | o-ss8| ,, | 318489
3133-18 2n Mi » | 31907-4
3131-75 In a » | 31921°9
3129'86 2n Le » | 819412
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 335
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
nee aie to
: acuum ate
te no. Previous Measurements _| Free cote
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
A+ a
*3127:24 4s 088 | 91 | 31968-0
*3122°88 10s Pr ak 32012°6
*3117-20 38 o A 5! | eOrew
3106°70 1s ” 92 |. 321793
3104:09 2s ” ” 322064
3093°28 3n 0°87 * 32318°9
3091°47 Is ” ” 32337°9
3045°83 2s 0°86 | 94 | 328224
*3033°35 4b 3 eS 32957°5
*3029°32 6s % 3 33001°3
3015-93 4s 0°85 | 95 | 33147°8
*3014:50 2Qn es a 33163°5
3001°81 2s S ” 33303°7
299513 8s 5 96 | 33377°9
2990°38 6s is 5) 334310
2982-21 4s 0:84 i 33522°6
*2973°63 In 5 ks 33619°3
*2970°66 In 5 97 | 33652-9
*2963°91 Is #3 a9 33729'5
2959-90 in oS fe 33775°2
2959-11 In 5 i 337842
295464 6s ya + 33835°4
*2932-33 5s 0°83 | 9°8 | 34092°8
2918-48 4s is 99 | 342545
*2913'63 10s 5 i 34311°5
2907:16 5s - = 343879
*2906:07 3b s : 34400'8
2893-51 5s 0°82 | 10°0 | 34550°1
*2892°05 3s $5 - 34567°6
288569 3s % 34 34643°8
*2883°60 4s 3 3 34668°9
2864:67 In 0°81 | 10°1 | 348979
2860-92 In - as 34943-7
2857-04 3b 53 7 34991:2
2852-71 2b oS 3 35044°3
2852-30 In i 3 35049°3
284725 5s iP 10:2 | 351114
283815 7s a i 35224:0
2835°55 2s es a 352563
2833°20 2s sx 5 35285°6
2825-59 6s us ‘3 35380°6
282287 4s 0:80 | 10°3 | 35414°6
2805°45 2s a af 356346
2802°39 10s ss a 35673°5
2795°69 3s * 10-4 | 35758°9
2780-95 3s 079 » 35948°5
*2748°35 5s A 10°6 | 363749
273217 28 0:78 + 36590°3
2721:97 28 10°77 | 386727-4
2703-42 2s sa 53 36979°5
*2700-99 3s . 10°8 | 37012-7
2699-4 In a 35 37034'5
2697°8 1s 0-77 = 370564
*2694-40 2s 371032
336 REPORT—1896.
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Helene to
: acuum Natt
ve ae Teenie Previous Measurements Pa ans
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) agelelin |e Wana:
A
2690°5 In 0:77 | 10°8 37151°0
*2688°75 4s a cb 37181:2
2688°24 2s a ¥ 37188°3 _
268768 4s ra 37196:0
2686°0 In - = 37219°3
2682°3 In . ) 372706
*2676:05 8s » | 109 | 37357-6
2672°3 In Ee » | 374101
2670°7 In 3 37432 5
2667-07 2s ‘i » | 37483+4
2665°25 3s K O 375090
26512 | Is 0:76 | 11:0 | 37707'8
2645°5 2b ” ” 37789'0
2641-70 8s = PS 37843°4
2635°4 In i 5 379339
26344 In 4 i 37948°3
2631-7 In b 11-1 | 37987-2
262715 4s Ke » | 38053-0
2625°65 3s - & 38074°7
2624-2 2b Fe * 38095:8
2622-0 2n a i 38127:7
2617:60 2s a & 38191°8
261671 4n 3 +, 382048
26128 In * » | 38262-0
2611:9 In e » | 38275-2
2610°5 In . x 382957
2609°6 2b 075 » 38309:0
2607°4 In 2a 112 | 38341-2
2605-0 In 5 A 38376°5
2599-5 2s a » | 38457-7
2592°0 3s . 7 38569-0
*9590-23 6s ‘ » | 385954
2583°5 2n an 113 | 38695°9
2580-1 In 5 . 387469
2579-4 In es 55 38757°4
2577-7 In a 3 38783:0
2575°3 In * » | 388191
2571°4 2n ty ae 38878-0
2568°3 In = 114 38924:9
2565°80 5s * = 38962°8
2562-7 2s O74 ce 39009°9
2561-9 In i » | 39022"
2558-0 Qn . » | 39081°6
2552-92 3s *. » | 89159°4
2553°25 3 5 + 39200°4
*2544-30 5 x 115 | 392920
2538-03 4 4 5 39389°1
2537-0 2 a .y 39405°1
2536: 3 i » | 394191
2533-68 6 , » | 394568
2528-2 2 » | 116 | 39542-2
2522'8 2n A » | 396269
2520-7 2s 0-73 i 39659°9
2517-2 2n A 3 3971571
2515-2 3s ” ” 39746°7
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 337
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- Intensity Vacuum Ae
length aril Previous Measurements + ry | Oscillation
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 7 a Frequency
At + | in Vacuo
eet
2511°7 3
*2510-60 ea 0-73 | 11-7 | 39802-0
2506°4 2s » ” 39819°4
2503:42 8s ” ” 39886-2
2495°3 1s ” ” 39933:°7
2492-7 3b ” ” 40063°6
2491-4 1s » | 118 | 40105-3
2490-4 Qs ” » 40126°3
2488°3 2s ” ” 40142°4
2483-4 2n ” ” 40176°3
2480-4 4s ” » 40255°6
2478°6 Is 33) ” 403043
2477'S 1s ” ” 40333°6
2468-0 3b » | 11:9 | 40372°6
2458-1 3s 072 | ,, | 405067
2456-6 2b » | 12:0 | 40669°8
24553 2b ” ” 40694°7
2452-7 2b ” » 40716°2
2447-9 Is ” » | 40759°4
24466 ln ” ” 40839 8
2445-6 4b ” ” 40861:0
2442-3 2b ” » | 40899-5
2437-8 3s » | 121 | 409399
2434°5 ln ” ” 41008°5
2433°7 9s ” ” 410641
2433°3 28 ” ” 41077°6
*2428-10 10s ” » | 41084:4
2423-8 2 » | 12-2 | 411723
2419-4 4n ” » | 41245°3
2419-1 1b O71 | , | 413204
2417-4 2b ” » | 41325°5
2416-6 2b ” » | 413546
2414-7 In ” ” 41368:3
2413°4 3s ” ” 41400°8
2411:5 os ” » | 414231
2410-7 1s » | 12:3 | 41455°7
2408-8 Qn ” ” 41469-4
2407°5 Qn ” ” 41502-1
2405-2 38s ” ” 41524°6
2402-7 4s ” ” / 41564:3
2401°5 Is ” ” 41607°5
2400-2 1s§ ” ” 41628°3
2399°3 ls ” ” 41650°9
2395-7 1s ” ” 41666°5
2393-7 3s ” 12:4 417291
2391°7 In ” ” 41763°9
2388'5 Is ” ” 417989
*2387-9 4s ” ” | 41854:9
23843 9s ” » | 4£1865-4
2382°6 4b ” ” 41928°6
. 2380°5 Tr ” 12°5 | 41958°5
> » | 41996°5
1896 § Coincident with a line of copper.
Z
REPORT—1896.
GoLpD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Previous Measurements
(Rowland)
338
Wave- | Intensity
length and
(Rowland) Character
2379'3 Is
2377-2 Is
2376°4 5s
2373°4 2n
2371°8 4s
2369°5 4n
*2364'8 10s.r.
23591 In
2357°9 In
2355°5 2s
*2352°8 6s
23515 3s
2348-2 Is
2347-0 2s
2344:3 2s |
2343°6 2s
2342°6 1s |
2341°5 Is
2340'1 8b
2334'1 2b
2332'0 4s |
2331°5 2s
2330°7 Is
2326°7 In |
2325°8 3s
2325'3 23 |
2324°7 Is |
2322°3 8s |
232174 Is
2320°4 2s
2318'4 2s
2317°5 Is
23159 7s
2314:7 7s
2312°2 2s
2309°5 6s
2308°2 ls |
2304-7 8b |
2301°1 Is |
2300°4 Is |
2298'3 In
2296'9 2s |
22951 2s
2294°1 2b
2291°5 6b
2288°7 2s
2287°7 3n
2286°9 In
*2283+4 6s |
2283°0 3n
2279°2 2n
2277°6 4n
2273°2 Is
2270°3 3s
2267-0 2s
Reduction
to Vacuum
Fates
A
O71 | 12:5
” ”
” ”
0:70 Pi
” ”
” ”
a 12°6
” ”
” ”
” ”
Fy 12:7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
12°8
” ”
” ”
” ”
| ” ”
| ” 12°9
0°69 P,
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ri)
an 13:0
” ”
” 9
” ”
“A ileyil
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
_ 13°2
’ 7”
” 9
” ”
” ”?
0:68 a
a 13:3
” a”
” ”
42016°7
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
42053'8
42068°0
42121-1
42149°6
42190°5
422743
423764
42398-0
424412
42489°9
42513°3
425731
425949
426440 |
42656°7
426749
42695:0
42720°4
42830°3
42868°8
428780
42892°8
42966°4
42983°1
42992°3
43003°4
430479
43064°6
43083°1
43120°3
43127:0
43166°9
43189-2
43235°9
43286°4
43310'8
4£3376°6
43444°4
43457°6
43497°3
43523°8
435580
43577:0
43626°4
43679°8
43698'8
437179
437811
437688
43861°8
43892°7
43977°5
44033°7
440979
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 339
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
sai to
Wave- Intensit > eee Oscillation
length avi y Perini eee Btequehioy
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) Ae 1 in Vacuo
T Nin
| |
|
2266:0 3b | O68 | 13°3 | 4411773
2265°3 In ” ” 44131:0
2264-0 3n ” ” 441563
2262°9 4n ” 134 | 44177-7
2261°5 2n ” ” 44205'0
2260°8 2n ” ” 44218°7
2255°8 2n ” ” 44316°8
2255-0 In ” ” 44332°5
2253°5 3s -¢ Be 443620
2248°9 2n, doublje ? ” 13:5 | 44452°7
2246°7 3n » | » | 44496-2
2243°6 In ’ ” 44557°7
2242°7 6s oS a 445756
2240°4 4n a a 44621°4
2237°7 2n ” 13°6 | 4467571
2233°8 3n ” ” 44753°2
2231°4 4n ” » 44801°3
2229°1 6n 0°67 » | 44847°6
2222°6 2n A 13:7 | 44978°7
2220°5 3s ” ” 450192
2219°4 2s ” ” 45043°5
2215'9 3n 3 et 451147
2213°2 4s +) 13°8 | 45169°6
2210°6 3s af AL 45222°8
2210°3 ls ” ” 45228°9
2206:0 3s be ae 453171
2201°6 5s A 13:9 | 454076
2193°7 1s os “ 45571:2
2192-7 1s ” ” 455920
2190°7 1s ” 14-0 45633°5
2189-3 5s cs » | 456627
2186-9 2s | 457128
2185-7 Qs ; "| 46737°9
2184-2 2s a3 a 45769°4
2172°3 3s 0-66 | 14:1 46020:1
21677 2s + 14:2 | 46117°6
2160°7 2n » ” 46267:1
2159-2 2n pe 14:3 46299-2
2157-4 3n ” ” 46337°8
2154-4 Qn 5 "| 464023
2140°5 In ee 14:4 | 46703°7
2138-0 2b He a 46758'3
2133-4 1b ” 145 46859:0
2129-7 j 0°65 a 46940°5
2126°8 2s ” 14°6 47004:4
21253 5s ¥, a 47037°6
2113-7 Is » 14:7 | 47295°7
21108 9s a = 47360°7
2098°8 In le ics 148 | 47631°5
2098'2 1s ’ ” 47645'1
2095°0 In ! 14:9 47717°8
2085-4 In eal 15:0 | 47937-4
2083-1 1s bes » | 479904
2082-1 8s he, , | 48013-4
2071:7 ls | O-G4 | 15-1 48264-4
z2
340 REPORT—1896.
GOLD (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
Wave- Intensity Previous Measurements to Vacuum | Oseillation
length and (Rowland) Tai, 2) | Mirequency
(Rowland) | Character ee 1 | in Vacuo
A
2064:0 Is 0-64 | 15-2 | 48434-4
2059°9 Is 7 48530°8
2056°6 Is ” ” 48608°7
2055-4 Is _ 15:3 | 48637:0
2044-7 5s x 15:4 | 488915
2012°3 In 0°63 | 15-7 49678°7
2000°7 | 3s [ays 15°38 | 49966°7
1988°9 Is $3 16:0 | 50263-0
1977'3 ls | 4 16:1 | 50557-9
Provimate Constituents of Coal.—Report of the Comivittee, consisting
of Sir I. Lowrtan BELL (Chairman), Professor P. PHILLIPS:
BeEpson (Secretary), Professor F. CLowEs, Dr. Lupwie Monp,
Professor ViviaN B. Lewes, Professor E. Huutt, Mr. J. W.
Tomas, and Mr. H. BAUERMAN,
AccorpInG to Baltzer! coals are mixtures of complex carbon com-
pounds, these forming a genetic and possibly a homologous series. The
framework of carbon contained in these compounds is a complex one, the
only analogy to which is that presented by the aromatic compounds. The
physical properties of coals are such as to render a classification possible,.
and these different varieties exhibit a similarity in their ultimate com-
position. Whilst these several varieties form the essential constituents of
coal, there are in addition certain accessory constituents, such as the
resinous components, the hygroscopic water, and the ‘inclosed gases.’
The researches of J. W. Thomas, of E. von Meyer, of Schondorff, of
Bedson and McConnell, and others have provided an extensive knowledge
of the nature of the gases inclosed in coals from different sources, and also
a knowledge of the conditions under which these gases are retained by the
coal. The hygroscopic water and the absorptive power for water of
different coals have, by reason of their technical importance, received con-
siderable attention.
The remaining group of accessory constituents represented by the
resinous bodies, which are distinguished from the coal substance by their
solubility, consists of some few hydrocarbons, such as ozokerit, and bodies
containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, of which Muck, in his ‘ Chemie
der Steinkohle,’ gives the following : 1. Middletonite ; ii. Pyroretenite ;
iii. Reussinite ; iv. Scleretinite ; v. Rosthornite ; vi. Anthrakoxen ; vii.
Guayaquillite ; viii. Berengelite.
These mineral substances are of varying solubilities in alcohol, ether,
and turpentine. From the description given by the different investigators
it would appear probable that several of these substances are mixtures.
1 Vierteljahrsschr. d. Ziir. Naturf.- Gesellsch., 1872; also Muck, Chem. d. Steink.,
p. 141.
ON PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF COAL. 341
In 1874 Dondorff drew attention to the occurrence in several West-
phalian gas coals of a blackish solid, with a reddish brown colour in
reflected light, having a brown streak. This substance is found in thin
leaflets on this coal, and is almost entirely soluble in ether, forming a
light yellow solution, which fluoresces not unlike solutions of the salts of
quinine.
By the extraction of a Westphalian gas coal with ether Muck has
obtained an ethereal solution of a similar character, and from it obtained
a solid of the following percentage composition :—
C=87:22, H=9-20, O=2:29, S=1-29 (nitrogen absent).
This substance, when heated in a platinum crucible, leaves a coke-like
residue, amounting to 32:09 per cent. The author considers this substance
to be widely diffused in coal, and has shown it to exist in varying amounts
in different parts of the same seam. Associated with this investigation is
that of P. Siepmann, who has submitted the gas coal of the Pluto mine,
Westphalia, to a systematic extraction with chloroform, ether, and alcohol,
ebtaining the following results :—
The chloroform extract amounted to 1:25 per cent. of the coal ; the
solution, dark yellow to brown in colour, possessed a strong green fluo-
rescence ; the composition of the extract was
C= oe ht—7-95, O—A-27 N27 baila.
The residue, after extraction with chloroform, gave, when treated with
ether, a light yellow solution having a bluish green fluorescence, from which
a solid was obtained amounting to 0:3 per cent. of the coal, and containing
C=84'82, H=10°51 and O= 4°67.
The residue treated with alcohol gave a solution similar in character
to the ethereal solution, The amount removed by the alcohol was 0:25
per cent. of the coal, and the composition of the dissolved solid was found
to be
C=72:52, H=10-08, O=17°4.
After the above treatment the residual coal was again extracted with
chloroform, which removed 0:75 per cent. of the coal, and left on evapo-
ration a dark brown, pitch-like mass, which gave the following results on
analysis :—
C=78'82, H=8-56, O=9:97, N (trace), S=2°65.
The last chloroform solution was dark brown in colour and feebly
fluorescent.
“1 ips composition of the coal before and after this treatment is given
elow :—
Cc H oO a ON,
Before treatment ‘ : Rats (033 5°50 12°94 1°25
After treatment . > : = . 74:00 4:77 20:09 114
According to H. Reinsch, alcohol extracts from coal a substance sup-
posed to be altered ‘chenopodin,’ a body which the author had discovered
in the sap of Melilotus albus, and to which he attributes the composition
C,.H,;0,N. In 1885 P. Reinsch concluded that coal consists of two
342 REPORT—1896.
classes of substances, one soluble in alkalis, forming coloured solutions,
and a second insoluble.
By the use of phenol as a solvent E. Guignet has extracted from
2 to 4 per cent. of a brown solid from coal, which is precipitated from the
solution by alcohol. The finely powdered coal treated with nitric acid
yields solutions containing oxalic acid and trinitroresorcinol ; the insoluble
residue contains apparently nitro-compounds, or bodies similar to nitro-
cellulose. A portion of this residue is dissolved by caustic alkalis and
ammonia, forming brown-coloured solutions.
Guignet, led by the formation of trinitroresorcinol, as mentioned above,
attempted to obtain resorcinol! by fusion of the coal with caustic soda and
distillation in a bath of molten lead, but obtained ammonia and aniline
only. The residue after this treatment was, however, found to be partially
dissolved by water, forming dark brown solutions, from which acids pre-
cipitated out humus-like substances. Guignet concludes these bodies are
derived from the cellulose-residues of the coal, and that the trinitro-
resorcinol owes its origin to the resinous and wax-like constituents.
During the session 1889-90 Mr. Saville Shaw, Lecturer in Chemistry
at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon Tyne, made some ex-
periments on the action of a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and nitric
acids on bituminous coal. The coal, in a finely powdered condition, was
allowed to remain for three weeks in contact with the mixed acids, and
then poured into a large volume of water, filtered and thoroughly washed.
The dried residue differs but slightly in appearance from the original coal,
but had evidently undergone change in composition, as after this treat-
ment it gave as much as 77 per cent. of ‘ volatile matter,’ whereas the coal
contained but 27 per cent. ; further when heated in a test-tube it ‘ puffs ”
with slight flame, resembling in this respect gun-cotton. A considerable
portion of this ‘ nitro-coal’is soluble in caustic alkalis, yielding very dark
brown solutions, from which on acidifying bulky dark brown precipitates
are formed. The precipitates, washed and dried, form brilliantly black
friable masses, which have lost the semi-explosive properties of the original
‘nitro-coal.’ Methyl alcohol dissolves some 11 per cent. of the ‘nitro-
coal,’ the solution yielding a black scaly product on evaporation, which,
when heated, suddenly decomposes, leaving a very bulky residue of carbon.
Attempts to prepare reduction products from this nitro-coal were un-
successful.
In a note published in the ‘Proceedings of the Chemical Society’
(1891-92, p. 9) R. J. Friswell described the results obtained by treating
finely powdered coal with dilute nitric acid ; a considerable portion of the
coal is thus converted into a black insoluble acid, which behaves very much
as a nitro-compound.
Mention should also be made of the investigations of Mr. Watson
Smith, published in 1891, on the soluble and resinoid constituents of
bituminous coal. The soluble material extracted by benzene from a
Japanese coal Mr. Watson Smith has shown to contain phenols, nitro-
genous organic bases, and also some aromatic hydrocarbons.
In a previous report experiments with various solvents on a bitu-
minous coal from the Hutton seam in the county of Durham were
referred to, but, owing to the small yields obtained, this method of
attacking the problem as to the nature of the proximate constituents of
coal has been relinquished.
The oxidation of the finely powdered coal with aqueous solutions of
ON PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF COAL. 343
potassium permanganate, in some cases made alkaline with caustic potash,
appeared to offer a more promising method of attack. The coal uses up
very considerable quantities of the permanganate, and dark brown solu-
tions are obtained. From these solutions it has been attempted, by the
aid of the formation of insoluble salts, to isolate some of the acids which
result from the oxidation of the coal in this way. The difficulties met
with arising from the unsatisfactory properties of many of these salts,
which are usually obtained in the form of gelatinous, clayey solids, difficult
to wash and obtain in a state of purity suitable for analysis, have led to
the abandonment of this reagent.
More promising results have been obtained by acting upon the coal
with dilute hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. Mr. J. A. Smythe,
B.Sc. of the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, has under-
taken the investigation of this action for the purposes of this committee.
When finely divided coal is boiled for several hours with dilute hydro-
chloric acid, and potassium chlorate added from time to time, the coal
gradually assumes a brown colour, and a brown solid collects on the
surface of the yellow liquid. The coal, after lengthened treatment, is
filtered off, washed, and dried at 100° C. The product is invariably found
to have increased in weight, and when extracted with alcohol or acetone
some 30 to 35 per cent. of the material is dissolved out by either of these
solvents ; of the two, acetone is the more powerful solvent, leaving a coal-
like insoluble residue. The solution obtained in this manner is next dis-
tilled, and after removal of the solvent a dark reddish brown resinous
mass is left, which, when finely ground, forms a dark brown homogeneous
powder. The finely divided powder was extracted with benzene ; the
portion insoluble in benzene was treated with alcohol, in which some
readily dissolved, leaving a residue sparingly soluble in hot alcohol.
The benzene solution, after removal of the benzene, leaves a dark
resinous mass, which, when ground, forms a brown powder, which is dis-
solved not only by benzene and acetone, but also by ether, chloroform,
glacial acetic acid, phenol, and nitrotoluene, but is insoluble in carbon
disulphide, petroleum ether, and water. The solutions of this body are
all dark brown, almost black, and from these it is always deposited in an
amorphous condition. The analysis of this substance gave the following
results, from which a formula, C3,H,,Cl,0,9, has been deduced :—
Weight of Substance
(a) 0°364 gram gave 0°578 gram CO,, and 0-086 gram H,0.
07293), » O-411 ,, AgCl=34-67 per cent. Cl.
(6) 0-357 _,, » 0571 ,, CO,, and 0-087 gram H,0.
0:322 °.,, » 0448 ,, AgCl=34:29 per cent. Cl.
Caleulated for
a b Means C59 Ho2Cls0 19
C, 43°29 - 43°60 A 43°44 ; 43 64
H. 2°62 . 2°70 A 2°66 ‘ 3 2°66
Cl. 34:67 4 34°42 ; 34°54 : : 34:29
0. 19°42 5 19°28 — f 3 19°41
TT aes ANGO. Ober weooyp fh =. hae reys glOOr00
From the alcoholic extraction there was obtained, after removal of the
alcohol, a brown solid, very similar in appearance to that obtained from
344 REPORT—1896.
the benzene solution. The results of the analysis of this substance most
nearly accord with a formula C,,H,,Cl,Oo.
(a) 0-420 gram gave 0°740 gram CO, and 0-114 gram H,0.
0:463. 4, » 0451 ,, AgCl=24-05 per cent. Cl.
(b) 0386 ,, » 90680 ,, CO, and 0:104 gram H,0.
0:569 _,, » 0:550 ,, AgCl=23-°88 per cent. Cl.
Calculated for
a b C484 3C1,0,
C; 48-05 é : 48 05 ; 4 48-66
i. dUL 5 2 2°99 ° : : 3°04
Cl. 24:05 - ‘ 23°88 ° c . 23°96
O. 24°89 : : 25:08 9 : , 24:34
100:00
From the material left after extraction with benzene and alcohol,
which is sparingly soluble in hot alcohol but soluble in acetone, two sub-
stances have been obtained which contain a smaller proportion of chlorine
than the above, and from the analytical results appear to have the formule
C,.H,,Cl,0; and C,;H,,Cl,0,. The deep yellow acid filtrate from which
the oxidised and unoxidised coal had been removed was shaken out with
ether ; the ethereal solution appears to contain some trichloracetic acid.
The aqueous solution, after extraction with ether when concentrated to a
small bulk, deposits crystals of potassium chloride, &c., coloured yellow by
a colouring matter which is removed by acetone. The acetone solution,
on evaporation, gives a reddish viscous liquid, which is dissolved by ether
and alcohol, but is insoluble in benzene.
The analysis of the residue left after the evaporation of acetone
showed that it contained some mineral matter, which was left as ash when
the substance was burnt. Owing to the small amount at disposal, a
further purification was not attempted. The determination of the carbon,
hydrogen, and chlorine gave the following :—
(a) 0°4132 gram gave 0°6460 gram CO, and 0:1414 gram H.0.
0°4158 _,, » 02584 ,, AgCl=15-36 per cent. Cl.
(0) OBON fins » 9°5608 ,, CO, and 0:125 gram H,0.
04402 _,, 9» 02706 ,, AgCl=15-:20 per cent. Cl.
0-426 =, » O01D 4s. <Ash=35'52 per cent.
a b
C. 42°61 per cent. - 42°82 per cent.
Tel D200. ees, : 3°88 4:
Cl. 15°36, E 15°20 4
Ash _- — 3°52 per cent.
Calculating the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine for the sub-
stance free from ash, we get amounts corresponding to the formula
C33;H;,Cl,0,5, as shown below :—
Calculated for
a b C33 H56Cl4O29
C. = 44:18 44:39 44°29
Ee 304: 4-03 4:02
Olea 15-76 15°88
O. = 35:96 35°82 35°81
CN PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF COAL. 345
Although the action of hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate on
the coal is a slow one, it is much more thorough in its attack than other
oxidising agents tried. The coal left after treatment and removal of
oxidised product with acetone, when submitted to a second treatment
with acid and chlorate of potash, is still further attacked and converted
into products similar to those formed in the first instance, and it appears
that the proportion of oxidised product increases with each successive
oxidation. To study the mode of action, 10 grams of the coal were boiled
with dilute acid and 20 grams of chlorate of potash, added in small
quantities at a time; the action continued for forty-four hours. The
dried product was found to have increased by 21 per cent. in weight, and
of this 62:7 per cent. was dissolved by acetone. The residue left after
treatment with acetone weighed 5:27 grams, which was again oxidised for
forty hours. Of the dried product 74 per cent. was removed by acetone,
and the remaining 1°26 gram, after a third and similar treatment, gave a
product from which acetone dissolved some 77°8 per cent., leaving
0-32 gram of coal-like insoluble residue.
The analysis of the coal after it had been treated four time with these
reagents shows an increased percentage in carbon and hydrogen and the
presence of a trace of chlorine.
From the above it is evident that the coal substance is powerfully
attacked by hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate, but the products of
this action are for the most part complex substances, from which at
present but little information can be derived as to the nature of the
materials from which they are formed. These bodies appear to be acidic
in properties, and form dark brown solutions with caustic alkalis and
ammonia, from which metallic salt solutions, such as barium chloride,
lead nitrate, silver nitrate, &c., precipitate out dark coloured gelatinous
salts, which are difficult to obtain in a state of sufficient purity for
analysis. The attempts to obtain information as to the constitution of
these chlorinated compounds have up to the present yielded no-satisfactory
results.
The composition and physical properties of these chlorinated com-
pounds recall those described by Messrs. Cross and Bevan in their inves-
tigations of jute—for example, the substance described by these authors as
tetrachlorobastin (C3,H,,Cl,0,,), from which they have obtained proto-
eatechuic acid by fusion with potash.
The treatment of cannel coal with hydrochloric acid and potassium
chlorate results in the production of compounds similar to those obtained
from the coal of the Hutton seam ; the oxidation product soluble in alcohol
contained some 24-13 per cent. of chlorine.
A sample of bitumen submitted to a similar treatment gave a product
from which ether dissolves about two-thirds, the ethereal solution on
evaporation leaving a dark viscous residue, which was found to contain
11:06 per cent. of chlorine.
Whilst postponing for the present the further study of these chlorinated
compounds, Mr. Smythe has begun the investigation of the action of
hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate in ‘brown coal.’ For this
purpose samples of brown coal were obtained from Brihl, near Cologne :
this variety of coal is much more readily attacked than the coal from
Durham. It is also noteworthy that whilst the dry oxidised product from
the latter weighs more than the coal, in the case of the brown coal there
is a notable decrease in the weight. Further, there is a much larger
346 REPORT—1896.
proportion of the oxidised product soluble in acetone, as the following
details of an experiment with 10 grams of finely ground coal show.
Ten grams of brown coal boiled for 12 hours with dilute hydrochloric
acid and 20 grams of potassium chlorate ; the insoluble mass was filtered
off, washed, and dried. The dried solid weighed 6°82 grams: of this 72°4
per cent. was soluble in acetone. The portion insoluble in acetone, viz.,
1°88 gram, was treated for 12 hours more with hydrochloric acid and
potassium chlorate, giving a solid product of 1:49 gram, of which 79-8
per cent. was dissolved by acetone. The chlorinated compounds formed
in this manner are very similar in appearance to those obtained from the
Hutton seam coal, and probably of a similar character. The crude solid
left after the evaporation of the acetone was found to contain some 22°93
per cent. of chlorine.
The investigation of these substances as also the products formed by
the oxidation of brown coal with solutions of potassium permanganate
are still in progress.
Bibliography.
Baltzer . 4 . ‘Vierteljahrsschr. d, Ziir. Naturf.-Gesellsch., 1872.
F. Muck . . . ‘Die Chemie der Steinkohle.’ Published by W. Engelmann,
Leipzig.
E. von Meyer . . Gases enclosed in Coals. ‘Journal f. prakt. Chemie’ [2], v.
144-183, 407-427 ; vi. 389-416.
J. W. Thomas . . Gases enclosed in Coals. ‘Journal of the Chemical Society.’
:, E . The Gases enclosed in Cannel Coals and Jet. ‘Journal of the
Chemical Society,’ August 1876.
Fe - . The Gases enclosed in Lignite and Mineral Resin from Bovey
Heathfield, Devonshire. * Journal of the Chemical Society,’
August 1877.
(These papers are also reprinted in ‘Coal, Mine Gases, and
Ventilation.’ Bythesame Author. Published by Longmans.)
Schondorfft : . v. Preuss. Schlagwetter-Commission.
Bedson . 4 . Contribution to our Knowledge of Coal Dust. ‘ Proceedings
of North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers,’ vol. xxxvii. p. 245; also ‘Transactions of the
Federated Institution of Mining Engineers.’
Bedson & McConnell ‘Transactions of the Federated Institution of Mining
Engineers.’
J. F. W. Johnston . Middletonite. ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ vol. xii. 1838, p. 261.
J. W. Mallet . . Scleretinite. ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [4], vol. iv. 1852, pp. 4, 261.
Johnston . : . Guyaquillite. ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ vol. xili. 1838, p. 329.
5 s : . Berengelite. ‘Phil. Mag.,’ vol. xiii. 1838, p. 329.
y : 3 . Ozocerite iv. Dana. ‘A System of Mineralogy.’
Dondorff . ‘ . v. Muck. ‘Die Chemie der Steinkohle,’ 3rd ed., p. 68.
P. Siepmann . . ‘Preuss. Zeitschr. f. Bergwesen,’ 39, 8. 27, 1891.
H. Reinsch , . ‘Journal f. prakt. Chem.,’ 1880 [2], 22, 188-191.
P. Reinsch dl . ‘Dingl. polyt. Journ.,’ 256, pp. 224-226.
EB. Guignet ; . ‘Compt. Rend.,’ 88, 590-592.
Cross & Bevan . . ‘Cellulose.’ Pamphlet published for the authors by G.
Kenning, 16 Gt. Queen Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.O.
” . . Chemistry of Lignification. ‘Chem. Soc. Journ., vol. xiii.
pp. 18-27.
x : . The Chemistry of Bast Fibres. ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ vol. xli.
pp. 90-110.
Schinnerer & Production of Pyrocatechol from Brown Coal. ‘ Ber.,’ vol. iv.
Morawsky p. 185.
R. J. Friswell . . ‘Proceedings of Chemical Society’ (London), 1891-92, p. 9.
Watson Smith . . ‘Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1891, p. 975.
ON THE PRODUCTION OF HALOIDS FROM PURE MATERIALS. 347
The Production of Haloids from Pure Materials —Interim Report of a
Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. ARMstronG, Professor W.
R. Dunstan, Mr. C. H. BoTHaMuey, and Mr. W. A. SHENSTONE
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
CONSIDERABLE progress has been made with the work of this Committee
during the past year. The difficulties mentioned in past reports having
at length been overcome, a number of experiments are in hand which will
it is believed be completed early in 1897. Meanwhile some of the material
prepared has been made useful for some subsidiary investigations which
also are approaching completion. No further grant is at present necessary.
But it is recommended that the Committee be reappointed.
The Action of Light upon Dyed Colowrs.—Report of Convmittee,
consisting of Professor T. E. THoRPE (Chairman), Professor J. J.
HumMEL (Secretary), Dr. W. H. Perkin, Professor W. J. RussELL,
Captain ABNEY, Professor W. Stroup, and Professor R. MELDOLA.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Durine the past year (1895-96) the work of this Committee has been
continued, and a large number of wool and silk patterns, dyed with
various natural and artificial blwe and green colouring matters, have
been examined with respect to their power of resisting the fading action
of light.
The general method of preparing the dyed patterns, and the manner
of exposing them under glass, with free access of air and moisture, were
the same as already adopted in previous years.
The thanks of the Committee are again due to James A. Hirst, Esq.,
in whose grounds the patterns were exposed at Adel, near Leeds.
Each dyed pattern was divided into six pieces, one of which was
protected from the action of light, while the others were exposed for
different periods of time. These ‘ periods of exposure’ were made equivalent
to those adopted in previous years by exposing, along with the patterns,
special series of ‘standards,’ dyed with the same colouring matters as were
then selected for this purpose. The standards were allowed to fade to the
same extent as those which marked off the ‘ fading period’ in previous years,
before being renewed or before removing a set of dyed patterns from the
action of light. The patterns exposed during the past year are therefore
comparable, in respect of the amount of fading action to which they have
been submitted, with the dyes already reported upon.
The patterns were all put out for exposure on July 19, 1895, cer-
tain sets being subsequently removed on the following dates :—August 12,
September 3, September 20, 1895 ; April 1, July 9, 1896. Of these five
‘periods of exposure’ thus marked off, periods 1, 2, 3 were equivalent to
each other in fading power, whereas periods 4 and 5 were each equivalent
to four of the first period in this respect ; hence five patterns of each
colour have been submitted respectively to an amount of fading equal
to 1, 2, 3, 7, and 11 times that of the first ‘fading period’ selected—viz.,
July 19 to August 12, 1895.
The dyed and faded patterns have been entered in pattern-card books
in such a manner that they can be readily compared with each other.
348 REPORT—1896.
The foliowing tables give the general result of the exposure experi-
ments made during the year 1895-96, the colours being divided, according
to their behaviour towards light, into the following five classes: Very
fugitive, fugitive, moderately fast, fast, very fast.
The initial numbers refer to the order of the patterns in the pattern-
books. The S. and J. numbers refer to Schultz and Julius’s ‘Tabel-
larische Uebersicht der kiinstlichen organischen Farbstoffen.’
In the case of colouring matters requiring mordants, the particular
mordant employed is indicated in brackets after the name of the dye-
stuff.
Crass I. Very Fucitive Cotours. (Wo0t.)
Many of the colours of this class have faded so rapidly that at the end
of the first ‘fading period’ (July 19 to August 12, 1895) only a very faint
colour remains, and at the end of the fifth period (one year) all traces of
the original colour have disappeared, the woollen cloth being either white
or of a yellowish or greyish appearance.
Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book IX. ;
Basic Colours. 10. Victoria Blue R. Constitution not published.
a 11. New Victoria Blue B. Constitution not published.
33 12. Victoria Blue B. Hydrochloride of phenyl-tetra-methyl-
triamido-diphenyl-a-naphthyl-carbinol. §. and J. 274.
“ 13. Night Blue. Hydrochloride of p-tolyl-tetra-ethyl-triamido-
diphenyl-a-naphthyl-carbinol. §S. and J. 275.
# 14, Victoria Blue 4R. Hydrochloride of phenyl-penta-methyl-
triamido-diphenyl-a-naphthyl-carbinol. §. and J. 276.
Safranine Colours.
Basic Colours. 24, Neutral Blue. Phenyl-dimethyl-p-amido-pheno-naphthazonium-
chloride. §. and J. 354.
Oxazine Colowrs.
Acid Colours. 9. Gallanilic Indigo PS. Sulphonated product of the action of
aniline on gallocyanine-anhydride-anilide.
4, Fluorescent Blue. Ammonium salt of tetra-brom-resorufin.
5. Capri Blue GON. Dimethyl-tolyl-ammonium-dimethyl-amido-
phenoxazine-chloride.
. Cresyl Blue 2BS. Dimethyl-tolyl-ammonium-amido-phenoxa-
zine-chloride.
_ 19. Nile Blue. Dimethyl-phenyl-ammonium-a-amido-naphthoxazine-
chloride. 8. and J. 344.
x5 20. New Methylene Blue GG. Dimethyl-phenyl-ammonium-
dimethyl-amido-naphthoxazine-chloride.
”
Basic Colours.
a)
Thiazine Colours.
Basic Colours. 3, Thionine Blue GO. Zinc double chloride of diethyl-dimethyl-
thionine.
- 4. Methylene Blue B. Zinc double chloride of tetra-methyl-
thionine.
5 8. Gentianine. Hydrochloride of dimethyl-thionine.
- 9. New Methylene Blue N. Hydrochloride of diethyl-toluthionine.
BA — Toluidine Blue. Zinc double chloride of dimethyl-tolu-thionine.
S. and J. 351,
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 349
Azo Colours.
Wool Book X.
Direct Cotton 1. Diamine Sky Blue. From diphenitidine and amido-naphthol-
Colours. disulphonic acid H.
5 2. Chicago Blue 6B. Constitution not published,
FS 3. Brilliant Benzo Blue 6B. Constitution not published.
. 8. Diamine Blue 6G. Constitution-not published.
Nores.—Certain colours in this class—e.g. Gentianine, &c.—fade
during the first period to a grey colour possessing a moderate degree of
fastness. Neutral Blue is characterised by fading toa dull reddish colour.
Gallanilic Indigo PS and Diamine Blue 6G, when completely faded,
leave the wool of a pronounced yellowish tint.
Crass IJ, Fuaitive Contours. (Woot.)
The colours of this class show very marked fading at the end of the
second ‘fading period’ (August 12 to September 3, 1895), and after a year’s
exposure they have entirely faded, or only a tint remains.
Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book IX.
Basic Colours. 1. Turquoise Blue. Constitution not published.
is 2. Turquoise Blue 2B. Constitution not published.
5 6. Glacier Blue. Zinc double chloride of dichlor-dimethyl-diamido-
ditolyl-phenyl-carbinol.
Acid Colours. 5. Cyanol extra. Sodium salt of m-oxy-diethy]-diamido-phenyl-
ditolyl-carbinol-disulphonic acid.
Thiazine Colours.
as 10. Thiocarmine. Sodium salt of diethyl-dibenzyl-thionine-disulphonic
acid.
Oxazine Colours.
Basic Colours. 27. Muscarin J. Dimethyl-phenyl-p-ammonium-f-oxy-naphthoxazine.
8. and J. 343.
= 28. Metamine Blue B. Dimethy]-phenyl-p-ammonium-8-naphthoxa-
zine. §. and J. 342.
5 29. New Fast Blue H. Constitution not published.
8 30. New Fast Blue F. Constitution not published.
Acid Colour. 27. Azine Blue. Constitution not published.
Safranine and Induline Colours.
Basic Colours. 15. Basle Blue B. Dimethyl-amido-tolyl-amido-tolyl-pheno-naphtha-
zonium chloride.
Fe 16. Diphene Blue R. An induline colour.
3 17. Indazine M. Tetra-methyl-diamido-diphenazine-phenyl-chloride.
8. and J. 364. '
a 26. Metaphenylene Blue B. Tetra-methyl-di-o-tolyl-diphenazonium
chloride.
Natural Colouring Matters.
Acid Colours. 1. Indigo Carmine. Sodium salt of indigotin-disulphonic acid.
5 2, Indigo Purple. Sodium salt of indigotin-mono-sulphonic acid.
Azo Colours.
Wool Book X.
Direct Cotton 9. Benzo Cyanine 3B. Constitution not published.
Colours. 11. Indoin Blue 2B. From Safranine and 8-naphthol,
350 REPORT—1896.
Direct Cotton 12. Metazurin B. Constitution not published.
Colours. 14. Benzo Blue 3B. Constitution not published.
15. Benzo Red BlueG. Constitution not published.
16. Columbia Blue G. Constitution not published.
17. Chicago Blue R. Constitution not published.
18. Naphthazurin. Constitution not published.
23. Diamine Blue 2B. From benzidine and amido-naphthol-disul-
phonic acid H.
24, Diamine Blue 3B. From tolidine and amido-naphthol-disulphonic
acid H.
25. Benzo Cyanine R. Constitution not published.
26. Indazurin. Constitution not published.
27. Direct Blue B. From dianisidine, dioxy-naphthoic-sulphonic acid,
and a-naphthol-p-sulphonic acid.
28. Heligoland Blue 3B. Constitution not published.
29. Benzo Azurine G. From dianisidine, and a-naphthol-mono-sul-
phonic acid NW. S. and J. 210.
30. Benzo Red Blue R. Constitution not published.
31. Columbia Blue R. Constitution not published.
32. Benzo Azurine 3G. From dianisidine, and a-naphthol-mono-sul-
phonic acid L. 8. and J. 213.
3. Brilliant Metazurin OOO. Constitution not published.
0 34. Diamine Blue BX. From tolidine, a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid
NW, and amido-naphthol-disulphonic acid H.
6 35. Diamine Blue B. From ethoxy-benzidine, B-naphthol-6-disul-
phonic acid, and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid NW. S.andJ.
205.
36. Heligoland Blue R. Constitution not published.
37. Oxamine Blue 3R. From tolidine, B-amido-a-naphthol-8-sulphonic
acid, and a-naphthol-a-sulphonic acid.
38. Diamine Blue 3R. From ethoxy-benzidine, and a-naphthol-mono-
sulphonic acid NW. S.and J. 206.
39. Azo Biue. From tolidine, and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid
NW. S.and J. 187.
3. Azo Navy Blue. Constitution not published.
5. Direct Blue Black B. Constitution not published.
4
4
23. Azo Acid Blue B. Constitution not published.
Acid Colours.
Natural Colouring Matters.
Mordant Colours. Logwood (Al). Wood of Hematoxylon campechianum.
Nores..—Azo Acid Blue acquires, on fading, a very red shade ;
Turquoise Blue 2B and Glacier Blue change to a green during the first
period. Basle Blue B and Benzo Blue 3B lose their bloom of colour
during the first ‘fading period,’ the remaining dark greyish colour being
moderately fast. Direct Cotton Colours, 12, +17, 18, 23, 24, 25, change
from blue to grey during the first ‘fading period,’ and Nos. 15, 16, and 26
to 39 all acquire a marked reddish tint. On this account these colours
might almost equally well be placed among the ‘very fugitive colours.’
Cuass III. Moprratety Fast Contours. (W001)
The colours of this class show distinct fading at the end of the second
period (August 12 to September 3, 1895), which becomes more pronounced
at the end of the third period (September 3 to September 20, 1895). A
ale tint remains at the end of the fourth period (September 20,
1895, to April 7, 1896), and at the end of a year’s exposure the colour
has entirely faded, or, at most, mere traces of colour remain.
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 351
Wool Book X.
Mordant Colours.
Wool Book IX.
Acid Colours.
Wool Book X.
Mordant Colour.
Wool Book IX.
Acid Colour.
Wool Book IX.
Acid Colours.
”
Basic Colours.
”
Wool Book IX.
Acid Colours,
or
Triphenylmethane Colowrs.
. Chrome Blue (Cr). Oxy-carboxy-tetra-methyl-diamido-di-
phenyl-naphthyl-carbinol.
- Patent Blue A. Calcium salt of m-oxy- (or m-amido)- tetra-
alkyl-diamido-triphenyl-carbinol-sulphonic acid.
. Patent Blue superfine. Ditto.
. Alkali Blue. Sodium salt of mono- and di-phenyl-rosaniline-
mono-sulphonic acid.
. Alkali Blue 6B. Sodium salt of tri-phenyl-rosaniline-mono-
sulphonic acid.
- Hoechst New Blue. Calcium salts of tri-methyl-tri-phenyl-
p-rosaniline, di- and tri-sulphonic acids.
- Methyl Blue MBI. Sodium salt of tri-phenyl-p-rosaniline-
tri-sulphonic acid.
- Water Blue 6B extra. Sodium salt of tri-phenyl-rosaniline-
tri-sulphonic acid.
- Bavarian Blue DBF. Sodium salt of diphenylamine blue-
tri-sulphonic acid. S. and J. 300.
. Bavarian Blue DSF. Sodium salt of diphenylamine .blue-di-
and tri-sulphonic acid. S. and J. 299.
. Alkali Blue D. Sodium salt of diphenylamine blue-mono-
sulphonic acid. S. and J. 298.
. Alkali Blue R. Sodium salt of mono-phenyl-rosaniline-mono-
sulphonic acid.
. Soluble Blue pure. Sodium salt of tri-phenyl-rosaniline-tri-
sulphonic acid.
Oxazine Colours.
- Gallocyanine DH (Cr). Chloride of dimethyl-phenyl-am-
namie geek eae eang og acid. §, and J. 340.
35. Gallanilic Blue R. Constitution not published.
Induline Colours,
. Milling Blue. Sodium salt of anilido-iso-naphthyl-rosinduline-
mono-sulphonic acid.
- Naphthyl Blue. Sodium salt of anilido-phenyl-naphthinduline-
sulphonic acid.
- Naphthazine Blue. Sodium salt of tetra-methyl-diamido-
dinaphthyl-diphenaz onium-di-sulphonic acid.
-Induline NN. Sodium salt of sulphonic acid of a Spirit
Induline. S. and J. 366.
31. Indigen F liquid. Sodium salt of sulphonic acid of a Spirit
Induline. 8. and J. 365.
- Induline 3B. Sodium salt of sulphonic acid of a Spirit
Induline. S. and J. 366.
- Fast Blue B. Sodium salt of sulphonic acid of a Spirit
Induline. § and J. 365.
22. Toluylene Blue B. Constitution not published.
-Indamine Blue N. Hydrochloride of p-amido-phenylamido
derivatives of a Spirit Induline.
. Paraphenylene Blue R. Hydrochloride of amido-phenyl-
induline.
- Indophenine extra. Constitution not published.
33. Indophenine B. Constitution not published.
Azo Colours.
38. Blue Black B. From 8-naphthylamine-mono-sulphonic-acid
azo-a-naphthylamine and £-naphthol-disulphonic acid R.
8. and J. 134.
3852 REPORT—1896.
Acid Colours. 39. Indigo Blue powder. From toluene-azo-naphthylamine and B-
naphthol-sodium-disulphonate.
Wool Book X.
Direct Cotton 5. Brilliant Sulphon Azurine R. Constitution not published.
Colours. 6. Sulphon Cyanine. Constitution not published.
7, Sulphon Azurine. From benzidine-sulphon-disulphonic-acid,
and phenyl-8-naphthylamine. 8. and J. 182.
as 10. Sulphon Cyanine 3R. Constitution not published.
e 13. Brilliant Azurine 5G. From dianisidine and dioxy-naphtha-
lene-a-mono-sulphonic acid. 8, and J. 215.
- 19. Naphthyl Blue 2B. From o-amido-diphenylic acid, and
benzoyl-amido-naphthol.
ne 20. Benzo Indigo Blue. From dianisidine, a-naphthylamine, and
dioxy-naphthalene-a-mono-sulphonic acid (1 : 8).
nS 21. Diamine Blue Black E. From ethoxy-benzidine, B-naphthol-
8-disulphonic acid, and y-amido-naphthol-sulphonic acid.
sf 22. Blue JCR. Constitution not published.
a 40. Benzo Black Blue R. From tolidine-disazo-a-naphthylamine
and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid NW. S. and J. 226.
= 41. Congo Fast Blue B. Constitution not published.
5 42. Benzo Black Blue G. From benzidine-disulphonic acid-disazo-
naphthylamine, and a-naphthol-mono sulphonic acid NW.
S.and J. 225. .
6 44, Congo Fast Blue R. Constitution not published.
Natural Colowring Matters.
Wool Book X.
Mordant Colour. Logwood (Cr). Wood of Hematoxylon campechianum.
Norres.—The Patent Blues become darker during the first two fading
periods. Brilliant Sulphonazurine R acquires a decided reddish tint
during the later stages of fading. The Sulphocyanines and Gallocyanine
DH appear to be faster than the rest of the colours placed in this class,
and do not change in hue during the fading process. The fastness of the
Alkali Blues is probably greater than is usuaily supposed to be the case.
The blue given by logwood with chromium is much faster than that
obtained with aluminium mordant.
Crass IV. Fast Conours. (Wooz.)
The colours of this class show comparatively little fading during the
first, second, and third periods. At the end of the fourth period a pale
shade remains, which at the end of the year’s exposure still leaves a pale
tint.
Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book X. .
Mordant Colour. 9. Gallein (Cr). Oxidation product of pyrogallol-phthalein.
8. and J. 335.
Wool Book IX.
Basic Colour. 25. Gentiana Blue 6B. Hydrochloride of tri-phenyl-rosaniline.
Oxazine Colours.
Wool Book X.
Mordant Colour. 7. Gallamine Blue (Cr). Product of action of nitroso-dimethyl-
aniline-hydrochloride on gallaminic acid. S. and J. 346.
Azo Colours.
Wool Book IX.
Acid Colour. 36. Naphthol Blue Black. From p-nitraniline, aniline, and amido-
naphthol-disulphonic acid H (1 : 8).
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 353
Induline Colours.
Acid Colour. 33. Fast Blue 6B for wool. A sulphonated induline.
Notre.—That Gentiana Blue 6B has proved to be fast is very remark-
able, since the basic colours, and particularly those of the triphenyl-
methane group, are usually so fugitive. During the first fading period
the bloom of the colour disappears, but the remaining colour fades very
little even throughout the period of a whole year.
Crass V. Very Fasr Conours. (Woot.)
The colours of this class show a very gradual fading during the dif-
ferent periods, and even after a year’s exposure a moderately good colour
remains.
Oxazine Colours.
Wool Book X.
Mordant Colour. 6. Coelestine Blue B (Cr). Constitution not published.
Thiazine Colours.
Mordant Colours. 10. Brilliant Alizarin Blue R (Cr). Constitution not published. A
derivative of oxy-naphtho-quinone-imide.
i 12. Brilliant Alizarin Blue G (Cr). Constitution not published.
Oxyketone Colours.
Mordant Colours. 2. Alizarin Blue WX (Cr). Di-oxy-anthraquinone-quinoline.
8. and J. 255.
3. Alizarin Blue S powder (Cr). Sodium bisulphite compound of
Alizarin Blue. §. and J. 256.
# 4, Anthracene Blue WR (Cr). Hexa-oxy-anthraquinone.
8
. Alizarin Cyanine R (Cr). Penta-oxy-anthraquinone. §S.and J.
249.
_ 11. Alizarin Cyanine G (Cr). Action of ammonia on intermediate
product in making Alizarin Cyanine R. S. and J. 250.
es 13. Anthracene Blue WG (Cr). Constitution not published.
os 15. Alizarin Indigo Biue SW (Cr). Sodium bisulphite compound
of tetra- and penta-oxy-anthra-quinolin-quinone-sulphonic
acid. 8S, and J. 257.
Re 16. Alizarin Cyanine Black G (Cr). Constitution not published.
Natural Colouring Matters.
Direct Colour. 1. Vat Indigo Blue.»
Additional Colowring Matters.
Acid Colour. 2. Prussian Blue.
Nores.—The great fastness of the Brilliant Alizarin Blues is remark-
able, since they belong to a group of colouring matters which has not hitherto
furnished fast colours. The same remark applies to Ccelestine Blue,
although this colour is not so fast as the foregoing. The fastness of the
various Alizarin Blues (oxyketone colours) is proverbial, and along with
the colours just named they may well be regarded as worthy competitors of
indigo for the production of fast blues. The chief difference of behaviour
of Indigo Blue and some of the Alizarin Blues is that the latter tend to
acquire a reddish tint, whereas the former does not.
The remarkable fastness of Prussian Blue on wool is such that the
1896. AA
~
B54 REPORT—1896.
medium blue colour experimented upon has not perceptibly faded during
a whole year’s exposure, and it may be justly considered as the fastest blue
on wool with which we are at present acquainted ; unfortunately it is
sensitive to the action of alkalis.
GREEN COLOURING MATTERS.
Crass I. Very Fucirive Corours. (Wo0t.)
Wool Book XI.
Basic Colours. 1. Capri Green G. Constitution not published.
Rs 11. SolidGreen 3B. Zinc double chloride of dichlor-tetra-methyl-
diamido-triphenyl-carbinol. 8. and J. 265.
8 13. Iodine Green. Zinc double chloride of chlor-methyl-hexa-
methyl-rosaniline-hydrochloride. §. and J. 284.
Be 15. Methylene Green. Nitro-tetra-methyl-thionine. §. and J.
349 (foot-note).
M3 18. Aldehyde Green. Quinoline derivative of rosaniline. (?). S.
and J. 377.
Natural Colouring Matters.
Wool Book XI.
Lo-kav (on cotton). Chinese dyestuff derived from Rhamnus
utilis.
Crass II. Fuerrive Corours. (Woot.)
Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book XI.
Acid Colours. 1. Light Green SF (yellow shade). Sodium salt of diethyl-
dibenzyl-diamido-triphenyl-carbinol-tri-sulphonic acid. §.
and J. 268.
9
Helvetia Green. Sodium salt of tetra-methyl-diamido-tri-
phenyl-carbinol-mono-sulphonic acid. §S. and J. 266.
3. Light Green SF (blue shade). Sodium salt of dimethyl-
dibenzyl-diamido-triphenyl-carbinol-tri-sulphonic acid, 8.
and J. 267. -
of 4. Guinea Green BY. Sodium salt of nitro-diethyl-dibenzyl-
diamido-triphenyl-carbinol-di-sulphonic acid. §.andJ.270.
ss 5. Guinea Green B. Sodium salt of diethyl-dibenzyl-diamido-
triphenyl-carbinol-di-sulphonic acid. §. and J. 269.
5 9. Fast Green extra. Sodium salt of tetra-methyl-dibenzyl-
pseudo-rosaniline-di-sulphonic acid. §S. and J. 286.
Basic Colours. 3. Methyl Green. Zinc double chloride of chlor-methyl-hexa-
methyl-p-rosaniline-hydrochloride. §. and J. 283.
bn 4. China Green cryst. Tetra-methyl-diamido-triphenyl-carbinol-
oxalate. §. and J. 263.
59 5. Imperial Green cryst. Zinc double chloride of tetra-methyl-
diamido-triphenylearbinol. 8. and J. 263.
+ 6. Solid Green GG. Tetra-methyl-diamido-triphenyl-carbinol-
sulphate. 8S. and J. 263.
“3 9. Solid Green YYO eryst. Zinc double chloride of tetra-ethyl-
diamido-triphenyl-carbinol. 8. and J. 264.
xs 10. Ethyl Green cryst. Tetra-ethyl-diamido triphenyl-carbinol-
sulphate. §. and J. 264.
Mordant Colours. 2. Chrome Green(Cr). Tetra-methyl-diamido-triphenyl-carbinol-
carboxylic acid.
Safranine and Induline Colowrs.
Wool Book XI. :
Basic Colours. 17. Azine Green TO. Dimethyl-amido-phenyl-amido-phenyl-pheno-
naphthazonium chloride. 8. and J. 363.
Or
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 35
Azo Colours.
Wool Book XI.
Direct Cotton 2, Columbia Green. Constitution not published.
Colours.
Crass III. Moperarrry Fasr Conours. (Woot.)
Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book IX.
Acid Colours. 6. Alkali Green. Sodium salt of diphenyl-diamido-triphenyl-
carbinol-mono-sulphonic acid. §. and J. 271.
53 7. Wool Green 8. Sodium salt of tetra-methyl-diamido-B-oxy-
naphthyl-carbinol-di-sulphonic acid.
8. MillingGreen. Sodium salt of tetra-methyl-dibenzyl-pseudo-
rosaniline-disulphonic acid.
Azo Colours.
Wool Book X.
Direct Cotton 1. Diamine Green B. From benzidine, j-nitro-benzene-azo-
Colours. amido-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid, and phenol.
Mordant Colours. 1. Azo Green (Cr). From m-amido-tetra-methy]-p-diamido-
triphenyl-methane, and salicylic acid. S. and J. 273.
Crass IV. Fast Cotours. (Woot.)
Wool Book X.
Direct Cotton
Colours. 3. Benzo Olive. Constitution not published.
Mordant Colour. 4. Diamond Green (Cr), Constitution not published.
Crass V. Vury Fast Contours. (Woot.)
Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book X.
Mordant Colours. 3. Ccerulein (Cr). Product of the action of sulphuric acid on
Gallein. §S. and J. 336.
Oxyketone Colours.
Mordant Colours. 5. Alizarin Green SW (Cr). Sodium bisulphite compounds of
tri- and_tetra-oxyanthraquinone-quinoline-sulphonic acids.
S. and J. 258.
Quinoneoxime Colours.
Mordant Colours. 6. Dark Green (Fe). Di-quinoyl-dioxime. §. and J. 232.
e 7. Gambine Y (Fe). f§-naphtho-quinone-a-oxime. §. and J.
234, :
- 8. Gambine B (Fe). Constitution not published.
x 9. Naphthol Green B (Fe). Ferrous sodium salt of nitroso-B-
naphthol-8-mono-sulphonic acid. S. and J. 236.
3 10. Dioxine (Fe). 8-oxy-naphtho-quinone-oxime. §. and J. 235.
‘i 11. Gambine R (Fe). Naphtho-quinone-oxime. §. and J. 233.
Norrs.—The great fastness of the quinone-oxime colours when fixed
with iron mordant is worthy of special notice. The fastness of Ccrulein
green as a Triphenylmethane Colour is also remarkable, but although
Ceerulein is usually classed as a Triphenylmethane Colour, its constitution
when fully determined may cause it to be more properly placed in some
other class.
Sirk Parrerns.
Most of the foregoing colours were also dyed on silk, and the patterns
were exposed to light along with those on wool. The relative fastness of
the various colours was, for the most part, the same as on wool, the
AAQ
356 REPORT—1896.
differences observed being too unimportant to necessitate a special classi-
fication for silk.
The Chinese natural dyestuff Lo-kav fixed on silk with alum mordant
is much faster than the same colour fixed on cottonfrom a soap bath, It
was not found possible to apply it satisfactorily to wool.
Vat Indigo Blue is apparently less fast on silk than on wool, and on
this fibre some of the Alizarin Blues, and notably the Brilliant ‘Alizarin
Blues, are much faster than Indigo Blue. As on wool, so on silk, Prussian
Blue is faster to light than all other blues. ‘
Stonesfield Slate—Third and Final Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Mr. H. B. Woopwarp (Chairman), Mr. EK. A. WaLForp
(Secretary), the late Prof. A. H. GREEN, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr.
J. WINDOES, appointed to open further sections in the neighbourhood
yo Stonesfield 4 in order to show the relationship of the Stonesfield slate
to the underlying and overlying strata. (Drawn wp by Mr. EDwIn
A. Watronrp, Secretary.)
Tue succession from the Great Oolite through the Stonesfield Slate into the
Inferior Oolite as shown in the sections made by your Committee may be
thus summarised :—
Ft. in.
Surface soil, Limestone fragments with Corals,&c. 0 9
Great Oolite | Limestone and Marls with Ostrea (Oyster ae 17 3
Slate beds (Stonesfield Slate) . 5 3
| Fawn-coloured Limestone with lignite of car-
Fullonian bonaceous markings (Chipping Norton
Limestones) about : 18 0
Sandy Limestones with some Marl. beds ; ; lower
Inferior Oolite limestone with vertical plant-markings
Series (Lower Estuarine series) . :
Clypeus-grit zone of Ammonites Parkinsoni . 13 0
(About 12 feet of Inferior Oolite strata can be made out below.)
The faulted state of the bank prevents exact measurement of the
series now assumed to be Fullonian. These beds had _ previously been
classed with the Inferior Oolite. Notwithstanding the great care taken
in making a practically vertical section, a series of Great Oolite beds was
found at a much lower level than the Slate. The error was indicated in
the Second Report, and the greater part of beds Nos. 18 to 26 have to be
excised from the list.
The additions to our knowledge consist mainly in the discovery of the
strata with vertical plant-markings (evidently the equivalent of the
Lower Estuarine Series of the Northamptonshire Inferior Oolite), and in
the particulars given of the thickness of the higher beds of the Inferior
Oolite and the Fullonian strata. Fawler, two miles distant, has been
supposed to mark the virtual disappearance of the Inferior Oolite. Sir
Joseph Prestwich, however, had grouped with the Inferior Oolite certain
beds (14 feet 6 inches thick) which had been proved in the boring at
Wytham, near Oxford ;' and Mr. H. B. Woodward has classed with
the Inferior Oolite Series 30 feet of strata proved in a boring at Witney.”
These correlations were inferential, but the facts now brought forward
give them support.
1 Geo. Mag. 1876, p. 238.
2 Jurassie Rocks of Britain, vol. v. 1895, p. 42.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 307
Photographs of Geological interest in the United Kingdom.—Seventh
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE,
(Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. TEMPEST ANDERSON,
Mr. J. E. Beprorp, Professor W. Boyp Dawxms, Mr. E. J.
Garwoop, Mr. J. G. GoopcuiLp, Mr. WiLLIAM Gray, Professor
T. M‘Kenny Hucues, Mr. Roserr Kipston, Mr. A. S. Ren,
Mr. J. J. H. Teaut, Mr. R. H. Trppeman, Mr. H. B. Woop-
WARD, with Mr. Osmonp W. JEFFs and Mr. W. W. Watts
(Secretaries). (Drawn up by Mr. W. W. Warts.)
THE Committee have the honour to report that during the last year 196
photographs have been received, bringing the total number in the collection
up to1,412. <A detailed list is annexed : it shows that the Committee are
largely indebted to Mr. Godfrey Bingley and to Mr. W. Whitaker. The
latter has sent a considerable number of photographs, many of them old
ones, which it would have been difficult to obtain otherwise ; the former,
in addition to a set to be specially mentioned later on, has contributed a
beautiful series of views taken along the Yorkshire coast, which we trust
is a first contribution to the survey of the entire coast suggested by Mr.
Woodall some time ago. Mr. Bingley also sends photographs of the re-
markable perched blocks about Norber, near Clapham. To these donors
and to Miss Andrews, Mr. Armstrong, Mr. Atchison, Mr. Flowers, Mr.
Piquet, Mr. Preston, Mr. W. Sinclair, Mr. Small, Mr. Stilgoe, Mr. A. O.
Walker, and Mr. H. B. Woodward, to the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,
and to the Leeds Geological Association, the thanks of the Committee are
especially due.
A summary of geographical areas represented in this year’s collection
and in those of former years follows. From this it will be seen that, while
some counties have been surveyed by the camera in considerable detail,
in others little or nothing has been done. It will be well, therefore, to
direct special effort towards having the geological phenomena of these
counties photographically registered.
No special attempt has been made this year to obtain prints in order
to see how many would be likely to flow in without sending circulars out ;
the result is apparent on an analysis of the list. But for the photographs
of three contributors the number would be exceptionally small. This
shows that constant effort is required to complete the collection, and it
must not be relaxed if it is desired that the work should be brought to a
satisfactory conclusion. Circulars must be regularly sent to the Field
Clubs and Natural History Societies, and to other regular and likely con-
tributors, a constant if small expense being undertaken by the Com-
mittee.
Not many of the photographs received this year have yet been
mounted, and there are still some of the older ones which require mount-
ing or remounting before it is possible to display the whole collection at
its new home in Jermyn Street, to which the whole collection has now
been sent ; the bulk of it can, however, be inspected on application at the
Library at the Museum of Practical Geology at 28 Jermyn Street, S.W.
The method adopted by the Committee, after much consideration, has
358 REPORT—1896.
proved to be an unqualified success, and not the least advantage is that
it permits of the periodical rearrangement of the collection, which is so
essential. This emphasises the necessity, often urged by the Committee,
that prints should, whenever possible, be sent unmounted. The direc-
tions sent by the donors with regard to mounting are strictly adhered
to, and if donors wish to mount their own prints the standard cards will
always be sent them for the purpose.
New Pre- . | New | Pre-
addi-| vious | , addi- | vious
TT tions | collec- Total a tions | collec- Total
(1896) tion (1896) tion
|
ENGLAND— | Stafford mec 9 12
Bedford — — OF Suffolk 1 — 1
Berks — |} 8 3 Surrey 3 5 8
Buckingham —|;— O || Sussex -| —|— 0
Cambridge = — 0 Warwick . : 1 6 7
Cheshire . —- 44 44 Westmorland . — 5 5
Cornwall . _- 43 43 Wiltshire . — 5 5
Cumberland — r¢ 7 || Worcester — 2 2
Derby Zila 26°|| Yorkshire. 66 | 228 | 294
Devon 18 47 65 ——
Dorset 3 44 47 A
Durham — 16 16 168 ite BBG Pe
Essex 1 _
Gloucester if 1 2 || WALES—
Hants = 5 Tal Carnarvon $) 42 51
Hereford . ae |p 0 | Denbigh . — | 18 18
Hertford . —_ ‘f 7 || Flint ee 1 1
Huntingdon = see Ove Glamorgan a = 9 9
Kent 6 33 39 Merioneth 2 10 12
Lancashire 2 40 42 | Montgomery 2 4 6
Leicester . 49 37 86
Lincoln . | — — 0 | 13 84 97
Middlesex a 3 3 Cr
ek 1 : P ; | CHANNEL ISLANDS Z ; 9 11
Northampton — — 0 (ese ov MAN = 23 od
Northumberland] — | 28 | 28 | SCOTLAND - | 14") 180") 153
Nottingham 6 9 9 | IRELAND | 1 | 236 237
Oxford 1 Pa, Tae ROCK-STRUCTURES, 5 !
Rutland als = 0 &e. ° 2 wel 3 | 35 38
Shropshire Swine 26 |
Somerset . _ 22 22 | 196 |1216 1412
|
A scheme for the rearrangement of the collection according to
counties and a catalogue similarly arranged have been drawn up. This
system seems the best under the circumstances, and it is hoped that the
rearrangement will be an accomplished fact by next year. When once
this is completed the clerical work will become much lighter.
The Secretaries venture to ask once again that such explanatory
details as can be given with each photograph should be written on the
form supplied for the purpose, not only to save the labour of transcription,
but to prevent errors which unavoidably creep in.
The work begun last year in giving references to the publications in which
any photographs from the collection have been published has not proceeded
very far, but one of Mr. Bingley’s sets has been reproduced inillustration of a
paper by Mr. Tate on the Dry Valleys of Yorkshire ; the set of photographs
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 359
is included in the following list, and the Yorkshire Geological and Poly-
technic Society has kindly sent a copy of the number of its ‘Proceedings’
containing the paper. The Secretaries will be glad to receive not only
prints of photographs so reproduced, but, if possible, a copy of the plates
or publication containing the reproduction of them.
Since the Committee began their labours a number of bodies, such as
the Geologists’ Association and the South-Eastern Union of Natural
History Societies, have undertaken the acquisition of photographs of
geological interest, and in some cases, as in Warwickshire, a complete
photographic survey, including that of geological phenomena, is in pro-
gress. It is desirable that duplicate prints of such photographs as are
of geological interest should find their way into the central and parent
collection.
The Committee ask for their reappointment, with a small grant tc
enable them to make a special effort toreach those localities which have no
at present contributed much or at all to the collection.
SEVENTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(ro AuGusT 1896.)
Norr.—tThis list contains the subjects of geological photographs,
copies of which have been received by the Secretaries of the Committee
since the publication of the last report. Photographers are asked to
affix the registered numbers, as given below, to their negatives for con-
venience of future reference. Their own numbers, where given, are
added, in the same order, to enable them to do so.
Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the Local Society
under whose auspices the views were taken.
The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
print and on local circumstances, over which the Committee have no
control.
The Committee find it necessary to reiterate the fact that they do noé
assume the copyright of any photographs included in this list. Inquiries
respecting photographs, and applications for permission to reproduce
them, should not be addressed to the Committee, but to the photographers
direct.
Copies of photographs should in future be sent to W. W. Warts,
28 Jermyn Street, London, 8.W.
[EZ signifies enlargements. |
ENGLAND.
BErKSHIRE.— See Surrey, No. 1325.
Derpysuire.—Photographed by Mr. Poutron. (Per W. Wuiraker, 7.2.8.)
Size 34 x 24 inches.
Regd. No.
1234 Mam Tor ; - . Face of landslip in Yoredale Beds.
860 REPORT—1896.
Photographed by E. Coox, Lynn. (Per W. WHITAKER.)
Size 44 x 34 inches.
Regd. N
4235 Eagle Stone, Baslow . Sandstone on Moorland Plateau 850 feet
above sea.
DervonsuIreE.—Photographed by Sir Henry TRuEMAN Woop. (Per W.
WHITAKER.) Size 65 x 44 inches.
1236,1237 White Cliff, Seaton,and Chalk, Upper Greensand, and New Red Mart.
Beer Head
14238 Beer. é . Chalk.
1239-1242 Beer Quarries : Middle Chalk.
1243 Haven Cliff, Mouth of Chalk, Greensand, and New Red Marl.
river Axe
12441247 The Dowlands Landslip. Chalk and Greensand.
1248 The Bindon Landslip . Chalk.
Photographed by Mr. Brapner, Torquay. (Per W. WHITAKER.)
Size 34 x 24 inches.
1249 Torwood Place, Torquay Surface creep in slate.
Photographed by W. Surrtock, Budleigh Salterton. (Per W. WHITAKER.)
Size 4x 34 inches.
1250,1251 Cliff W. of Budleigh New Red Sandstone and Conglomerate.
Salterton
Photographed by F. M. Goop, London. (Per W. WHITAKER.)
Size 7 x 44 inches.
1252 Valley of Rocks, Lynton Weathering of Devonian Rocks.
Photographed by T, TrpraxkE, Bideford. (Per W. WHITAKER.)
Size T x 44 inches.
1253 Westward Ho! . . The Pebble Ridge.
DorsEtsHire.—Photographed by A. K. C. Swanny. (Per W. WHITAKER.)
Size 4x 3 inches.
1254 Cliffat Lyme Regis . Lias.
(Per W. WuivTaKER.) Size 5 x 3} inches.
1255 Cliff between Studland Chalk cliff and stacks,
and Swanage
(Per H. B. Woopwarp, F.R.S.) Size 8 x 44 inches.
1256 Portisham, near Wey- ‘Trunk of a fossil tree.
mouth
Essex.—Photographed by H. W. Monexton, £.G.S., 10 King’s Bench
Walk, Temple. Size 44 x 3} inches.
1257 Walthamstow . . Pebblewith Ostrea Budleighensis from gravel.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE.—Photographed by P. L. Smrru, Stonehouse. (Per W.
WuitakeEr.) Size 64 x 44 inches,
1258 Garden Cliff, Westbury- Rhcetic Beds.
on-Severn ,
Kent.—Photographed by G. DowKEr.
4} x 34 inches.
Regd. No.
1259 Coast W. of Reculvers .
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.
Size
1260 Coast E. from Oldhaven 2
Gap
361
(Per W. WHITAKER.)
London Clay.
”
Photographed by W. T. Frowers, 4 Worfolk Street, Mile End, London..
Size 6 x 4 inches.
1226 High Rocks Lane, Tun-
1227 Happy Valley, Rusthall
bridge Wells
Common,
Wells
Tunbridge
Photographed by Mr. Perry, Folkestone.
A. R. Bowiss, I Inst.C.#.) Size 12 x10 inches.
1394 (4) Clifis E. of Folke-
1395 (5) Cliffs E. of Folke-
Lancasuire.—Photographed by R. H. Tippeman, J/.A.,
1261
1228
Chalk.
stone Harbour.
stone Harbour (con-
tinuation) Copt Point.
”
Honeycombing in Tunbridge Wells Sand.
” 37 ”
(Per H. E. Stincor, C.Z., and
Chalk and Gault.
28 Jermyn Street,
S.W. (Per W. Wuitaker.) Size 6 x 44 inches.
(A3). Burnley
Sands and gravels between Till.
Ripple-marks and worm-tracksin Lancashire
Fly-rock.
LEICESTERSHIRE,— Photographed by W. W. Warts, 28 Jermyn Street, S. W..
Size 44 x 34 inches.
1262, 1263
1264, 1265
1266, 1267
1268, 1269
1270, 1271
1272-1275
1276
1277,1278
1279, 1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
(188, 189) Brazil Wood
(192, 193) Sheet Hedges Quarry,
Groby
(194, 195) Groby Quarry :
(196, 197) The Brand, near Wood-
house Eaves
(198,199) Slate Quarry, north part
of Swithland Wood
(200-203) Bradgate Park
(204) The Hanging Rocks, Wood-
house Eaves
(205, 206) The Hanging Rocks,
Woodhouse Eaves
(207, 208) The Hanging Rocks,
Woodhouse Eaves
(209) The Hanging Rocks, Wood-
house Eaves
(210) Beacon Hill, Charnwood
(212) Broombriggs :
(213) Newhurst Quarry, Charn-
wood
(214) Newhurst Quarry, Charn-
wood
(217) The Hanging Stone, Charn-
wood Lodge
Contact of granite dyke with
mica-hornfels.
Syenite overlaid by New Red Marl.
” ” ”
Conglomerates and gritsof ‘Brand.
Series.”
Ancient valley filled with New
Red Marl.
The Slate Agglomerate.
Triassic valley in slate quarry.
Structures in slate.
Crags formed by ash beds.
The Slate Agglomerate.
Crag of hornstone.
‘ Plagioclinal’ crags of hornstone.
Syenite unconformably covered by
New Red Marl.
Contact of syenite with hornstone..
Volcanic Agglomerate,
362
Regd. No.
1287, 1288
1289
1290
1291, 1292
1293
1294, 1295
1296
1297, 1298
1299-1301
1302
1303, 1304
1305-1308
1309
1310
REPORT—1896.
(218, 219) Crags in Drive, Charn-
wood Lodge
(221) Crag near Peldar Tor .
(222) Quarry at Peldar Tor .
(223, 225) Bardon Quarry
(224)
(226, 227) _,, i ; :
(228) Quarry at Rice Rocks, near
Shaw Lane
(229, 230) Markfield Quarry 5
(231-233) Altar Stones, Markfield
(285) Short Buck Hill, near Nan-
pantan
(237, 238) Blackbrook, near Sheep-
shed
(241-244) High Sharpley
(246) Ives Head . ‘ 2 °
(247) The Pillar Rock, Benscliffe .
” ”
Voleanic Agelomerate.
Crush planes in porphyroid.
Trias unconformity.
Nodular rock ?
Crash plane in porphyroid, &c.
Ripple jointing in hornstone.
Structure planes in syenite.
The Slate Agelomerate.
Coarse and fine ash beds.
Characteristic scenery in the Black-
brook series.
Nodular porphyroid.
Apparent escarpment.
The Felsitic Agglomerate.
Norrorx.—Photographed by G. Barrow, F.G.S., 28 Jermyn Street, S.W.
(Ler W. Wuitaker.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
1313
Hunstanton Cliff .
White Chalk, Red Chalk, and Carstone.
OxrorpDsHIRE.—Photographed by T. Coprinaton, C.F, F.G.S. (Per W.
WHITAKER.) Size 3 x3 inches.
1314 Railway-cutting, Little- Coral Rag and Calcareous Grit.
more
SHRoPSHIRE.—Photographed by H. Preston, Grantham. Size
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
41 x34 inches.
Uriconian Rocks and Carboniferous Lime-
The Wrekin . S
stone escarpment.
Buildwas. °
Comley, near
Lawley
Section on the Onny
River
Weo Edge, near Craven
Arms
The
Mounds of Glacial Gravel.
The Olenellus Beds.
Junction of Ordovician and Silurian Rocks.
Escarpment of Aymestry Limestone.
STAFFORDSHIRE.—Photographed by A. A. Anmstone, M.A., Denstone
320-1322
College, Staffordshire.
The Peakstones Rock,
near Alton Towers
Size 6 x 44 inches.
Outlier of Bunter Sandstone partly ce-
mented by sulphate of barium.
SuFFoLK.—Photographed by T. C. Partripex, Sudbury. (Per W.
WHITAKER.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
1323
Section at Sudbury
Boulder Clay and contorted Red Crag.
Surrey.—Photographed by H. W. Monckton, F.G.S., 10 King’s Bench
1324
Walk, Temple.
Hills $.E. of Farnham .
Size 41 x 34 inches.
Stratified gravel.
1325 Localitiesin Surreyand Five boulders of quartz and quartzite.
Berkshire
Photographed by G. T. Avcuison, Corndon, Sutton, Surrey.
Size 41 x 3} inches.
1326
(B 35) Hollow Lane, be-
tween Wotton and
Abinger
Road cutting in Hythe Beds.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.
363
WarWICKSHIRE.—Photographed for J. D. Paut, L.G.S., Knighton Drive,
Leicester.
Regd. N
4327
YorksuHirE.—Photographed by E. Coox, Lynn.
1328 Filey .
Newbold Lime and Ce-
ment Works, Rugby
(Per W. WuitaKER.)
Size 8x6 athe:
Lias limestone, contorted.
(Per W, WHITAKER.)
Size 6 x 4 inches.
Cliffs of Boulder Clay.
Photographed by Goprrey BinciEy, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.
(Per YorKsHiRE NATURALISTS’ Union anp Leeps GEoLocicaL Asso-
CIATION.) Size 64 x 44 inches.
1329-1331
1332
1333
1334-1336
1337
1338, 1339
1340
1341
1342, 1343
1344-1347
1348, 1349
1350, 13514
1352
1353, 1354
1355-1358
1359, 1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366, 1367
1368, 1369
1370
1371, 1372
1373
1374
1375-1387
1388-1391
1392
1393
(8752, 4, 7) Flamborough Head
(3761) b
(38783) Selwick Bay 2
(3785, 6, 7) Selwick Bay
(3788) > <p .
(8789, 90) “ % 5
(3791)
(38793) Flamborough Head, North
Landin
(38801, 2) Speeton Cliff .
(3739, 42, 3, 3832) Filey Cliffs
(3815, 6) N.E. side of Carr Naze,
Filey
(3829, 30) Filey Cliffs .
(3746) The Wyke, Gristhorpe Bay
(8744 and a) Gristhorpe Cliff
(8822, 5, 6, 7) Carnelian Bay, near
Scarborough
(8823, 4) Carnelian Bay, near Scar-
borough
(3329) Gannister Quarry, Heading-
ley, Leeds
(8491) Kilnsey Crag, Upper Wharf-
dale
(8737) Banks of river Ure, Ripon
Parks
(3499) Malham Tarn. ‘ ‘
(3500) The Water Sinks, Malham
(8501, 2) Comb Scar, Malham
(3503, 4)
(3506) Dry Waterfall, Malham
(8507, 8) Looking north from the
foot of Comb Scar
(3505) From summit of Comb Scar
(8509) Cavern at foot of Malham
Cove
Cliff sections of Chalk.
Arch rock, Chalk.
Pillar rock of Chalk (‘ Eve’).
Caves in Chalk,
Stack of Chalk.
Cliffs of Chalk.
‘ High stacks,’ Chalk.
Clifts of Chalk.
Chalk and Neocomian Rocks.
Boulder Clay on Corallian Rocks.
Coralline Oolite and Calcareous
Grits.
Calcareous Grit and Oxford Clay.
” ” ”
Estuarine Series of the Inferior
Oolite.
Estuarine Series and Scarborough
Limestone.
Fault in Coal Measures.
Carboniferous Limestone.
Contorted beds of gypsum.
Carboniferous Limestone on Silu-
rian Rock,
River passing into underground
channel.
Gorge in Carboniferous Limestone
(dry).
”
Carboniferous (dry
valley).
Dry river bed in Carboniferous
Limestone.
Dry river bed.
* Source’ of river Aire.
” 4 ”
Limestone
Size 4x3 inches.
(3502-14) Norber, near Clapham .
(3716-8, 20) _,, 5
(8715) a ”
(3721) - ss
Boulders of Silurian Rock perched
on Carboniferous Limestone.
Boulders of Silurian Rock perched
on Carboniferous Limestone.
Boulder of Carboniferous Lime-
stone.
Escarpment and screes of Moun-
tain Limestone.
364 REPORT—1896.
CHANNEL IsLanps.—Photographed by G. A. Piquet, 68 New St. John’s
Road, Jersey. Size 8 x6 inches.
Regd. No.
1406 Portelet, St. Brelade’s, Raised sea beach.
Jersey
1407 Cave, near Grand Bec- Sea-worn boulders in cave.
quet, Jersey
WALES.
CARNARVONSHIRE.—Photographed by G. T. Atcutson, Corndon, Sutton,
Surrey. Size 44 x 3} inches.
1231 (D. 42) View from near Moel Hebog and Yr Aran in the background;
Pen-y-Gwryd, Snowdon scenery amongst Bala volcanic rocks.
1229 (D.46) Upper lake in Rock barrier.
Cwm Glas, Snowdon
Size 75 x54 inches. (£)
1230 (D. 45) Clogwyn-y-Per- Bala rhyolites and ashes.
son, Cwm Glas, Snowdon
Size 65x45 inches. (£)
1232 (D. 16) The Black Rock “[remadoc Rocks, with sea-cayes.
E. of Criccieth
Photographed by A. O. Watxkgr, F.G.S., Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
1400-1404 (1, 2, 3, 4, 4a) Sand-pit, Drift sand and gravel with fragments of
Coed Pella Road, Col- marine shells in them.
wyn Bay
MonTGomERysHIRE.—Photographed by H. Preston, Phe Waterworks,
Grantham. Size 44 x 3} inches.
1311, 1342 Corndon F ; . The laccolite and its sole.
Merionetu.—Photographed by G. T. Arcutson, Corndon, Sutton, Surrey.
Size 4} x 3 inches.
1233 (D. 33) Near Rhinog The Harlech Grits.
Fawr
Photographed by LavRENcE SmAtt, B.A., 60 Brown Road, Bootle.
Size 6 x 44 inches.
1405 Barmouth, E. of St. Glacial grooves,
John’s Church
SCOTLAND.
InverneEss.— Photographed by A. EvEtyN BArnarp and Miss J. BARNARD,
36 Hamilton Road, Highbury, London, N. (Per H. B. Woopwarp,
LR.) Size 6 x 44 inches.
1217 (1) Portree Bay, Skye . Basalt on Jurassic Rocks.
1248 (2) Quirang, Skye. . lLandslip of Basalt over Oxfordian Strata.
1219 (3) Valtos School House, Fissure in Basalt caused by landslip.
Skye
1220 (4) Valtos School House, Landslip in Basalt over Great Oolite Series.
Skye
1221 (5) Near Valtos, Skye . Basalt sill in Great Oolite Series.
1222 (6) ” ” ” ~ 9 ”
1223 (7) Longfearn Cliff, Skye Needle of Basalt.
1224 (8) ,, ”
BEd
3 ” ”
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 365
Photographed by the Rev. H. W. Woopwarp, Zanzibar. (Per H. B.
Woopwarp.) Size 54 x 4} inches.
Regd. No.
4225 (9) Inver Burn, Raasay Sandstones of Inferior Oolite age.
Fire.—Photographed by Goprrey Bineiey, Thorniehurst, Headingley,
Leeds. (Per YorksuirE Naturauists’ Union anp Leeps GEOLoGIcAL
ASSOCIATION.) Size 6 x 4} inches.
4396 (3597)TheSpindleRock, Radiating columns of igneous rock.
St. Andrew’s
Srirtine.—Photographed by W. Sixcuarr, 61 Oswald Street, Glasgow.
(Per Guascow Gronocicat Soctety.) Size 6 x 45 inches.
ac0 a } The Whaugie . lLandslip fissure in trap rock.
1411 (3) BallaganGlen,near Limestone, sandstone, and shale (Carbo-
1412 ca} Strathblane niferous).
IRELAND.
Antrim.—Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens,
Belfast. Size 12 x9 inches. (£)
4408 Quarry, near Temple- Intrusive rhyolite of Tertiary age.
patrick
Microscopic Srructures.—Photographed by E. WEtTHERED, F.G.S.,
Stroud. Size 4 x 23 inches.
1397 ° : ue es
1398 i The Streatham boring { ay of oolitic rock determined as
1399
APPENDIX.
REFERENCE List OF PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING GEOLOGICAL
Papers AND MEmorrs.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. ‘ Proceedings,’ Vol. XIIT.,
Part 1, 1895. Plates VI.-XIV. Illustrating Paper on ‘The Malham
Dry River Bed, by Tuomas Tare, F.G.S. From Negatives by
GODFREY BINGLEY.
1364 Malham Tarn, Yorkshire Carboniferous Limestone on Silurian Rock.
4365 The Water Sinks,Malham River passing into underground channel.
1367 Comb Scar, Malham . Gorge in Carboniferous Limestone.
1368 ” ” : ” ” ,
41370 Dry Waterfall, Malham Dry valley in Carboniferous "Limestone.
1372 From foot of Comb Scar Dry river -
”
4373 From summit of Comb + . 1
Scar
1109 Malham Cove : . Carboniferous Limestone.
1374 Cavern at foot of Mal- ‘Source’ of river Aire.
ham Cove
‘Memoir on the Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain, Vol. V. By H. B.
WoopwarD, 2.8. (Mig. 133.)
41256 Portisham, near Wey- Trunk of a fossil tree.
mouth, Dorset
366 " REPORT—1896.
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles—First Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor EH. Hunt (Chairman), Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. P. F. Kenpauu (Secretary), Mr. C. E. DE Rance,
Professor W. J. SoLuas, Mr. R. H. Trppeman, Rey. S. N. Har-
RISON, Mr. J. Horne, and Mr. DuGatp BELL. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)
Tue Committee were reconstituted at the Ipswich meeting of the Asso-
ciation, so that the erratics of the whole of the British Isles now come
within their purview. The Scottish Corresponding Societies have heen
invited to aid in devising a scheme of organisation by which the desired
end—the collection of significant facts regarding the distribution of ice-
borne blocks—may most speedily and with the least waste of power be
attained. Several Societies have made a favourable response, and it is
hoped that before the presentation of the next report a considerable body
of evidence will have been collected.
In England the work of organisation has been advanced a notable way
by the formation of a boulder committee by the Lincolnshire Naturalists’
Union on similar lines to that which has done, and is doing, such valuable
systematic work in Yorkshire. The Rev. W. Tuckwell has accepted the
secretaryship of the new organisation, and his well-known energy and
enthusiasm are guarantees that the work will be carried on persistently
and thoroughly. The proximity of the active sub-committee working in
the East Riding of Yorkshire has been a great advantage to the Lincoln-
shire Committee, who have had the advantage of the advice and active
co-operation in the field of several experienced boulder hunters from
Yorkshire.
Mr. Tuckwell’s first report records 102 boulders. These include many
examples of characteristic Scandinavian rocks, such as the well-known
Augite-syenite and Rhomb-porphyry. One example of the former rock,
observed near Louth, is the largest specimen yet found in England, and it
is satisfactory to learn that Mr. Tuckwell has taken effective measures for
its preservation. Another notable record is that of three specimens of
Shap granite, the first recorded in Lincolnshire, one of which was found
imbedded in undisturbed glacial deposits at South Ferriby, while another
was found built into a tenth-century Saxon wall at Irby.
The Yorkshire Boulder Committee have again done most excellent
work, the value of which is enhanced by care displayed by the secretary,
Mr. Tate, to investigate personally all boulders of more common interest
or novelty, and by the petrological knowledge which he brings to the
work.
The reports sent in from the East Riding are an enumeration of no
fewer than 2,600 boulders, and complete an exhaustive catalogue of all
the boulders at present visible in the cliffs or on the beach along the whole
coast-line of Holderness from Spurn Point to Bridlington, a distance of
36 miles. Among these were many examples of Augite-syenite and
Rhomb-porphyry.
A report by Messrs. Herbert Muff and Thomas Sheppard brings out
the extraordinary prevalence of boulders of Shap granite at Robin
Hood’s Bay where no fewer than 81, varying from a few inches up to
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 367
3 feet 6 inches in diameter, were observed. In contrast to this, Messrs.
Davis and Stather report that among the 133 large boulders (1 foot and
upward in diameter) and thousands of smaller ones observed by them on
four miles of coast between Redcar and Saltburn, not a single Shap
boulder was seen, nor any Augite-syenite nor Rhomb-porphyry.
A very valuable series of records come from the valley of the Yorkshire
Calder, the boulders consisting, as in previous reports, of Lake District
igneous rocks and some from the Carboniferous series ; but the special
interest of those now reported is that the route taken by the stones is
now indicated by the completion of a continuous train of erratics over the
Walsden Pass at Summit and thence to Todmorden.
The anomalous and isolated group found at Barnsley is reported upon.
The constituent boulders include basalts and granites of types not recog-
nised elsewhere in the district, and the group must be regarded with a
good deal of suspicion, especially in view of the fact that it is in close
proximity to a navigable canal.
Reports are also furnished of the boulders in a remarkable detached
patch of Boulder-clay at Balby, near Doncaster. At this place was found
a handsome boulder of Shap granite, the most southerly example yet
observed on the eastern side of the Pennine Chain.
It is gratifying to learn that, at the request of the Doncaster Natural
History and Microscopical Society, this interesting boulder and another
of Lake District andesite have been placed by the Corporation of Don-
caster in the Free Library. The Yorkshire records conclude with a report
upon the stones found in the great crescentic drift-ridges which run across
the Vale of York respectively at Escrick and at York itself. In both of
these boulders of Shap granite were found.
In Lancashire but little has been done during the past year ; but Mr.
J. W. Stather, of Hull, found a large pebble of Shap granite on the
shores of the Mersey at the Dingle, near Liverpool. Mr. Lomas found at
the same place a drusy granite resembling that of Goat Fell, Arran.
The latter is the first example found in England; but the Rev. 8. N.
Harrison sends records of both the granites of Arran and a ‘felspar-
porphyry ’ of the same island, from the Isle of Man.
The Belfast Field naturalists continue their work in the north-east of
Treland. It is interesting to observe that Foraminifera are found in
many of the Boulder-clays of their district. Pebbles of the Riebeckite
Eurite of Ailsa Craig are very abundant in the Boulder-clays near
Belfast.
ENGLAND.
CHESHIRE.
Reported by Mr. J. Lomas, A.R.C.S., per Glacialists’ Association.
Between Raby and Willaston, Mid Wirral—
3 Scottish granites; 3 Silurian grits; 1 Diabase;
1 Buttermere grano-phyre.
Near Willaston Mill—
1 Scottish granite; 1 L.D. andesite.
Cross roads near Willaston Hall—
1 Silurian grit.
1 Lake District andesite ;
368 REPORT—1896.
Striated Surfaces.
On roadside 4 mile from Raby towards Willaston—
Planed surface of sandstones striated from N. 40° W. (true). Two other patches
near with the same direction of striation.
Well Lane, Rock Ferry—
On roadside, planed surface covered with boulder-clay, striated from N. 25° W.
LANCASHIRE.
Reported by Mr. J. Lomas, A.2.C.S., per Glacialists’ Association.
Liverpool, the Dingle Shore—
1 granite, from Goat Fell, Arran.
Reported by Mr. W. Parker, per Glacialists’ Association.
Facit near Rochdale. Out of sewer-excavation opposite Co-operative
Stores—
*] Eskdale granite.
Near Long Acres Farm—
*] quartz syenite ; *2 Buttermere granophyre.
1 local sandstone ; 1 sandstone ; *1 andesite ; 1 rhyolite.
* All these are stated to have lain with their long axes N.W.-S.E.
Robin Hood Clough—
1 rhyolite.
Whitworth. In sewer-cutting, near Whitworth Manufacturing Company’s
Mills—
1 Carboniferous Limestone with coral (? Syringopora).
LINCOLNSHIRE. !
Communicated by the Lincolnshire Boulder Committee.
Reported by the Rev. W. Tuckwett, JA.
Waltham—
1 basalt (Whin Sill) ; 1 basalt.
Louth—
The ‘Blue Stone’ basalt; 1 basalt; 1 light red granite.
Louth, chalkpit north of chwrch—Large heap of boulders, averaging
9 inches diameter, included the following varieties :—
Rhomb-porphyry ; augite-syenite; lamprophyre; diorite; gneiss; pink
granite ; white granite; quartz-porphyry, Carboniferous Limestone, and
Lias.
Louth, brickyard on Road to Elkington—Boulders and pebbles in
heaps include the following :—
Rhomb-porphyry ; augite-syenite ; porphyrite (? Fredericsvaarn); halleflinta;
mica schist; schist; black flint; green-coated flint; porphyrite; fine-
grained white granite; quartz-porphyry ; diorite; basalt ; vesicular lava ;
conglomerate (with pebbles of quartz-porphyry); Millstone Grit; Car-
boniferous Limestone ; Carboniferous sandstone (gannister) ; ironstone
(2? Liassic) ; Septarian nodule (? Kimeridge clay).
1 This report will be published in extenso in the Vaturalist.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 369
Gate of Thorp Hall close to Louth on Lineoln Road—
1 augite-syenite; 1 basalt.
Roadside nearer to Louth—
1 gannister.
Stream, side of Hubbard’s Valley, Louth—
1 Jurassic sandstone,
LIngram’s chalk-pit, Louth—
1 basalt.
Mr. Cheetham’s lawn, Eastgate, Lowth—
1 red granite (taken from railway cutting).
Cemetery, Louth—
1 foliated red granite.
Hallington, rifle range—
Ditch in hollow of hill filled in with pebbles of sandstone and granite.
Benniworth, near carpenter's shop—
1 augite-syenite.
By farmyard gate—
1 Secondary sandstone.
South Elkington, near Old Pinfold—
1 bluish granite.
South Ferriby, from Boulder-clay Cliff—
2 Rhomb-porphyries ; 1 quartz-porphyry; 3 basalts; 1 Carboniferous Lime-
stone ; 1 black flint: 1 Shap granite,
Side of horse-pond —
2 basalts ; 1 gneiss; 1 schist.
Humber Bank, im front of Hall.—A large number of boulders
averaging a foot in diameter, amongst which are—
Red granite ; Carboniferous Limestone; basalt; sandstone.
Corner of lane opposite Mount Pleasant—
Carboniferous Limestone with encrinite stems; 1 sandstone.
In Mr. Havercroft’s stackyard—
2 basalts ; 1 basalt with small white amygdules ; 2 Secondary sandstones, one
with small flakes of white mica; 1 porphyrite (weathered); 1 Primary
sandstone; 1 red granite.
In Mr. Havercroft’s farmyard—
2 soft limestones (? Oolitic); 2 basalts; 1 basalt (green); 1 basalt, coarse-
grained ; 1 Carboniferous sandstone (gannister with rootlets) ; 1 Millstone
Grit ; 1 porphyrite.
Barton, Mr. Milsom’s Mill—
1 Shap granite.
Finger-post, corner of South Ferriby Road—
1 granite (?).
Lamp-post outside Barton Station—
2 basalts.
1896. BB
370 REPORT—1896.
Corner of Coach and Horses Yard—
1 basalt.
Stewton, conspicuous in a field.
1 basalt.
Ludborough, Mr. Marshall’s Farmyard—
1 basalt,
Brigg, Howsham, taken out of Boulder-clay—
1 Spilsby sandstone.
Irby, in Rectory Garden—
1 Shap granite (found built into a Saxon tenth-century wall); 1 basalt;
1 Secondary sandstone; several sandstone blocks from the same old wall,
mostly squared for building.
Roadside, opposite Rectory gate—
1 dolerite (2).
Roadside by Schoolroom—
1 basalt (Wesley is supposed to have preached from it).
Corner of road beyond Schoolroom—
1 red granite ; 1 Secondary sandstone.
Brocklesby, few yards from Station—
1 Primary sandstone.
Chalk quarry close by Stateon—
1 basalt.
Gate post two fields off towards Croxton Gravel pits—
1 quartz.
Ulceby, Chase Farmyard—
1 basalt.
Kirmington—
Boulder-clay above brick works gravel-pits.
1 Rhomb-porphyry.
Y ORKSHIRE. !
Communicated by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee.
Reported by Mr. Tuornton Comber, I.R.C.S.
Pickering—
Mr. Comber records in a note the results of a careful examination of the
country immediately round Pickering. He found only local limestones
and sandstones, which are not far distant from similar rocks im sitw.
Reported by Mr. E. HAwKEswortu.
Saltburn—
2 Shap granites ; 2? Whin Sill.
Skelton Beck—
4 Whin Sill.
1 This report will be published in ewtenso in the Naturalist.
ee
—
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 371
Junction of Saltburn and Skelton Valleys—
1 Whin Sill.
Saltburn. On beach, south of town—
1 Shap granite.
Easington Beck—
2 Shap granites (respectively one and two miles up from coast).
Haselgrove to Marske Old Church (on beach or in Boulder-clay cliffs)—
1 Carboniferous Limestone (in clay).
11 Carboniferous Limestones (8 in cliff); 2 Yoredale Limestones (1 in cliff)
5 basalts (1 in cliff) ; 1 Whin Sill (in cliff).
Robin Hood’s Bay, from Bay Town to South Cheek—
5 Shap granites; 2 mica schists ; 4 Mountain Limestones; 1 basalt.
Reported by Mr. Herbert Murr and THomas SHEPPARD.
Robin Hood's Bay—
81 Shap granites; and a large number of other boulders, including the fol-
lowing rocks:—Pink granite ; white granite ; gneiss (one being in sitw in
boulder-clay just north of Mill Beck); Augen gneiss; schists; quartz
porphyry of Armboth Dyke; Dalbeattie granite ; basalt (some were seen
in situ in Boulder-clay); Rhomb-porphyry (many examples); quartz
porphyry; porphyrite, some resembling those of Fredericsvaarn; augite
syenite (Laurvikite of Brégger); Carboniferous Limestone (many in
Boulder-clay) ; Millstone Grit (2 in Boulder-clay) ; Brockram; Magnesian
Limestone, including the botryoidal variety from Roker; Triassic Sand-
stone (in Boulder-clay); gypsum (in Boulder-clay); Liassic shale (in
Boulder-clay); Oolitic rocks, chiefly ‘Dogger’ (in Boulder-clay); black
flints (in clay).
Reported by Mr. Rosert Law, F£.G.S.
Caider Valley—Hawks Clough, altitude 300 feet—
1 calcite veinstone ; 1 Silurian grit; 1 pink quartzite.
Mytholmroyd, altitude 300 feet—
1 Muncaster (Eskdale) granite; 1 Buttermere granophyre; 1 gneiss (2);
1 rhyolite ; 1 quartz andesite; 1 felsite; 1 volcanic tuff.
Brearly—
1 coarse granite; 1 Buttermere granophyre.
Upper Foot—
1 andesite ; 1 rhyolite.
Branton—
1 granite.
High Lee, altitude 600 feet.
1 vein quartz (a pebble).
(All the above were collected by Mr. Thomas Broadbent, of Vicarage, Sowerby.)
Long Lee Quarry—
1 Ennerdale granophyre; 2 Buttermere granophyre; 2 volcanic ash; 1 gar-
netiferous ash; 1 pink rhyolite; 1 Borrowdale andesite; 1 porphyrite ;
2 Eskdale granite; 1 Muncaster granite.
Stonehouse Farm—
1 granite (built in a wall).
BB2
372 REPORT—1896.
Far Hollingworth—
1 Buttermere granophyre; 2 granites.
Winter-but Lee—
3 granites; 1 quartzite.
Todmorden, Milwood—
1 Felspar porphyry.
Reported by Mr. HENRY WHITEHEAD.
Blackstone Edge—
1 Borrowdale ash.
Reported by Mr. T. SALTONSTALL.
Mytholmroyd—
Buttermere granophyre; Eskdale granite; old rhyolites; Borrowdale ande-
sites ; some local rocks.
Reported by Rev. W. Lower Carter, JA.
Battye Ford, Mirfield—
10 Borrowdale andesites; 2 Buttermere granophyres; 5 old rhyolites ; 4 Esk-
dale granites; 3 Ennerdale granophyre; 1 felspar porphyry; 1 granite
(not from Lake Country); 1 Carboniferous grit.
Reported by Mr. W. Hemineway.
Dearne Valley, Old Mill Wharf, alt. 170-190 feet.
1 gneissose granite; 1 coarse grey granite; 3 felspar porphyries (1 vesicular) ;
1 old rhyolite; 2 basalts; 1 Mountain Limestone.
Reported by Mr. J. H. Howarrn, LG'S.
Bowland—
1 Borrowdale andesite [‘may be an errant erratic brought by the Preston
Waterworks navvies ’—R. H. Tiddeman].
Reported by Mr. W. Cupwortu,
Bradford, Lister Lane, near Peel Park—
Boulder-clay containing Mountain Limestone boulders.
Reported by Mr. J. H. Lorrnouse.
Harrogate. Excavation in Station Square—
Boulder of Millstone Grit in clay.
Reported by Mr. H. H. Corserr and Mr. P. F. Kenpatt, 2.6.8.
Doncaster, Balby Brickyard (Doncaster Brick Company)—
In hard, unstratified Boulder-clay the following stones occur in order of pre-
valence, generally well-striated:—Magnesian Limestone; Coal-measure
sandstone, ironstone, and shale with cannel and other coal; Millstone
Grit ; Carboniferous Limestone, chert, fibrous gypsum; Bunter quartzite ;
red and green poikilitic sandstone, some with salt pseudomorphs and
ripple marks; Lake district andesites and andesitic ashes; 1 quartz-
porphyry from Threlkeld ; 1 red granite.
a
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 373
Beastall’s Sandpit, Balby—
1 Shap granite ; 1 andesitic agglomerate.
Bilbrough. In two gravel pits east of the village—
(In order of prevalence.) Carboniferous sandstone, limestone, and chert ;
Triassic Red Sandstone ; Magnesian Limestone ; clay-ironstone ; dolerite
(2? Cleveland Dyke) ; 1 Shap granite.
Fulford. Gravel pit south of Rose Hall—
Sandstones; Carboniferous Limestone, and chert; Lake district andesites.
High Catton. Gravel pit in supposed moraine—
Carboniferous sandstone, limestone, and chert; flints; Carrock Fell diorite ;
Magnesian Limestone ; red Triassic sandstone ; Brockram ; L.D. andesites ;
Shap granite.
Some of the stones were highly polished, apparently by wind. 108 stones
taken at random proved to comprise 62 sandstones (most, if not all,
Carboniferous), and 46 Carboniferous Limestone and chert.
Holtby. In railway-cutting through ridge of Boulder-clay—
Carboniferous sandstone, limestone, and chert; Carboniferous basement bed
(2 from Vale of Eden); Keuper marl with salt-pseudomorphs; fibrous
gypsum; Red Triassic Sandstone; Lias, with Gryphea; L.D. andesites ;
basalt (? Whin Sill); Magnesian Limestone; 3 Shap granite; 1 Scottish
granite (? Loch Doone).
Reported by the Hull Geological Society.
All the boulders tabulated (p. 374) were 7m situ in the clay or were close
to the cliffs from which they had recently fallen. For convenience of com-
parison the 36 miles of coast are divided into Sections A, B, C, &c.,
usually indicated by some well-marked natural feature or landmark. The
figures in heavy type indicate the actual: number of boulders noted, in each
Section. The lighter figures give the relative percentage.
Reported by Mr. J. W. STATHER.
North Ferriby—tn the Boulder-clay cliff on the Humber shore near
North Ferriby, and on the adjacent beach, 373 boulders noted, of 8 inches
_ and upwards in diameter, the classification of which yields the following
results :—
Per cent.
69 Carboniferous Limestones . : . : c : . 185
104 Sandstones, grits, conglomerate, &c. (probably nearly all
from Carboniferous or other Palzozoic rocks) ‘ 7 9
49 Sandstones, &c. (probably nearly all of Mesozoic age) . 5 eG
21 Lias ; A c : - ; : : : . ys)
10 Chalk (including 4 black flints) : ; . 26
88 Basaltic and other eruptive rocks . : : : ‘ . 235
32 Granites, schist, gneiss, &c. 85
373 100°0
Reported by Mr. Paut Davis and Mr. J. W. S. Starusr, F.G.S.
Redcar to Saltburn (4 miles).—In the Boulder-clay cliffs 133 boulders
a foot and upwards in diameter were observed.
1896.
REPORT
374
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ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 375
Per cent.
50 Carboniferous Limestones . ; . 376
28 Sandstones and grits of undoubtedly Carboniferous age rebel
12 Sandstones, origin doubtful, but probably in part Carboniferous 9°0
7 Magnesian Limestone . 4 ; : ; ‘ . 5:2
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21 + Basaltic rocks ‘ : ‘ 3 2 é : ° . 158
133 100:0
Only 3 small pebbles of granite were observed on the beach; no augite-syenite,
Rhomb-porphyry, nor garnetiferous schist was observed here.
Guisbro. In Abbey Gardens—
2 Shap granite.
Sneaton, altitude 400 feet.
1 Shap granite.
Reported by Mr. W. 8S. ParrisuH.
Swanland, altitude 265 feet.
Red granite; basalt; gritty sandstone.
Reported by Mr, F. F, Walton, 7.G.S.
Coniston, Holderness—
1 Fine-grained white granite.
Skirlauyh—
2 Basalts.
Preston in Holderness—
5 Basalts; 1 dolerite. The main™street is paved with boulders of which the
majority (75 per cent.) are basalts, and the remainder mostly Carboniferous
sandstones.
Reported by Mr. W. H. Crorts.
Atwick—
1 Shap granite.
Reported by Mr. J. Nicuouson.
Hornsea—
2 Carboniferous Limestones ; 2 basalts; 1 dolerite.
Flinton—
1 Sandstone.
IsteE or Mav.
Reported by Rev. 8. N. Harrison, per Glacialists’ Association.
Bride, on the shore—
The two granites and a ‘ felspar-porphyry’ of Arran.
376 REPORT—1896.
IRELAND.
feported by the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.}
Further occurrences of the Ailsa Craig eurite are recorded at Kenbane Head,
White Park Bay, Ballylesson, on the flanks of the Spinkwee Mountain
and in the Belfast brickyards. ~ }
’
Co. Down.
Lallyholne, near Bangor—
100 stones from the Boulder-clay included 55 Ordovician grit; 10 vein quartz;
12 chalk; 2 quartzite; 2 flint; 1 Riebeckite eurite ; 3 Tertiary volcanic
rocks from dykes in co. Down; grits from the Cantyre area; felsite,
eurite, and diorite from the Clyde area; Lower Silurian (with fossils),
Girvan district ; metamorphosed grit, quartzite, and Old Red Sandstone
from N. Antrim or Cantyre ; syenite either from Pomeroy (co. Tyrone) or
Scotland; granite either from co. Down or 8. Scotland; flint from Ordo-
vician rocks of co. Down; and porphyrite, co. Down. Foraminifera and
shell fragments also occur.
Co. ANTRIM.
Diwis Mountain, 1,400 feet O.D.—
100 stones from Boulder-clay include 52 chalk ; 10 flint; 38 basalt. Foramini-
fera and shells also occur.
Belfast—Brickfields A, Limestone Road, near Alexandra Park—
100 stones from Boulder-clay include 77 basalt; 6 chalk; 4 flint; 3 mica
schist; 3 rocks from Cushendun; 2 Upper Greensand with Belemnites ;
2 Lower Lias with fossils; 2 Riebeckite eurite of Ailsa Craig; 1 white
quartz. Other stones observed were:—Pegmatite vein from Girvan
area ; diorite and Crinoidal limestone from Clyde area.
Old Park—
From Boulder-clay: 2 Old Red Sandstone pebbles from co. Antrim; Sherd
shale; Carboniferous Limestone; 2 altered Chalk; eurite from Annalong;
Riebeckite eurite from Ailsa Craig; dykes (Tertiary), co. Down; felsite,
N. Antrim or Clyde; ‘porphyry,’ Cushendall; Metamorphic rocks, N.
Antrim or Derry.
Spring field—
From Boulder-clay: Ailsa Craig eurite ; Mica-schist, Lias, Metamorphic rocks,
co. Antrim; Old Red Sandstone, N. Antrim; Greensand, Tornamoney;
gneiss, Carboniferous conglomerate, eurite, of Cultra; ‘porphyry,’ Cushen-
dun; eurite, Mourne Mountains; ‘Neck’ dolerite and other volcanic
rocks of Antrim; quartz rock, Down or Scotland.
Woodvale—
From Boulder-clay: Belemnites and Micraster from Cretaceous rocks; and
rocks from Clyde area or Cantyre.
Ardoyne—
From Boulder-clay : Micraster from Cretaceous; fossiliferous Lias; Old Red
Sandstone from Cushendun; quartz, Ordovician shale, and porphyrite
from N. Antrim ; rock from Cushleake, N. Antrim.
Annadale—
From Boulder-clay: Magnesian Limestone and Carboniferous rocks of Cultra.
Pebbly quartzite; Ordovician shale; ‘porphyry’ of Cushendun; porphy-
rite and quartzite of N. Antrim or Clyde; eurite of Ailsa Craig; granite
and porphyrite, Mournes or §. Scotland ; ‘ porphyry ’ and felstone porphyry,
Cushendall; Metamorphosed grit, N. Antrim or Cantyre.
1 Printed in greater detail, though unfortunately not im extenso, in the Annual
Report and Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, 1895-96.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Otd
Gleno, near Larne, 300 feet O.D.—
100 stones from Boulder-clay include 81 basalts; 6 chalk; 4 flint; 2 basalts
with zeolites. An underlying bed of Boulder-clay contained large frag-
ments of fossiliferous Lower Lias.
Ballyvoy, near Balycastle—
72 stones from Boulder-clay at Ballypatrick Glen include 33 chalk; 7 flints ;
5 quartzite; 7 basalt; 19 schist. Other rock found at Bullyvoy are Car-
boniferous shale and chert, Ordovician shale; eurite from Tornamoney
Point; 3 different rocks from Cushleake ; porphyrite, Cushendun ; Carbo-
niferous conglomerate, felsite, and metamorphosed grit, N. Antrim or
Cantyre ; Ailsa Craig eurite.
Structure of a Coral Reef.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor T. G. Bonney (Chairman), Professor W. J.
SoLias (Secretary), Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Professors A. H.
GREEN, J. W. Jupp, C. Lapwortu, A. C. Happon, Boyp Daw-
kins, G. H. Darwin, 8. J. Hickson, and A. Stewart, Admiral
W. J.,L. Wuarton, Drs. H. Hicks, J. Murray, W. 'T. BLANForp,
Le Neve .Fostrer, J. W. Grecory, and H. B. Guppy, Messrs.
F: Darwin, H. O. Forprs, G. C. Bourne, A. R. Binnie, J. C.
HawksHaw, and Hon. P. Fawcett, appointed to consider a project
for investigating the Structure of a Coral Reef by Boring and
Sounding.
As mentioned in the report presented to the Ipswich meeting, the
Council of the Royal Society had inquired from the Admiralty whether
the Government would be able to assist an expedition by putting a sur-
veying vessel at its disposal. In the course of the autumn a reply to this
inquiry was received to the effect that My Lords would be willing to
convey the members of the expedition and their apparatus, as far as pos-
sible, to Funafuti, which had been already suggested as a favourable spot
for the investigation. A grant of 800/. was made from the fund placed
by Government at the disposal of the Royal Society, and a further grant
was made from funds administered by the’ Council, with the result that
Professor Sollas, with Mr. Stanley Gardner, of Cambridge, as naturalist,
and assistants from Sydney, sailed from that harbour in H.M.S. ‘ Penguin,’
commanded by Captain Field, on May 1. But, even with the above
assistance, the expedition could not have been sent had it not been for the
great help given in Sydney by Professors Stuart and David, by Mr. W.H. 58.
Slee, Chief Inspector of Mines, and by the Department of Mines of New
South Wales. It is due to them that boring tools and workmen have
been lent by that Department, with the result that the cost of the under-
taking has been practically halved.
News has been already received from Professor Sollas. The first
attempts unfortunately proved unsuccessful, as a quicksand was struck, at
a depth of about 65 feet, which choked the machine ; but fresh apparatus
was on its way from Sydney, and it was hoped that more favourable
results would attend the next trial. The news of that is expected shortly.
The grant of 10/. was drawn and applied towards the necessary expenses
preliminary to the expedition. As the cost of the undertaking is almost
certain to exceed the sum granted by the Royal Society, the Committee
suggest that a liberal grant be made in aid of the boring, and that it be
placed in the hands of a small committee.
378 REPORT—1896.
P.S.—During the meeting news was received from Professor Sollas
that the second attempt had been defeated, at a slightly greater depth, by
a similar cause, the difficulty being increased by the presence of hard
lumps of coral, like boulders, in the loose stuff. Thus the attempt to
obtain a boring deep enough to throw much light on the structure had
been a failure. Still the expedition had succeeded in ascertaining many
facts which it was hoped would be interesting and valuable.
The Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits in Kintyre.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. HorNE (Chatrman),
Dr. Davin Rosertson, Dr. T. F. Jamieson, Mr. James Fraser, Mr.
P, F. Kenpaty, and Mr. DuGatp BELL (Secretary). (Drawn up
by Mr. Bex, Mr. Fraser, and Mr. Horne; with Special Reports
on the Organic Remains by Dr. ROBERTSON.)
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I, Introduction 4 ; 378
Il. Geographical Position. : > . . 9378
III. Previous Observations regarding the Shelly Clay, Sic. . 378
IV, Detailed Examination of the Shell- ey ca by the Committee . 9380
V. Direction of Ice-flow in Kintyre. . 387
VI. Report by Dr. DAVID ROBERTSON . : : : : : - . 389
VII. Conclusion : ; ; . : : : : . : . 399
I. Introduction,
Since the presentation of their interim Report last year on the investi-
gation of the shell-bearing deposits in Kintyre, the members of the
Committee have carried out boring operations with the view of proving
the extension of the shelly clay near Cleongart. The grant from the
British Association having been insufficient for the work, the Committee
cordially acknowledge a “grant in aid from the Council of the Royal
Society of London, obtained through the courtesy and kindly interest of
Sir Archibald Geikie.
II. Geographical Position.
The shell-bearing deposits in Kintyre, investigated by the Committee
during 1895-6, occur at three localities on the west side of the peninsula
and to the north of Machrihanish Bay (see maps, figs. 1 and 4). They
are exposed in three stream sections: (1) in Tangy Burn ; (2) in Drumore
Burn ; (3) in a stream near Cleongart, which run more or less parallel
with each other in a westerly direction towards the Atlantic.
III. Previous Observations regarding the Shelly Clay, &c.
In 1852 Professor James Nicol, of Aberdeen,' chronicled the important
fact that ‘many of the striated boulders in the clays of Kintyre are
apparently derived from a distance, and some detached travelled stones are
seen on the surface.’ He further observed near Macharioch several large
boulders of white granite, ‘resembling the granite of Arran, which is the
nearest place where this rock occurs in situ, though at the distance of
23 miles across the deep hollow of Kilbrennan Sound.’ Striated rocks
were noted at several localities, and he gives a few instances from the
1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., vol, viii. p. 406.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 379
southern portion of the peninsula, viz. 8, 55° E., 8. 55° W., E. 10° N.,
and nearly N. and 8.
Tangy Glen.—In 1873 Messrs. Robertson and Crosskey described the
section of shelly clay in Tangy Glen! at a height of about 130 feet above
the sea-level, in a paper from which the following extracts are taken :—
Fic. 1.—Map showing the localities of Shelly Clay where exposed at Cleongart,
Drumcre Burn, and Tangy Burn, in Kintyre.
\P
A -
| 5 fie tce if
: y/ k Dridnore L7.
y yi ' a ’
SE We FN:
FUR. 8
a MILES
‘The chief interest of this section consists in the fact that, contrary
to the usual position of the boulder-clay in the west of Scotland, it here
1 Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. iv. p, 134.
380 REPORT—1896.
overlies shell-bearing clay. The latter is dark grey in colour, and con-
trasts strongly with the overlying boulder-clay, which is of a dull reddish
brown. ‘The two clays are equally distinct in composition.
Boulder-clay. Shell-bearing Clay.
50 per cent. fine mud. 80 per cent. fine mud.
27 * sand, 21 fine and 6 coarse. 14 as fine sand.
23 a gravel. 6 ” gravel.
‘The shell-bearing clay as exposed in this section is seen standing up
in the boulder clay like a boss or knoll. . . . At the greatest part visible
it is 13 feet high, and it can be traced as it thins down, along the edge of
the streamlet for a distance of 60 or 70 yards. Its exact depth could not
be ascertained, but as the rock is seen at a short distance on either hand,
it is probably not more than a few feet deeper than what is exposed.
‘The fossils in this deposit are but thinly met with—molluses in
particular are rare—Leda pygmea being the prevailing shell, with an
occasional Leda pernula, Venus ovata, and a few fragments of other species.
These were submitted to Mr. J. G. Jeffreys, and at least two of them have
proved to be of much interest, viz., Pecten Groenlandicus and Montacuta
elevata.
‘ Pecten Groenlandicus has been met with on the east coast at Mon-
trose, Errol and Elie, but not before in the west of Scotland... .
Montacuta elevata is an Arctic species, and new to the glacial clays of
Britain.
‘Ostracoda and Foraminifera are more numerously represented in this
deposit, eighteen species of the former and twenty-three of the latter
having been obtained.’
A list of the organic remains from the shelly clay of Tangy Glen is
appended to the foregoing paper.
Drumore Burn.—-Another exposure of shelly clay was observed
by Mr. Symes, of H.M. Geological Survey, in the course of his detailed
survey of the peninsula of Kintyre. In the Drumore Burn 3 miles N.
of Tangy Glen the shelly clay appears to underlie reddish boulder-clay,
and yields broken fragments of shells.
Cleongart.—By far the best section of shelly clay yet observed in
Kintyre was discovered by Mr. Alex. Gray, of Campbelton, in a stream
near Cleongart, about 4 miles N. of Tangy Glen, where it is overlaid by a
great thickness of boulder-clay. A large collection of organic remains was
obtained by Mr. Gray from this deposit, which were named by Dr.
Robertson, and appear in the list appended to this Report.
The Committee desire to acknowledge the valuable services rendered
by Mr. Gray in the course of their investigations during 1895-96. He
not only placed at their disposal his knowledge of the locality and his
observations on this deposit, but he also superintended for several days
continuously the boring operations at Cleongart. These services the Com-
mittee feel they cannot overestimate, and in other respects also Mr. Gray
did much to assist the Committee in their work.
IV. Detailed Examination of the Shell-bearing Deposits by the Committee.
Tangy Glen.—The lower part of this glen forms, for a distance of
about half a mile, a deep rocky gorge carved out of mica-schist.
Further up the glen the shelly clay appears on the left or south bank of
the stream, overlaid by boulder-clay. During the visit of the Committee
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 381
it was observed that the section described by Dr. Robertson in 1873 had
become overgrown with herbage and bushes, and was also partly concealed
by a low breast wall. Several artificial cuttings were made on the face of
the bank, and samples of the clay were taken for examination. The
observations of the Committee, so far as they went, confirmed those of
Messrs. Robertson and Crosskey in the paper referred to.
The shelly clay is a stiff, fine, bluish grey clay, upwards of 5 feet of
the deposit being laid bare. The upper portion seemed to be affected by
exposure to the weather, and the darkish-blue colour was chiefly apparent
in the lower part. About 30 feet of reddish boulder-clay with numerous
boulders lie above the shelly clay, rising to a greater height further back
from the stream.
At this point there is evidence of land-slips on the face of the bank,
so that the two deposits are sometimes intermingled.
The top of the shelly clay as exposed in the trench made by the Com-
mittee was found by Mr. Fraser, C.E., to be 1354 feet above the level of
the sea.
Drumore Glen.—The lower part of this glen shows prominent cliffs
of red sandstone (Upper Old Red Sandstone), the strata dipping at angles
of about 8° down stream. Overlying the sandstone is a considerable
thickness of grey boulder-clay, full of boulders of crystalline schists.
The sides of the glen are in some places masked by the boulder-clay
slipping down over them. Resting apparently on the sandstone, however,
and under the boulder-clay, there are occasional patches of gravel and sand
and brown sandy clay, in the upper part of which some shells and shelly
fragments have been found.
The top of the brown shelly clay here was found by Mr. Fraser to be
199 feet above the level of the sea.
Cleongart Burn.—As this is the most important section of shelly
clay hitherto observed in Kintyre, the Committee confined their detailed
observations chiefly to it.
As in Drumore, the lower part of the glen is occupied by red sand-
stone (Upper Old Red), which in places forms prominent cliffs, rising to a
height of 20 feet or 30 feet. The sandstone is nearly horizontal, or inclined
westwards at an angle of 8° to 10°, resting unconformably on the crystal-
line schists.
About 44 yards eastwards from the unconformable junction of the red
sandstone and the schist visible in the bed of the stream, the main section of
the shelly clay occurs on the south bank of the Burn, where it is overlaid by
a great thickness of boulder-clay. The shelly clay is a stiff, dark, bluish
clay, comparatively free from stones in the upper part, though here and
there throughout the section well-rounded stones are met with. An ex-
amination of the included blocks, the average size of which varies from
1 inch to 3 inches across, shows that they are chiefly of local origin,
being composed mainly of mica-schist with granular quartz-schist, and
hornblende-schist. No fragment of red sandstone was observed in this
deposit in the main section. No striations were observed on any of the
stones.
Shells were found in abundance during the first visit of the Committee
in 1895, a feature which was probably due to long exposure of the mate-
rials to the action of the weather, and the removal of the clay from the
surface by the rain.
382 REPORT—1896.
Some of the species were particularly abundant—as, for example,
Turritella, Cyprina, Astarte, Leda, &e. Many were in excellent preser-
vation, but others were broken and fragmentary. Some of the smallest
shells, Zedas and others, were entire.
The lower part of the shelly clay near the level of the stream being
concealed by a talus, the Committee resolved to cut a trench to show a
vertical section of the deposits down to the level of the stream. The
clay was found to rest upon a bed of compact coarse sand and gravel,
cut open to a depth of 3 feet 10 inches, no shell fragments being visible.
The boundary between the compact shelly clay above and the sand and
gravel below was sharply defined, and to all appearance horizontal. Fine
shelly mud immediately overlay the sand and gravel. Higher up, the
clay contained abundance of shells and a very few small water-worn
stones ; one stone, the largest found in the trench, appeared to be finely
striated.
Owing to the percolation of water from the stream, the cutting was
not continued downward to the solid rock ; but the mica-schist is visible
in the bed of the Burn a few yards further down or west of the main
section.
As will be seen from the section (fig. 2), the visible thickness of shelly
clay, resting on coarse sand and gravel, is 275 feet ; and the thick-
ness of boulder-clay to the top of the bank is 74 feet.
This overlying boulder-clay is of a reddish-brown colour, charged
abundantly with boulders, some of which are striated. These consist
mainly of crystalline schists of local origin, with a marked absence of
fragments of red sandstone. Though boulders of Arran granite were not
observed in the boulder-clay of the main section, they occur in considerable
numbers in the immediate neighbourhood, both on the surface and in the
ground-moraine.
The shelly clay is also visible at one or two points on the north bank
of the Cleongart Burn, where it is in like manner overlaid by reddish-
brown boulder-clay. It has not proved so fossiliferous there as in the
section on the southern bank which has just been described, but a few
shells have been found in it.
With the view of proving the extension of the shelly clay along the
stream course in an easterly direction, the Committee put down a series
of shallow bores as represented in the accompanying ground-plan (fig. 3).!
Blue clay, resembling the shelly clay, was recognised in the samples
obtained from the three bores Nos. 1, 2, and 3, 22 yards, 44 yards, and
66 yards respectively east of the main section.
No shells or other organic remains, except one or two fresh-water
Foraminifera, were found in the materials from these bores.
A small exposure of a similar clay was visible still further east, or
88 yards distant from the main section. This contained some small frag-
ments of shells, and a few Ostracoda and Foraminifera.
Seeing that the shelly clay had been found in each of these three glens
at nearly the same elevation, the Committee next considered it of im-
portance to test its extension southward from Cleongart, in the direction
-of Drumore Glen. For this purpose a trench was first cut along the top
-of the shelly clay in the main section at Cleongart, extending for about
1 These shallow bores were about 10 feet above the level of the stream, and
respectively 23, 21, and 34 feet back from it.
383
KINTYRE,
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN
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ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 385
8 feet under the boulder-clay of the south bank. The shelly clay was
found to continue in a nearly horizontal position as far as the cutting
was carried. It was then deemed advisable to sink bores farther back,
in the bank and at the top of it, for the purpose of ascertaining whether
the shelly clay still continued in that direction under the boulder-clay.
Two points were accordingly marked off, one being in the slope, and the
other four yards into the field above, the horizontal distances being
respectively 34 and 54 yards from the top of the exposed face of the
shelly clay (see sketch-plan of ground, fig. 3, and section, fig. 2).
Work was begun first at the bore in the slope, 34 yards distant
horizontally, from the top of the exposed face of shelly clay. Here it
was estimated that the shelly clay, if it extended so far horizontally,
might be met with at a depth of 46 feet from the surface. The boring
through the stiff, stony, boulder-clay was attended with considerable
difficulties. At the depth of 45 feet, however, the borers actually reached
the shelly clay, and after passing downward through 10 feet of it, they
struck upon a rock or boulder which arrested their progress. The Com-
mittee did not think that they had reached the bottom of the shelly clay.
If this were the case, it would seem to show that the deposit was rapidly
thinning out, and might be met with only sparingly, if at all, farther
back. ‘Till this point was tested, the Committee considered it unnecessary
to make any detailed examination of the clay from this bore, it being chiefly
important to examine it at the most distant locality where it should be
found.
They therefore transferred operations to the upper station, which
had been marked off at the top of the south bank. Here, after a good
many difficulties and delays, the shelly clay was struck at a depth of
76 feet from the surface, which also corresponded very well with the
estimate that had been made beforehand. Mr. Gray was by this time
fortunately able to be with the borers, and give them the benefit of his
direction and supervision, and also to mark and lay aside samples of the
clay from various depths, which were sent on to Dr. Robertson for
examination (see Section VI., Dr. Robertson’s Report). The clay was
found to continue downwards, with some variations in colour and com-
position, for a depth of about 20 feet from the point where first met
with. A good many Ostracoda and Foraminifera were found in it by Dr.
Robertson, and a few fragments of shells. The bore was sunk to a
depth of 97 feet, the deposit becoming very stony towards the bottom,
and finally resembling the hard, compact gravel underlying the shelly clay
in the main section. The thickness of the shelly clay here met with
seemed to confirm the conclusion of the Committee that the bottom of
the deposit had not been reached in the first bore.
The Committee regard the proved extension of the shelly clay thus far,
under the boulder-clay, as a point of much interest, and as favouring the
conclusion that it may extend more or less continuously, about the same
level, from one glen to another. They were desirous of putting down
another bore, still further south, to test or confirm this conclusion. But
the surface of the ground here consists of great mounds and ridges of
boulder-clay, which would render boring operations in that direction
tedious and costly, as well as uncertain; and their available means
being by this time more than exhausted, they were obliged to stop,
and can only state the result of these operations, so far as they have
gone.
1896. cc
386 REPORT— 1896
The Committee beg to record their obligations to His Grace the Duke
of Argyll for the interest he manifested throughout in their work, and
for permission readily granted to make the necessary excavations and
Fic. 4.—Map of Kintyre and Arran, showing direction of Ice-flow.
4
Fell
|
Note.—The heights of hills are marked in feet. The Arran granite boundary is dotted--------------
bores at Cleongart ; also to James Hall, Esq., of Tangy, for like favour
and assistance in regard to Tangy Glen.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 387
V. Direction of Ice-flow in Kintyre.
The direction of the ice-flow in Kintyre is of great importance in
relation to the investigations referred to the Committee. A list of localities
where striations were observed, based on observations made by Mr. Symes
in the course of the geological survey, is here given with the sanction of
the Director-General. With the view of presenting these observations in a
clearer form, they have prepared a map (fig. 4) of the district extending
from West Loch Tarbert in the north to the Mull of Kintyre in the south.
The observations of Mr. Symes have clearly demonstrated that Kintyre
has been glaciated by ice which crossed the peninsula in a westerly direc-
tion from the Firth of Clyde to the Atlantic. A glance at the appended
list and striz map will show that the average direction in the neighbour-
hood of West Loch Tarbert is W. 20° 8. Proceeding southwards along
the watershed between Carradale on the east coast and Cleongart and
Drumore on the west, many of the striz point due W., while some
instances trend W. 10°-20°S. Along the transverse hollow at Camp-
belton the direction varies from W. to W. 20° N. In that portion of
the peninsula lying to the south and south-west of Campbelton the trend
is variable : along the east coast it varies from W. to 8. 25° W.; in the
Cannie Glen from W. 20° N. to W. 43° S. ; while near the west coast it
is W. 5° N. It is obvious therefore that throughout Kintyre there must
have been a powerful deflection of the ice which enabled it to cross the
watershed, ranging in height from 896 feet near West Loch Tarbert to
1,462 feet near the Mull of Kintyre.
List of Ice Strie.
Going from North to South in one-inch sheets, 12 and 20.
One
inch Direction :
Bhect Locality
20 W. 208. On north shore of West Lough Tarbert, south of Ferry House
20 W. 255. On north shore of West Lough Tarbert, east of Ardpatrick
House
20 W. 25 N. | On south shore of West Lough Tarbert, north of Lough
Dughaill
20 W. 25 N. On road to Tarbert, north of Lough Dughaill
20 E. and W. | Close to road and immediately adjoining last locality
20 W. 2058. Not far from shore of West Lough Tarbert and east of
Corran farm
20 W. 208. North of Dunskeig farm house
20 | W.308S. North of Ballinakill and } a mile east of Clachan village
20 W.15S. On Ronachan Hill, N.E. of Ronachon House, about 250
contour, 1 mile west of Clachan village
20 KE. and W. | At 300 ft. contour, 3 a mile south of Ronachon House
20 | E.and W. | At 250 ft. contour, 3 a mile south east of Ronachon House
20 W.155. At 500 ft. contour on Cnoc Donn, 13 miles south of Rona-
chon House
20, +W.208. | At 500 ft. contour south of Ballochroy Glen, 23 miles south
1 | of Ronachon House
| = | W. 20.8. At 700 ft. contour 33 miles south of Ronachon House
i 20 | a end Wi On mountain path from a } to $ a mile south of Clachan
| 20 W.208. niles
| 20 | W.108. | On south shore of Lough Ciaran 13 miles §.8.E. of Clachan
) village
cc2
388 REPORT—1896.
List oF Ick StRIm—continued.
One
inch Direction Locality
sheet
20 E. and Wes) At 600 ft. contour 2 of a mile W.S.W. of last locality, 13
20 We lOisay) S.8.W. of Clachan village
20 | E.and W. | 23 miles §.8.W. of Clachan village and $ of a mile N.W. of
Lough Garasdale
20 E. and W. | 22 miles 8.8.W. of Clachan village and 3 of a mile N.W. of
Lough Garasdale
20 W. 2058. On west cliff of Gigha Island 3 of a mile $.8.W. of Cnoc
Loisgte
20 W. 20 S. On §.E. shore of Gigha Island.
20 E. and W. | At 600 ft. contour N.E. of Lagloskine, 6 miles §.8.H. of
Clachan village
20 E. and W. | At 900 ft. contour, a little over 2 miles E.N.E. of the village
of Killean
20 E. and W. | In the Allt a’ Bhlair water, 4 miles E.N.E. of Glenbarr
village
20 W. 355. At 1,100 ft. contour, 2 miles west of Carradale Bay on E.
side of Kintyre
20 W.108. At 1000 ft. contour, 6 miles E.N.E. of Glenbarr village
a ele \ On Bein Bhreac, 52 miles E.N.E. of Glenbarr village
20 E. and W. | East of Blary Hill, 3} miles E. of Glenbarr village
20 E. and W. | In stream W. of Beinn an Tuire, 43 miles E. of Glenbarr
village
20 E. and W. | Instream W. of Beinn an Tuire, 44 miles E.S.E. of Glenbarr
village
20 W.5S. Bord Mor, 1,250 ft. contour, 4 miles §8.W. of Carradale Bay
20 W.10N. | Onroad 23 miles §.8.W. of Carradale Bay.
12 W. 15S. At 700 ft. contour on rock adjoining fort, 3 miles N.W. of
Campbelton
12 W. 20 N In stream, 8. of chapel in ruins, 45 miles W.S.W. of Camp-
belton
12 W. 20 N At Ballygreggan farm house, 3 miles W.S.W. of Campbelton
12 E. and W West of Ballimenach Hill, 3 miles 8.E. of Campbelton
12 E. and W. | On road side east of Ballimenach Hill, 3 miles §8.E. of
Campbelton
12 W.25N. | In Crossaig water, 63 miles 8,W. of Campbelton
12 W.-ooN: E. of Largybaan, 74 miles §.W. of Campbelton
12 W. 20N. | In brook at Homeston, 4} miles 8.W. of Campbelton
12 W.10N. In Balnabraid Glen, 33 miles 8.E. of Campbelton
12 W. 20 N. South of Achinhoan Head, 43 miles 8.K. of Campbelton
12 W. 158. West of Ru Stafnish, 53 miles 8.E. of Campbelton
12 N. 25 E. 1 of a mile north of last locality
oe W.25 8. |) tm Glen Hervie, 6 miles 8.8.E. of Campbelton
12 | H.and W. J } ie E
12 W. 20 N. N.W. of Keprigan farm, 6 miles §.8.E. of Campbelton
¥12 W. 458. At Machrimore, 8 miles §.8.H. of Campbelton
12 W. 105. 1 mile south of east of Southend at the south-east of 1 inch
12 W. 108. 11 mile §.E. of Southend
12 W.105. At Kilmashanachan, 14 miles E. by south of Southend
Remarks.—With the exception of the two localities marked with an *, the general
trend of the striz is about 10° north or south of west, and east and west.
Transport of Boulders.—The distribution of boulders in Kintyre
furnishes striking confirmation of the conclusion already given regarding
the ice-movement from a consideration of the strie.
Indeed, one of the
remarkable features connected with the glaciation of that region is the
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 389
occurrence of granite boulders derived from the mass in the north of Arran.
They are met with in the boulder-clay and on the surface of the ground
throughout the peninsula from the Mull of Kintyre to a point several
miles north of Carradale Bay. Mr. Symes has noted many examples in
the course of his survey of the region, and the members of the Committee
who visited Kintyre likewise recorded several instances. The determina-
tion of the northern limit of Arran granite boulders is a point of con-
siderable interest in relation to the extent of the deflection of the ice
across the peninsula. With the view of obtaining evidence on this question
the Secretary of the Committee paid a special visit to Carradale Bay and
traced the boulders northwards to Grogport, on the east coast. Mr. B. N.
Peach, F.R.S., has noted erratics of quartz-felsite, resembling the quartz-
felsite or trachyte of Drumadoon in Arran.
Reference may also be made to the fact that along the west coast
between Cleongart and Tangy Glen, where a narrow belt of Upper Old
Red Sandstone, resting unconformably on the crystalline schists, fringes
the coast, no fragments of red sandstone derived from this patch have
been observed in the boulder-clay to the east, while blocks of the local
crystalline schists have been carried westwards on to the area occupied by
the Upper Old Red Sandstone.
VI. Report by Dr. Davin Rosertson, /.G.S., ELS,
Mem. Imp. Roy. Zool. Botan. Soc., Vienna.
In the preparation of the clays for taking the percentage of mud, sand,
and gravel of the different deposits, the term ‘mud’ is that which passes
through a sieve of ninety-six meshes to the inch ; ‘sand’ is that which
passes through a sieve of twenty-four meshes to the inch ; ‘ gravel’ is that
which is retained in the same sieve of twenty-four meshes to the inch ;
and ‘floats’ is that which is gathered on the surface of the water when
the dry clay is put in and stirred up.
T have all the materials parcelled separately, except the muds, which
passed away in the washing. I have samples of the sand in small bottles,
so that each sample can be compared with the others. The stones and
gravels are parcelled up for the same purpose.
The gravels are mostly water-worn ; some are angular, the proportions
differing more or less in different samples. No striations were noticed on
the stones, large or small, with the exception of one stone sent me by
Mr. Gray, 2 lb. weight, which is well striated on the line of the longest
axis on the under side, and obliquely on the upper. It seems possible,
however, that this stone may have got into the shelly clay from the
adjoining boulder-clay above.
On our visit to the Cleongart deposit, no whole shells with their valves
together could be seen, except one or two of the very smallest. This
may be very well accounted for. Our friend, Mr. Gray, the discoverer
of this shelly deposit some years ago, had made several visits to the place,
and had gathered nearly all the shells worth taking that weathering had
exposed, probably for a long time past. These are now to be seen in
the Campbelton Museum. Although fragments of shells are still found
thickly strewn over the bank, they are but sparsely met with in the dark
blue clay underneath. This also may be explained by the action of
weathering.
390 REPORT—1896.
The most remarkable feature of this deposit is the condition of the
shells of Cyprina islandica, Turritella terebra, and Pusus contrarius. In
the case of C. islandica, which is plentiful in the deposit, it is remarkable
that they are all excessively fractured, not through the thinnest portions
only, but across the thickest parts of the shell. This is all the more sur-
prising, as there is no visible striation, aqueous action, or abrasion on the
fragments of the shells that would account for such destruction. The
late Dr. Jeffreys stated :' ‘In a post-glacial or raised beach at Golspie,
Sutherlandshire, close to high-water mark, I noticed that valves were
heaped up in extraordinary confusion, generally in fragments. . . . I was
told by Mr. Bean, that on pouring boiling water on the living shells
(C.. islandica) a succession of reports ensued as if a volley had been fired.
. . . The action of severe frost at the period when the climate and other
conditions resembled those of polar regions, might have had the same
effect on the shells.’ It seems probable that if great heat does splinter
the shells, intense frost may do the same. On the other hand, it may be
stated that while dredging in the yacht ‘ Medusa,’ in seventy to eighty
fathoms, between Brodick and Little Cumbrae, fragments were frequently
brought up of C. islandica with the fractured edge quite sharp, and
showing no rubbing or marks of striation. Whatever the cause may
be, it does not seem to be of frequent occurrence in other post-tertiary
deposits. In all the Clyde beds that I have examined, the species is
generally moderately common, and a broken valve is quite exceptional.
Turritella terebra is another shell that has suffered a great amount
of breakage. It is the prevailing shell of the deposit, occurring in great
abundance, yet I did not see one perfect specimen. They do not seem
to have undergone the same kind of treatment in the breakage as
C. islandica, having been chiefly, or all, broken transversely at the groove
between the whorls, the whorls themselves having nearly all escaped
injury. Seeing the great destruction of C. islandica in the same deposit,
it is difficult to conceive how the prominent whorls of 7’. terebra were not
crushed in the same way.
Fusus contrarius is remarkable, being sinistral, which is very rare in
our present seas. They are common in the English Crag, but this is the
only occurrence I know of having been recorded in British Post-
Tertiaries.
Taney Gien: Shelly Clay Deposit.—Dark blue shelly clay, which con-
sisted of—mud, 74 per cent. ; sand, 12 per cent. ; gravel, 14 per cent.
Mostly water-worn and angular.
List of Organisms from Shelly Clay, Tangy Glen, Kintyre.
I. Mouvusca.
Lamellibranchiata :
Corbula gibba, Olivi. One valve.
Leda pernula, Mill. Rare, mostly fragments, a few of which were more
or less water-worn.
Leda pygmea, Miinst.
1 Jeffreys’ British Conchology, vol. ii. p. 305,
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 391
Leda var. Gouldii. Common, and in good condition, mostly covered with
epidermis.
Montacuta elevata, Stimp. One, very young, with the valves to-
gether.
Pecten greenlandicus, Zow. One fragment.
Venus ovata, Penn. Rare in the glacial clays of Scotland.
Gasteropoda.—Fusus antiquus, Linn. One very young shell.
Cephalopoda.—Sepia sp.? Fragments of ‘ pen.’
II. ANNULOSA.
Ostracoda.
Cythere pellucida, Baird. | Cytheridea undata, G. O. Sars.
» castanea, G. O. Sars. Ff dlathrata, G. O. Sars.
» lutea, Miller. Cytheropteron latissimum, Vorman.
» limicola, Vorman. | 3 arcuatum, B.C.dé.R.
» globulifera, Brady. | a Montrosiense,
» concinna, Jones. B.C. & R.
dunelmensis, Norman. Bythocythere constricta, G. O. Sars.
Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquet. Sclerochilus contortus, Vorman.
“ Sorbyana, Jones. Paradoxostoma variabile, Baird.
“f nigrescens, Baird.
IIL. EcuinopErMATA.
Echinus fragments of spines, a few.
Amphidotus ? fragments of spines, a few.
IV. Prorozoa.
Loraminifera.
Cornuspira foliacea, Phill.
Biloculina simplex, D’Orb.
Lagena squamosa, Mont.
Vaginulina legumen, Linn.
|
a ringens, Lamk. Polymorphina lactea, W. & J.
f elongata, D’Orb. f compressa, D’Orb.
Miliolina seminulum, Linn. lanceolata, Rewss.
» subrotunda, Mont. | Globigerina bulloides, DOrb.
» circularis, Bornemanin. Patellina corrugata, Will.
» Cuvieriana, D’Orb. Discorbina rosacea, D’Ord.
» tenuis, Cyjzck. | Hf globularis, D’Orb.
oblonga, Mont. | Truncatulina lobatula, W. & J.
Cassidulina levigata, D’Orb. Rotalia Beccarii, Linn.
* crassa, D’Orb. Nonionina asterizans, 7’. & M.
Lagena costata, Will. | 9 orbicularis, Brady.
» gracillima, Seq. | 5 scapha, Ff. & M.
», suleata, W. & J. | Z depressula, W. & J.
» levis, Mont. Polystomella striato-punctata,
» veffreysii, Brady. F. :
» globosa, Mont. - crispa, Linn.
» lmarginata, W. & J.
392 REPORT—1896.
Drumore Guen : Shelly Clay Deposit.—The clay in the dry state con-
sisted of—mud, 81 per cent. ; sand, 10 per cent. ; gravel, 9 per cent.
The gravel water-worn. No striations observed.
List of Organisms from Shelly Clay, Drumore Glen, Kintyre.
I. Moxuvusca.
These are very rare, mostly all broken, none of the fragments larger
than half an inch; and, so far as they could be identified, belonged to
Astarte sulcata, together with two perfect valves of Leda minuta.
II. Mo.iuscorpa.
Tubulipora hispida ? | Cerisia sp. ?
IIT. ANNULOSA.
Ostracoda.
Cythere pellucida, Baird. Cythere dunelmensis, Vorman.
» globulifera, Brady. |. Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquwet.
5 concinna, Jones. _ Sclerochelus contortus, Vorman.
» Villosa, G. O. Sars.
ITV. EcuINOoDERMATA.
Amphidotus cordatus? Spines were in great abundance, but no part
of the test was seen. This may be accounted for by the spines, after
death, readily falling off, as they do, and the light test being easily carried
by the currents to some distance.
V. PROTOZOA.
Foraminifera.
Biloculina ringens, Lanvk.. Jaculella acuta (%), Brady (frag-
5 elongata, D’Orb. ment).
- simplex, D’Orb. Webbina hemispherica, D’Orb.
Miliolina seminulum, Linn. Polymorphina lanceolata, Reuss.
5 oblonga, Mont. Uvigerina pygmea, D’Orb,
3 Cuvieriana, Rotalia Beccarii, Linn.
3 trigonula, Lamk. Nonionina orbicularis, Brady.
+ Ferussacii, D’Orb. <3 depressula, W. & J.
3 subrotunda, D’Orb. re Boneana, D’Orb.
33 tenuis, Cyjzck. % stelligera, D’Orb.
Psammospheera fusca (?), Schulze. Polystomella striato-punctata,
F. & M.
CLeoncart GiLen: Shelly Clay Deposit.—(a) Clay taken from the
brown weathered surface of the bank consisted of—-mud, 83 per cent. ;
sand 6 per cent. ; gravel, 11 per cent.
Stones mostly water-worn; no striation was noticed. It may be
stated, however, that few of the stones were of a kind to admit striation
being readily seen.
(0) A sample of dark blue shelly clay taken from the same deposit
underlying the brown weathered clay consisted of—mud, 95 per cent. ;
sand, 2 per cent. ; gravel, 3 per cent.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 393
Stones mostly water-worn, some angular ; no striations observed. This
shows a much higher percentage of mud, and a smaller percentage of
gravel and sand than the above, which may be accounted for by much of
the fine mud and sand being washed away from the overlying weathered
surface clay, and a portion of the stones slipping down from the higher
boulder-clay and mixing with the surface shelly clay.
Shallow Bores sunk in 1895 to test the extension of the Shelly Clay
Eastwards.
(c) Shallow Bore, No. 1.—8 feet from surface ; 22 yards east of main -
section ; the clay consisted of—mud, 59 per cent. ; sand, 12 per cent. ;
gravel, 29 per cent.
Stones mostly water-worn, no striations observed, 2 organisms, might
be Deflugi. No other animal remains.
(d) Shallow Bore, No. 2.—10 feet 9 inches from the surface ; 44 yards
east of main section ; the clay consisted of—mud, 54,per cent. ; sand, 18
per cent. ; gravel, 28 per cent.
Stones angular and water-worn in about equal proportions ; no animal
remains or striation observed.
(e) Shallow Bore, No. 3.—9 feet 5 inches from surface ; 66 yards east
of main section ; the clay consisted of—mud, 76 per cent. ; sand, 6 per
cent. ; gravel, 18 per cent.
Stones mostly angular and water-worn ; no striation or animal re-
mains observed ; one Deflugi sp.? The ‘floats’ were full of vegetable
fragments that had much of the appearance of being waterlogged.
(f) From the extreme eastern exposure of shelly clay 88 yards east
of main section ; 12 feet 10 inches above level of stream ; 3 lbs. of clay
consisted of—fine mud, 96 per cent. ; coarse sand, 3 per cent. ; gravel,
1 per cent.
Stones mostly angular, the others water-worn, no striation detected,
a few small fragments of shells. Ostracoda and Foraminifera were
present in small numbers.
(9) Gravel at bottom of Shelly Clay.—From bottom of trench cut into
main section 11 feet from surface and 2 inches below level of stream, 14
feet back from stream. This bed of coarse sand and gravel was 3 feet
10 inches thick, very hard ; esaee not reached. The clay consisted of—
mud, 28 per cent. ; ; gravel, 7 72 per cent.
Inst of Organisms from Shelly Ciay at Cleongart, Kintyre.
(* Signifies Mr. Gray’s collection ; + Dr. Robertson’s collection.)
Name Remarks Distribution Fossil
I. MoLuusca.
Lamellibranchiata : }
*+ Anomia ephip- | | One small valve, and | British and European seas; | Clyde beds; coralline
pium, Linn. a large fragment. low water to 80 fathoms. crag ; Norway,
. Sweden.
ba 0 a A few valves. Not in British seas; Arctic. | Clyde beds, common ;
em. Norway.
*{ Astarte com- | Many valves, mostly | | British seas, North Atlantic; | Clyde beds, Clava,
r pressa, Mont. perfect. low water ‘to 50 fathoms. Norway; red crag.
+ Astarte sulcata, rae Mead mostly | British seas, Iceland, Mediter- | Clyde beds, Clava,
Da Costa. perfect. ranean; low water to 85 Norway ; red crag.
| fathoms.
394
REPORT— 1896.
LIsT OF ORGANISMS FROM SHELLY CLAY AT CLEON bi a a
Name |
}
Remarks |
Distri i aan
Fossil
|
Lamellibranchiata :
Cardium edule,
Linn,
* Cardium _ exi-
guum, Gm.
* Cardium fascia-
tum, Mont.
*+ Cardium tuber-
culatum, Linn.
*+ Cyprina islan-
dica, Linn.
** Dentalium en-
talis, Linn.
+ Dentalium Tar-
entium, Zam.
*+ Leda — pernula,
var. muci-
lenta, Steenst.
=; Leda pygmea,
Miinst.
+ Montacuta _ bi-
dentata, Mont.
+ Mya _ truncata,
Linn,
*+ Mytilus edulis,
Linn.
*f Ostrea edulis,
Linn.
*}+ Pecten islandi-
cus, Mill.
7 Pecten maxi-
mus, Zinn.
} Pecten opercu-
laris, Linn.
7 Saxicava = ru-
gosa, Linn.
*+ Tellina calearea,
Chem.
*7 Venus
Penn.
ovata,
Gasteropoda:
*+ Buccinum un-
datum, Linn.
+ Chiton sp. ?
*+ Fusus con-
trarius, Linn.
+ Hydrobia ulvee,
Penn.
*+ Littorina littorea,
Linn.
*f Littorina rudis,
Manton.
* Natica affinis,
Gm.
*> Natica grcen-
landica, Beck.
} Odostomia sp. ?
} Pleurotoma tur-
ricula, Mont.
* Purpura lapillus,
Linn.
*+ Trochus tumi-
dus, Mont,
Fragment of a young
shell,
One valve.
One valye,
Several fragments, and
one perlect valve.
Many valves, broken
in all directions,
Many, mostly imper-
fect.
One fragment.
Many valves, both
broken and perfect.
A few valves, and
some attached.
One valve.
One hinge fragment.
One small fragment.
Several perfect and a
few fragments.
Two small fragments.
One small fragment.
One small fragment.
Two small valves,
Moderate’y common,
broken and perfect.
A few valves, perfect
and broken,
Several, large and
small, more or less
imperfect.
One plate
weathered,
One perfect specimen.
much
One perfect specimen.
Two perfect and two
fragments.
Two perfect and one
fragment.
One specimen,
Two specimens,
One specimen, imper-
fect.
One specimen.
One perfect specimen.
Two imperfect speci-
mens,
On all European shores, sandy
bays; low water to a few
fathoms.
British and Northern seas ; 3
to 15 fathoms.
British seas, Norway, Canary
Isles ; 5 to 90 fathoms.
Finisterre, Canary Isles; low
water to 12 fathoms.
British seas, Norway, Faroe |
water to 100 |
Isles; low
fathoms.
British seas, Mediterranean,
Adriatic.
British seas,
Adriatic ;
fathoms.
Arctic seas.
Mediterranean,
low water to 25
British northern seas. Norway,
Naples ; 20 to 80 fathoms.
Norway to Sicily; 10 to 70
fathoms.
Greenland,Spitzbergen, British
seas, Bay of Biscay, Black
Sea Littoral.
Greenland, Norway, British
seas, Mediterranean; high
water to afew fathoms.
British seas, North Sea, Medi-
terranean, Adriatic; low
water to 45 fathoms.
Arctic seas.
British seas, Norway to
Canaries ; 7 to 78 fathoms.
British seas, Iceland, Alzeria ;
6 to 90 fathoms.
British seas, Iceland. Canaries,
Mediterranean ; low water
to 145 fathoms.
Now extinct in our seas,
British seas ; low water to 145
fathoms.
British seas, Iceland, Mediter-
ranean ; low water to great
depths.
British seas, Finmark, Medi-
terranean ; tidal rivers and
oozy sands.
British seas,Greenland, Lisbon ;
high to low water, common.
British seas, Greenland, Black
Sea; between tide-marks,
locally common.
Arctic and northern, no longer
British.
British east coast, Norway,
Greenland; 40 to 60 fathoms.
British seas, France, Canary
Isles ; 8 to 30 fathoms.
British seas, North Atlantic,
Arctic, Littoral; to a few
fathoms.
Iceland to Aigean Sea,
Clyde beds,
Norway.
Clava ;
Clyde beds; Belfast,
Sussex deposits.
Clyde beds ; coralline
crag.
As far as known,
Cleongart only.
Clyde beds, Clava;
most glacial de-
posits.
Clyde beds. rare;
Norway ; red crag,
As far as known,
Cleongart only.
Clyde beds,
Norway.
Clava,
Clyde beds, Clava;
coralline crag.
Clyde beds ; red crag ;
coralline crag.
Clyde beds, Norway.
Clyde beds, Clava;
coralline crag.
Clyde beds, Norway ;
coraliine crag.
Clyde beds, Uddevalla
raised beach.
Clyde beds, Norway.
Clyde beds (rare),
coralline crag.
Clyde beds, Norway ;
coralline crag.
Clyde beds (common),
Clava (rare), Nor-
way (common).
Clyde beds (common),
Clava (rare), Nor-
way (common).
Clyde _ beds,
Norway.
Clava,
Clyde beds, Norway,
Norwich crag.
Clyde beds, Clava,
Norway.
England, Seotland,
Treland.
Clyde beds.
Clyde beds, Clava,
England, Ireland,
Norway.
Clyde beds (rare),
red crag; Norway.
Clyde beds (common),
red crag ; Norway.
OT
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE.
395
LIST OF ORGANISMS FROM SHELLY CLAY AT CLEONGART—continued.
Name
Remarks
Distribution
Fossil
Gasteropoda:
*+ Trophon trun-
eatus, Strom.
*}; Turritella tere-
| bra, Linn.
Polyzoa: ‘
Crisia denticu-
lata ?
Insecta:
(Beetle)
Crustacea:
Cirripedia :
Balanus crena-
tus.
Balanus porca-
tus.
Balanus balan-
oides
Decapoda:
(Crab)
Ostracoda:
Cythere
Miiller.
Cythere pellu-
eida, Baird.
Cythere confusa,
Brady.
Cythere porcel-
lanea, Brady.
Cythere globuli-
fera, Brady.
Cythere tuber-
culata, G. 0.
lutea,
Sars
Cythere con-
cinna, Rupert
Jones.
Cythere leioder-
ma, Norman.
Cythere ema-
ciata, Brady.
Cythere quadri-
denta, Baird.
Cythere dunel-
mensis, Vor-
man.
Cythere Jonesii,
Baird.
Cythere Robert-
soni, Brady.
Cythere — anti-
quata, Baird.
Cythere _ papil-
losa, Bosquet.
Cytheridea pune-
tillata, Brady.
Cytheridea Sor-
byana, Jones.
Eucythere decli-
vis, Norman.
Loxoconcha im-
1 pressa, Baird,
Four perfect speci-
mens.
Very abundant,
scarcely one per-
fect.
|
British seas, Norway, Green-
land ; 50 fathoms.
British seas, Norway, Mediter-
ranean ; 3 to 100 fathoms.
(The references are from Jeffreys’ ‘ British Conchology.’)
|
II. M
One fragment.
III.
Wing. |
Many valves.
Two valves.
Two valves,
Fragments of plate of |
leg and claw,
A single valve.
Two valves.
A few valves,
One valve.
Valves frequent.
Frequent, a few with |
valves together.
The prevailing Os-
tracod in the de- |
posit.
One valve.
One valve.
Two valves.
Common, one with
valves together.
Two imperfect valves.
One valve, and one
with valves
gether.
One valve.
to- |
A few valves.
A few valves of dif-
ferent ages.
Two well-marked
valves.
One valve,
Two valves.
OLLUSCOIDA.
ANNULOSA.
British coast, Norway, Medi-
terranean.
British coast, Norway, Bay of
Biscay.
British coast, Norway, Bay of
Biscay, Mediterranean.
British coast, Norway, Bay of
Biscay.
| Rare, Norway, Spitzbergen.
Britain, Greenland, Norway,
West Indies.
Norway, Spitzbergen, Davis
Straits.
| Norway, Shetland, St. Law-
rence,
Britain, Norway, Spitzbergen,
Naples.
Britain, Norway, Bay of Biscay.
Britain.
Britain, Norway, Spitzbergen,
Bay of Biscay.
Oban, Shetland, England, Ire-
land,
South-west England, Scotland,
West of Ireland.
| Norway, Davis Straits, St.
Lawrence.
Britain, Norway, Iceland,
Messina,
Northern seas, rare,
British seas, Norway, Bay of
Biscay, Naples.
British seas, Norway, Bay of
Biscay, Naples,
Clyde beds, coralline
crag.
Clyde beds, Moel
Tryfaen, Norway.
Scotland, Treland,
Norway, Iceland.
_beds, Clava
Cly de beds, Clava,
Ireland, Norway.
Clyde beds.
Clyde beds, Elie,
Errol,, England.
England, Scotland,
Treland.
England, Scotland,
Ireland, Norway.
England (Bridling-
ton), Sicily.
Clyde beds, Ireland,
Sicily.
Clyde aise Clava,
England, Scotland,
Ireland.
England, Scotland,
Trelan
Scotland (Loch gilp),
‘Norway.
Clyde beds, England,
Ireland.
Scotland, England,
Norway, Canada.
Britain, Sicily.
Scotland, Norway,
Canada.
Britain, Norway,
Canada,
Scotland, Ireland,
Norway.
396 REPORT—1896.
LIsT OF ORGANISMS FROM SHELLY CLAY AT CLEONGART—continued.
Name Remarks Distribution Fossil
Crustacea:
Ostracoda: |
Cytheruragibba, One valve. Scotland, Norway, Holland. Scotland (Lochgilp),
Miller. | Norway.
Cytherura un- | One valve. | British coasts, Norway, Spitz- | Scotland, Treland,
data, G O. bergen, St. Lawrence. Norway, Canada.
Sars. |
Cytherura cla- | One valve. | British coasts, Norway, Davis | Britain, Norway.
thrata, G. 0. | Straits.
Sars. |
Cytheruracellu- | One valve. British coasts, Norway, Biscay, | England, Wales, Scot-
losa, Vorman. Naples. land.
Cytheropteron | A few valves. British coasts, Norway, Baffin’s | England, Scotland,
latissimum, Bay. Norway, Canada,
Norman.
Cytheropteron Three valves. British coasts, Norway, Biscay, | Britain, Norway,
nodosum, St. Lawrence. Canada.
Brady.
Eyton One imperfect valve, | British coasts, Norway, Biscay, | Scotland, Antwerp,
constricta, G. St. Lawrence. Crag.
O. Sars.
Bythocythere One valve, Scotland, England, Norway, | Scotland (Cleongart).
turgida, G. 0. St. Lawrence.
Sars.
(References are to Brady and Norman's Monograph, ‘Trans. Royal Society Dublin,’ vol. iv.)
IV. Prorozoa.
Norr.—C. means common; M.C., moderately common; R., rare; M.R., mode-
rately rare; R.R., very rare.
Foraminifera.
Biloculina ringens, Lamk. M.C. Lagena sulcata, Wid J. M.R.
45 elongata, D’Orb. M.R. » semistriata, Well. M.R.
. simplex, D’Orb. M.R. » lucida, Will.” M.C:
Miliolina Cuvieriana? R. » fimbriata, Brady. R.
» Seminulum, Zinn. M.C. » lineata, W. all. MLR.
» Oblonga, Mont. M.C. » levigata, Reuss. M.R.
53 Brongniartii, D’Orb. RB. » caudata, D’Orb. M.R.
» Ferussacii, D’Orb. R.R. » marginata, WV.d B. M.C.
» tenuis, Cyjzck. M.R. » favoso-punctata, Brady. R.
» secans, D’Orb. R. » globosa, Wont. M.R.
» subrotunda, Mont. M.R. » hexagona, Will. M.C.
- circularis, Bornemann. R. » squamosa, Mont. R.
» venusta, Karrer. R.
» Mmelovar. R.
Bulimina marginata, D’Orb. M.C.
» melo, D’Orb. M.R.
» pupoides, D’Orb. M.C. » apiculata, Rewss.
» elegans, D’Orb. M.R. » ovum, Lhrenberg.
Bolivina punctata, D’Orb. M.C. Williamsoni, Alcock.
» dilatata, Reuss. R. Nodosaria levigata, 'D Orb. R.
Cassidulina crassa, D’Orb. M.C. 55 rotundata, Reuss. R.
ss levigata, D’Orb. 43 pyrula, D’Orb. R.
Lagena levis, Mont. M.R. ” pauperata, D’Orb.
» gracillima, Seg. M.C. i consobrina, D’Orb.
» Striata, D’Orb. M.C. .) simplex, Silvestri.
», distoma, Parker d Jones. R. communis, D’Orb, R.
» Feildeniana, Brady. R. Vaginulina legumen, Linn.
» costata, Will. M.C Marginulina glabra, D’Orb. R.
», interrupta. R. Cristellaria latifrons, Brady. R.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 397
Cristellaria rotulata, Zam. Rotalia orbicularis, D’Orb. M.R.
o cultrata, D’Orb. R. » papillosa, Brady.
_ gibba, D’Orb. M.R. | Nonionina orbicularis, brady. M.C.
as arcuata, D’Orb. R. x umbilicatula, Mont. R.
crepidula, Fech. 4 depressula, VW. dé J. M.C,
Polymorphina compressa, D’Orb. 5 Boneana, D’Orb. M.C.
‘ lanceolata, Rewss. 4 stelligera, D’Ord. R.
M.R. jects macella, Pd M. C.
+. sororia, Reuss. A striato-punctata,
2 oblonga, D’Orb. M.C. EE Ee
@ ovata, D’Orb. is arctica, P.& J. R.
Urigerina pygmea, D’Orb. ‘Discorbina polystomelloides, P. & J.
Globigerina bolloides, D’Orb. R. a globularis, D’O7b. RB.
Patellina corrugata, Will. Rhabdamina cornuta (7), Brady.
Truncatulina lobatula, W.dé7. M.R. | Planospirina exigua, Brady. R.
Pulvinulina Karsteni, Reuss. C. Psammospheera fusca, Schulze. R.
V. EcHINODERMATA.
Ray and disc plates of starfish.
Spines of Spatangus.
» Kchinus.
Remarks.
In some of the parcels from these various depths the gravel was
mostly angular ; in others, more or less water-worn. <A good deal of it
might be called a coarse sand, but some of the stones were about the size
of ordinary gooseberries. No striation was observed on any of them.
By whatever means the shelly clay was laid down, it will be seen from
the following Table that there had been at least three distinct changes
in the deposition of the sediment. In the lowest division, including the
depths 97 up to 94, the dry clay was of a light brown colour, friable and
easily broken. In the next section, including depths 92 feet 9 inches up
to 87 feet, the dry clay was of a dark bluish slate colour, hard and diffi-
cult to break. The uppermost section, including depths 85 to 76 feet,
when dry, was of a light brown. The clay from 76 down to 79} feet was
hard, and disintegrated slowly ; from 80 to 85 feet it was less hard, and
disintegrated more freely.
Tt is not without interest to note the variations of the colours and
hardness of the clays as they are built up one above another, as well as
the number of species of the organisms in the different zones, together
with their living distribution.
There are three species of Foraminifera in this deposit that have.not
been found in Recent deposits in the British Isles, viz., Discorbina poly-
stomelloides, Polystomella macella, and Rotalia or bicularis. All three in
the fossil state are, so far as T know, only found in Scotland in the
shelly clay deposits of Kintyre, not rarely but frequently ; and I may
say that Kotalia orbicularis is a prevailing species in the deposit.
Their southern widely distributed living habitats are (1) Discorbine
polystomelloides, at three different stations among the islands south of
New Guinea, namely, off Booby Island in 6 to 8 fathoms, off Wednesday
Island and Flinders’ Passage, and the Australian coral reefs.
(2) Polystomella macella, northern temperate zone, the Mediterranean
and Adriatic being apparently its northern limit. As fossil it has been
REPORT - 1896
398
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ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS IN KINTYRE. 399
found in the Eocene of Paris (Zerqwem), in the Miocene of Vienna
(D’Orbigny), and in the Tertiaries of Italy (Aewss) ; the Crag of Suffolk
(Jones, Parker and Brady), and the Post-Pliocene of Calabria (Seguenza).
(3) Rotalia orbicularis, north and south Atlantic, the Mediterranean
and Red Sea; its northern limit appears to be about latitude 60° N. in
the Atlantic, and its southern boundary about latitude 43° S. in the
southern ocean, in depths from 100 to 2,400 fathoms. Fossil, London
Clay (Jones, Parker and Brady), and in Post-Tertiary deposits, Norway
(Crosskey and Robertson).
Their wide southern distribution seems to suggest that their true
home had not been in a glacial sea.
Similar evidence was obtained at Clava regarding the occurrence of
certain species of Foraminifera, characteristic of warm-temperate and
sub-tropical seas (Report on Clava, 1893).
VIL. Conclusion.
In presenting this report on the shell-bearing deposits of Kintyre, the
members of the Committee have endeavoured to give an impartial state-
ment of the evidence bearing on the nature of these deposits ; leaving
those interested in the question of their origin to draw their own conclu-
sions from the ascertained facts.
The Committee have again had the great benefit of Dr. David
Robertson’s co-operation in examining the samples of clay taken from the
sections and the borings. This he has done with all his wonted care and
minuteness, and the value of his Report will be appreciated by all who
are interested in these researches.
Mr. P. F. Kendall, another member of Committee, also examined a
parcel of the shelly clay from the main section at Cleongart, and _ his
observations so far corresponded with those of Dr. Robertson.
The maps and section exhibited to the Geological Section were care-
fully prepared by Mr. Fraser, C.E., of Inverness, from measurements
taken by him during a visit to the locality in the summer of the present
year.
Selangor Caves.—Prelinunary Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir W. H. Fiower (Chawman), Dr. R. Hanitscu, Mr. CLEMENT
Rei, Mr. H. N. Ripiey (Secretary), and Mr. A. Russet WALLACE,
appointed to explore certain Caves in the Neighbourhood of
Singapore, and to collect their living and extinct Fauna.
Mr. Rivtey reports that, being single-handed at the Botanical Gardens,
he has been unable yet to explore the Selangor Caves. He expects, how-
ever, to be able to run over for a few days at Christmas, so as to arrange
a plan of campaign. He could then undertake the work in February or
March, when the rainfall is less. Mr. Ridley has now seen the white
snake which inhabits the caves, and is said to live on bats; it is not
blind, but has large eyes. The Committee ask to be re-appointed, with
renewal of the unexpended grant.
4.00 REPORT—1896.
The Relation of Paleolithic Man to the Glacial Epoch.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir JoHN Evans (Chairman), Miss E.
Morse, Mr. CLEMENT Retp (Secretary), Mr. EH. P. Rmiey, and
Mr. H. N. RipLey, appointed to ascertain by excavation at Howne
the relations of the Paleolithic Deposits to the Boulder Clay, and to
the deposits with Arctic and Temperate Plants. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)
APPENDIX.— Details of Borings . Q 5 : : : ; 0 - page 412
PLATE.
Tis Committee was appointed with the object of clearing up certain
doubtful points as to the relation of Paleolithic man to the Glacial epoch.
Hoxne, on the borders of Norfolk and Suffolk, was selected as the best
locality for the investigation, for Paleolithic implements and various
fossiliferous strata were there known to occur in close proximity to
undisturbed Boulder Clay, and it was probable that a single excavation
would be sufficient to decide several of the disputed questions. A few
words as to previous investigations will explain the state of our know-
ledge when the Committee commenced work.
Previous Observers.
John Frere, in 1797, recorded in a letter the occurrence of abundant
Paleolithic implements.! These seem to have been obtained from the
northern end of the pit, now abandoned and overgrown with oak-trees
apparently about ninety years old. Implements seem to have been more
plentiful there than in the part now worked, for Frere speaks of the
occurrence ‘at the rate of five or six in a square yard.’ One in about ten
square yards is nearer the rate at the present day.
Mr. John Evans was the first of late years to call attention to Frere’s
discoveries, and he visited Hoxne with Mr. Prestwich. They sank some
pits in 1859.?
In 1860 and 1864 Professor Prestwich published descriptions of the
strata at Hoxne, showing that certain beds with leaves and freshwater
shells underlay the Paleolithic deposits, and that these lacustrine strata
rested on. Boulder Clay.
Thomas Belt subsequently (in 1876) tried to prove the interglacial age of
the implement-bearing loams, laying special stress on the occurrence in the
pit in Oakley Park of a small patch of Chalky Boulder Clay overlying
the. loam.*
A year or two later Mr. H. B. Woodward and Mr. Clement Reid
examined a new cut made to drain the brickyard into Gold Brook, and
saw Paleolithic deposits resting on Chalky Boulder Clay.
In 1888 Mr. Clement Reid and Mr. H. N. Ridley found that the
patch of Boulder Clay noticed by Belt above the Paleolithic deposits was
} Archeologia, Vol. xiii. p. 204, two pp. and two 4to plates of implements.
2 Ibid., vol. xxxviil. p. 299; Ancient Stone Implements, 1872, p. 517.
8 Phil. Trans., vol. cl. pp. 304-308, pl. xi., and cliv. p. 283.
* Quart. Journ, Sct., n.s., vol. vi. pp. 289-304.
66% Begort Brit. Assoc. 1896.
GEOLOGICAL SECTION THROUGH HoxNje BRIcKYARD
cale 100 Feet +I ch
Alum
Ft sawn —— pe woe Fee
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Road
Fence Bie a
SEA LEVEL
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SEA LEVEL
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Tilustrating the Report on the Relation of Palaolithic Man to the Glacial Epoch,
the
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able
but
rene
‘own
Clen
thro
the t
ON THE RELATION OF PALAOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 401
merely the remains of some clay brought to the pit, and that this Boulder
Clay distinctly rested in one place on the recent vegetable soil. They also
discovered numerous Arctic plants in the clays, but were unable to ascer-
tain the exact relations of the deposits, for the pit was full of water.!
They returned, therefore, in 1895, and made a series of borings, which
pointed to a succession like that now demonstrated ; but, as the results
were not conclusive, the manuscript notes? were reserved for incorpora-
tion in this Report.
Field Work.
The Committee hoped to commence work at Hoxne immediately after
the close of the Ipswich meeting ; but unexpected difficulty was met with
in obtaining permission to make the excavations, so that the most favour-
able season was thus lost. Nothing could be done during the winter ;
but as soon as the days became longer and the weather more propitious,
renewed application was made, and Mr. Stafford, on behalf of the
owners, immediately granted the necessary facilities. On March 23 Mr.
Clement Reid went to Hoxne, and remained in charge of the work
throughout, Mr. E. P. Ridley, of Ipswich, visiting the place twice during
the ten days. During these days a pit was sunk in the brickyard to a
‘depth of 20 feet, and a boring from the bottom of this pit was carried
22 feet lower, till the glacial sands were reached. The Section obtained,
and the large samples of the strata taken to London for examination,
proved of so great interest that it was thought desirable to complete the
investigation by continuing the chain of borings right across the old basin
or channel. Permission to bore in Oakley Park was at once given by Mr.
Hay, the tenant of the estate, and an application was made by Sir John
Evans and Sir Archibald Geikie to the Royal Society, which granted an
additional sum of 30/. With this grant stronger boring tools were hired
from Messrs. Le Grand and Sutcliff, and work was recommenced on May 6,
Mr. Reid again taking charge for the fortnight that it lasted. Twelve
additional borings were made, and as nine of these reached the base of the
lacustrine deposits, we have now sufficient evidence to draw an accurate
Section across the ancient silted-up channel (see Plate).
Having the experience of 1888 and 1895 to guide them, they were able
at once to select the spot where the buried channel was probably deepest,
and where each of the deposits contained in it was fossiliferous. The site
selected had, in fact, one of the trial borings of 1895 (BH 2) at its
southern end, and it was within 3 or 4 yards of the flooded pit out of
which the Arctic plants discovered in 1888 had been thrown. The length
of the hole was 234 feet, and the breadth nearly 4 feet, the intention being
to work the clay in steps, as the men are accustomed to do. It was found,
however, that the lacustrine deposits were considerably thicker than had
been estimated, so after a time the hole was reduced to a vertical shaft,
the material and water being removed by a well-sinker’s tub and windlass.
The Section (fig. 1) will explain the mode of work. The principal, in
fact the only real, difficulty met with was due to a spring flowing from the
gravel at the south end of the pit. This necessitated constant attention ;
@ sump was made to prevent the lower working being flooded, and the
water was baled out from this sump. The lower part of the pit yielded
little water, but the spring above filled the pit to within 5 feet of the
' Geol. Mag., new ser., dec. iii., vol. v. pp. 441-444.
2 Read at the Ipswich meeting, 1895.
1896. DD
4.02 REPORT—1896.
surface every night, so that much time was occupied each morning in
removing this water.
At a depth of 20 feet below the present surface they had sunk through
Fig. 1.—Trial Pit and Borings in Hoxne Brickyard.
South North
maole ground
A. Brickearth with freshwater shells,
wood, and Paleolithic imple-
ments.
B. Gravel and carbonaceous loam (no
implements at this spot).
C. Black loam with leaves of Arctic
plants.
D. Lignite with Temperate plants.
E. Lacustrine clay with Temperate
plants.
G. Sand full of water.
Scale, 8 Feet = 1 Inch.
Pest Fes Gg
Paleolithic brickearth and gravel; through beautifully laminated loams
with leaves of Arctic plants ; through a seam of lignite, and a foot into a
hard green lacustrine clay. The lignite and the sandy lower part of the
Arctic leaf-bed looked treacherous, and needed careful timbering ; it was
GLACIAL EPocH. 4.03
TO THE
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4.04: REPORT— 1896,
therefore decided to give up sinking and to bore to the base of the lacustrine
clay. This was reached at a depth of 413 feet from the present surface—
i.e. about 51 feet from the old surface before the brickyard was worked.
Directly the auger penetrated the clay and sank into the sand below,
water rose so as to stop work ; there was no need, however, to bore fur-
ther, as the doubtful points were already settled.
As the work progressed large samples were selected from each fossili-
ferous bed for further examination, and to prevent any chance of mixture
the boxes from Bed C were nailed up and sent away before the lignite
below was disturbed. These samples have been minutely examined and
washed for fossils in London, Miss Morse undertaking part of Bed C, and
Mr. Reid superintending the washing of the others.
As Boulder Clay was the only deposit met with in the borings, and
Fic. 3.—Paleolithic Implements from Hoxne
(Sir John Evans, ‘Stone Implements,’ fig. 450).
not seen in the trial-hole, there is no necessity here to describe each
boring in detail ; the particulars will be found in the Appendix, and the
position of each is marked on the Map and Section. Suffice it here to say
that they show clearly the contour of the ancient channel, prove that it
is narrow, and excavated through glacial deposits, and show that the
Chalky Boulder Clay (the latest Boulder Clay of Suffolk) lies beneath all
of the lacustrine deposits. The chain of borings was carried approxi-
mately east and west, so as to cross the old channel nearly at right angles.
A few borings out of the line of section seem to indicate that the channel
runs nearly north and south. It was out of the question to trace out the
course of the channel, for it makes no sign at the surface, and to follow
it would need a multitude of borings, most of which would be of little or
no interest.
ON THE RELATION OF PALHZOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH, 405
DESCRIPTION OF THE Deposits AND THEIR Iossizs.!
Bed A.
This is the only deposit usually exposed in the brickyard, and from it
the Paleolithic implements (see fig. 3) are obtained. Hoxne Brickyard
for many years seems to have been worked mainly for this upper brick-
earth, from which are made the red bricks. It thus happens that over an
extensive area nearly the whole of Bed A has been removed, and the
sides of the pit are so overgrown that it is difficult to obtain detailed
measurements. There are clear sections, however, on the opposite side of
the road in the new pit in Oakley Park where this brickearth is now worked ;
the material from which were obtained the fossils given in the list was
therefore taken from that pit. The sections in the old yard, as far as they
can now be examined, are similar, and fossils and flint implements occur
there in the same manner.
Clay Pit in Oakley Park, N. face, surface about 107 feet above the sea level.
Feet.
Sandy soil . ’ 2 2 2 : ‘ ; : 3
Bluish green loam and race (to water) . : ‘ ; . ; . 4
Laminated loams, freshwater shells and cyprids from below water-level 7
During the last two years three implements have been obtained from
this spot, usually at a depth of from 5 to 7 feet from the surface. Bones
are rare, but we obtained from the men some belonging to horse and deer,
and apparently to elephant. Samples of the laminated shelly loams taken
in 1896 yielded the species of mollusca and plants mentioned below. The
bones were obtained from the workmen in 1888 and 1895.
Mammalia. Limnza peregra, Mill.
Planorbis albus, J/ili.
af Nautileus, Zinn.
7 nitidus, Mill.
5 spirorbis, Will.
Homo (implements)
Equus Caballus, Z. (teeth)
Cervus (bone)
Bos (bone) | Valvata piscinalis, Mill.
Elephas (fragment of large bone) Bythinia tentaculata, Zinn.
oe Leachii, Shep.
Fish. Pisidium pusillum, Gmel.
: i pulchellum, Jenyns.
Indeterminable bones. Sphexrium corneum, Linn.
Unio or Anodon.
Crustacea.
Ostracoda. Plants.
Mollusca. Alnus? (wood).
; r Potamogeton.
Limnza glutinosa, Will. Chara.
The list contains no species characteristically either northern or
southern, and even the assemblage throws little light on the climatic
conditions. Limnea glutinosa, not previously recorded as a British fossil,
does not extend far north ; but the rest of the mollusca range from the
Arctic regions to the south of Europe, and all of them are to be found.
‘ For convenience of reference the fluviatile and lacustrine strata have been
lettered A to E (see Plate and fig. 1).
A406 . REPORT—1896.
living within a few miles of Hoxne. The mammals are widely migrating
species.
c The borings show that the fossiliferous Paleolithic brickearth when
traced westward overlaps the other fluviatile deposits, to rest at last imme-
diately on Boulder Clay. They indicate also that the laminated brick-
earth entirely disappears about the middle of Oakley Park, where it
abuts against a slight ridge of Boulder Clay (close to BH 15). West
of that point Bed A is represented by a sheet of gravelly sand, perhaps
more suggestive of eolian than of fluviatile action (see Plate).
Bed B.
There is commonly to be found at the base of the Paleolithic brick-
earth a seam of fine gravel mixed with vegetable matter. This gravel
was 2 or 3 feet thick in our trial pit, but it contained neither imple-
ments nor fossils. As, however, it yielded a small worked flake in one of
our trial borings (BH 1 of 1895), it deserves separate notice, especially
as Frere appears to have obtained his implements from this gravel, and not
from the brickearth above. A good implement found in 1877 by Messrs.
‘H. B. Woodward and Clement Reid, at the east side of the brickyard,
seemed also to have come from this horizon.
Bed C.
Immediately beneath the Paleolithic deposits is found the ‘black
earth’ of the brickmakers, though the term is also sometimes applied to
carbonaceous parts of the upper deposit. This black earth has only been
partly dug over the area already worked for Bed A. It is used for white
bricks, which are less in demand than the red ones, and as the pits
become flooded when digging ceases sections are seldom visible.
In the trial-pit this black earth was found to be 13 feet in thickness.
It consists of alternating thin layers of carbonaceous loam, sand, and
vegetable matter, sand and small clay-pebbles becoming very abundant in
the lower part. Vegetable remains, such as decayed leaves, twigs, and
seams of moss, are so abundant as to render the loam fissile throughout.
Seattered freshwater shells occur, though not in great numbers or in much
variety. Fish bones also occur ; but no trace of large mammalia was
found, and the workmen state that they have never come across any
bones below Bed A. The distal end of a small indeterminable mammalian
femur was obtained on washing some of the material.
The leaves so abundant in Bed C always belong to three species of
dwarf Arctic willow, or, more rarely, to the dwarf Arctic birch. The
twigs and stems retaining their bark also belong evidently to the same
species. Though fragments of larger wood occur, these are always worn,
without bark, and have probably been derived from the destruction of
Beds D and E. A single waterworn nut of the hornbeam and one or .
two broken seeds of yew must be placed in the same category, and several
other plants, only represented by woody seeds confined to the gravelly
lower part of the deposit, are also in all probability only present as deri-
vatives from the breaking up of the older deposits. An attempt has been
made in the following list to distinguish between the derived and the con-
temporaneous floras ; but it should be understood that this separation is
only made on the strength of the state of preservation of the specimens
and their occurrence or non-occurrence in other beds than the seams of
ON THE RELATION OF PALHOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 407
clay-gravel which undoubtedly contain derivative fossils. It will imme-
diately occur to any botanist looking at the list that several of the
plants, besides those marked as derivative, are species not likely to have
lived with the dwarf Arctic willows and birch. But as we wish to use the
list for the determination of the climatic conditions which reigned when
the deposit was being formed, it is clear that we have no right first to
reject certain species that seem to contradict the other evidence, and then
to argue as though we were dealing with a homogeneous flora. We can
say, however, that the fragile specimens, such as leaves, moss, and delicate
seeds, which cannot have been washed out of an older deposit, all represent
a homogeneous Arctic or high alpine flora. Trees, with the possible ex-
ception of the alder, seem to have been entirely absent, and the climate
was probably not unlike that of the cold treeless regions of North
America and Siberia.
Though so large a quantity of material was removed in our trial-pit,
the number of leaves obtained in good preservation was not great ; we
obtained, in fact, fewer good specimens than in 1888. The reason of the
decay of the leaves must be sought in the fact that we struck the centre
of the old channel, where the deposits are exceptionally sandy, and the
circulation of the water is greatest. We were able to preserve only the
smaller tough leaves of Salix myrsinites, though larger decayed ones are
not uncommon. Of Betula nana we have not been able to save a single
fragment, although leaves were seen on splitting the wet loam. The
following species were obtained on washing the material :—
Ranunculus aquatilis, L. ' Rumex crispus ? Z.
5 sceleratus, Z. Urtica dioica? Z. [one seed].
aA repens, L. [derivative ?]. Betula nana, Z.
Caltha palustris, Z. | Alnus glutinosa, Z. [perhaps derivative].
Viola palustris, Z. | Carpinus Betulus, Z. [derivative].
Stellaria media, Cy7. | Salix myrsinites, Z.
Montia fontana, Z. | ,, herbacea, Z.
Rhamnus Frangula, Z. [worn and deri- | ,, polaris, Wahid.
_ vative]. | Ceratophyllum demersum, Z.
Rubus Ideus, ZL. ' Taxus baccata, Z. [derivative].
Poterium officinale, Hook. /. | Sparganium ramosum, Curtis.
-Hippuris vulgaris, Z. | Alisma Plantago, Z.
Myriophyllum spicatum, Z. Potamogeton rufescens, Schrad.
(nanthe Phellandrium, Zam. [fruit very | a crispus, Z.
small]. ‘ pusillus, Z.
Sambucus nigra, Z. [derivative ?]. a trichoides, Cham.
Eupatorium cannabinum, Z. | - pectinatus, Z.
Bidens tripartita, Z. [a starved fruit]. | Seirpus pauciflorus, Lightf.
Taraxacum officinale, Wed. | » setaceus, Z.
Menyanthes trifoliata, Z. » lacustris, Z.
Lycopus europeus, Z. | Blysmus rufus, Wahilbd.
Ajuga reptans, Z. Carex incurva ? Lighty.
Rumex maritimus, Z. Chara.
Mr. Mitten has kindly examined the mosses from this deposit, and
records the following species :—
Amblystegium fluitans, Iitt., fragments of stem with leaves, the leaves as
usual varying in form and length of nerve, this last in some unusually long.
Acroceratium sarmentosum, Witt.; fragments of stem with leaves.
Hylocomium squarrosum, Bruch and Schimp.; fragments of branches.
Amblystegium stellatum, Witt. ; fragments of stems.
408 REPORT—1896.
Mnium ; fragments of stems; species nearly related to M. serratum, but remark-
able for having single teeth on the leaf margin and not gemminate as usual in
European species.
Mnium ; species nearly resembling MW. rugicum.
He writes that ‘all these seem to point to an origin in open moorland.
Acroceratium sarmentosum is not now found on our plains, but is mon-
tane or sub-alpine ; they are known to go very far into Arctic regions.’
The 1888 list adds the following species, though we cannot be per-
fectly sure that they are all from Bed C. They also were determined by
Mr. Mitten :—
brachythecium rutabulum, Bruch and Webera albicans, Schimp.
Schimp. Bryum pallens, Sw.
Acroceratium cuspidatum, Witt. Mnium punctatum, Linn.
Philonotis fontana, Brid.
The animal remains associated with these plants are very few. They
include only a small indeterminable mammalian bone, some Ostracoda, a
few beetles, among which Mr. Waterhouse finds Hylesinus fraaini ?,
some small galls, and six species of freshwater mollusca :—
Limnza sp. ’ _ Bythinia tentaculata, Wild.
Valvata piscinalis, Midd. Spherium corneum, Z.
Ff cristata, Will. Pisidium pusillum, Gmed.
No implements have yet beep found in Bed C ; but as the pits are in
the centre of the channel or lake, and no stone over an inch in diameter
was seen, negative evidence is of little value till the margin and gravelly
deposits of the same age have been searched.
Bed D.
The character of the deposit changes suddenly immediately beneath the
lowest seam containing Arctic willows, though the abruptness of the change
is somewhat masked by the inclusion of derived material in the newer
strata. Bed C rests on a mass of lignite from 1 to 3 feet in thickness,
This lignite, at the spot where the trial-pit was sunk, evidently repre-
sents an ancient alder-carr growing in the old channel—just as alder-
carrs now grow on the marsh-lands throughout the eastern counties. The
bulk of the deposit is composed of alder-wood, retaining its bark, but
more or less decayed, mingled with cones, seeds, and leaves of the same
tree. The lignite contains also other seeds in profusion, but nearly all
belong to a few swamp-loving plants, such as are usually to be found in
an alder-carr, or in the pools or sluggish channels that intersect it.
There is little or no drifted material, and the few plants that did not live
on the spot are, with the exception of the hornbeam, berry-bearing
species, the fruits of which are habitually dispersed far and wide by birds.
Even the winged seeds of the thistle and dandelion, usually to be found
in ancient alluvial deposits, are missing, and we have an extremely
restricted flora, every member of which, however, grew in all probability
within a few yards of the place where it is now found. The whole of the
thirty-seven species of flowering plants now determined are still living in
the county. ;
A few Valvata piscinalis, a Pisidiwm, one or two indeterminable fish-
bones, and some elytra of beetles are the only animal remains yet met
with in the lignite. Mr. Waterhouse observes among the elytra some
ON THE RELATION OF PALASOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 409
belonging to Donacia, but they are too badly preserved to allow of
specific determination.
The plants occurring in Bed D are :—
Ranunculus aquatilis, L.
a sceleratus, Z.
‘ Lingua, Z.
5 cf. repens, Z.
Montia fontana, Z.
Rhamnus Frangula, L.
Rubus Ideeus, Z
Rosa canina, L.
Pyrus torminalis? Hhrh.
Cnanthe Phellandrium
small).
Sambucus nigra, Z.
Eupatorium cannabinum, L.
Bidens tripartita, Z.
var. with 4 equal awns
(wrongly referred in 1888 to B.cernua).
Mentha aquatica, Z.
Lycopus europzeus, L.
(fruit very
Rumex crispus, Z.
5 Acetosella? Z. (1 nut).
Urtica dioica? JZ. (fruit narrow).
Alnus glutinosa, Z.
Carpinus Betulus, Z.
Corylus Avellana, L.
Ceratophyllum demersum, ZL.
Taxus baccata, L.
Sparganium ramosum, ZL,
Alisma Plantago, Z. (carpels small).
Potamogeton pusillus, Z.
a trichoides, Cham.
Hleocharis acicularis, Sm.
Scirpus pauciflorus, Light.
FA setaceus, L.
e lacustris, Z.
Blysmus rufus, Wahlb.
Eriophorum polystachion, Z.
Carex distans? Z.
Stachys? (1 badly preserved nutlet).
Rumex maritimus, Z. FY
The oak wood obtained by Professor Prestwich from the workmen
may belong to this horizon, though none was met with in the trial-pit.
The piece of pine-bark and the seed of cornel, found among disturbed
material in 1888 by Messrs. Reid and Ridley, may both belong to recent
specimens; these species therefore should not be included in the list without
further corroboration. A pit sunk at the margin instead of in the centre
of the channel would probably yield many more dry-soil species, and
might also yield traces of man.
Mr. Mitten records the following mosses from this horizon, and it may
be observed that the conclusions he comes to with regard to the climatic
and other conditions under which Beds C and D were deposited agree
closely with those arrived at from an examination of the flowering
plants :—
ampullacea? Good.
Eurynchium striatum, B. and S.; fragments of stem and branches.
Homalothecium sericeum, B. and S.; » branches.
Brachythecium populeum ? B. and S. aS BS
Thuidium tamariscinum, 2. and S. » stem and branches.
Acroceratium cuspidatum, Mitt. as nf so
Steredon cupressiformis ? Brid. », branches.
Rhynchostegium, species ? ‘3 eS
Mnium punctatum, Linn. » stem.
5 eSD) = », ; near to M. Seligeri.
Bryum sp. A » ; may be B. ventricosum.
Dicranum scoparium ? Hedy. » leaves.
‘ These might be derived from a sylvan country in a temperate region
of low elevation.’
Bed E.
The lignite just described rests on a mass of green carbonaceous clay
with lacustrine shells, fish-remains, and a few drifted seeds belonging to
the same plants as occur in the bed above. This clay is not used in the
brickyard ; but our trial-pit was sunk about a foot into it, and then a
boring was carried to its base. The upper part of the clay is green, hard,
ALO _ REPORT—1896.
and tough, so that it breaks under the spade instead of cutting ; below it
becomes rather softer and more carbonaceous ; at its base it contains an
admixture of sand derived from the Glacial or Crag beds beneath. This clay
is a most unmanageable deposit from which to obtain fossils. It does not
show any tendency to go to pieces in water, even after thorough drying ;
and long-continued boiling with soda does not help to disintegrate it. It
seems to contain an admixture of animal matter, for in the flame it gives
off smoke and smells strongly. The intractable nature of the matrix
made it only possible to obtain the fossils by breaking the clay, and thus
many of the seeds were destroyed or rendered indeterminable. The fossils
obtained from this clay were :—
Fish. Plants.
Perea fluviatilis, Z. Ranunculus Lingua, L.
Leuciscus rutilus, Z. %s repens, Z.
Rubus Ideeus, Z.
Mollusca. Hippuris vulgaris, Z.
: 4 Mill. Rumex maritimus, Z.
ee Pion poe Alnus glutinosa, Z.
Planotbis albus, Ai... Ceratophyllum demersum, Z.
Nantilens. 2 : Sparganium ramosum, Curtis.
3 s, L. ae ar
Valvata piscinalis, Mii. Potamogeton trichoides, Cham.
Bythinia tentaculata, Miit/. Zensho ia eau Suni y st
Dingo oe Aviodon pee lacustris, Z.
arex.
Spheerium corneum, Z.
Boulder Clay.
The Boulder Clay at Hoxne calls for no special remark. It is a tough
mass principally composed of Jurassic clay and fragments of Chalk, with
scattered flints, septaria, and, more rarely, older rocks. Nearly all the
stones are striated. This clay is in fact part of the extensive sheet of
Chalky Boulder Clay which covers so large a part of our eastern counties.
It can be well seen in the Clay-pit on the east side of Gold Brook, near
the Brickyard (see Map, fig. 2).
Glacial Sand.
The sand beneath the Boulder Clay was reached at a depth of 24 feet
in a boring (BH 9) put down in the Clay-pit just mentioned as occurring
east of the Brickyard. Sand, apparently of the same age, was again met
with in (BH 11) and in the boring (BH 8) made at the bottom of our
trial-pit, where the Boulder Clay seems entirely to have been cut through
before the lacustrine deposits were laid down. In this latter case, however, .
it is possible that Crag may have been reached, for the sandy base of Bed
E was full of small derivative valves of Balanws such as are so abundant
in the Norwich Crag.
Conclusions.
The facts gathered in the course of this inquiry enable us partly to
trace the history of this old buried river-channel. It seems never to have
been a channel of much importance, but nore probably the valley of a
small tributary stream than that ofa river. Its history seems to have been
as follows :—After the disappearance of the ice which deposited the Chalky
Boulder Clay—how long after we do not know—the land stood somewhat
ON THE RELATION OF PALAOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 411
higher than at present, so that the Hoxne channel could be excavated to
a depth slightly below that of the present main channel of the river
Waveney. Then gradual subsidence turned this channel into a shallow
freshwater lake, in which 20 feet of the lacustrine clay E was deposited.
After the lake had silted up it was overgrown by a dense thicket of alders,
which by their decay formed the lignite D, containing a Temperate flora
like that of bed E. Next a further slight subsidence, or perhaps an
irregular silting up of the lower part of the channel, caused lacustrine
conditions to reappear, and another 20 feet of lacustrine strata (C) to be
deposited ; but the climate had again become colder—in fact it was now
an Arctic or sub-Arctic one. Then followed the floods which deposited the
Paleolithic Beds B and A, only parts of which seem to be truly fluviatile;
and finally the strata became sandy and perhaps of eolian origin. To
summarise :—The channel after being scoured to a depth equal to that of
the existing valley of the Waveney, and considerably below that of its
existing tributaries, the river Dove and Gold Brook, was filled up with
fully 50 feet of sediment. It was in fact so.completely filled that the
streams have since taken quite different courses, and we cannot identify
the Pleistocene channel as belonging to any existing valley.
During the excavation and silting up of the channel the climatic con-
ditions seem to have changed at least twice. Of the nature of the transi-
tion from the Arctic conditions indicated by the Boulder Clay to the mild
period represented by the lacustrine clay E and the lignite D we have at .
present no evidence. But of the existence of a mild period subsequent
to the formation of the Chalky Boulder Clay and previous to the reappear-
ance of Arctic conditions, we can now produce sufficient evidence in the long
list of Temperate plants found in Beds Dand E. The Paleolithic deposits
at Hoxne are therefore not only later than the latest Boulder Clay of
East Anglia, but are separated from it by two climatic waves, with
corresponding changes of the flora. Such sweeping changes cannot have
been local ; they must have affected wide areas.
It may perhaps be advisable before concluding to guard ourselves
against any misapprehension as to the exact outcome of this inquiry. It
is true that the evidence is now perfectly clear that the well-known Paleo-
lithic implements of Hoxne are much later than the Boulder Clay of that
district. But it by no means follows that man did not live in the district
while the Arctic leaf-bed C or the lacustrine strata D and E were being
deposited, though no implements (or stones of any sort over an inch in
diameter) were found in them. It is possible that in other districts man
may be inter-Glacial or pre-Glacial, but on this question the Hoxne exca-
vations throw no light ; they only show that a race of men using imple-
- ments of the Hoxne type certainly inhabited Suffolk long after the latest
glaciation of that district. Whether precisely the same form of imple-
ment is likely to have been in use in Britain in both pre-Glacial and post-
Glacial times is a question into which we need not enter.
412 REPORT—1896.
APPENDIX.
Borings made in 1895 by Cuement Reip and H. N. RipieEy, and 21896
by the Committee (for exact positions see Map, p. 403. The heights
were obtained with Abney’s level and are approximate only).
BH 1. In the Brick-pit in Oakley Park, about 15 feet from the south
face. Surface above 115 feet above O.D., boring commenced at 105 feet.
Made ground
A Blue loam P ; 5! 3 F 5 <2
B Sandy gravel with ‘flint flakes : : ‘ ‘ . ‘ aye
C Black loam full of roots F 8
D Lignite (not penetrated)
BH 2. In Brickyard Close to the hole from which Arctic plants were
obtained in 1888 and at 8.W. corner of trial-pit of 1896. Surface 101
feet above O.D. (about 10 feet of earth already removed).
Feet.
A Loam and freshwater shells . ; : ‘ ‘ es
B Whitish sandy gravel and loam, no large stones . : : om
C Carbonaceous loam ; é f : ; : a6
D Clay and lignite
BH 3. In Brickyard, about 60 yards west of Gold Brook. Surface
100 feet above O.D.
Feet.
Soil and made ground. ; é : : ; : 5 . i
Chalky Boulder Clay E : é : : : : : pl
23
BH 4. In Brickyard, midway between Gold Brook and Fairstead
Farm. Surface 103 feet above O.D.
Peet.
Sandy wash
Chalky Boulder Clay
3h
BH 5. In the road midway between Gold Brook and Fairstead Farm.
Surface 107 feet above O.D.
oo
toh | tole
Feet.
Sand and sandy gravel, to large stone (which stopped boring) 41D
BH 6. In the bank 5 feet below road from Gold Brook to Fairstead
Farm and near gate into Brickyard. Surface 108 feet above O.D.
Feet.
A Gravelly sand i . 5
A? Blue clay with Valwata at to 5 5
Hard blue clay full of Chalk (Boulder Clay) 1
ON THE RELATION OF PALZOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 413
BH 7. In the Brickyard close to the pump. Surface 98 feet above
O.D. (boring stopped by rain).
Made ground é é é yet
C Black loam with plant r remains and Pisidium : : ts 2
D Lignite and mud with Alder? &c, : : ‘ oe
E Hard greenish clay with Fish remains, Ostracoda, Planorbis
albus, Bythinia tentaculata, Valvata piscinalis, Ranunculus
repens, Carex. : : : : C : ; : 4
BH 8. Commences at bottom of trial-pit (see fig. 1).
BH 9. In Clay-pit E. of Gold Brook. Surface 89 feet above O.D.
Feet.
Chalky Boulder Clay, hard and dry . , j : : : . 24
Sand (water rose 63 feet) ; 3 ; : : 4 . 1B!
25
BH 10. E. corner of Brickyard. Surface 102 feet above O.D. (7 feet
below old surface).
Feet.
Made ground (dug about 1884; apparently in part Bed A, though
no gravel here separated it from the bed below) . 5
E Black carbonaceous loam, with scattered quartz grains, ‘small
splinters of flint, and Pisidium pusillum . ; : .. 3b
Chalky Boulder Clay (not pierced) : ; 2 - : > Poe
BH 11. Close to BH 7 of 1895. Surface 98 feet above O.D.
Feet.
Made ground : Ag!
C Black carbonaceous loam with leaves, moss, and small twigs re is
D Clayey lignite with small roots (?) throughout. Seed of Yew in
upper part . . 23
E Hard green clay, with small ‘freshwater shells, becoming softer
and more carbonaceous below . : : - . : a ily
E Carbonaceous clay and seams of sand . . : » Ab bas
Sand, full of water (glacial? or base of E Bn - : : = |
BH 12. In Clay-pit in Oakley Park, opposite middle of western face.
Surface 104 feet above O.D. (original surface about 113 feet).
Feet.
Made ground . : = ; 30ND)
A? Bluish loamy and carbonaceous brickearth 1
Black peaty lignite 1
Hard green clay with freshwater shells ; 5 Valvata i in the upper
E part é : = : : é Sar!
Hard clay, greenish and black . ; ee:
Chalky clay with a little lignite and freshwater shells. ey gl
& Chalky Boulder Clay with small roots in the top foot 7
™ = | Lead-coloured marl, no stones . 2
55 | Chalky Boulder Clay, as eS put hard stones more abundant
FQ (not pierced) . é : . 3 . - ; BLAS
414, REPORT—1896.
BH 13. In the middle of Oakley Park. Surface about 110 feet
above O.D.
Feet.
Sandy soil . i
Sand . : ‘ : ‘
Sandy loam : “ : : : 5 ane
A4Sand and brickearth alternating 5
Darker carbonaceous loam. Valvata piscinalis, Unio, Cyprids
at 13 ft.; Pisidiwm pusillum and small twigs at 14 ft. . s 5
Chalky clay with twigs . F : ; : 3 7 OF
Hard Chalky Boulder Clay A : : ; 3 : . 1
i
No trace of Beds B, C, D, or E was met with. a
BH 14. In Oakley Park. Surface 118 feet above O.D.
Feet.
Loamy sand with a few scattered stones . : 7
A es carbonaceous clayey loam, with occasional twigs and
freshwater shells . 7
Lead-coloured Chalky Boulder Clay . 42
19
BH 15. In Oakley Park. Surface 101 feet above O.D.
Feet
Sand andafew stones. : : : : : ; 5 ES
Loamy sand and loam ; ‘ ‘ : : : 5 al
A | Bluish loam and freshwater shells. : : : : . i
Clay with Chalk pebbles 2
be \atrcsnwater shell-marl 4
rg @ ( Chalky Boulder Clay 3
30 } Gravelly loam and water . 3
| Chalky Boulder Clay +
10
BH 16. In Oakley Park. Surface 97 feet above O.D.
Feet.
Sandy soil. . aes
Sand and a few stones : iy
i Loamy sand and scattered stones m2
Whitish sandy loam . eS
Grey loam. a:
Chalky Boulder Clay, very tough and hard . 2s
13
BH 17. In Oakley Park. Surface 101 feet above O.D.
Feet.
Gravelly sand 82
Gravelly loamy.sand (boring stopped by alar ge ‘stone before Boulder
Clay was reached) : , 5 3 ° : : : pe
BH 18. In Oakley Park, near the river Dove, and 8 feet above
the Alluvium level. Surface 86 feet above O.D.
Feet. *
Gravelly sand and a few stones Cee a all rainwash from the |
slope above) . 5 s
Chalky Boulder Clay (not ‘pierced) .
—_-
ON THE RELATION OF PALAOLITHIC MAN TO THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 415
BH 19. In Brickyard. Surface 104 feet above O,D. and 8 feet below
old surface.
Made ground . : - ; : ; F E :
A Light blue brickearth (base of A?) . - : ‘ : es
C Black loam : : : ‘ : - : - : .
f Hard green clay : : : : : :
E +} Green and black clay, quartz grains in lower part
| Carbonaceous clay and Chalk pebbles : F : 2
Chalky Boulder Clay, penetrated by small roots . ‘ spall
BH 20 and section in bank, in the Brickyard near the pug-mill.
Surface 111 feet above O.D.
Feet.
Gravelly sand 1 : e (6
A J Sand and sandy loamy “°°” 7? BBE: bala
Grey loam . : 6
C Carbonaceous loam and ‘plant remains, very black below
(perhaps base of A) : ; : : : ; ; > rk
{ Hard green clay : 3 : : : ; : : 5
: . : : : 1
ie
‘ | Green and black clay
Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. EH. J.
Garwoop (Secretary), and Mr. A. H. Foorp, appointed to study
the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks. (Drawn up by
Mr. GARwoob.)
Iy a paper read before the British Association at Ipswich, in 1895, two
of us called attention to the work of Dr. Waagen on the Upper Palzozoic
rocks of the Salt Range, and gave reasons for supposing that the Car-
boniferous rocks of Britain might be divided into zones.! In that paper
it was suggested ‘that a Committee be appointed to inquire into the
possibility of dividing the Carboniferous rocks into zones, to call the
_ attention of local observers to the desirability of collecting fossils with
this view, and, if possible, to retain the services of eminent specialists to
whom these fossils may be submitted.’ This Committee was appointed,
and the members thereof beg leave to submit their report.
The Committee believe that the following districts would furnish
good results, and recommend that those whose names are appended to
the various districts be asked to take charge of their particular districts
and to endeavour to carry out therein the objects of the Committee :—
England and Wales: Northumberland and the Border, Professor
G. A. Lebour ; Northern part of Pennine chain and adjoining regions,
Messrs. Garwood and Marr ; Southern part of ditto and adjoining regions,
Mr. P. F. Kendall and Dr. Wheelton Hind; North Wales, Mr. G. H.
1 See Rept. Brit. Assoc. 18965, p. 696.
416 REPORT—1896.
Morton ; South Wales, Mr. A. Strahan ; Devon, &c., Mr. Howard Fox
and Dr. G. J. Hinde.
Isle of Man: Mr. G. W. Lamplugh.
Scotland : Mr. B. N. Peach.
Treland : Mr. A. H. Foord.
The Committee recommend that the following directions for working
be communicated to the various workers :—
1. When possible, a typical measured section should be given of each
locality examined, with notes of as many confirmatory sections as possible.
2. Any specimen not actually found am sitw to be labelled to that
effect, with the exact conditions under which it was found noted.
3. All specimens should be labelled with the local name of the bed,
giving as many additional details as possible, and in all cases the exact
locality, which should further be noted on a large-scale map.
4, All specimens should be labelled when found.
5. So far as possible, workers are recommended to collect from one
bed at a time, and to pack the specimens from each bed in a separate
parcel before commencing to collect from another bed.
6. Attention should be paid to apparently identical forms separated
by many feet or yards of deposit, as the forms may be mutations ; large
suites of such specimens should be collected ; indeed—
7. As large a number of specimens as possible should be obtained of
each species in every bed examined.
8. Absence of fossils in any bed should be noted whenever possible.
9, Attempts should be made to record the relative abundance of
fossils, which may be roughly done by recording those which are very
rare (v. r.), rare (7.), common (c.), and very common (v. c.).
10. In case of beds being obviously rich in micro-organisms, large
pieces should be collected for future examination.
11. Considering the importance which cherts have assumed, it is very
desirable to collect specimens of cherts.
Specimens may be kept by the discoverers or forwarded to the
Secretary of the Committee (E. J. Garwood, Dryden Chambers, 119
Oxford Street, London, W.) on loan or for retention.
The Committee recommend that the names of those whom they have
mentioned as likely to undertake the charge of districts be added to the
Committee, and that the following paleontologists be asked to co-operate
with the other members, and to identify such fossils as may be submitted
to them, their names being also added (when not previously mentioned) to
those of the Committee :—Dr. G. J. Hinde (radiolaria and sponges), Pro-
fessor H. A. Nicholson (corals), Mr. J. W. Kirkby (entomostraca), Dr. H.
Woodward (other crustacea), Mr. F. A. Bather (echinoderms and brachio-
pods), Dr. Wheelton Hind and Mr. E. J. Garwood (lamellibranchs and
gastropods), Messrs. G. C. Crick and A. H. Foord (cephalopods), Dr.
R. H. Traquair (fish), and Mr. R. Kidston (plants).
The Committee recommend that a grant of 15/. be applied for in
order to pay for the services of collectors, who are to be under the direc-
tion of the Secretary of the Committee.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 417
The Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea.—-Fourth
and Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C.
Happon, Professor G. B. Howes, Mr. W. HE. Hoyie, Mr. CLE-
MENT ReEipD, Mr. G. W. Lampiuaa, Mr. I. C. Taompson, Dr. H. O.
Forses, Mr. A. O. WALKER, Professor IF’. E. WErss, and Professor
W. A. HerpMan (Chairman and Reporter).
Tus Committee have now been at work for four years. It is difficult, how-
ever, to dissociate this work from the previous and the contemporaneous
work carried on by the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee. Conse-
quently it will probably best serve the interests of science if this final
report be made to include references to all the work that has been done
of recent years on the marine fauna and flora of the Irish Sea.
HISTORICAL.
A good deal of exploring work in the Irish Sea has been done in the
past by Edward Forbes, McAndrew, Price, Byerley, Marrat, Moore, Hig-
gins, Collingwood, and others ; but the more modern investigations date
from the formation of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee in March
1885. After a year’s work on the investigation of the fauna and flora of
Liverpool Bay and the neighbouring seas, the Committee published in
January 1886 the first volume of ‘ Reports upon the Fauna of Liverpool
Bay.’ In this first volume they recorded all previous speciographic work
done in the district, and also the results of their own dredging and other
collecting expeditions, amounting in all to 913 species, of which 235 had
not been found before in the district (see fig. 1, p. 450).
During the second year’s work the Committee felt the need of a bio-
logical station near to one of their richer collecting grounds, and so the
Puffin Island Station was fitted up and opened in May 1887. At the end
of that year the first annual report was issued under the title of ‘The
Foundation and First Season’s Work of the Liverpool Marine Biological
Station, Puffin Island.’ From this time onwards an annual report on
the work of the L.M.B.C. has been published at the end of each year,
the ninth appearing in December 1895. The larger publications, the
volumes of the ‘Fauna,’ have appeared at intervals of three years—the
first in 1886, the second in 1889, the third in 1892, and the fourth in 1895.
The records in the second volume brought the number of known species
in the fauna up to 1,456, the third raised it to 1,685, and the fourth to
2,025. The total number to date is 2,133. Volume i. gives the record
of the investigations prior to the foundation of the biological station.
Volumes ii, and iii. record the observations made at Puffin Island ; while
volume iv. opens the account of the Port Erin Station.
In 1892 the Committee relinquished Puffin Island and built the new
Biological Station at a very much more convenient and richer locality,
Port Erin, at the south-west end of the Isle of Man. This establishment
was formally opened on June 4, 1892, by his Excellency Dr. Spencer
Walpole, Lieut.-Governor of the island. In the following year a second
building—the Aquarium—was added, and since then the institution has
1896. EE
418 REPORT—1896.
been constantly in use, and has proved increasingly useful each season,
both to members of the Committee and to other naturalists. Since the
opening of the Port Erin Station, in 1892, fifty-six biologists have paid
over 200 longer or shorter visits for the purpose of working at the marine
fauna and flora.
The British Association Committee for the investigation of the Marine
Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea were appointed in 1892,
and three previous reports have been submitted. The first, laid before
the Nottingham meeting in 1893, gave an account of the limits and more
prominent physical conditions of the area under investigation, with a brief
interim notice of the dredging expeditions undertaken during the year.
The second report, at the Oxford meeting in 1894, gave a fuller description
of the methods of work on one of the dredging expeditions, and also in-
cluded an account of the distribution of the submarine deposits of the
area, and a notice of the chief results of the year’s work, including some
new species. The third report, given last year at Ipswich, dealt chiefly with
the submarine deposits, the investigation of the surface currents, and with
the distribution of animals as shown from dredging statistics. The pre-
vious reports have all been provisional only, and in none of them have
more than a few of the more prominent of the animals obtained been
mentioned. In this final report, consequently, we give for the first time
a complete list of all the species we have been able to record from our area
of the Irish Sea ; and to render this list more useful we append to each
name a brief reference to the volume and page of the report or paper in
which the species was recorded. First, however, we give a brief account
of the work of the past year, so as to complete the record of our collecting
expeditions.
THE YEAR'S WORK.
Since September 1895 the Committee have organised eight dredging
expeditions, nearly all in steamers, as follows :—
I. October 27, 1895.—Hired steamer ‘Rose Ann.’ Localities dredged
and trawled :—off Port Erin and along S.E. side of Isle of Man, from
the Calf Sound to Langness, at depths of 15 to 20 fathoms.
II. November 24, 1895.—Small boats. Localities dredged :—Port
Erin Bay, in depths up to 7 fathoms.
III. February 2, 1896.—Hired steamer ‘Rose Ann.’ Localities dredged
and trawled :—through the Calf Sound, and off its eastern and western
ends, at depths of 16 to 20 fathoms.
IV. March 14, 1896.—Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.? Off Port
Erin.
V. April 5, 1896.—Hired steamer ‘Rose Ann.’ Localities trawled :—
out in the deep channel, 12 miles S.W. of Calf; bottom reamy mud, with
many spawning fish; depths 40 to 50 fathoms.
VI. April 21-24, 1896.—Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.’ Localities
trawled :—deep channel, 12 miles S.W. of Calf, and further north to
opposite Port Erin ; also west of Dalby, 8 miles off ; reamy bottom; depths
20 to 40 fathoms.
VII. May 29 and 30, 1896.—Sea Fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.’
Localities :—estuary of the Wyre and around Piel Island, in Barrow
Channel ; shallow water.
VIII. August 31, 1896.—Mr. Woodall’s 8. Y. ‘ Vallota.’ Localities
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA, At9
dredged and trawled :—between Port Erin and Calf Island ; depth 17 to
22 fathoms.
Two of these expeditions—those at Easter in the ‘ Rose Ann, and at
the end of April in the ‘John Fell’—were particularly successful, and
resulted in the capture of a number of new and interesting species.
Amongst these is a large green Gephyrean worm, which is either Thalas-
sema gigas, M. Miller, or a new species of Thalassema with a remarkable
pigment ; and a Cumacean, for which a new genus is necessary.
Additions have been made during the year to most of the groups of
invertebrate animals, and these will be found noted in the lists below i
but Mr. A. O. Walker has prepared the following special account of the
higher Crustacea obtained on these expeditions: —
The following species of Crustacea MALacostraca have been added '
to the fauna since the last report. Nearly all were dredged off the S. end
of the Isle of Man in the ‘John Fell’ expedition, from April 22 to 24,
1896.
PopopHTHaLMA :—Portunus corrugatus (Pennant).—8.E. of Calf
Sound, 26 fathoms.
Nika edulis, Risso.—Co. Down Coast (Ascroft). From stomach of
whiting, 12 m. S.W. of Chicken Rock, 33 fathoms.
Scuizopopa :—Lrythrops serrata, G. O. Sars ; 12 m. S.W. of Chicken
Rock, 33 fathoms.
Siriella armata (M. Edw.). Port Erin harbour, April 1896.
Cumacea :—Fam. Leuconide.
Leuconopsis, n. gen.
Female with a distinct two-jointed appendage to the fourth pair of
feet, not furnished with natatory sete. Lower antenne short, with the
third joint conical, with a minute one-jointed rudimentary flagellum,
Rami of uropoda subequal.
Male with the third pair of feet each provided on the second joint
with a pair of curved blade-like processes.
Remaining characters as in Leucon.
Leuconopsis ensifer, n. sp.
Female :—Carapace about as long as the free thoracic segments, dorsal
crest of fourteen teeth beginning about the middle of the upper margin, and
curving down to the base of the rostrum; a small tooth on the upper and
near the posterior margin ; lower margin with the anterior half coarsely
toothed, and forming with the anterior margin an acute angle, the upper
portion of which is finely toothed. Rostrum about quarter the length of
the carapace, obliquely truncate, almost horizontal ; lower margin with
two or three teeth near the extremity and two or three near the base.
Fourth pair of legs with an exopodite or imperfect natatory appendage,
two-jointed, reaching nearly to the end of the first joint, which is
almost as long as the remaining four.
Telson triangular, as in Lewcon.
Uropoda with peduncle and both rami subequal in length ; peduncle
almost spineless, inner ramus with six unequal spines on the inner and
two on the outer side of the first joint ; second joint with two very short
and slender spines on the inside ; outer ramus obliquely truncate, with five
plumose seté on the inner side and four at the end. Length 5} mm.
Male :—Upper margin of carapace as long as the free segments ; lower
EE2
420 REPORT—1896.
margin with five or six teeth on the anterior half increasing in size an-
teriorly, forming a right angle with the anterior margin which has five
teeth just below the rostrum, the second from the rostrum being the
largest ; rostrum horizontal, blunt, about one-sixth the length of the cara-
pace, with five small teeth on the lower margin.
First pair of legs with seven teeth on the lower margin of the first
joint.. Second pair with a large spine at the distal end of the second,
and two unequally long spines at the end of the third joint. Third pair
with an appendage on the second joint, consisting of two parallel curved
blades, twice as long as the succeeding three joints. Length 8} mm.
The above interesting species has a general resemblance to Lewcon,
from which genus, however, it may be at once distinguished by the ap-
pendages on the fourth pair of legs in the female and the third pair in the
male. It was taken in the tow net attached to the back of the trawl
net on April 22, 12 m. S.W. of Chicken Rock, 33 fathoms.
Eudorella emarginata (Kréyer).—One female. Same locality as last.
Campylaspis glabra, G. O. Sars.—Three specimens, from same locality
as last. A Mediterranean species, not previously recorded from British
Seas. I have specimens taken by Mr. Ascroft off the Ile d’Yeu.
AmpPHIPoDA :—WNormanion quadrimanus (Bate and Westwood).—One
small specimen ; length 2 mm., 6 miles W.S.W. of Calf, 23 fathoms.
Stenothoé crassicornis, n. sp.—Three males. Same locality as last.
Mandibles without a palp.
Maxillipedes with the basal lobe very small, divided to its base.
Antenne stout, the flagellum of the lower but little longer than the
last joint of the peduncle ; its first joint almost as long as the remaining
four together.
First gnathopods as in S. marina.
Second gnathopods with the palm of the propodos defined near the
base by a triangular tooth, the distal extremity expanded and cut into
four blunt lobes, of which the proximal is much the largest ; dactylus
with a prominence on the inner margin, coinciding with the palmar lobus.
Perzopods short and strong, the third (meros) joint in the last three
pairs much produced backwards, as in Proboliwm calearatum, G. O. Sars.
Third uropods with four spines on the upper surface of the peduncle,
which is twice as long as the first joint of the ramus.
Telson with three pairs of dorsal spines on its proximal half, the first
pair the smallest. Length 2 mm.
In the form of the hand of the second gnathopods this species ap-
proaches S. tenella, G. O. S., and S. Dollfusi, Chevreux ; but both these
(perhaps identical) species are remarkable for the length and slenderness
of their antennz and perzeopods.
Halimedon parvimanus, Sp. Bate.—Five or six specimens, 12 m. S.W.
of Chicken Rock, 33 fathoms.
Argissa hamatipes (Norman) =Syrrhoé hamatipes, Norman, ‘ Brit. Ass.
Rep.,’ 1868 (1869), p. 279.
Same locality as last.—Two females, one with ova, 2 mm. long.
Prof. G. O. Sars, with some hesitation, follows Boeck in placing Argissa
among the Pontoporeiidz, but there can be little doubt that Canon A. M.
Norman was right in classing it with the Syrrhoide.
Gammarus campylops, Leach,—Brackish pond near Colwyn Bay ; also
Port Erin harbour.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 421
LIST OF THE SPECIES RECORDED FROM THE
IRISH SEA AREA.
The species in this list are given in zoological order, commencing with
the Alge and the Protozoa, and each name is followed by a brief
reference to the volume and page of the L.M.B.C. publications in which
the species was recorded or described. The following contractions have
been made use of :—The four published volumes of the ‘ Fauna of
Liverpool Bay’ are indicated as i., il, iii, iv. The L.M.B.C. ‘Annual
Reports’ are indicated as Ist to 10th A.R. The ‘Transactions’ of the
Liverpool Biological Society are referred to as T.L.B.8., I., &c. Species
which have been found recently, but of which the record has not yet been
published, are followed by 10th A.R. to indicate the Annual Report which
will appear in December 1896.
The Committee are indebted to some of the Liverpool Marine Biology
Committee and other naturalists, who have worked at Port Erin, and
have written reports upon the marine fauna, for compiling or supervising
the compilation of the following lists :—
LIST OF THE DIATOMACEA.
[See Report by HENRY STOLTERFOTH, M.D., &c., in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. ii.]
Achnanthes brevipes, Ag. Campylodiscus bicostatus, W. Sm.
A. longipes, Ag. C. eribrosus, W. Sm.
A. subsessilis, Ehr. Cestodiscus johnsonianum, Greg.
Actinocyclus crassus, W. Sm. Chetoceros armatum, West.
A. Ralfsii, W. Sm. C. boreale, Bail.
Actinoptychus splendens (Shad), Ralfs. C. paradvxum, Cleve.
A. undulatus, Ehr. C. Wighamii, Brightw.
Amphiprora alata, Kiitz. Cocconeis scutellum.
A. paludosa, Greg. C. britannica, Neegeli.
A, plicata, Greg. C. eecentrica, Dn.
A. pusilla, Greg. Coscinodiscus asteromphalus, Grun.
A. viirea, Greg. C. concinnus, W. Sm,
Amphora affinis, Kiitz. C. eecentricus, Ebr.
A. binodis, Greg. C. fimbriatus, Ehy.
A. commutata, Grun. C. obscurus, Schmidt.
A. complexa, Greg. U. radiatus, Eby.
A. hyalina, Kiitz. Cymbella scotica, W. Sm.
A. levis, Greg. Dicheia alvoides, Berk.
A. litoralis, Dn. | Dimeregramma nanun, Greg.
A. membranacea, W. Sm. Epithemia constricta, Greg.
A. minutissima, Gray BL. gibba, Kitz.
A. salina, W. Sm. ; E. turgida, W. Sm.
A. spectabilis, Greg. Eucampia zodiacus, Ebr.
A. ventricosa, Greg. EE. striata, Stolt.
Asterionella Bleakleyii, W. Sra. Eupodiscus argus, Ehr.
A. Ralfsii, W. Sm. Gomphonema marinum, W. Sm.
Atheya decora, West. Grammalophora marina, Kiitz.
Bactereastrum varians, Lauder. G. serpentaria, Kiitz.
Berkileya obtusa, Grev. Hantzschia virgata, Grun.
Biddulphia aurita, Breb. Hyalodiseus stelliger, Bail.
B. Baileyiit, W. Sm. Hi, scoticus, Grun.
B. obtusa, Kiitz. Lauderia delicatula, Peragello.
B. granulata, Roper. Liemophora gracilis, Grun.
B. radiatus, Greg. L. anglica, Grun.
B. rhombus, W. Sm. L. dalmatica, Kiitz.
B. suborbicularis, Gran. Mastogloia lanceolata, Th.
B. turgida, W. Sm. M. Smithii, Th.
422
Melosivra borreri, Grev.
M. nummutoides, Bory.
M. sulcata, Ehr.
M. Westii, W. Sm.
Navicula abrupta, Greg.
LV. estiva, Dn.
LV. affinis, Ehr.
NV. aspera, Ehr.
NV. Boechii, Herberg.
NV. bombus, Ehr.
NV, carassius, Bhr.
NV. clepsydra, Eby.
NV. crabro, Ehr.
NV. cyprinus, Ehr.
NV. didyma, Ebr.
NV. distans, W. Sm.
NV. fortis, Greg.
N. fusca, Greg.
NV. fusiformis, Grun.
NV. granulata, Breb.
LV. interrupta, Kitz.
LV. Johnsonii, Greg.
NV. litoralis, Dn.
LV. lyra, Ebr.
LV. marina, Greg.
NV. northumbrica, Dn.
NV. numerosa, Dn.
NV. palpebralis, Breb.
NV. peregrina, Dn.
LV. pusilla, W. Sm.
NV. pygmed, Kiitz.
LV. rectangulata, Greg.
NV. rostrata, Ehr.
LV. semiplena, Greg.
NV. suborbicularis, Greg.
LV. subsalina, Dn.
NV. venata, Kiitz.
NV. Westii, Greg.
Nitzschia bilobata, W. Sm.
LV. birostrata, W. Sm.
NV. closterium, W. Sm.
NV. distans, Greg.
NV. granulata, W. Sm.
NV. lanceolata, W. Sm.
NV. notabilis, Grun.
LV. obtusa, W. Sm.
N. panduriformis, Greg.
NV. (Bacillaria) paradoxa, Gm
NV. plana, W. Sm.
NV. punctata, Grun.
QV. reversa, W. Sm.
NV. sigma, W. Sm.
NV. scalaris, W. Sm.
NV. tenia, W. Sm.
NV. tryblionella, Hantz.
Plagioaramma gregorianum, Grev.
REPORT—1896.
| Plagiogramma van-Heurchii, Grun.
Pleurosigma aestuarii, W. Sm.
P. angulatum, W. Sm.
P. balticum, W. Sm.
P. delicatulum, W. Sm.
P. distortum, W. Sm.
P. elongatum, W. Sm.
P. fasciola, W. Sm.
P. formosum, W. Sm.
P. hippocampus, W. Sm.
P. litorale, W. Sm.
P. marinum, W. Sm.
P. obscurum, W. Sm.
P. prolongatum, W. Sm.
P. scalprum, W. Sm.
P. strigilis, W. Sm.
P. strigosum, W. Sm.
P. tenuissimum, Greg.
P. transversale, Roper.
Rhabdonema arcuatum, Kiitz.
R. minutum, Kiitz.
Rhaphoneis amphiceros, Ehr.
Do. many varieties of this species.
Rhizosolenia imbricata, Brightw.
R. setigera, Brightw.
i. styliformis, Brightw.
R. Wighamia, Brightw.
Schizonema crucigera, W. Sm.
S. eximium, Th.
S. helmintosum, Greg.
S. vulgare, Th.
Scoliopleura latistriata, Breb,
S. tumida, Breb.
Skeltonema costatum, Grun.
Stauroneis acuta, W. Sm.
S. salina, W. Sm.
S. linearis, W. Sm.
Stephanopyxis turris, Grev.
Striatella unipunctata, Ac.
Surirella constricta, W. Sm.
S. erumeéena, Breb.
S. gemma, Ehr.
S. fastwosa, Ehr.
S. salina, W. Sm.
S. splendida, Kiitz.
S. striatula, Turp.
Synedra affinis, Kiitz., var. arcus, Kiitz.
S. fulgens, Kiitz.
S. Gallionii, Ehr.
S. obtusa, W. Sm.
S. pulchella, var. acicularis, Kiitz.
Toxonidia gregoriana, Dn.
T. insignis, Dn.
Triceratium Brightwellii, West.
T. favus, Ehy.
T. striolatus, Ehr.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY
OF THE IRISH SEA. 423
LIST OF THE MARINE ALG.
[See Reports by Professor R. J. HARVEY Gipson, M.A., F.L,S., in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i.
p. 1, and vol. iii. p. 65.]
CYANOPHYCE.
Ord. CHROOCOCCACE.
Glaocapsa crepidinum, Thur. ii.
iii. 90.
Ord. CHAMASIPHONACES.
Dermocarpa prasina, Born. iii.7, A. R.
iv., lii. 86, 91.
D. schousbai, Born.
Ord. OSCILLARIACE.
Spirulina tenuissima, Kitz. iii. 86, 91.
S. pseudotenvissima, Crn. iii. 86, 91.
Oseillaria nigroviridis, Thw. ii. 27,
iii. 91.
O. coralline, Gow. ii. 27, iii. 91.
Phormidium papyraceum, Gom. ii. 27
{as Osc. spiralis), iii. 91.
Lyngbya semiplena, J. Ag, ii. 27, ili. 91.
ili. 86, 91.
27, |
Lyngbya estuarii, Liebm. ii. 27, iii. 91.
LL. majuscula, Harv. ii. 27, iii. 91.
L. spectabilis, Thur. in herb. iii. 91.
Symploca hydnoides, Witz, iii. 91.
Microcoleus chthonoplastes, Thur. ii. 27,
lii. 92.
Rivularia biasvlettiana, Menegh. ii. 26,
ili, 92.
R. atra, Roth. B. ii. 26, iii, 92.
Calothrix confervicola, C. Ag. ii. 26,
qs 92.
C. pulvinata, C. Ag.
C. scopulorum, C. Ag.
Ord. NOSTOCACEA.
Anabena torulosa, Lagerh. ii. 26, iii. 92.
Nodularia harveyana, Thur, iii. 92.
iil. 92.
ii. 26, iii. 92.
CHLOROPHYCEZ.
Ord. BLASTOSPORACEZ, Urospora collabens, H. and B. iii. 94.
Prasiola stipitata, Subr. A. R. iv. 8, Chatomorpha tortwuosa, Kiitz. ii. 24,
lili. 92. iii. 96.
Ord. ULVACE. | Ch. linwm, Kiitz. ii. 24 (as Conf.
Monostroma grevillei, J. Ag. ii. 22, | crassa), 26 (as Conferva sutoria,
iii, 92.
Diplonema confervoides,
Batt. iii. 92.
Enteromorpha clathrata, J. Ag.
iii. 93.
#. ralfsii, Harv. ii. 23, iii. 93.
#. erecta, J. Ag. ii. 23, iii. 93.
#. ramulosa, Harv. i. 24, ii. 23, ili. 93.
Holm. and
ii. 23,
HE. percursa, C. Ag. var. ramosa, J. Ag. |
li. 23 (as H. percursa), iii. 93.
EB. compressa, Grev. i. 24, ii.23, iii. 93. |
#. linza, J. Ag. i. 25, ii. 23, ili. 93.
LE. intestinalis, Link. i. 24, ii. 23, iii. 93.
#. canaliculata, Batt. iii. 93.
Ulva latissima. i. 314, ii. 22 (as U.
lactuca, var. genwina), iii. 93.
Ord. ULOTHRICHACK A.
Ulothrix impleaa, Kiitz, ii.
Rhizoclonium), iii 93.
U. isogona, Thur. ii. 24.
Ord. CHA®TOPHORACE,
Entoderma wittrochii, Wille. A. R. iv. 7, |
iii. 93.
LE. flustra, Rke. A. R. iv. 7, iii. 93.
Ord. CLADOPHORACEA.
Urospora pencilliformis, Aresch. ii. 26
(as Conferva youngana), iii. 94.
U. flacea, H. and B. ii. 24 (as U.
flacca), iii. 94.
TU. bangioides, H. and B. iii. 94.
24 (as |
Phye. Brit.), iii. 96.
Ch. melagoniwm, Kiitz. ii. 23, iii. 96.
Ch. erea, Kiitz. ii. 24, iii. 97.
Ch. litorea, H. and B, , ii. 26 (as Con-
ferva litorea.)
Ehizoclonium viparium, Harv.
li, 24, iii. 97.
Rh. tortuosum, Witz. ii. 24.
th. arenosa, Kitz. 11.25 (as Conferva
arenosa).
Rh. casparyt, Harv. iii, 118.
Cladophora pellucida, Witz. A.R.iv.8,
rite to) f(-
C. hutchinsia, Kitz. ii. 24, 25,(as C.
diffusa), iii. 97.
C. utriculosa, Wiitz. var. latevirens,
Hauck. 1.25(as spec.), li. 25, iii. 97.
C.rupestris, Kiitz. 1.25, 11. 24, 11. 12,97.
C. glaucescens, Griff. iii. 97.
C. fracta, Kiitz. ii. 25, iii. 97.
C. flexuosa, Griff. i, 24,11. 25, iii. 97.
C. albida, Kiitz. ii. 25, iii. 97. var.
refracta, H.and B. ii.25 (as spec.),
lii. 97.
C. arcta, Kitz.
C. lanosa, Kiitz.
uneialis, Thur,
iii. 97.
C. rudolphiana, Kiitz. ii. 25, iii, 118,
C. gracilis, Kitz. ii. 25.
i. 24,
ii. 24, ili. 97.
li. 25, iii. 97. var.
ii. 25 (as spec.),
424, REPORT—1896.
Ord. BRYOPSIDACE. Vaucheria Thuretii, Wor. ii. 22, iii.
Bryopsis hypnoides, Lamx. 1.25, iii. 98. 98.
B. plumosa, C. Ag. i. 25, ii. 25, 111.98. | Ord. CODIACEZ.
Ord. VAUCHERIACE. Codium tomentosum, Stackh. ii. 22,
Vaucheria dichotoma, lLyngb. var. ili. 98.
marina, C. Ag. ii. 22, ili. 98.
f
PH ZOPHYCE..
Ord. DESMARESTIACEZ. Sphacelaria cirrhosa, C. Ag. i. 25, ii.
Desmarestia viridis, Lamx. i.313, ii. 21, 19, iii. 100. var. fusca, H. and B.
ili. 98. j. 25, 11. 19 (as spec.), iii. 100.
D. aculeata, Lamx. i. 25, 313, ii. 21, S. plumigera, Holm. iii. 100.
iii. 98. Chetopteris plumosa, Kitz, i, 25, 313
D. ligulata, Lamx. iii. 98. | (as Sphacelaria), ii. 19, iii. 100.
Ord, DICTYOSIPHONACE®. Halopteris filicina, Kitz. iii. 101.
Dictyosiphon faniculaceus, Grey. ii.20, | Stypocaulon scoparium, Kiitz. i. 25,
lii. 98. ii. 7 (as Sphacelaria), 19, iii. 101.
Ord. PUNCTARIACE. Cladostephus spongiosus, C. Ag. 1. 24,
Litosiphon pusillus, Harv. ii. 21, A. R. BLS,.16, Coad, w1., LO
iv. 8, iii. 98. C. verticillatus, C. Ag. i. 24, ii. 19,
L. laminarie, Harv. ii. 21, iii. 118. iii. 101,
Stictyosiphon subarticulatus, Hauck. | Ord. MYRIONEMACEZ.
iii. 99. ; Myrionema strangulans, Grey. ii. 18
Punctaria plantaginea, Grey. ii. 20, (as M. vulgare), ii. 101. var.
iii. 99. punctiforme, Thur. ii. 18 (as
P. latifolia, Grev. i. 313, ii. 20, iii. 99. spec ), ili. 101.
var. zoster@, Le Jol. iii. 99, A. R. Ascocyclus leclancherii, Magn. ii. 18
iv. 8 (as P, tenwissima). (as Myrionema), iii. 101.
Striaria attenuata, Grev. iii. 118. A. reytans, Rke. A. R. iv. 8, iii. 101.
Ord. ASPEROCOCCACE. Ralfsia verrucosa, Aresch. ii. 22,
Myriotrichia claveformis, Harv. ii. 19, A. R. iv. 7,1. LOT.
lii.99. var. jfiliformis, Farl. ii. 19 | Ord. CHORDARIACEA.
(as spec.), ili. 99. Chordaria flagelliformis, C. Ag. 1. 25,
Asperocuccus echinatus, Grey. i. 25, li. 20, iii. 101.
li. 21, 111. 99. var. vermicularis, Griff. Mesoglaa vermiculata, Le Jol. ii. 20,
iii, 99. iii. 101.
A. bulbosus, Lamx. ii. 21 (as A. M. verticillata, Ag. ii. 20.
turneri), iii. 118. Caustagnea virescens, Thur, ii. 20, ii. 101.
Streblonema velutinum, Thur. ii. 18 (as | Lcathesia difformis, Aresch, iti. 20 (as
Hetocarpus), iii. 99. L. umbellata), iii. 101,
Ectocarpus terminalis, Kiitz. A. R. | Ord. ScyTosIPHONACE®.
iv. 8, ili. 99. Phyllitis zosterifolia, Rke. iii, 101.
LE. confervoides, Le Jol. var. sivicu- Ph. fascia, Wiitz. ii. 21.
losus, Kjell. ii. 18, iii. 99. Seytosiphon lomentarius, J. Ag. ii. 21,
E. fasciculatus, Harv. ii. 18, iii. 99. lii. 102.
LE. tomentosus, Lyngb. ii, 18, iii. 99. | Ord. CHORDACE AB.
E. granulosus, C. Ag. ii. 19, iii. 99. Chorda filum, Stackh. ii, 21, iii. 102.
£. crinitus, Carm, ii. 18. Ord. LAMINARIACEA,
FE. hincksie, Harv. ii. 19. Laminaria saccharina, Lamx. i. 313,
Isthmoplea spherophora, Kjell. A. ht. li. 22, iii. 102.
iv. 8, iii. 100. L. hieroglyphica,J.Ag. var. phyllitis,
Pylaicila litoralis, Kjell. ii. 19 (as Le Jol. ii. 22, iii. 102.
Ectocarpus), iii. 100. L. digitata, Hdm. i, 318, ii. 6, 21, iii.
Ord. ARTHROCLADIACE®, 102.
Arthrocladia villosa, Duby. iii. 100, L. hyperborea, Fos. iii. 8 (A. R. iv.
Ord. ELACHISTACE A. 8), 102.
Hlachistu scutulata, Duby. ii. 20, iii. Saechorhiza bulbosa, De la Pyl. iii.
100. 102.
LE. fucicola, Fries. ii. 20, iii. 100. Alaria esculenta, Grev. ii. 22, iii.
E. flaccida, Avesch. ii. 20, iii. 100. 102.
Ord. SPHACELARIACE. Surgassum linifolium, C. Ag. ix 17,
Sphacclaria radicans, Harv. ii. 19, iii. wi SE
100, A. R. iv. 8.
K
2
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 425
Ord. SPOROCHNACEX.
Sporochnus pedunculatus, C. Ag. iii.
102.
Ord. CUTLERIACEZ.
Cutleria multifida, Grev.
103.
Wu. 22, ii.
Aglaozonia parvula, Zan. ii. 22, iii.
119.
Ord. FUCACE2.
Fucus ceranvides, Linn. iii. 103.
F. vesiculosus, Linn. i. 312, ii. 17, iii.
10, 20, 103.
F. serratus, Linn,
10, 20, 103.
F. platycarpus, Thur. ii. 17, iii. 103.
Ascophyllum nodosum, Le Jol. i. 312.
(as Fucus), ii. 15, 17, iii. 10, 11, 20
Vaol2yalt, Wet, Lit.
(as Fueus), 103. var. scorpioides,
Hauck, ii. 17, iii. 119.
Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb.
20, iii. 11, 1038.
Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb. 24, 112,
312; ii. 11 (as Fucus), 17, i lii. 103.
Pelvetia canaliculata, Decne et Thur.
ii. 17 (as Fucus), ii. 103.
Cystoseira, sp. ii. 17, 20, iii. 119.
Ord. DICTYOTACE A.
Dictyota dichotoma, Lamx. i. 313, ii.
18, iii, 104. var. implewa, J. =
iii. 104. var. intricata. iii.8 (A. R
iv.).
Taonia atomaria, J. Ag. iii. 104.
Dietyopteris pols ypodivides, Lamx. iii.
119.
1, Li 18,
RHODOPHYCE.X.
Ord. PORPHYRACES.
Porphyra laciniata, C. Ag. i. 24, ii.
5, 8 (as P. vulgaris), iii. 104.
Bangia Suscopurpurea, Lyngb.
iii. 104.
Ord. HELMINTHOCLADIACE®.
Chantransia virgatula, Thur.
104.
Ch. secundata, Thur. iii. 8 (A. R. iv.),
104.
Ch. daviesii, Thur.
thamnion), iii. 104.
Helminthocladia purpurea, J. Ag. iii.
104.
Helminthora divaricata, J. Ag. iii. 105.
Nemalion multifidum, J. Ag. ii. 6, iil.
119.
Ord. GELIDIACE.
Naccaria wiggii, End. ii. 6, iii. 105.
Gelidium corneum, Lamx. i. 24, ii
12, iii. 105.
G. crinale, J. Ag.
Ord. GIGARTINACEH.
Chondrus crispus, Stackh.
ii. 9, iii. 12, 105.
Gigartina mamillosa, J. Ag. ii. 10,
iii. 105.
Phyllophora vubens, Grev.
15, iii. 105.
P. membranifolia, J. Ag. i, 24, i1. 10,
iii. 105.
P. traillii, H. and B.
iv.), 105.
P. palmettoides, J. Ag. iii. 105.
Gymnogongrus griffithsie, Mart. ii.
10, iii. 105.
G. norvegicus, J. Ag. 11.10 (as Chon-
drus), tii. 105.
Ahnfeldtia plicata, Fries.
iv.), 105.
Callophyllis laciniata, Witz. ii. 11
(as Rhodymenia), iii. 106,
ii. 3,
ii. 5, ili.
ii. 7 (as Calli-
ii. 13, iii. 105.
i. 25, 313,
i, 24, ii. 10,
iii. 8 (A. B.
iii. 7 (A. R.
Ord. RHODOPHYLLIDACE.
Cystoclonium purpurascens, Kiitz. i.
24 (as Hypnea), ii. 11, iii. 106.
Catenella opuntia, Grev. i. 313, ii. 12,
iii. 8 (A. R. iv.), 106.
Rhodophyllis bifida, Kiitz. ii, 10 (as
Rhodymenia), tii. 107.
Ord. SPH ZZROCOCCACEA.
Spherococcus coronopifolius, Grey. il.
12, iii. 107.
Gracilaria confervoides, Grev. 1. 25,
iis L2, 10,107.
Calliblepharis ciliata, Kiitz. i. 24, ii.
10 (as Rhodymenia), iii. 8 (A. R. iv.),
107.
C. jubata, Kiitz, iii. 7 (A. BR. iv.),
107.
Ord. RHODYMENIACE 4,
Rhodymenia palmata, Grev.
iii. 108.
Rh. palmetta, Grev.
iii. 108.
Lomentaria articulata, Lyngb. ii. &
(as Chylocladia), 11, iii. 12, 108.
L. elavellosa, Gaill. iii. 108.
Champia parvula, Harv. iii. 108.
ii. 11, 18,
TERRIERS Wire)
Chylocladia halifor mis, Grev. ii. 13
(as Lomentaria), ili. 108.
Ch. ovalis, Hook, iii. 108.
Plocamium coccineum, Lyngb. 1. 313,
ii. 10, iii. 108.
Microcladia glandulosa, Grev. iii. 120.
Euthora cristata, J. Ag. iii. 120.
Ord. DELESSERIACE A,
Nitophyllum punctatum, Grev.
iii. 108.
NV. laceratum, Grey.
Delesseria alata, Larx.
iii, 108.
D.sinuosa, Lamx, i. 24,ii.12, iii.108.
D. hypoglossum, Lamx. ii. 12, iii. 109.
Dz ruscifolia, Lamx. ii. 12, iti, 109.
ii. 12,
ii. 12, iii. 108.
i, 24, 11. 12,
426
Delesseria sanguinea, Lamx. i. 24, ii.
10 (as Hydrolapathum), iii. 109.
Ord. BONNEMAISONIACEZ,
Bonnemaisonia asparagoides, C. Ag.
ii. 14, iii. 109.
Ord. RHODOMELACE®,
Bostrychia scorpioides, Mont. iii. 109.
Rhodometa subfusca, C. Ag. i, 25, ii. 13,
iii. 109.
Rh. lycopodioides, C. Ag.
109.
Odonthalia dentata, Lyngb. ii. 13,
ili. 109.
Laurencia obtusa, Lamx.
L. hybrida, Lenorm.
ii. 13, iii.
lii. 109.
iii. 109.
L. pinnatifida, Lamx. ii. 13, iii. 109. |
Chondria tenuissima, C. Ag. iii. 109.
Polysiphonia sertularioides, J. Ag. ii.
14 (as P. pulvinata), iii. 110.
P. fibrata, Harv. ii. 14, iii. 110.
P. urceolata, Grev. ii. 14, iii. 110.
var. patens, J. Ag. iii. 110. var.
formosa, J. Ag. i. 313, ii. 15 (as
species), iii. 110.
P. elongella, Harv.
P. elongata, Grev.
P. violacea, Wyatt.
P, fibrillosa, Grev.
ii. 14, iii. 110.
ii. 14, iii. 110.
ii. 14, iii. 110.
i. 313, ii. 15, iii.
110.
P. fastigiata, Grev. i. 313, ii. 15, iii.
110.
P. atrorubescens, Grey. iii. 110.
P. variegata, Zan. ii. 14.
P. nigrescens, Grev. ii. 14, iii. 111.
P. parasitica, Grey. iii. 111.
P. byssoides, Grev,
Talila
P. brodiwi, Grev. ii. 14, iii. 111.
P. thuyoides, Harv. ii. 14 (as Rhyti-
phlea), iii. 111.
P. fruticulosa, Spreng. ii.
Rhytiphlea), iii. 111.
Dasya coccinea, C. Ag.
iii, 111.
D. arbuscula, C. Ag. iii. 111.
D. ocellata, Harv. iii. 111.
Rhytiphiea pinnastroides, Harv. iii.
120.
Ord. CERAMIACE®.
Sphondylothamnion multifidum, Nig.
iii. 111.
Spermothamnion turneri, Aresch. ii. 6,
iii. 111. var. vepens, Le Jol. iii.
ala iii
Griffithsia corallina, C. Ag. i.
ii. 8, iii. 111.
G. setacea, C. Ag.
(A. R. iv.), 112.
G. barbata, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii. 119.
Haluwrus equisetifolius, Kiitz. i. 25,
ii. 8 (as Griffithsia), iii. 112.
Monospora pedicellata, Solier. i. 314
(as Callithamnion), ii. 6, iii. 112.
i. 313, ii. 14, iii.
14 (as
i, 313, ii. 15,
314,
eae DENG, ais
REPORT—1896.
Pleonosporium borreri, Nag.
Callithamnion), iii. 112.
Rhodochorton rothii, Nag. ii. 6, iii. 112.
Rh. floridulum, Nig. ii. 6, iii. 112.
Rh. membranaceum, Mag. iii. 8.
(A. R. iv.), 112.
Eh. seiriolanum, Gibs.
iv.), 112.
Callithamnion polyspermum, C. Ag.
“ii. 6, lil. 113.
C. byssoideum, Arn. ii. 7.
C. roseum, Harv. ii. 7, iii. 113.
C. hookeri, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii, 113.
C. brodiai, Harv. iii. 119.
C. arbuscula, Lyngb. iii. 113.
C. tetragonum, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii. 113.
var. brachiatum, J. Ag. ii. 7, iii.
113.
C. corymbosum, Lyngb. ii.
(A. R. iv.), 113.
C. granulatum, C. Ag. ii. 7, iii. 118.
C. seirospermum, Griff. ii. 7, iii. 113.
Compsothamnion thuyoides, Schm, ii.
6 (as Callithamnion), iii. 113.
C. gracillimum, Schm. iii. 8 (A. R.
iv,), 113.
C. pluma, C. Ag.
Ptilota plumosa, C. Ag. i.
Ds Sy edie lise
Plumaria elegans, Schm.
Ptilota), iii. 114.
Antithamnion cruciatum, Nig. ii. 6,
iii. 114.
A. plumula, Thur. ii. 6, iii. 114.
Spyridea filamentosa, Harv. ii. 10,
iii. 114.
Ceramiwm tenuissimum, J. Ag.
iii. 114.
C. fastigiatum, Harv. ii. 8, iii. 114.
C. deslongchampsii, Chauy. i. 24, ii.
8,18, iii. 114.
C. strictum, Harv. ii. 9, iii, 114.
var. divaricata, H.and B. ii. 9 (as
C. diaphanumy), iii. 114.
C. circinatum, J. Ag. ii. 9 (as C.
decurrens), iii. 114. ‘
C. rubrum, C. Ag. i, 24, 314, ii. 5, 7,
8, 9, 18, iii. 114. var. proliferwm,
J. Ag. iii 114,
C. ciliatum, Ducluz. ii. 9, iii. 114.
C. echionotum, J. Ag. ii. 9, iii. 114.
C. flabelligerum, J. Ag. ii. 9, iii. 115,
C. acanthonotum, Carm. ii. 9, iii. 7
(CAGR, iv), dub:
Ord. GL@OsSIPHONIACE®.
Glaosiphonia capillaris, Carm. ii. 9,
I, U5,
Ord. GRATELOUPIACEA.
Halymenia ligulata, 0. Ag.
Ord. DUMONTIACHA,
Dumontia filiformis, Lamx,
ili, 115.
Dilsea edulis,Stackh. i.25(as Iridea),
ii. 10 (as Sarcophyllis), iii. 115.
ii. 7 (as
i?’ (A. RB,
Liege 7
ii, 6, Wino.
25, 314,
i. 5, ii. 8 (as
ii. 8,
iii. 115.
1. 24, 11. 9,
4
—
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA.
Ord. NEMASTOMACE,
Furcellaria fastigiata, Lamx. ii. 10, |
24 (as Fastigiaria), iii. 115.
Ord. RHIZOPHYLLIDACES.
Polyides rotundus, Grev. ii. 13 (as
P. lumbricalis), iii. 7 (A. RB. iv.),
115.
Ord. SQUAMARIACE®.
Petrocelis cruenta, J. Ag. ii. 5 (as
P. pellita), iii. 115.
Peyssonnelia dubyi, Crn. i. 3138, ii. 5, |
Alii. 115.
Hildenbrandtia prototypus, Nard. vay.
rosea, Kiitz. iii. 7 (A. R. iv.), 116.
Ord. CORALLINACES.
Schmitziella endophlea, Born, et Batt.
ili. 8 (A. R. iv.), 116.
Melobesia confervoides, Kiitz. ii.
iii. 116.
15,
4
427
Melobesia pustulata, Lamx. iii. 116.
M. farinosa, Lamx. ii. 15, iii. 117.
M. membranacea, Lamx. ii. 15, iii.
11
M. verrucata, Lamx.
Lithophyllum lichenoides, Phil.
iii. 117.
LI. lenormandi, Rosan.
iv.), 117.
Lithothamnion polymorphum, Aresch.
li. 16 (as Melobesia), iii. 117.
LL calceareum, Aresch. ii. 16, iii. 117.
L. fasciculatum, Aresch. ii, 120.
Corallina officinalis, Linn. i. 24, 97,
313, 321, ii. 16, iii. 11, 20, 117.
C. rubens, Ellis et Sol. i. 24, ii. 16,
Ts UT
li. 16, iii. 117.
ii. 16,
ie78. (AR.
LIST OF THE FORAMINIFERA.
[See Mr. J. D. SrppDAutL’s Report in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i., and papers since by Mr.
PEARCEY, vol. iii., p. 41, Mr. Burq@uss, vol. iii., p- 59, Mr. CHAFFER, 7th A. R.,
40, and Dr. CHASTER, Southport Soc. N. Sci., 1892, and 10th A. RJ
LTneberhiihnia Wageneri, Clap. i. 42.
Shepheardella teniformis, Sid.
Gromia dujardinii, Sch.
G. oviformis, Duj.
Squamulina levis, Schul.
Nubecularia lucifuga, Defr.
Biloculina ringens, Lamk.
B. depressa, D’Orb.
B. elongata, D’Orb.
Spiroloculina limbata, D’ Orb.
S. planulata, D’Orb.
S. excavata, D’Orb.
S. acutimargo, Brady.
S. depressa, D’Orb.
Miliolina trigonula, Lamk.
M. tricarinata, D’Orb.
M. oblonga, Montagu.
M. boucana, D’Orb.
M. seminulum, Linn.
M. venusta, Karrer.
MM. subrotunda, Mont.
M. secans, D’Orb.
M. bicornis, W. & J.
MM. ferussacii, D’Orb.
M. fusca, Brady.
M. agglutinans, D’Orb.
M. spiculifera, Sid.
MM. contorta, D’Orb.
M. auberiana, D’Orb.
M. pulchella, D’Orb.
MM. sclerotica, Karr.
Ophthalmidium ineonstans, Brady.
Sigmoilina tenuis, Oz.
S. celata, Costa. —
Cornuspira involvens, Reuss.
Astrorhiza limicola, Sand.
Dendrophrya radiata, 8. Wright.
Dendrophrya erecta, 8. Wright.
Technitella legumen, Norman.
Psamnosphera fusca, Schul.
Hyperammina elongata, Brady.
Al. arborescens, Norm. 10th A. R.
Haliphysema Tumanowiczii, Bow.
Reophax fusiformis, Will.
R. scorpiurus, Monté.
R. Scottii, Chaster.
R. findens, G. M. Dawson.
LR. moniliforme, Sid.
R. nodilosa, Brady.
Haplophragmium globigeriniforme, P. & J.
HI. canariense, D’Orb.
HI. agglutinans, D’Orb.
HT, anceps, Brady.
H, glomeratum, Brady.
Placopsilina bulla, Brady.
P. Kingsleyi, Sid.
P. varians, Carter.
Ammodiscus incertus, D’Orb.
A, gordialis, P. & J.
A. charoides, P. & J.
A. shoneanus, Sid.
A. spectabilis, Brady.
Trochammina nitida, Brady.
f. squamata, P. & J.
T. ochracea, Will.
T. plicata, Terq.
T. inflata, Mont.
T. macrescens, Brady.
Textularia sagittula, Defr.
T. agglutinans, D’Orb.
T. porrecta, Brady,
T. variabilis, Will.
T. trochus, D’Orb.
T. gramen, D’Orb.
428
Textularia fusiformis, Chaster.
Spiroplecta sagittula, Defrance.
S. biformis, P. & J.
Gaudryina filiformis, Berth.
Verneuilina polystropha, Reuss.
V. spinulosa, Reuss.
Clavalina obscura, Chaster.
Bigenerina digitata, D’Orb.
Bulimina pupoides, D’Orb.
. elongata, D’Orb.
. marginata, D’Orb.
. aculeata, D’Orb.
. ovata, D’Orb.
. elegans, D’Orb.
. elegantissima, D’ Orb.
. sguamigera, D’Orb.
B. fusiformis, Will.
Virgulina schreibersiana, Czjzek.
V. bolivina, D’Orb.
Bolivina punctata, D’Orb.
B. plicata, D’Orb.
B. pygmea, D’Orb.
B. difformis, Will.
B. enariensis, Costa.
B. dilatata, Reuss.
B. levigata, Will.
B. variabilis, Will.
Cassidulina levigata, D’Orb.
C. crassa, D’Orb.
Lagena sulcata, W. & J.
. interrupta, Will.
. costata, Will.
. Williamsoni, Alcock.
. caudata, P. & J.
Lyelli, Seguenza.
Feildeniana, Brady.
striato-punctata, P. & J.
levis, Mont.
. gracillima, Seg.
. apiculata, Reuss,
globosa, Mont.
striata, D’Orb.
clawata, D’Orb.
levigata, Reuss.
protea, Chaster.
hertwigiana, Brady.
erinata, P. & J.
lineata, Will.
botelliformis, Br.
. semilineata, Wr.
spiralis, Br.
quadrata, Will.
millettii, Chaster.
JSalcata, Chaster.
inequilateralis, Wr.
bicarinata, Terq.
semi-alata, B. & M.
castrensis, Sch.
lagenoides, Will.
. tenuistriata, Br.
. depressa, Chaster.
L. gracilis, Will.
L. semistriata, Will.
L,. distoma, P. & J.
by Sy by by by by by
SSSR SESS SRE SSS SON SSS
REPORT—1896,
Lagena aspera, Reuss.
. marginata, W. & B.
. Orbignyana, Seg.
. trigona-marginata, P. & J.
. lucida, Will.
. trigono-oblonga, Seg. & Sid.
. ornata, Will.
. trigono-ornata, Brady.
I. pulchella, Brady.
LI. melo, D’ Orb.
LD. squamosa, Mont.
LD. hexagona, Will.
L. hispida, Reuss.
Nodosaria scalaris, Lamk.
N. radicula, Linn.
NV. Calomorpha, Reuss.
| WV. hispida, D’Orb.
| IV. pyrula, D’Orb.
| NV. communis, D’Orb.
NV. obliqua, D’Orb.
Lingulina carinata, D’Orb.
L. herdmani, Chaster.
Vaginulina leqgumen, Linn.
V. linearis, Mont.
Marginulina costata, Batsch.
M. glabra, D’Orb.
Cristellaria rotulata, Lamk,
C. crepidula, F. & M.
C. italica, Defy.
C. variabilis, Reuss.
C. elongata, Will.
C. cultrata, Montfort.
C. gibba, D’Orb.
C. vortex, F. & M.
Polymorphina lactea, W. & J.
Do., var. oblonga, Will.
P. oblonga, D’Orb.
P. gibba, D’Orb.
. subaqualis, D’Orb.
. communis, D’Orb.
. thouini, D’Orb.
compressa, D’Orb,
. lanceolata, Reuss.
. concava, Will.
. spinosa, D’Orb.
. orbignyti, Zborzewskii.
sororia, Reuss.
. rotundata, Born.
P. concava, Will.
Uvigerina pygme@a, D’Orb.
U. angulosa, Will.
U. canariensis, D’Orb.
Globigerina bulloides, D’Orb.
Do., var. triloba, Reuss.
G. inflata, D’Orb.
G. equilateralis, Br.
G. rubra, D’Orb.
| Orbulina universa, D’Orb.
Pullenia spheroides, D’Orb.
Spheridina deluscens, P. & J.
Spirillina vivipara, Ehrenb.
S. margaritifera, Will.
S. tuberculata, Brady.
S. limbata, Brady.
NANA
Shy hots ts ty ty hs ty Ss
— ——
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 429
Patellina corrugata, Will. | Pulvinulina repanda, var. concamerata,
Discorbina rosacea, D’ Orb. Mont.
D. ochracea, Will. P. auricula, F. & M.
D. globularis, D’ Orb. P. canariensis, D’Orb.
* D. orbicularis, Terquem, P. Karsteni, Reuss.
D. biconcava, P. & J. P. nitidula, Chaster.
D. turbo, D’Orb. Rotalia Beeearii, Linn.
D. parisiensis, D’Orb. R. nitida, Will.
D. nitida, Wright. | Gypsina inherens, Schul.
D. Wrightii, Br. G. vesicularis, P.& J. 10th A. R.
D. Bertheloti, D'Orb. Nonionina asterizans, F. & M.
D. minutissima, Chaster. NV. pauperata, B. & W.
D. tuberculata, Balkwill & Wright. NV. turgida, Will.
Planorbulina mediterranensis, D’Orb. NV. scapha, F. & M.
Truncatulina Haidingerii, D’Orb. N. wnbilicatula, Mont.
T. ungeriana, D’ Orb. NV. depressula, W. & J.
T. lobatula, Walker & Jacob. NV. stelligera, D’Orb.
T. refulgens, Montf. NV. boweana, D’Orb.
T. reticulata, Czjzek. Polystomella crispa, Linn.
Pulvinulina repanda, F. & M. P. striato-punctata, F. & M.
LIST OF THE PORIFERA.
[See Reports by Mr. T. Hiaern and Dr. R. HANITSCH in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 72,
vol. ii. p. 28, vol. ii. p. 192, and Annual Reports. ]
CALCAREA.
HoMOCG@LA. Sycon compressum, auct. ii. p. 45.
_ Leucosolenia botryoides, Ellis and S. coronatum, B. & Sol. iii. p. 237.
Solander. iii. p. 233. Aphroceras ramosa, Carter. i. p. 92.
L. contorta, Bowerbank. iii. p. 233. Leucandra fistulosa, J. i. p. 92.
L. coriacea, Fleming. iii. p. 232. L. Gossei, Bow. iii. p. 236.
L. lacunosa, Johnston. iii. p. 233. L. impressa, Hanitsch. iii. p. 234.
HETEROCGLA. ? L. Johnstoni, Carter. iii. p. 236.
Sycon asperum, Gibson, i. p. 365. ZL. nivea, Grant. iii. p. 236.
SILICEA.
HEXACERATINA. Reniera pallida, Bow. i. p. 83.
Halisarca Dujardini, J. ii. 32, R. simulans, J. i. p. 83.
Aplysilla rubra, Hanitsch. iii. p. 196; R. varians, Bow. iii. p. 198.
‘Trish Sponges,’ T.L.B.S., V., p. 219. Esperiopsis fucorum, J. i. p. 84.
TETRACTINELLIDA. Esperella egagropila, J. iii. p. 202.
Dercitus Bucklandi, Bow. iii. p. 221. Desmacidon fruticosum, Mont. 7th A. R.
* Stryphnus ponderosus, Bow. i. p. 88. p. 22.
Do., var. rudis. iii. p. 221. Dendoryx incrustans, Esper. iii. p.
Stelletta Grubei, O. Sch. iii. p. 227. 204.
Pachymatisma Johnstonia, Bow. iii. Jophon expansum, Bow. 6th A. R. p. 44.
p. 229. Myxilla irregularis, Bow. 8th A. RB.
MONAXONIDA. p. 18.
Chalina oculata, Pall. i. p. 76. Pocillon Hyndmani, Bow. Irish sponges,
Acervochalina gracilenta, Bow. _ iii. T.LsB.8. Ve, pe 2lt.
Sea. Ld. Plunohatichondria plumosa, Mont. i.
A. limbata, Mont. ii. p. 34. p. 78.
Chalinula Montagui, Flem. iii. p. 201. Microciona atrasanguinea, Bow. iii.
Halichondria panicea, Pall. ii, p. 32. p. 207.
HI. albescens, J. i. p. 79. Raspailia ventilabrum, Bow. iii. p.
H. coccinea, Bow. i. p. 79. 212.
Reniera clava, Bow. i. p. 84. Vibulinus rigidus, Mont. iii. p. 213.
R. densa, Bow. i. p. 83. Echinoclathria seriata, Grant. iii. p.
R. elegans, Bow. i. p. 82. 205.
R, fistulosa, Bow. i. p. 88. Hymeniacidon caruncula, Bow. i. p. 79:
R. ingalli, Bow. iii. 199. HT, sanguineum, Bow. i. p. 87.
430
Axinella mammillata, Hanitsch. iii.
p. 209.
Suberites carnosus, J.
S. domuncula, Olivi.
S. ficus, J. iii. p. 216.
Cliona celata, Grant, iii. p. 216.
Polymastia mammillaris, Bow.
220.
i. p. 86.
ili. p. 214.
lil. p.
REPORT—1896.
Polymastia robusta, Bow.
Tethya lyncurium, Linn.
iii. p. 220.
iii. p. 220.
MONOCERATINA.
Leiosella pulchelia, Sow. 8th A. R,
p. 18.
Spongelia fragilis, Mont. iv. p. 198.
LIST OF THE CQALENTERATA.
A. HYDROZOA.
I. HYDROIDA.
[See Report by Prof. HERDMAN and others in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i., and Report by
Miss L. R. THORNELY in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv. |
ATHECATA.
Clava multicornis, Forskal.
225.
C. leptostyla, Agassiz.
Teo vail Vie
1. 97, 1v. 225.
Tubiclava cornucopia, Norm. 9th A. R.,
p. 10.
Hydiactinia echinata, Fleming.
iv. 225.
Coryne van-Benedeni.
C. vaginata, Hincks. 10th A. R.
C. pusilla, Gaertner. i. 98, iv. 225.
Syncoryne eximia, All. 8thA. R., p.19.
Ludendrium vameum, Pallas. i. 98,
iv. 225.
E. ramosum, Linn. i. 98, iv. 225.
EH. capillare, Alder. i. 98, iv. 225.
Hydranthea margarica, Hincks. iv.
222, 223, 225.
Garveia nutans, T. 8. W. i. 99, iv. 226.
Bimeria vestita, T.S.W. i. 100, iv. 226.
Perigonimus repens, T. 8. W. 9th A. R.,
pei bie
ieee conferta, Ald. 8th A.R., p.19.
Bougainvillia museus, Allman. i. 100,
iv. 226.
B. ramosa, v. Ben.
Tubularia indivisa, Linn.
226.
T. coronata, Abildgaard.
49, iv. 226.
T. simplex, Ald. i. 100, iv. 226.
T. larynx, Ellis and Solander. i. 101,
iv. 222, 226.
T. britannica, Pennington. 1. 101, iv.
226.
T. attenuata, Allm. iii. 49, iv. 222, 226.
Ectopleura Dumortierti, van Beneden.
i. 101, iv. 226.
Corymorpha nutans, Sars.
226.
1. 97,
iv. 222, 225.
iv. 222, 226.
i. 100, iv.
i. 100, iii.
i. 101, iv.
THECAPHORA.
Clytia Johnstont, Ald. i. 101, iv. 226.
Obelia geniculata, Linn. i. 102, iv.
222, 226.
O. gelatinosa, Pall. i. 102, iv. 226.
O. longissima, Padl. i. 102, iv, 226,
Obelia flabellata, Hincks. i. 102, iv.
226.
O. dichotoma, Linn. i. 103, iv. 226.
O. plicata, Hincks. iv. 222, 226.
Campanularia volubilis, Linn, i. 103,
iv. 226.
CO. Hinchsii, Ald. i. 104, iv. 226.
C. fragilis, Hincks. iv. 222, 226.
C. caliculata, Hineks. i. 104, iv. 226.
C. verticillata, Linn. i. 104, iv. 226.
C. flexuosa, Hincks. i. 104, iv. 226.
C. angulata, Hincks. i. 105, iv. 226.
C. neglecta, Ald. i. 105, iv. 226.
C. raridentata, Ald. ili. 49, iv. 222,
226.
Gonothyrea Lovéni, Allm.
226.
G. gracilis, Sars. iv. 222, 226.
G. hyalina, Hincks. iv. 222, 223, 226.
Opercularella lacerata, Johnston. i.
105, iv. 226.
Lafota dumosa, Fleming. i.
226.
Do., var. robusta, Sars. iv. 222, 226.
L. fruticosa, Sars. iv. 222, 226.
Calycella syringa, Linn. i. 106, iv. 227.
C. fastigiata, Ald. iv. 222, 224, 227.
C. pigmea, Ald. iv. 222, 224, 227.
C. grandis, Hincks. iv. 222, 227.
C. costata, Hincks. iv. 222, 227.
C. humilis, Hincks. iv. 222, 227.
Filellum serpens, Hassall. i. 106, iv,
222, 224, 227.
Coppinia arcta, Dalyell. i. 106, iv. 227.
Haleciwm halecinum, Linn. i. 107, iv.
227.
HT, Beanii, Jobnst.
H, tenellum, Hincks.
227.
HI, muricatum, Ellis & Sol.
Sertularella polyzonias, Linn.
iv. 227.
S. rugosa, Linn.
S. Gayi, Lamx. iv. 222, 227.
S. tenella, Ald. iii. 49, iv. 222, 227.
S. fusiformis, Hincks. iv. 222, 227.
Tel'Ob, iv.
106, iv.
i. 107, iv. 227.
ili. 49, iv. 225,
ili. 49.
i, 108,
i. 108, iv. 227.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 431
Diphasia rosacea, Linn. i. 108, iv. 227.
D. attenuata, Hincks. i. 109, iv. 227.
D. pinaster, Ellis & Sol, i, 109, iv.
227.
D. tamarisca, Linn.
D. fallax, Johnst.
Sertularia pumila, Linn.
227.
S. gracilis, Hassall. i. 110, iv. 227.
S. operculata, Linn. i. 110, iv. 227.
S. filicula, Ellis & Sol. i. 110, iv. 227,
S. abietina, Linn. i. 110, 227.
S. argentea, EB. & Sol. i. 110, iv. 227.
S. cupressina, Linn. i. 111, iv. 227.
Hydralimania falcata, Linn. i. 111,
iv. 227.
Thuiaria articulata, Pall.
222, 227.
i. 109, iv. 227.
i. 109, iv. 227.
i, 109, iv
oe Malolos
Thuiaria thuja, Linn. iv. 222, 227.
Antennularia antennina, Linn. i. 112,
iv. 227.
A. ramosa, Lam. i. 112, iv. 227.
Aglaophenia pluma, Linn. i. 112, iv.
228,
A, myriophyllum, Linn. i. 112, iv.
222, 228.
A. tubulifera, Hincks. iv. 222, 228.
A. pennatula, H. & Sol. iv. 222, 228.
Plumularia pinnata, Linn. i. 113, iv.
228.
P. frutescens, BH. & Sol. iv. 222, 228,
P. setacea Ellis. i. 113, iv. 228.
P. Catharina, J. i. 113, iv. 228.
P echinulata, Lam. iv. 222, 225,228.
P. similis, Hincks. i. 113. iv. 228.
Il. MEDUSZ.
[See ‘ List of Medusze and Ctenophora of the L.M.B.C. District,’ by J. A. CLuBB,
‘Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 114, and ‘ Report on the Meduse of the L.M.B.C. District,’ by
E. T. BROWNE, ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv. p. 371.]
HyYDROMEDUS&.
ANTHOMEDUS&.
Codoniwm pulchellwm, Forb. iv. 374.
Corymorpha nutans, Sars. 10th A. R.
Sarsia tubulosa, Sars. i. 115, iv. 375.
Dipurena halierata, Forb. iv. 375.
Steenstrupia rubra, Forb. iv. 575.
Luphysa aurata, Korb. iv. 376.
oe prolifer, Agassiz. 10th
A. R.
Amphicodon fritillaria, Steenstr. iv.379
Tiara pileata, Forskal. iv. 386.
Turris neglecta, Lesson. i. 115, iv. 388.
Dysmorphosa carnea, M. Sars. iv. 388.
D. minima, Heckel. iv. 388.
? Cyteandra areolata, Ald. iv. 390,
Lizzia blondina, Forb. iv. 393.
| Margelis principis, Steenstrup. iv. 394.
M. vamosa, van Beneden.
WM. britannica, Forb. i. 115, iv. 395.
Margellium octopunctatum, Sars. i.
117, iv. 398.
Podocoryne carned, Sars. 10th A. R.
Thaumantias hemispherica, Mill. i.
116, 117, iv. 403.
Laodice cruciata, L. Agassiz. i. 115,
iv. 404.
L. calcarata, L. Agassiz. iv. 404.
LEPTOMEDUS&.
Melicertidium octocostatum, Sars. iv.
405.
Clytia Johnstoni, Alder. iv. 406.
Eucopeé octona, Forb. i. 115, iv. 406.
Obelia lucifera, Forb. iv. 406.
Tiaropsis multicirrata, Sars. iv. 406.
Epenthesis cymbaloidea, Slabber. i.
116, iv. 407.
Mitrocomella polydiadema, Romanes.
iv. 407.
Phialidium variabile, Heckel. iv. 408.
Ph. temporarium, Browne, 10th
A. R.
Ph. cymbaloidium, Van Beneden.
Hutima insignis, Keferstein. iv. 410.
Saphenia mirabilis, Wright. iv. 410.
Tiaropsis multicirrata, Sars. 10th
ALR.
Thaumantias convexa, Forb. i. 116.
T. lucida, Forb. i. 116.
SCYPHOMEDUS.
STAUROMEDUS. DISCOMEDUS.
iy. 152, Chrysaora isosceles, Linn. iv. 412.
4 ala cyathiforme, Sars.
411.
-Haliclystus awrieula, Rathke. iv. 157,
411.
Cyanea capillata, Linn. i. 117, iv. 412.
Aurelia aurita, Lam. i. 117, iv. 412.
Pilema octopus, Linn. i. 118, iv. 413.
IlI. SIPHONOPHORA,
Agalmopsis elegans, Saxs. 10th A. R.
Physalia pelagica, Esch, i. 118,
432 REPORT—1896.
IV. CTENOPHORA.
SACCATA. | EURYSTOMATA.
Pleurobrachia pileus, Flem. i. 118. Beroé ovata, Lam. i. 119.
P. pomiformis, Pat. i. 119. LOBATA.
Bolina hibernica, Pat. 1. 119.
B. ACTINOZOA. I, ALCYONARIA.
[See Report on the Alcyonaria of the L.M.B.C. District, by Professor HERDMAN,
‘Fauna, vol. i. p. 120, and also note upon yellow variety of Sarcodictyon catenata
in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv. p. 322.]
ALCYONIDA. Alcyonium digitatum, Linn. i, 122.
Sarcodictuon catenata, Forb. i, 120, | PENNATULIDA.
iv. 322. Virgularia mirabilis, Lamk., A. R.
II. ACTINIARIA.
[See Report on the Actiniaria of the L.M.B.C. District, by Dr. J. W. ELuis,
‘Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 123 (nomenclature revised since by Prof. HADDON).]
PROTANTHID. { Cylista viduata, Mill. i. 125.
Corynactis viridis, All. i. 129. ‘ C. undata, Mill. i. 125.
Capnea sanguinea, Forb. i. 129. Do., var. candida, Mill. i. 126.
HEXACTINIDA. Adamsia palliata, Bohadsch. i. 127.
Haleampa chrysanthellum, Peach. i. Actinia equina, Linn. 1. 127.
123; Anemonia sulca‘a, Penn. i. 128.
Metridium dianthus, Ellis. i. 123. Urticina crassicornis, Mill. i. 128.
Cereus pedunculatus, Penn. i. 124. Bunodes verrucosa, Penn. i. 129.
Sagartia miniata, Gosse. 1. 125. Paraphellia expansa, Hadd. 9th
S. vosea, Gosse. Jae as
S. venusta, Gosse. i, 125. ZOANTHID,
S. nivea, Gosse. Epizoanthus arenacea, Delle C. i, 130.
S. lacerata, Dall. 7th A. R., 22. CERIANTHID A.
S. sphyrodeta, Gosse. i. 127. Cerianthus Lloydii, Gosse. i. 130.
LIST OF THE ECHINODERMATA.
[See Professor HERDMAN’S Report upon the Crinoidea, Asteroidea, Echinoidea, and
Holothuroidea, and Mr. H. C. CHADWICck’s Report upon the Ophiuroidea in the
‘Fauna,’ vol. i., and Mr. H. C. CHApwick’s Second Report on the Echinodermata
in the ‘ Fauna,’ vol. ii., and papers in vol. iv. |
CRINOIDEA.
Antedon bifida, Penn. (rosaceus, Auct.). i. 131, ii. 48.
ASTEROIDEA.
Asterias rubens, Linn. i. 132, ii. 49. Palmipes placenta, Penn. i. 135, iv.
A. glacialis, Linn. i. 133, ii. 50.
A. hispida, Penn. i. 133. Porania pulvillus, O.F.M. i. 135, ii,
Stichaster roseus, Mill. ii. 49. 51.
Henricia sanguinolenta, O.F.M. i. 133, Astropecten irregularis, Penn. i. 135,
ii. 50. i. 61, ‘
Solaster endeca, Linn. i, 134, ii. 50. Iuidea ciliaris, Phil. i. 136, ii, 52,
S. papposus, Fabr. i, 134, ii. 50. iv. 271.
Ast-rina gibbosa, Penn. i. 134.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 433
ECHINOIDEA.
PETALOSTICHA.
Spatangus purpureus, Mill. i. 137.
EKehinocardium cordatum, Penn, i. 138.
DESMOSTICHA.
Echinus esculentus, Linn. i. 136.
#H. miliaris, Linn i, 136.
CLYPEASTRIDA. E. flavescens, O. F. Miill. i. 138.
Lchinocyamus pusilius,O. F. M. i. 137. Brissopsis lyrifera, Forb. iv. 23, 175.
HOLOTHURIOIDEA.
APODA. Cucumaria pentactes, Mill. i. 139.
Synapta inherens, O. F.M. iv. 363. C. Hyndmani, Thomp. i. 139.
PEDATA. C. Planci, Marenz. ii. 53.
Phyllophorus Drummondi, Thomps.
8th A. R., 12. i. 138.
Ocnus brunneus, Forb. i. 139.
OPHIUROIDEA.
Ophiura ciliaris, Linn. i. 140. , Amphiura Chiajii, Forb. 9th A. R.,
O. albida, Forb. i. 141. p- 17.
Ophiopholis aculeata, Linn. i. 141, Ophiocoma nigra, Abild. i. 142.
Amphiura elegans, Leach. i. 142. Ophiothria fragilis, Abild. i. 143.
Thyone fusus,O. F. M. i. 138, iv. 178.
L. raphanus, D. & K. iv. 175, 178.
LIST OF THE VERMES.
TURBELLARIA.
[See Report by F. W. GAMBLE, M.Sc., in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv.]
I. POLYCLADIDA.
Leptoplana tremellaris, O. F. Miill. Oligocladus sanguinolentus, Quatref,
iv. 72. iv. 76. ;
Cycloporus papillosus, Lang. iv. 74. Stylostomum variabile, Lang. iy. 77.
II. RHABDOCGLIDA.
Hyporhynchus armatus, Jens. iv. 66.
Provortex balticus, Schultze. iv. 67.
Plagiostoma sulphwreum, v. Graff. iv. 68.
P. vittatum, Frey and Leuck. iv. 68.
Aphanostoma diversicolor, Oe. iv. 59.
Convoluta paradoxa, Oe. iv. 59.
C. flavibacilium, Jens. iv. 61.
Promesostoma marmoratum, Schultze.
iv. 61.
P. ovoideum, Schm. iv. 62.
P lenticulatum, Schm. iv. 62.
Byrsophiebs intermedia, v. Graft. iv. 63.
Proxenetes fiabellifer, Jens. iv. 63.
Pseudorhynchus bifidus, McInt. iv. 64.
Acrorhynchus caledonicus, Clap. iv. 65.
Macrorhynchus Naegelii, Koll. iv. 66.
M., heigolandicus, Metsch. iv. 66.
Vorticeros auriculatum, O. F. Miill.
iv. 69.
Allostoma pallidum, Van Ben. iv. 69.
Cylindrastoma quadrioculatum, Leuck.
iv. 70.
C. inerme, Hallez. iv. 21.
Monotus lineatus, O. F. Miill. iv. 70.
MM. fuscus, Oe. iv. 71.
III. TRICLADIDA,
Planaria littoralis, van Ben. 10th A. R.
NEMERTEA.
[See Report by W. I. BEAuMONT, in ‘ Fauna,’ vol. iv.]
Malacobdella grossa, O. F. M. is,
145.
Cephalothria bioculata, Oersted. iv.
217, 452,
1896,
Carinella linearis, Mont. i. 145, 332.
C. Aragoi, Joubin. iv. 451.
? C. annulata, Mont. iv. 217.
Lineus marinus, Mont. i, 332.
FF
434 REPORT—1896.
Lineus obscurus, Desor. iv. 220, 465.
L. longissimus, Sow. ir. 220, 466.
Cerebratulus angulatus (2), O. F. Mill.
iv. 220.
CG, fuscus, Hubrecht. iv. 467.
Micrura purpurea, J. Mill. iv. 466.
M. fasciolata, Ehr. iv. 466.
M. candida, Biirger. iv. 466.
Amphiporus lactifloreus, M‘Intosh. iv.
217, 453.
A. pulcher, O. F. Mill. iv, 218, 452.
A, dissimulans, Riches, iv. 453.
Tetrastemma nigrum, Riches. iv. 218,
457.
T. dorsale, Abildgaard. iv. 218, 456.
T. immutabile, Riches. iv. 219, 458.
T. candidum, O. F. Miill. iv. 219, 458.
T. melanocephalum, J. iv. 219, 461.
T. vermiculatum, Quatr. iv. 219,461,
T. Robertiane, M‘Intosh. iv.219, 463.
T. flavidum, Bhr. iv. 455.
T. cephalophorum, Biirg. (as Proso-
rhochmus Claparedii, Kef.) iv. 464.
Nemertes Neesii, Oersted. iv. 219, 465,
CHAETOGNATHA.
Sagitta bipunctata, Quoy & Gaimard. i. 146, 332.
GEPHYREA.
Thalassema, sp. (2. sp.). 10th A. R.
Phascolosoma vulgare, de Bl. 3rd A. B.,
p. 34.
HIRUDINEA,
RHYNCHOBDELLID.
Pontobdella muricata, Linn, 1. 146.
CHAITOPODA.
[See Reports by Prof. R. J. H. GIBSON in ‘Fauna,’ vol. i. p. 144, and by
Mr. JAMES HORNELL in vol. iii. p. 126.]
ARCHI-ANNELIDA.
Dinophilus teniatus, Harmer. 6th
A. R., 34; 7th, 44.
Polygordius, sp. 9th A. R., 49.
MyZOSTOMIDA. |
Myzostomum, sp. i. 132.
OLIGOCH ATA.
Lumbricus lineatus, Mill. i. 147.
Clitellio arenarius, O. F. M. 7th
A. R., p. 43.
POLYCHAETA.
Section A—ERRANTIA.
Hermione hystria, Savigny. i. 12,147,
332, ili. 132.
Aphrodite aculeata, Linn. Tipit Ue os
lit, Sh,
Panthalis Oerstedi, Kinb. iv. 328.
Acholoé astericola, Delle C. i. 148,
iii. 139.
Polynoi: halieti, M‘Intosh.
332, iii. 130.
P. imbricata, Linn. 1.149, 332, iii. 134.
P. castanea, M‘Intosh. i. 149, 345,
352, iii. 138.
P. impar, Johnst, iii. 135.
P. setosissima, Sav. iii. 138.
P. lunulata, Delle C. iii. 189.
P. Johnstoni, Marenzeller. iii. 139.
P. reticulata, Claparéde. 10th A. R.
P. semisculpta, Johnst. 10th A. R.
Halosydna gelatinosa, Sars. iii. 140.
Hermadion assimile, M‘Intosh, i. 12,
150, 334, 348, 353.
H. pellucidum, Ehlers, iii. 140,
Lepidonotus squamatus, Linn, iil,
133.
Nychia cirrosa, Pall, “i, 133:
2, 149,
Sthenelais boa, Johnst. iii. 141.
S. limicola, Ehlers. iii. 141.
Pholoé minuta, Fab. i. 152, iii. 142.
Spinther oniscoides, Johnst. iii, 142.
Nephthys ceca, Fab. iii. 147.
N. hombergi, Aud. & M. Edw, iii.
147.
Eulalia viridis, O. F. Mill, i, 152,
iii. 149.
Phyllodoce maculata, O. F, Mil, , iii.
149,
P. laminosa, Sav. iii. 149.
Syllis tubifex, Gosse. iii, 147.
S. armillaris,O. F. Mill. 1. 153, 332,
iii. 148.
Autolytus Alewandri, Malmgren. ili.
148.
A. prolifer, O. F. Miill. iii. 148.
Ephesia gracilis, Rathke. iii. 148.
Psamathe fusca, J. iii. 148.
Castalia punctata, Mill. iii. 148.
Nereis pelagica, Linn, i. 154, 332, iii.
144,
N. Dumerilii, Aud. & M. Edw. i. 154,
lii. 144.
NV. diversicolor, Miill. iii. 144.
NV. fucata, Sav. iii. 145.
N. virens, Sars iii. 146.
Lumbriconereis fragilis, O. F. Mill.
i. 154, 332.
Eunice Harassii, Aud. & M. Edw. iii.142.
Onuphis conchilega, Sars. iii. 148.
Goniada maculata, J.. i. 155.
Glycera nigripes, Johnst. iii. 147,
G. dubia, Blainville. iii. 147.
G. Goési, Mgrn. iii. 147.
G. capitata, Oersted. iil. 147.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 435
Section B—SEDENTARIA.
Ophelia limacina, Rathke. iii. 150.
Ammotrypane aulogaster, H. Rathke.
iii. 150.
Chetopterus variopedatus, Ren. iii.158.
Spio seticornis, Fabr, i. 156, iii. 157.
Nerine vulgaris, J. i. 156, iii. 158.
NV. cirratulus, Delle C. iii. 157.
Leucodora ciliata, J. iii. 158.
Magelona papillicornis, F. Mill. 10th
A. R.
Arenicola marina, Linn, iii. 151.
A. ecaudata, Johnst. 10th A. R.
Capitella capitata, Fab. iii. 151.
Nicomache lumbricalis, Fab, iii. 154.
Awiothea catenata, Malmgren. iii. 155.
Owenia filiformis, Delle C. iii. 155.
Scoloplos armiger, Miill. iii. 155.
Cirratulus cirratus, O. F. Miill. i. 156,
333, iii. 156.
C. tentaculatus, Montagu. iii. 156.
Chetozone setosa, Malmgren. iii. 157.
Sabellaria alveolata, Linn, i. 58, 156,
iii, 163.
S. spinulosa, R. Leuckart. iii. 163.
Pectinaria belgica, Pall. i. 8, 157, 332,
349, iii. 163.
Pectinaria auricoma, O. F. Miill, i,
157, iii. 162.
Ampharete Grubei, Malmgren. iii.161.
Lrophania plumosa, Miill. iii. 159,
Flabelligera affinis, Mgr. 10th A. R.
Lerebelia nebulosa, Mont. i. 158, 333,
iii. 160.
Amphitrite figulus, Dalzell. iii. 160.
Lanice conchilega, Pall. iii. 160.
Thelepus cincinnatus, Fab. i. 158, iii.
160.
Nicolea venustula, Mont. iii. 161.
Sabella pavonia, Sav. iii. 164,
Do., var. bicoronata, Hornell. iii. 164.
Dasychone Herdmani, Hornell. iii. 165,
Amphicora fabricia, Mill. iii. 166.
Serpula vermicularis, Ellis. i. 3, 159.
S. reversa, Mont. iii. 167.
S. triquetra, Linn. i. 159.
Spirorbis borealis, Mérch, i. 159, 333,
iii. 167.
S. lucidus, Mérch, i, 160, iii. 167.
Liligrana implexa, Berkeley, i. 12,
160, 333, iii. 167.
Tomopteris onisciformis, Eschscholtz,
1. 160, 333, iii. 150.
BRACHIOPODA,
Terebratula caput-serpentis, Linn. 7th
A. R., p. 28.
Crania anomala, Miller. iii. 62; 6th
A.R., p. 25; 7th, pp. 15, 29 ; 8th, p. 15.
POLYZOA.
[See Mr. Lomas’ Reports in ‘ Fauna,’ vols. i. and ii., and the various lists and additions
made by Miss L. R. THORNELY in the Annual Reports since.]
CHEILOSTOMATA,
Aetea anguina, Linn. i. 164; ii. 94.
A. recta, Hincks. i. 164; ii. 94; 9th
A. R., pp. 20, 34.
A. truncata, Lands. i, 164; ii. 94.
HLucratea chelata, Linn. i. 164; ii. 94.
Do., var. repens. i. 164; ii. 94.
Do., var. gracilis. i. 165; ii. 94.
Do., var. elongata, Lomas. i.165; ii. 94.
Gemellaria loricata, Linn, i. 165; ii.
94.
Cellularia Peachii, Busk. i. 166; ii. 94.
Scrupocellaria scrwposa, Linn. i. 166,
ii. 94.
S. serupea, Busk. i. 166, ii. 94.
S. reptans, Linn. i. 166, ii. 94.
Bicellaria ciliata, Linn, i. 167, ii.
94,
Bugula aviewlaria, Linn. i. 168, ii.
94
B. turbinata, Alder. i. 167, ii. 94,
3rd A. R., p. 23.
B. flabellata, J. V.Thomp. i. 167,
ii. 94.
B. plumosa, Pallas. i. 168, ii. 94.
B. purpurotincta, Norm. i, 168, ii.
94
Beania mirabilis, Johnst. i. 168, ii. 94.
Cellaria fistulosa, Linn. i. 169, ii. 92.
C. sinuosa, Hass. ii. 88, iii. 29.
Flustra foliacea, Linn. i. 170, ii. 94.
F. carbasea, Ell. & Sol. i. 170.
£. papyracea, Ell. & Sol. i. 170, ii. 94,
F’. securifrons, Pall. i. 170, ii. 94.
Membranipora lacroiwii, Aud. i. 170,
ii. 94.
M. monostachys, Busk. i. 171, ii. 94.
M. catenularia, Jameson. i. 171, ii. 94,
M. pilosa, Linn. i. 171, ii. 94.
Do., var. dentata. 4th A. R., p. 25.
M. membranacea, Linn. i. 171,ii. 95.
MM. hexagona, Busk. i. 171.
MM, lineata, Linn. i. 172, ii. 95.
M. craticula, Ald. i. 172, ii. 95.
iM. spinifera, Johnst. 10th A. R.
MM. discreta, Hincks. 9th A.R., pp. 11,
34,
M. Dumerilii, Aud. i. 172, ii. 95.
M. solidula, Ald. and Hincks. 9th
A. R., pp. 11, 34.
M. aurita, Hincks. i. 172, ii. 95.
M. imbellis, Hincks. 7th A. R.,p.18,
M. Flemingii, Busk. i. 172, ii. 94.
M. Rosselii, Aud. i. 172, ii. 95.
M. nodulosa, Hincks, 9th A. R., pp.
11, 34.
FF2
436
Micropora coriacea, Esper. 1.173, ii. 95.
Cribrilina radiata, Moll. 1.173, 11. 95.
C. punctata, Hass. i. 173, ii. 95.
C. annulata, Fabr. i. 173, ii. 95.
C. Gattye, Busk. 9th A. R., pp. 11,
34.
Membraniporelia nitida, Johnst. i.174,
ii. 95.
Microporella ciliata, Pall. i. 174, ii. 95.
M. Malusii, Aud. i. 174, ii. 95.
M. impressa, Aud. 1.175, ii. 95.
Do., var. cornuta, Busk. 8th A. R.,
p. 19.
M. violacea, Johnst. i. 175, ii. 95.
Chorizopora Brongniartii, Aud. i.175,
li. 95.
. Lagenipora socialis, Hincks. 9th A. R.,
pp. 11, 19, 21, 34.
Schizoporella unicornis, Johnst. ii. 88.
S. spinifera, Johnst. 1, 175, ii. 95.
S. Alderi, Busk. 10th A. R.
S. vulgaris, Moll. 9th A.R.,pp.11, 34.
S. simplex, Johnst. 6th A. R.,p. 26.
S. linearis, Hass. i. 176, ii. 95.
Do., var. hastata, Hincks. 7th A, R.,
p. 23.
S. cristata, Hincks. 9thA.R.,pp. 11,
54.
S. awriculata, Hass.
S. discoidea, Busk.
S. hyalina, Linn.
i. 176, il. 95.
9th. A. R., p. 34.
i. 176, ii. 95.
Mastigophora Dutertrei, Aud. 9th
A. R., pp. 11, 33.
M. Hyndmanni, Johnst. ii. 89. 9th
A. R., p. 33.
Schizotheca fissa, Busk. 9th A. R.,
pp. 20, 33.
S. divisa, Norm. 9th A. R., p. 33.
Hippothoa divaricata, Lamour. i. 176,
ii. 95.
Do., var. carinata, Norm. 7th A. R.,
J2Be
Pp
H. distans, McGill. i. 176, ii. 95.
Do., var. vitrea, Hincks. 7th A. R.,
p. 23.
Lepralia Pallasiana, Moll. i. 177, ii.
95.
L. foliacea, Ell.and Sol. i. 177, ii. 95.
L. pertusa, Esper. i. 177, ii. 95.
LZ. edax, Busk. 7th A. R., pp. 19, 23.
Umbonula verrucosa, Esper. i. 177,
ii, 95.
Porella concinna, Busk. i. 178, ii. 95.
Do., var. belli, Dawson. 9th A. R.,p.34.
P. minuta, Norm. 9th A. R., pp. 11,
34.
P. compressa, Sow. i. 178, ii. 95.
Smittia Landsborovii, Johnst. i. 178,
ii. 95.
S. reticulata, Macgill.
S. cheilostoma, Manz. 10th A. R.
S. trispinosa, Johnst. i. 179, ii. 95.
Phylactella labrosa, Busk. 9th A. R.,
p. 34.
i. 178, ii. 95.
REPORT—1896.
Phylactelia collaris, Norm.
95.
Mucronella Peachii, Johnst. i.
ii. 95.
M. ventricosa, Hass.
M. variolosa, Johnst. i. 179, ii. 95..
M. coccinea, Abildg. i. 179, ii. 96..
M. coccinea, var. mamillata. 9th A. R.,.
p. 34.
Palmicellaria Skenei, Ellis and Sol-
7th A. R., p. 23.
Cellepora pumicosa, Linn. i. 180, ii. 96.
C. ramulosa, Linn. 4th A. R., p. 25-
i. 179, ii.
179,
li. 89, 96.
C. dichotoma, Hincks. ii. 89.
C. avicularis, Hincks. ii. 89.
C. armata, Hincks. ii. 89, 96.
C. Costazii, Aud.
CYCLOSTOMATA.
Crisia cornuta, Linn. i. 181, ii. 96.
C. geniculata, M. Edw. ii. 96.
C. eburnea, Linn. i. 181, ii. 96.
(. aculeata, Hass. 9th A. B., p. 34.
C. denticulata, Lam. i. 181, ii. 96.
C. ramosa, Harmer. 7th A. R., p. 23 5.
9th, p. 20.
Stomatopora granulata, M. Edw. ii.
p. 89, 6th A. R., p. 25, 7th, p. 38.
S major, Johnst. i. 181, ii. 96.
S. Johnstoni, Heller. ii. 89.
S. expansa, Hincks. i. 181, ii. 96,
S. incurvata, Hincks. 9th A. R., pp-
i. 180, ii. 96.
11, 34.
S. incrassata, Smitt. ii. 89, 2nd A. R.,
p. 16,
Tubulipora lobulata, Hass. i. 182, iz.
96.
T. flabellaris, Faby.
Tdmonea serpens, Linn.
Diastopora patina, Lam. i. 183, ii. 96.
D. obelia, Johnst. i. 183, ii. 96.
D. suborbicularis, Hincks. i. 183, ii-
96.
Lichenopora hispida, Flem, i.
ii. 96.
L. verrucaria, Fabr.
7th A. R., p. 42.
CTENOSTOMATA.
Alcyonidium gelatinosum, Linn. i. 184,
ii. 91, 96.
A. hirsutum, Flem.
A. mamillatum, Ald.
16, 23.
A, mytili, Dalz. i. 184, ii. 96.
A. parasiticum, Flem. i. 185, ii. 96.
Flustrella hispida, Fabr. 1.185, ii. 96,
3rd A. R., p. 15.
Arachnidium hippothooides, Hincks.
i. 185, ii. 96.
Vesicularia spinosa, Linn. i.
li. 96.
Amathia lendigera, Linn. i. 186, ii. 96.
Bowerbankia imbricata, Adams. 1.187,
Neos
B. caudata,Hincks, 4th A, R., p. 25.
i. 182, ii. 96.
i. 182, ii. 96..
183,
i. 183, ii. 96,
i. 184, ii. 96.
7th A. R., pp
186,
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA.
Bownerbankia pustulosa, E. & Sol. i.
187, ii. 97.
Farella repens, Farre, var. elongata,
i. 188, ii. 97.
Bushia nitens, Ald. i. 188, ii. 97.
Cylindrecium giganteum, Busk. 10th
qi
(C. dilatatum, Hincks. i. 188, ii. 97.
Anguinella palmata, Van Ben. i. 188,
li. 97.
Triticella Boeckii, Sars. 8th A. R., pp.
‘6, 15; 9th, p. 10.
437
Valkeria uva, Linn. i. 189, ii. 97.
V. uva, var. cuscuta. i. 189, ii. 97.
V. tremula, Hincks. i. 189, ii. 97.
Mimosella gracilis, Hincks. i. 189, ii. 97.
ENTOPROCTA.
Pedicellina cernua, Pall. i. 190, ii. 97.
Do., var. glabra. 4th A.R., p. 25.
Barentsia nodosa, Lomas. i. 190, ii.
90, 97.
Loxosoma phascolosomatum, Vogt. 10th
Ach:
LIST OF THE CRUSTACEA.
MALACOSTRACA.
(For Podophthalmata and Cuwmacea see Mr. A. O. WALKER’S Revision (Reyv.), in
‘Fauna,’ vol. ili.p.50; for the other groups of Malacostraca see Mr. Walker’s other
reports and papers in the ‘ Fauna.’]
BRACHYURA.
Cancer pagurus, Linn, Rey.
Xantho tuberculatus, Couch. Rev.
Pilumnus hirtellus (Linn.) Rev.
Pirimela denticulata (Mont.) Rev.,
Addenda.
Carcinus menas, Penn. Rev.
Portunus puber (Linn.) Rev.
P. depurator (Linn.) Rev.
P. corrugatus (Penn.), off Calf of
Man, 23 fath. 10th A. R.
P. arcwatus, Leach. Rev.
P. holsatus, Faby. Rey.
P. pusillus, Leach. Rev.
Portumnus latipes (Penn.) ii. 180.
Corystes cassivelaunus (Penn.) Rev.
Atelecyclus. septem-dentatus (Mont.)
Rev.
Thia residua (Herbst.) Rev.
Pinnotheres pisum (Linn.) Rev.
P. veterum, Bosc. Rev., Addenda.
Macropodia rostrata (Linn.) Rev.
M. longirostris (Fabr.) Rev.
Inachus dorsettensis (Penn.) Rev.
I. dorynchus, Leach. Rev., Addenda.
HHyas araneus (Linn.) Rev.
H. coarctatus, Leach. Rev.
Pisa biaculeata, Leach. 8th A. R.,
p. 25.
Eurynome aspera (Penn.) Rev.
Ebalia tuberosa (Penn.) Rev.
#. tumefacta (Mont.) Rev.
ANOMALA.
Eupagurus bernhardus (Linn.) Rev.
HE. Prideaux (Leach.) Rev.
Ei. cuanensis (Thomp.) Rev.
LL. pubescens (Kroyer.) Rev.
Anapagurus levis (Thomp.) Rev.
Porcellana platycheles (Penn.) Rev.
P. longicornis (Linn.) Rev.
Galathea squamifera, Leach. Rev.
G. nexa, Embleton. Rev.
Galathea dispersa, Bate. Rev.
G. intermedia, Lillj. Rev.
Munida rugosa, Fabr. ii. 70.
MACRURA.
Calocaris Macandree, Bell. 7th A. R.,
p. 18; Rev.
Palinurus vulgaris, Latr. 4th A. R.,
p. 29.
Nephrops norvegicus (Linn.) Rey.
Astacus gammarus (Linn.) [Common
Lobster]. Rev.
Crangon vulgaris (Linn.) Rev.
C. Alimanni, Kin. Rev.
C. trispinosus, Hailstone.
C. nanus, Kroyer. Rev.
C. sculptus, Beil. Rev.
C. fasciatus, Risso. Rev.
Pontophilus spinosus, Leach. 9th A. R.,
p- 13.
Nika edulis, Risso. County Down
coast, 12 miles §.S.W. of Chicken
Rev.
Rock, in whiting’s stomach. 10th
A. R.
Caridion Gordoni, Sp. Bate. Mev.
Hippolyte varians, Leach. 7th A. R.,
p. 35.
Spirontocaris spinus (Sow.) Rev.
S. Cranchii (Leach.) Rev.
S. pusiola (Kr) i.
179.
Pandalus Montagui, Leach. Rev.
P. brevirostris, Rathke. Rev.
Leander serratus (Penn.) Rev.
L. squilila (Linn.) Rev.
Palemonetes varians (Leach.) Rev.
SCHIZOPODA.
Nyctiphanes
Rev.
Macromysis flewuosa (Mill) Rev.
M. neglecta (Sars.) iii. 245.
M. inermis (Rathke.) Rev.
Schistomysis spiritus (Norm.) Rev.
922, ii.
norvegica (M. Sars.)
438
Schistomysis ornata (Sars.); and var.
Kervillet (Sars.) iii. 245. Rev.
Hemimysis Lamorne (Couch.) ii. 178.
Rev.
Neomysis vulgaris (Thomp.) ik 178.
Rev.
Teptomysis lingowra (Sars.) Rev.
Mysidopsis gibbosa (Sars.) 7th A. R.,
p. 25.
Evxythrops elegans (Sars.) 7th A. R.,
p. 24.
Cynthilia (Siriella) norvegica. (Sars.)
lii., p. 244. Rev.
C. armata (M.-Edw.).
Gastrosaccus spinifer (Goes.).
G. sanctus (van Ben.) 6th A. R., p.
38; 7th A. R., p. 25.
Haplostylus Normanni(Sars.) 7tha.R.,
p. 25.
PHYLLOCARIDA.
Nebalia bipes, M.-Edw.
CUMACEA.
Cuma scorpioides (Mont.) iii. 246.
C. pulchella, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 25."
Iphinoé trispinosa (Goodsir.) 8th A. R.,
p. 25.
I. tenella, Sars. 9th A. B.,p. 14.
Cumopsis Goodsiri (van Ben.) Rev.
Hudorella truncatula, Sp. Bate. Rev.
#. nana, Sars, 8thA.R., p.25; Brit.
Ass. Rep., 1895, p. 459.
Campylaspis macrophthalma,
8th A. R., p. 25.
Pseudvcwma longicornis, Sp. Bate. Rev.
10th A. R.
Sars.
Petalosarsia declivis, Sars. 8th A. R.,
p. 25.
Lamprops fasciata, Sars. iii. 247.
Pl. 16. Rev.
Henilamprops assimilis, Sars. 9th
A. R., p. 14.
Diastylis Rathhei (Ky.) Rev.
D. spinosa (Norm.) ii. 178, iii. 247.
D. biplicata (Sars.) 7th A. R., p.25.
D. rugosoides, Walker. 9th A. B.,
p. 14; B.A. Rep., 1895, p. 459.
Nannastacus unquiculatus, Bate. B. A.
Rep., 1894, p. 326.
Isopopa.
Paratanais Batei, Sars. 7th A.R., p.25.
Leptognathia laticaudata, Sars. 7th
. A. RK, p. 25.
Anthura gracilis (Mont.) 7th A. R.,
p. 25.
Gnathia maxillaris (Mont.) Port Erin.
10th A. R.
Cirolana borealis, Lillj. 9th A. R.,
p. 14.
Conilera cylindracea (Mont.) iii. 241.
Burydice achatus (Slabber.) i. 218.
Spheroma serratum (Fabr.) i. 219.
S. rugicauda, Leach. R. Colwyn
Bay.
Cymodoce emarginata, (Leach.) 8th
A.R., p. 25. iii, 241, 248.
REPORT—1896.
S Dynamene rubra (Mont.) § ii. 72.
| Vesa bidentata, Leach. @ ii. 72.
Dynamene Montagui, Leach. jr. ii. 72.
Limnoria lignorum (Rathke.) i. 219.
Idotea marina, Linn. i. 219.
I. linearis, Linn. i. 219.
Astacilla longicornis (Sow.) iii. 248,
A. gracilis (Goodsir.) 7th A. R., p. 25.
Janira maculosa, Leach. 1. 219,
Jera albifrons (Mont.) i, 219.
Munna Fabricii, Ky. ii. 71.
Ligia oceanica (Linn.) i. 220, ii. 72.
BOPYRIDZ.
Pleurocrypta nexa, Steb. 7th A. R.,
p- 43.
P. intermedia,G.& B. 7th A. R.,
p. 43.
P. galatee, Hesse. 7th A. R., p. 43.
AMPHIPODA.
[See Mr. Walker's ‘ Revision’ (Rev.),
in ‘ Fauna,’ iv. ]
Hyperia galba (Montagu.) Rev.
Hyperoche tauriformis (Bate.) Rev.
Parathemista oblivia (Kr.) Rev.
Talitrus locusta (Pall.) Rev.
Orchestia littorea( Mont.) ii.171; 7th
A. R., p. 37. Rev.
Hyale Nilssonit (Rathke.) Rev.
Lysianax longicornis (Lucas.) ii. 73
(ZL. ceratinus, Walker.) Rev.
Socarnes erythrophthalmus, Robertson.
Rev.
Perrierella Audouiniana (Bate.) ii. 76.
Rev.
Callisoma crenata (Bate.) Rev.
Hippomedon denticulatus (Bate.) ii. 76.
Rev.
Orchomenella nana, Kr. ii.
ciliata, Sars.). Rev.
Nannonyx Goésii (Boeck.) Rev.
NV. spinimanus, Walker. Rev.
Tryphosa Sarsi (Bonn.) Rev.
LY. Horringii, Boeck. Rev.
Tryphosites longipes, Bate. Rev.
Hoplonyx similis, Sars. Rev.
Lepidepecreum carinatum, Bate. Rev.
Euonyx chelatus, Norm. Rev,
Bathyporeia norvegica, Sars. Rey.
B. pelagica, Bate. Rev.
Haustorius arenarius (Slabber.) Rev.
Urothoé brevicornis, Bate. Rev.
U. elegans, Bate. Rev.
U. marina, Bate. Rev.
Phoxocephalus Fultoni, T. Scott. Rev.
Paraphoxus oculatus, Sars. Rev.
Harpinia neglecta, Sars. Rev.
Hi. crenulata, Boeck. Rev.
HI, levis, Sars. Rev.
Ampelisca typica, Bate. Rev.
A, tenuicornis, Lillj. Rev.
A. brevicornis (Costa.) Rev.
A. spinipes, Boeck. Rev. '
A. macrocephala, Liilj. Rev.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA.
Haploops tubicola, Lillj. Rev. :
Amphilochus manudens, Bate. Rev.
~ A. melanops, Walker, 7th A. R., p. 27.
Rev. Pl. XVIII.
Amphilochoides pusillus, Sars. Rev.
Gitana Sarsii, Boeck. Rev.
Cyproidia brevirostris, T. & A. Scott
Rev.
Stenothoé marina (Bate.) Rev.
S. monoculoides (Mont.) Rev.
Metopa Alderi, Bate. Rev.
M. borealis, Sars. Rev.
M. pusilla, Sars. Rev.
M. rubro-vittata, Sars. Rev.
M. Bruczelii (Goés.) Rev.
Cressa dubia (Bate.) Rev.
Leucothot spinicarpa (Abildg.) Rey.
L. Lilijeborgti, Boeck. Rev.
Monoculodes carinatus, Bate. Rev.
Perioculodes longimanus (Bate.) Rev.
Pontocrates arenarius(Bate.) ii. p. 172.
Synchelidium haplocheles (Grube.) Rev.
Paramphithot bicuspis (Kr.)ii.173. Rev.
P. assimilis, Sars. Rev.
Stenopleustes nodifer, Sars. Rev.
Epimeriacornigera (Fabr.) Rev.
Iphimedia obesa, Rathke, Rev.
I. minuta, Sars. Rev.
Laphystius sturionis, Kr. Rev.
Syrrhoé fimbriata, Stebb. & Rob. Rev.
Eusirus longipes, Boeck. Rev.
Apherusa bispinosa (Bate.) Rev.
A. Jurinii (M.-Edw.)ii. 79 (Calliopius
norvegicus), Rev.
Calliopius leviusculus (Kr.) ii.79. Rev. |
Paratylus Swammerdamit (M.-Edw.)
Rev.
P. faleatus (Metzger.) iii. 249. Rev.
P. uncinatus (Sars.) iii. 249. Rev.
P. vedlomensis (Bate.) Rev.
Dewxamine spinosa (Mont.) Rev.
D. thea, Boeck. Rev.
Tritata gibbosa (Bate.) iii. 249, Pl. 16.
Rey.
Guernea coalita, Norm. Rev.
Melphidippella macera (Norm.) Rev.
Amathilla homari (Fabr.) ii. 175. Rev.
Gammarus marinus, Leach. Rev.
G. locusta (Linn.) Rev.
G. campylops, Leach. Brackish pond,
Colwyn Bay. 10th A. R.
G. pulex (De Geer.) Rev.
Melita palmata (Mont.) Rev.
439
Melita obtusata (Mont.) Rev.
Mera othonis, M.-Edw. Rey.
M. semi-serrata, Bate. Rev.
M. Batei, Norm. Rev.
Megaluropus agilis, Norm. Rev.
Cheirocratus Sundevalli (Rathke.) ii.
175. Rev.
C. assimilis (Lillj.) Rev.
Lilheborgia pallida, Bate. Rev.
L. Kinahani (Bate.) Rev.
Aora gracilis, Bate. Rev.
Autonoé longipes (Lillj.) Rev.
Leptocheirus pilosus, Zaddach, Rev.
L. hirsutimanus (Bate.) Rev.
Gammaropsis maculata (Johnst.) Rev.
G. nana, Sars. Rev.
Megamphopus cornutus, Norm, 6th
A. R., p. 37. Rev.
Microprotopus maculatus, Norm. Rev.
Photis longicaudatus (Bate.) Rev.
P. pollew, Walker. 9th A. R., p. 15,
Rev.
Podoceropsis excavata (Bate.) Rev.
Amphithoé rubricata (Mont.) Rev.
Pleonexes gammaroides, Bate. Rev.
Ischyrocerus minutus, Lillj. ii. 82,
iii. 250. Pl. 16 (Podocerus isopus,
Walker). Rev.
Podocerus falcatus (Mont.) Rev.
P. pusillus, Sars. Rev.
P. Herdmani, Walker. 6th A. R., p.
37. Rev.
P. variegatus, Leach. Rey.
P. ocius, Bate. Rev.
P. cumbrensis, Stebb.and Rob. Rev.
Janassa capillata (Rathke.) 11.81. Rev.
Erichthonius abditus (Temp.) Rev.
L. difformis, M.-Edw. Rev.
Siphonecetes Colletti, Boeck. Rev.
Corophium grossipes (Linn.) Rev.
C. crassicorne, Bruzelius. Rey.
C. Bonellii, M.-Edw. ii. 84 (C. crassi-
corne). Rev.
Unciola crenatipalmata (Bate.) Rev.
U. planipes, Norm. Rev.
Colomastiz pusilla, Grube.
Chelura terebrans, Phil.
Dulichia porrecta, Bate. Rev.
Pitisica marina, Slabber. Rev.
Protella phasma (Mont.) Rev.
Pariambus typicus (Kr.) Rev.
Caprella linearis (Linn.) Rev.
C. acanthifera, Leach. Rev,
Rev.
Rev.
ENTOMOSTRACA,
OSTRACODA.
[Identified by Professor G. S. BRADY
(see 8th Ann. Rep., p. 20), Mr. A.
Scorr and Dr. CHASTER.]
Pontocypris trigonella, Sars. 8th A. B.,
p. 20.
P. mytiloides, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20. |
Pontocypris serrulata, Sars. 8th A. R.,
p. 20.
? Argillecia cylindrica, Sars. 10th
A. R.
Bairdia inflata, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 2
B. acanthigera, Brady. 10th A. R
Cythere Jonesii, Baird. 8th A. R., p. 20.
0.
440
Cythere tuberculata, Sars. 8th A. R.,
. 20.
. tenera, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. finmarchica, Sars. Sth A. R. > p- 20.
C. confusa, B. & N. 8th A.R., p. 20.
C. albomaculata, Baird. 10th "ALR.
C. globulifera, Brady. 10th A. R.
C. concinna, Jones. 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. dunelmensis, Norm. 8th A. R. ,»p-20.
C. antiquata, Baird. 8th A. R, p. 20.
C. emaciata, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. convewa, Baird. 8thA. R., p. 20.
C. villosa, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. lutea, O. F. M. 10th A. R.
C. Robertsoni, Brady. 10th A. R.
Eucythere argus, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 20.
E. declivis, Norm. 10th A. R.
Krithebartonensis,Jones. 8thA. R., p.20.
Loxoconcha impressa, Baird. 8th A. R.,
. 20.
a guttata, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20.
L.tamarindus, Jones. 8thA.R., p. 20.
L. pusilla, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20.
LL. multifora, Norm. 8th A. R., p. 20.
Cytherura cornuta, Brady. 8th A. B.,
. 20.
6. angulata, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. cellulosa, Norm, 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. striata, Sars. 8th A. R. .p. 20.
C. sella, Sars. 8th A. R., p. ue
C. nigrescens, Baird. 10th A.
C. acuticostata, Sars. 10th A. a
Pseudocythere caudata, Sars. 8th
Ay PRs, ps 2
Cytheropteron latissimum, Norm. 8th
A. R., p. 20.
C. pyramidale, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. alatum, Sars. 8th A. R., p. 20.
C. punctatwm, Brady. 10th A. R.
Scleruchilus contortus, Norm. 8th
A. R., p. 20.
Paradoxostoma Normani, Brady. &th
A.R., p. 20.
P. ensiforme, Brady. 8th A. BR., p. 20.
P. variabile, Baird. 8th A. R., p. 20.
P. hibernica, Brady. 8th A. R., p. 20.
P. fleruosum, Brady. 10th A. R.
Philomedes interpuncta, Baird. 8th
A R,, p. 20.
Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquet. 8th
A. R., p. 21.
C. punctillata, Brady. 8th A. R.,
p. 21.
C. elongata, Brady. 10th A. R.
C. torosa, Jones. 10th A. R.
Cytherideis subulata, Brady. 10th
A. R.
Bythocythere acuta, Norm. 8th A. R.,
p. 21.
B. constricta, Sars. 8thA.R.,p. 21.
B. turgida, Sars. 8th A. BR., p. 21.
B. simplex, Norm. 10th A. R.
Macherina tenuissima, Norm. 8th
ADR., p- 21.
REPORT— 1896.
CLADOCERA.
Evadne Nordmanni, Loven. i. p. 325.
Podon intermedium, Lillj. 4th ae K.,
p. 25.
COPEPODA.
[See Mr. I. C. THompson’s Reports,
especially the ‘Revision’ in
‘Fauna,’ iv. p. 81.]
Calanus finmarchicus, Gunn. iv. 87.
Metridia armata, Boeck. iv. 87.
Pseudocalanus elongatus, Baird. iv. 87.
P. armatus, Boeck. iv. 87.
Paracalanus parvus, Claus. iv. 87.
Acartia Clausii, Giesbrecht. iv. 88.
A. discaudata, Giesb. iv. 88.
Temora longicornis, Mill. iv. 88.
Eurytemora affinis, Poppe. iv. 88.
E. Clausii, Boeck. iv. 88.
Scolecithrix hibernica, A. Scott. 10th
A. R.
Tsias clawipes, Boeck. iv. 88.
Lentropages hamatus, Lillj. iv. 89.
C. typicus, Kr. (Missed reporting.)
Parapontella brevicornis, Lubb. iv. 89.
Labidocera Wollastoni, Lubb. iv. 89.
L. acutum, Dana. iv. 90.
Anomalocera Patersoni, Temp. iy. 90.
Eucheta marina, Prest. iv. 90.
Pscudocyclopia stephoides, Thomp. iv.
314.
Misophria pallida, Boeck. iv. 91.
Pseudocyclops crassiremis, Brady. 10th
A.R
P. obtusatus, Brady & Rob. 10th
A. R.
Cervinia Bradyi, Norm. iv. 91.
Herdmania stylifera, Thomp. iv. 92.
Oithona spinifrons, Boeck. iv. 93.
Cyclopina littoralis, Brady. iv. 93.
C. gracilis, Claus. iv. 94.
Giardella callianasse, Canu. iv. 95.
Hersiliodes puffini, Thomp. iv. 95.
Thorellia brunnea, Boeck. iv. 95.
Cyclops Ewarti, Brady. iv. 318.
C. magnoctavus, Cragin. iv. 317.
C. marinus, Thomp. iv. 94.
Notodelphys Allmani, Thorell. iv. 95.
Doropygus pulex, Thor. iv. 95.
D. poricauda, Brady. iv. 96.
D. gibber, Thorell. iv. 96.
Botachus cylindratus, Thorell. iv. 96.
Ascidicola rosea, Thorell. iv. 96.
Notopterophorus papilio, Hesse. iv. 96.
Lamippi proteus, Clap. 10th A. R.
L. Forbesi, T. Scott. 10th A. R.
Longipedia coronata, Claus. iv. 97.
L. minor, T.& A. Scott. 8thA.R., p. 19.
Canuella perplexa T. & A. Scott. iv. 318.
Sunaristes paguri, Hesse. 9th A. R.,p.11.
LEctinosoma atlanticum, B. & R.iv. 98.
E. curticorne, Boeck. iv. 98.
LE. erythrops, Brady. iv. 98.
LL. melaniceps, Brady. iv. 98.
E. spinipes, Brady. iv. 98.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. AAD
Ectinosoma Normani, T. & A. Scott. 8th
A. R., p. 19.
E. clongata,T.&A. Scott. 8th A.R.,p.19.
E.gracile,T.& A.Scott. 8th A. R.,p.20.
EB. pygmeum, T. & A. Scott. 8th
A.R., p. 20.
E.. Herdmani,T. & A. Scott. 8thA. R.,
p- 20.
Bradya typica, Boeck. — iv. 102.
B. minor, T.& A. Scott. 8tha. R.,p. 20.
Tachidius brevicornis, Miill. iv. 98.
7. littoralis, Pop. iv. 99.
BLuterpe acutifrons, Dana. iv. 99.
Robertsonia tenis, Br. & Rob. iv. 99.
Amymone longimana, Claus. iv. 99.
A. spherica, Claus. iv. 99.
Stenhelia hispida, Brady. iv. 99.
S. ima, Brady. iv. 100.
S. denticulata, Thomp. iv. 100.
S. hirsuta, Thomp. iv. 100.
S. Herdmani, A. Scott. 10th A. R.
S. similis, A. Scott. 10th A. R.
S. reflewa, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 11.
Ameira longipes, Boeck. iv. 101.
A. attenuata, Thomp. iv. 101.
A. longicaudata, T. Scott. 8th A.R.,
p. 20.
A. exigua, T. Scott. 8th A. R., p. 20.
A. gracilis, A.Scott. 9th A. R., p. 35.
A. reflewa, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 35.
A.longiremis,T. Scott. 8th A.R., p. 20.
Jonesiella fusiformis, Br. & Rob. iv. 102.
J. hyena, Thomp. iv. 102.
Delavalia palustris, Brady. iv. 103.
D. reflexa, Br. & Rob. iv. 103.
Canthocamptus palustris, Brady. 10th
A.R
Mesochra Lilijeborgii, Boeck. iv. 103.
S. Macintoshi,T. & A.Scott. 9thA.R.,
p. 35.
Paramesochra dubia, T. Scott. iv. 103.
Tetragoniceps Bradyi, T. Scott. iv. 103.
T. consimilis,T. Scott. 9th A.R., p.35.
T. trispinosus, A. Scott. 10th A. R.
Diosaccus tenuicornis, Claus. iv. 103.
D. propinquus, T. & A. Scott. 8th
A.R., p. 20.
Laophonte serrata, Claus. iv. 104.
LL. spinosa, Thomp. iv. 104.
LD. thoracica, Boeck. iv. 105.
L. horrida, Norm. iv. 105.
LT. similis, Claus. iv. 105.
L. curticauda, Boeck. iv. 105.
tL. lamellifera, Claus. iv. 106.
L. hispida, Br. & Rob. iv. 106.
L. propinqua, T. & A. Scott. 9th
A Bes le
L. intermedia, T. Scott. 9th A.R.,p.11.
L. inopinata, T. Scott. 8th A. B., p. 20.
Pseudolaophonte aculeata, A. Scott.
9th A. R., p. 35.
Laophontodes bicornis, A. Scott. 10th
A.R.
Normanella dubia, Br. & Rob. iv. 106.
Normanella attenuata, A. Scott. 9th
A. R,, p. 35.
Cletodes limicola, Brady. iv. 106.
C. longicaudata, Br. & Rob. iv. 106.
C. linearis, Claus. iv. 106.
C. monensis, Thomp. iv. 106.
C. similis, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 11.
Enhydrosoma curvatum, Br. & Rob.
iv. 107.
Nannopus palustris, Brady. 9thA.R.,
7 He UE
Platychelipus littoralis, Brady. iv. 107.
Dactylopus tisboides, Claus. iv. 107.
D. stromii, Baird. iv. 107.
D. tenuiremis, B. & R. iv. 108.
D. flavus, Claus. iv. 108.
D. brevicornis, Claus. iv. 108.
D. minutus, Claus. iv. 108.
D. rostratus, T. Scott. 8th A. B.,p. 20.
Thalestris helgolandica, Claus. iv. 108.
T. rufocincta, Norm. iv. 108.
T. harpactoides, Claus. iv. 109.
T. Clausii, Norm. iv. 109.
T. rufo-violescens, Claus. iv. 109.
Tf. serrulata, Brady. iv. 109.
T. hibernica, Br. & Rob. iv. 109,
T. lonyimana, Claus. iv. 109.
T. pelétata, Boeck. iv. 109.
1. forficuloides, T. & A. Scott. 10th
A. R
Pseudothalestris pygm@a, T. & A. Scott.
8th A. R., p. 20.
P. major, T. & A. Scott. 10th A. R.
Westwoodia nobilis, Baird. iv. 110.
Harpacticus chelifer, Mill. iv. 110.
HI, fulwus, Fischer. iv. 110.
H. jlexus, Br. & Rob. iv. 10.
Zaus spinatus, Goods. iv. 110.
Z. Goodsiri, Brady. iv. 110.
Cancerilla tubulata, Dal. iv. 319.
Alteutha depressa, Baird. iv. 110.
A, interrupta, Goods. iv. 111.
A. crenulata, Brady. iv. 111.
Porcellidiwm viride, Phil. iv. 111.
P. tenuicauda, Claus. iv. 111.
Idya furcata, Baird. iv. 111.
I. elongata, A. Scott. 10th A. R.
I. gracilis, T. Scott. 9th A. R., p. 35,
Scutellidium tisboides, Claus. iv. 11).
S. fasciatum, Boeck. iv. 111.
Cylindropsyllus levis, Brady. iv. 112.
Monstrilla Dane, Claparéde. iv. 112.
M. angtica, Lubb. iv. 112.
M. rigida, Thomp. iy. 112.
M. longicornis, Thomp. iv. 112.
Modiolicola insignis, Auriv. 9th A. R.,
p. 11.
Lichomolqus albens, Thorell. iv. 113.
LL. agilis, Leydig. 8th A. R., p. 20.
LD. fucicolus, Brady. iv. 113.
L. furcillatus, Thorell. iv. 113.
L. maximus, Thomp. iv. 114.
Pseudanthessius Sauvagei, Canu. 8th
A. R., p. 20.
442
Pseudanthessius liber, Br. & Rob. iv.
113.
P. Thoreilii, Br. & Rob. iv. 113.
Hermanelia rostrata, Canu. (Recorded
as Lichomolqusagilis,T. & A.S. iv. 33.)
Sabelliphilus Sarsii, Clap. iv. 116.
Cyclopicera nigripes, Br. & Rob. iv.
116.
C. lata, Brady. iv. 116.
Dyspontius striatus, Thorell. iv. 118.
Artotrogus Boeckti, Brady. iv. 117.
A, magniceps, Brady. iv. 117.
A. Normani, Br. & Rob. iv. 117.
A. orbicularis, Boeck. iv. 117.
Parartotrogus Richardi, T. & A. Scott.
10th A. R.
Acontiophorus scutatus, Br. & Rob. iv.
ae
A. elongatus, T. & A. Seott. iv. 320.
Collocheres gracilicauda, Brady. iv. 116.
C. elegans, A. Scott. 10th A. R.
Dermatomyzon gibberum, T. & A. Scott.
9th A. R., p. 11.
Ascomyzon Thompsoni, A. Scott. 9th-
A. B., p. 35.
Chondracanthus merluccii, Holt. 10th
A. R.
Lernentoma lophii, Johnst. iv. 117.
REPORT—1896.
Caligus rapax, M.-Edw. iv. 117.
C. curtus, Leach. iv. 118.
Lepeopotheirus Stromii, Baird. iv. 118.
L. Nordmannii, M.-Edw. iv. 118.
L.. hippoglossi, Kr. iv. 118.
L. obsewrus, Baird. iv. 118.
L. pectoralis, Miller. iv. 320.
Lernea branchialis, Linn. iv. 118.
Anchorella appendiculata, Kr., iv.
321.
A. uncinata, Mill. iv. 119.
Lerneonema spratta, Sow. 10th A. R.
Lerneopoda galei, Kroyer. 10th A. R.
CIRRIPEDIA.
[See Mr. MARRAT’s list in ‘ Fauna,’
i. 209; and records in the Ann.
Reports since. ]
Balanus porcatus, Costa. i. 2094
B. Hameri, Ascan. i. 209.
B. balanoides, Linn. i. 210.
B. perforatus, Brug. i. 210.
B. crenatus, Brug. i. 210.
Chthamalus stellatus, Poli. i. 210.
Verruca Strimia, O. F. M. i. 210.
Lepas anatifera, Linn. i. 210.
Scalpellum vulgare, Leach. 9th A, R.,
p. 17, &e.
Sacculina carcini, Thomp. i. 211.
LIST OF THE PYCNOGONIDA.
[See Reports by Mr. HALHED in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 227; and also anote in 9th Ann.
Report, p. 15.]
Nymphon gracile, Leach, i. 228. 9th
AQUR., 3 153
NV. rubrum, Hodge. 10th A. R.
NV. gallicum, Hoek. 9th A. R., p. 15.
Ammothea echinata (Hodge.) i. 229.
A. levis (Hodge.) i. 229 (as A.
hispida).
Chetonymphon hirtum, (Kr.) 9th
‘AS Rj p. 15: .
Pallene brevirostris (Johnst.) i. 230,
P. producta, Sars. 9th A. R., p. 15.
Phoxichilidium femoratum (Rathke.)
i. 230.
Anoplodactylus petiolatus (Kr.) 9th
A. R., p. 15.
Phoxichilus spinosus (Mont.) i. 230.
Pycnogonum litorale (Strém.) i, 231.
[Notr.—A few of the marine insects and mites have been identified, but the lists
are so far from complete that it would be useless to print them. ]
LIST OF THE MOLLUSCA.
[See Reports by Mr. R. D. DARBISHIRE in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 232 ; and by Mr. F. ARCHER
in iii. 59, with additions by Mr. A. LEICESTER and Dr. CHASTER.]
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Anomia ephippium, L. i. 234, 248, 320,
337 ; iii. 62.
Do., var. sguamula, L. iii. 62.
Do., var. aculeata, Miill. iii. 62.
Do., var. cylindrica, Gm. iii. 62.
A. patelliformis, L. i. 5, 6, 235, 241,
248 ; iii. 62.
Ostrea edulis, L, i. 235, 248, 337;
iii. 62.
Pecten pusio, L. i. 5, 235, 241, 24
319, 337.
P. varius, L. i. 5, 235, 248, 337; iii.
32, 62.
P. opercularis, L.
iii. 215, 62.
P. tigrinus, Mill. i. 235, 248; iii. 62.
P. tigrinus, var. costata, Jeff, i. 13,
235, 337.
1. 235, 248, 337;
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 4.43
Pecten Testa, Biv. 7th A. R., pp. 15,
28.
P. striatus, Mill. iii. 62; 6th A. R.,
p. 25.
P. similis, Lask.i. 248,319, 337 ; iii. 63.
P. maximus, L. i. 241, 248, 319, 337 ;
li. 14.
Lima elliptica, Jeff. 1.13, 235, 248, 337.
(2) ZL. subauriculata, Mont. i. 248.
L. loscombii, G. B. Sow. i. 7, 13, 235,
248, 319, 337; iii. 63.
L. hians, Gm. i. 248.
Mytilus edulis, L. i. 31, 235, 241, 248,
337.
M. modiolus, L. i. 241,249, 337; iii. 63.
? M. barbatus, L. i. 6, 235, 249; iii.
63.
M. adriaticus, Lmk. i. 249.
M. phaseolinus, Phil, Isle of Man,
South. 10th A. R.
Modiolaria marmorata, Forb. i. 13,31,
235, 249, 320, 321, 337; ii. 120, 121,
127.
M. discors, L.
Nucula sulcata, Brown.
pp. 16, 28.
NV. nucleus, L. i. 235, 249, 337.
Do., var. radiata, ¥. & H. iii. 63.
NV. nitida, G. B. Sow. i. 249, iii. 63.
Leda minuta, Mill. i. 249. iii. 63.
Do., var. brevirostris, Jeff. 10th
A. R.
Pectunculus glycimeris, L.
249, 319, 323, 337.
Arca lactea, L. i. 249.
A. tetragona, Poli, i. 249, 319, 337.
Lepton squamosum, Mont. i. 249, iii. 64.
L. nitidum, Turt. iii. 64.
? L.sulcatulum, Jeff. 6th A.R., p. 26.
L. Clarkia, Cl. 7th A. R., p. 28.
Montacuta substriata, Mont. i. 249,
iii. 64.
M., bidentata, Mont. i. 250, iii. 64.
M. Jerruginosa, Mont. i. 250.
Lasea rubra, Mont. i. 250.
Kellia suborbicularis, Mont. i, 250.
Loripes lacteus, L. i. 250.
Incina spinifera, Mont. iii. 64.
L. borealis, L. i. 250, iii. 64.
Axinus flecuosus, Mont. i. 250.
Diplodonta rotundata, Mont. i. 250.
Cyamium minutun, Fabr. i, 250, iii. 64.
Cardium echinatum, L. i. 236, 241,
_ 250, iii. 61, 64.
C. fasciatum, Mont. i. 250.
C. nodosum, Turt. iii. 64.
C. edule, L. i. 81, 241, 251.
C. minimum, Phil. 7th A.B., p. 28; 8th
A. R., p. 27.
C norvegicum, Speng. i.6, 236, 251,
337 ; iii. 64.
Isocardia cor, L. 7th A. B.,p. 28; 8th
A. R., p. 30.
Cyprina islandica, L. i. 242, 251.
i, 249, 337; iii. 63.
ith A. R.,
i. 13, 236,
Astarte suleata, Da C. i.
251, 337; iii. 65.
A. suleata, var. scotica, M. & Ri. iii. 65.
A. triangularis, Mont. i. 251.
Circe minima, Mont. i. 251.
Venus exoleta, L. i. 236, 242, 251, 337.
V. lincta, Pult. 1. 242, 251.
V. chione, L. iii. 65.
V. fasciata, Da C.
251, 387 ; iii. 65.
V. casina, L. i. 13, 236, 251, 337.
V. ovata, Penn. i. 31, 236, 251; ili. 65.
V. gallina, L. i. 236, 251, 337.
Tapes virgineus, L. i. 236, 242, 251,
337; iii. 65.
T. pullastra, Mont. i. 242, 251.
Do., var. perforans, Mont. i. §, 236.
T. decussatus, L. i. 242, 251.
Lucinopsis undata, Penn. i. 242, 251;
iii. 65.
Tellina crassa, Penn. i. 242, 251.
Tf. balthica, L. i. 31, 236, 251, 337.
T. tenuis, Da C. i. il, 251.
TL. fabula, Gron. i. 251, ili. 65.
T. squalida, Pult. iii. 65.
T. donacina, L. i. 6, 236, 252 ; iii. 65.
T. pusilla, Phil. i. 252.
Psammobia tellinella, Lmk.
252, 337 ; iii. 66.
P. ferroénsis, Chem. i. 237, 252.
P. vespertina, Chem. 8th A.R., p. 27.
Donazx vittatus, Da C. i. 252; iii. 61.
Mactra solida,L. i. 5, 237, 239, 252.
M.solida, var. truncata, Mont. Puffin
Island. 10th A. R.
MM. solida, var. elliptica, Bro. i. 237,
337.
M. subtruncata, Da C. i. 252.
Do., var. striata, Brown, 10th A. R.
Do., var. inequalis, Jeff. 10th A. R.
MM: stultorum, L. i. 237, 242, 252
Do., var. cinerea, Mont. i. 5.
Lnitraria elliptica, Lmk. 1. 237, 252.
Serobicularia prismatica, Mont. i. 6,
237, 252; iii. 66.
S. nitida, Mill. 8th A. R., p. 27.
S. alba, Wood. i. 6, 237, 252.
S. tenuis, Mont. i. 253.
S. piperata, Gm. i. 253.
Solecwrtus candidus, Ren. i. 253.
S. antiquatus, Pult. i. 253.
Ceratisolen legumen, L. i. 242, 253.
Solen pellucidus, Penn. i. 242, 253;
lii. 66.
S. ensis, L.
S. siliqua, L.
S. vagina, L.
Pandora inequivaivis, L.
Lyonsia norvegica, Chem.
iii. 66.
Thracia pretenuis, Pult. i. 13, 237,
253, 337.
T. papyracea, Poli, i. 243, 253.
T. convexa, W. Wood. i. 242, 253.
13, 236,
i. 18, 236, 242,
i. 237,
i, 242, 253.
I, 2ba:
i, 242, 253.
iii. 66.
i, 2533
4A
Thracia distorta, Mont. i. 253.
Corbula gibba, Olivi. i. 7, 237, 253;
lii. 66.
Mya arenaria, L.
M. truneata, L.
M. Binghami, Turt.
iii. 66.
Panopea plicata, Mont. 10th A. R.
Saxicava rugosa, L. i. 6, 238, 243, 253,
320, 337; ii. 120; iii. 12, 149.
Do., var. aretica, L. Isle of Man,
South. 10th A. R.
1. 238, 253.
1. 31, 243, 253.
1. 6. 238, 253 ;
REPORT—1896,
Pholas candida, L.
254.
P. crispata, Li. i. 8, 31, 238, 243, 254,
B22, dole
Pholaditica papyracea,
254.
Teredo navalis, L. iii. 67.
T. meqgotara, Han., and var. mionota,
Jett. Southport. 10th A. R.
T. norvegica, sp., var. divaricata,
Desh. 10th A. R.
i. 4, 5, 31, 243,
Turt. re
SCAPHOPODA.
Dentalium entale, L.
338, 67,
D. tarentinum,
lii. 67.
mks | as. 254s
i. 6, 13, 238, 254, |
Siphonodentalium lofotense, Sars. 10th
A. R.
POLYPLACOPHORA.
Chiton fascicularis, L. i.
iii. 67.
C. diserepans, Bro. iii. 29.
C. Hanleyi, Bean. 7th A. R., p. 42.
€. cancellatus, G. B. Sow. i. 238, 255,
338.
C. cinereus, L.
244, 255;
i. 18, 238, 255, 338. |
Chiton albus, Ls. i. 238, 255, 338.
C. marginatus, Penn. 8th A. R.,
p. 27.
C. ruber, Lowe. i. 255.
C. levis, Mont. i. 238, 255, 338.
C. marmoreus, Fabr. i. 255.
GASTEROPODA.
Patella vulyata, L. i. 239, 255, 338.
Do., var. athletica, Bean. i. 321, 338.
flelcion pellucidum, L. i. 239, 244,
255, 320.
Do., var. levis, Penn. i. 320, 338.
Leetura testudinalis, Mill. i. 244,
255; iii. 67.
T. virginea, Mill. i. 255; iii. 67.
Propilidium ancyloides, Forb. 7th
A. R., p. 28; 8th, p. 27.
Puncturella noachina, L. iii. 67.
Limarginula fissura, L. i. 239, 255,
338 ; iii. 67.
Do., var. elata, Jeff.
LE. rosea, Bell. i. 255.
Fissurella greca, L. i.
319, 338; iii. 67.
Capulus lungaricus, L. i. 255.
2 Cyclostrema cutlerianum, Cl. 6th
A. RB., pp. 26, 39.
C. nitens, Phil. 6th A. R., pp. 26, 39.
C. serpuloides, Mont. © iii. 68.
Zrochus helicinus, Fabr. Th A.R., p. 28.
1. magus, L. i. 239, 256, 323, 338.
T. tumidus, Mont. i. 239, 256, 338; iii.
68.
T. cinerarius, L. i. 18, 239, 256, 338.
T. umbilicatus, Mont. i. 256.
T. Montacuti,W.Wood. i. 256; iii. 68.
7. striatus, L. i. 256.
DT. millegranus, Phil. i. 256; iii, 68.
T. qgranulatus, Born. i. 257; iii. 68.
YL. zizyphinus, L. i. 5, 13, 239, 257,
319, 322, 338 ; iii. 68.
10th A. R.
Trochus z:zyphinus, var. humilior, Jeff.
10th A. R.
Do., var. Lyonsii, Leach. iii. 68.
Do., var. lwvigata, J. Sow. iii. 68.
Phasianella pullus, L. i. 13, 239, 257,
319, Sa0 + Il. ob, obs
Lacuna crassior, Mont. i. 31, 257; iii.
68.
L. divaricata, Fabr. i. 31, 257, 338;
iii. 68, 69.
L.. puteolus, Turt.
L. pallidula, Da C. i. 257; iii. 69.
Littorina obtusata, L. i. 257, 338.
LL. rudis, Maton. i. 257.
LL littorea, L. i. 31, 257, 338.
? Rissoa striatula, Mont. Waterloo.
10th A. R.
Tk. cancellata, Da C. iii. 69.
FR. calathus, F. and H. iii. 69.
R. reticulata, Mont. i. 257.
R. punctura, Mont. i. 257; iii. 69.
RF. abyssicola, Forb. 7th A. R. pp.
16, 28.
R. zetlandica, Mont.
South. 10th A. R.
R. costata, Ad. i. 257; iii. 69:
R. parva, Da ©. i. 257; iii. 69.
Do., var. interrupta, Ad. iii. 36, 69.
R.inconspicua, Ald. 8th A. R., p. 27.
R. violacea, Desm. 7th A. R., p. 28.
R. striata, Ad. i. 258; iii. 69.
Do., var. arctica, Lov. Puffin Island.
10th A. R.
- Do., var. distorta, Mar.
iii. 69.
Isle of Man,
10th A. R.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 445
Rissoa vitrea, Mont. i. 31, 258; iii.
69.
R. soluta, Phil. iii. 70.
R. semistriata, Mont. iii. 36, 70.
R. cingillus, Mont. i. 258; iii. 69, 70.
Do., var. »upestris, Forb. 7th A. R.,
Pb.
Hydrobia ulve, Penn. i. 31, 258.
H. ventrosa, Mont. Colwyn Bay.
10th A. R.
Do., var. ovata, Jeff. iii. 70.
Jeffreysia diaphana, Ald. iii. 70.
J. opalina, Jeff. ili. 4th A. B.,p. 36.
Shenea planorbis, Fabr. i. 258; iii. 70.
Homalogyra atomus, Phil. i. 258 ; iii.
70.
H. rota, F.& H. 6th A. R., p. 39.
Cacum trachea, Mont. 7th A.R.,p. 28;
8th A. R., p. 27.
C. glabrum, Mont. iii. 70.
Twrritella terebra, L. i. 259.
Scalaria turtone, Turt. i 259.
S. communis, Lmk. i. 259.
» Aclis unica, Mont. iii. 70.
A, ascaris, Turt. iii. 70.
A, supranitida, 8. Wood. i. 259; iii.
70.
A. Gulsone, Cl.
8th A. R., p. 27.
Odostomia minima, Jeff. Isle of Man,
South. 10th A. R.
O. nivosa, Mont. 6th A. B., p. 39.
O. Lukisi, Jeff. 7th A. B., p. 28.
O. clavulu, Loy. 10th A. k.
O. albella, Lov. 10th A. R.
Do., var. subcylindrica, Marsh, 10th
A. R.
O. vissoides, Han. iii. 70.
Do., var. dubia, Jeff. iii. 70.
Do., var. glabrata. 10th A. R.
O. pallida, Mont. iii. 71.
O. conoidea, Broc. iii. 61, 71.
O. conspicua, Ald. iii. 71.
O. unidentata, Mont. i. 259.
O. turrita, Han. 6th A. R., p. 39.
Do., var. nana, Jeff. 10th A. R.
O. plicata, Mont. i. 259; iii. 71.
O. insculpta, Mont. Isle of Man,
South. 10th A. R.
O. Warreni, Thomp. 6th A. B., p. 39.
O. dolioliformis, Jeff. iii. 71.
O. decussata, Mont. iii. 71.
O. indistincta, Mont. iii. 71.
Do., var. brevior, Jeff. iii. 71.
O. interstincta, Mont. i. 260.
Do., var. sutwralis, Phil. 10th A. R.
O. spiralis, Mont. i. 260.
O. scalaris, Phil. 6th A. R., p. 26.
O. rufa, Phil. i. 260; iii. 71.
Do., var. fulvocincta, Thomp. iii. 71.
O. lactea, L. i. 260.
O. pusilla, Phil. iii. 61, 71.
O. scille, Scac. iii. 71.
O. acicula, Phil. 6th A. R., p. 26.
“th AS) RB... py 28;
Odostomia nitidissima, Mont. 6th A. R.,
p. 26.
O. diaphana, Jeff. 10th A. R.
Eulima polita, L. i. 261.
Lt. intermedia, Can. 7th A. R., p
28.
H. distorta, Desh. i. 261; iii. 71.
E. subulata, Don. i. 261; iii. 71.
E. bilineata, Ald. 6th A. R., p. 26:
7th A. R., p. 16.
Natica catena, Da C. i. 11, 240, 261,
338.
NV. Alderi, Forb. i. 240, 244, 261, 338.
NV. Montacuti, Forb. i. 261.
Adeorbis subcarinatus, Mont. iii. 28,72.
A. imperspicuus, Monter. 7th A. R.,
pp. 16, 17, 28 (as Cyclostrema
millepunctatum, Friele).
Lamellaria perspicua, L. i. 244, 261.
Velutina levigata, Penn. i. 239, 244,
261, 323, 338 ; iii. 72.
Aporrhais pes-pelicani, L. i. 239, 244,
261.
Cerithium reticulatum, Da C. i. 261.
C. perversum, L. Isle of Man, South.
10th A. R.
Cerithiopsis tubercularis, Mont. iii.
61, 72.
Purpura lapilius, L. i. 31, 262, 338 ;
iii, 72.
Do., var. imbricata, Lmk. iii. 72.
Buccinum undatum, L. 1.31, 239, 262,
338.
Do., var. littoralis, King. 10th A. R.
Do., var. Jordoni, Chester. 10th A. R.
Murex erinaceus, L. i. 5, 240, 262, 319,
333.
Lachesis minima, Mont. iii. 72.
Trophon muricatus, Mont. i. 240, 262-
Tf. barvicensis, Johnst. i.240, 262,338.
T. truncatus, Str. i. 262, 388. iii. 72.
Do., var. alba, Jett. 10th A. R.
Fusus antiquus, L. i. 240, 244, 262, 338.
Do., var. alba, Jeff. Isle of Man,
South. 10th A. R.
F. gracilis, Da C. i. 5, 240, 244,
338; iii. 73.
Do., var. convoluta, Jeff. 10th A. R.
F. propinguus, Ald.i. 244, 262 ; iii. 73-
F. Jeffreysianus, Fisch. i. 244.
Nassa reticulata, L. i. 263.
NV. inerassata, Str. i. 263; iii. 73.
Defrancia teres, Forb. 6th A. i,
pp: 26, 39.
D. gracilis, Mont. i. 263,
D. Leufroyi, Mich. 6th A. R., p. 39.
D. linearis, Mont. i. 263 ; iii. 73.
Do., var. equalis, Jeff. 10th A. R.
D. purpurea, Mont. i. 263.
Pleurotoma attenuata, Mont. Isle of
Man, South. 10th A. R.
P. costata, Don. iii. 73.
P. nebula, Mont. i. 240, 263, 338; iii. 73.
P. septangularis, Mont. i. 263.
4.4.6
Pleurotoma rufa, Mont.
P. turricula, Mont.
338 ; lil. 73.
Cyprea Europea, Mont.
263, 317, 338.
Cylichna umbiticata, Mont. 7th A. R.,
28:
A cylindracea, Penn. i. 244, 264.
Utriculus truncatulus, Brug. iii. 73.
Do., var. pellucida, Bro. Puffin
Island. 10th A. R.
U. obtusus, Mont. i.
73.
U. hyalinus, Turt.
7th A. R., p. 28.
U. mamillatus, Phil. 10th A. R.
Acteon tornatilis, L. i. 244, 264.
Bulla hydatis, L. 6th A. R., p. 35,
i. 263.
i. 5, 240, 263,
i. 13, 240,
31, 264; iii,
6th A. R., p. 39;
REPORT—1896.
Bulla utriculus, Broc. 6th A. R., p. 39 ;
7th A. R., p. 28.
Scaphander lignarius, L.
lii. 73.
Philine scabra, Mill. 7th A. R., p. 28.
P. catena, Mont. Isle of Man, South.
10th A. R.
P. anqulata, Jeff. 7th A. R., p. 28;
8th A. R., p. 27.
P. punctata, Cl. iii. 74.
P. nitida, Jeff. iii. 74.
P. aperta, L. 1.12, 31, 240, 265, 317 ;
iii. 28, 74.
Aplysia punctata, Cuv. i. 18, 240, 265,
323, 339 ; iii. 137.
Plewrobranchus membranaceus, Mont.
i. 13, 240, 2€5, 322, 339; ili. 74.
P. plumula, Mont. i. 13; iii. 74.
i, 244, 264;
NUDIBRANCHIATA.
{See Reports by Professor HERDMAN and Mr. CLUBB in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 268, ii. 98,
and iii. 131.]
Archidoris tuberculata, Cuv. i. 268. _
A. Johnstoni, Ald. & Han. i. 268.
A. flammea, Ald. & Han. i. 268.
Doris, sp. (2). 9th A. R., p. 11.
Lamellidoris bilamellata, Linn. i. 268.
LL. depressa, Ald. & Han. i. 269.
L.. proxima, Ald. & Han. i. 269.
I. aspera, Ald. & Han. 9thA. R.,
p. 11.
Agirus punctilucens, D’Orb. 9th A. R.,
De Le
Acanthodoris pilosa, O. F. M. i. 269.
A. quadrangulata, Ald. & Han. 1.269.
Gonivdoris nodosa, Mont. i. 269.
G. castanea, Ald. & Han. i. 270.
Triopa claviger, O. F. M. i. 270.
Polycera Lessoni, D’Orb. i. 270,
Do.,var. ocellata, Ald. & Han. i. 270.
P. quadrilineata, O. F. M. 1. 270.
Ancula cristata, Alder. 1.270; ili. 134.
Tritonia Hombergi, Cuv. i. 270.
T. plebeia, Johnst. i. 271.
Dendronotus arborescens, O. F. M.
i. 271; 11. 101.
Lomanotus genei, Ver. 9th A. R.,
p. ll.
Doto coronata, Gm. i. 272.
D. fragilis, Forbes. i. 272.
Janus cristatus, D. Ch. i. 272.
J. hyatinus, Ald. & Han. i
2
. 272.
Eolidia papillosa, Linn. i, 273.
Coryphella gracilis, Ald. &Han. i. 274,
C. Landsburgi, Ald. & Han. i. 274.
C. rufibranchialis, Johnst. i. 274; iii.
140.
Favorinus albus, Ald. & Han. 9th
A. R., p. 11.
Cavolina angulata, Ald. & Han. Tth
A. R., p. 45.
Cratena concinna, Ald. & Han. i. 274.
C. olivacea, Ald. & Han. i. 274.
C. amena, Ald. & Han. i. 274.
C. aurantiaca, Ald. & Han. i. 275.
C. arenicola, Forb, i. 275.
C. viridis, Forb. i. 275.
Cuthona nana, Ald. & Han. i. 275.
C. aurantiaca, Ald. & Han. 9th
b Need sei opal I
Galvina picta, Ald. & Han. i. 275.
G. tricolor, Forbes. i. 275.
G. Farrani, Ald. & Han. 9th A. B.,
jou
Tergipes despecta, Johnst. i. 276.
T. exigua, Ald. & Han. i. 276.
Embletonia pallida, Ald. & Han. i.
276.
E. pulehra, Ald. & Han. 9th A,B,
Daylis
Fiona marina, Forsk. ii. 108.
Elysia viridis, Mont. 9th A. R., p. 11.
Runcina Hancochi, Forb. 9th A. B.,
p. ll.
Eolidiella glauca, Ald. & Han. i. 273. Acta@onia corrugata, Ald. & Han. 9th
Facelina coronata, Korb. i. 273. A.R., p. 11,
F. Drummondi, Thomp. i. 273. Limapontia nigra, John. 9th A. R.,
Coryphella lineata, Lov. i. 274. p- 11.
PULMONIBRANCHIATA.
Melampus bidentatus, Mont. iii. 74.
Do.,var. alba, Turt. Isle of Man, South.
10th-A. R.
Melampus myosotis, Drap. 7th A. R.,
p. 28.
Otina otis, Turt. i. 265; iii. 74.
ae
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 4.4.7
PTEROPODA.
Spirialis retroversus, Flem, 7th A. R., p. 15.
CEPHALOPODA.
[See Mr. Hoyxp’s list in ‘ Fauna,’ i. 278, and additions in A. R. since. ]
Sepiola atlantica, Lamk. i. 6, 24.) 1. 245, 265. 7th
246, 266,279. 7th A. R., 28.
S. scandica, Stnp. 7th A. R., p. 28.
Rossia macrosoma, D. Ch. i. 245, 266.
Loligo media, Linn. i. 5, 7, 245, 266,
279.
Loligo Forbesi, Stnp.
A. R., p. 28.
Sepia officinalis, Linn.
Eledone cirrosa, Lamk.
266, 278; iii. 35.
1. 29, 245, 266.
i. 6, 24, 246,
|
}
LIST OF THE TUNICATA.
[See Professor HERDMAN’s Report upon the Tunicata in the ‘ Fauna,’ vol. i., and
Second Report upon the Tunicata in the ‘ Fauna,’ vol. ii., and various passing refer-
ences and short lists in the Annual Reports. ]
LARVACEA.
Oikopleura flabellum, J. Mill. i. 281; Fritillaria, sp. Port Erin. 10th
ii. 114, ALR
ASCIDIACEA.
Polycyclus Savignyi, Hrdm. i. 283,
ii. 114.
Botryllus moriv, Giard (2). i. 284, 6th
A. R., p. 35.
B. smaragdus, M.-Edw. i. 285, ii.
115.
B. violaceus,M.-Edw. i.286, 6th A. R.,
. 35.
B. Schlosseri, Pall. i. 287, ii.
115.
B. gemmeus, Sav. 1. 287.
B. pruinosus, Giard (2). i. 287.
_ B. aurolineatus, Giard (2). 6th A.
R., p. 35.
Botrylloides rubrum, M.-Edw. i, 287;
ii. 115.
B. albicans, M.-Edw. i. 287; ii. 116.
B. Leachii, Sav. (2). i. 288; ii. 115.
B. sp. (2). 1. 288.
Sarcobotrylloides, sp. (2). ii. 116.
Distoma rubrum, Sav.(?). i.288; ii. 116.
D. vitreum, Ald. (2). i. 289.
D. sp. (2). i. 289.
Aplidium fallax, John. (2). 1. 290.
Parascidia Forbesii, Ald. i. 290.
Morchellium argus, M.-Edw. i. 290;
ii. 117.
Morchellioides Alderi, Hrdm. i. 291.
Amaroucium proliferum, M.-Edw. i.
293; ial:
Amaroucium, sp. (!). 1. 298.
Glossophorum sabulosum, Giard. 7th
A. R., p: 17.
|
Leptoclinum durum, M.-Edw. i. 293;
ii. 118.
LI. maculatum, M.-Edw. i. 293 ;ii.117.
L. candidum, Sav. (2). i. 294; ii, 117.
Leptoclinum asperum, M.-Edw. i. 294,
Diplosoma punctatum, Forb. i. 294.
D.gelatinoswm, M.-Edw.i. 295; ii. 118.
D. crystallinum, Giard. i. 295,
Astellium spongiforme, Giard. 7th
WB of We
Clavelina lepadiformis, O. F. M. i.
296; ii. 118.
Perophora Listeri, Wieg. i. 297; ii.119.
Ciona intestinalis, Linn. i. 297, 362;
ii. 119.
Agcidiella virginea, O. F, M.
ii. 124.
A. scabra, O. F. M.
A. elliptica, A. & H.
A. aspersa, O. F.M. i. 300; ii. 125.
A. venosa, O. F. M. ii. 122.
Ascidia mentula, O. F. M. i. 298; ii.
121.
A, plebeia, Ald. i. 300; ii. 121.
A. depressa, Ald. & H. i. 301; 6th
A. R., p. 35.
A. prunum, O. F. M. i. 301.
Corella parallelogramma, O. F.M. i,
301; ii, 126.
Forbesella tessellata, Forbes. 3rd A.R.,
p. 37.
1. 298 ;
1, 2995 lis 125.
i. 299.
Styelopsis grossularia, V. Ben. i. 302;
li. 126.
Polycarpa rustica, Linn. (2). 1. 303;
ii. 127.
P. comata, Ald. i. 303; 8th A. R.,
p. 11.
P. pomaria, Sav. i. 304; ii. 127.
P. glomerata, Ald. A. R.
P. monensis, Hrdm. i. 305.
Cynthia echinata, Linn. ii. 127,
A448 REPORT—1896.
Cynthia morus, Forb.
p. 19.
Molgula occulta, Kupf. i. 307; li.
128.
7th A. R.,
Molgula citrina, A. & H. ii. 128; 6th
A. R., p. 35.
M. Hancochi, Hrdm. ii. 130.
EBugyra glutinans, Mol. i. 309; ii. 128-
CEPHALOCHORDA.
Branchiostoma lanceolatum, Pall. 10th A. R.
LIST OF THE FISHES.
[See lists by Mr. P. M. C. KERMODH in ‘ Zoologist,’ 1893, and by Prof. HERDMAN
in ‘ Transactions’ Liverpool Biological Society for 1893.]
Labrax lupus, Cuv.
Serranus cabrilla, C. and V.
Mullus barbatus, var. surmuletus, Linn,
Cantharus lineatus, Mont.
Pagellus centrodontus, C, and V.
Sebastes norvegicus, Ascan.
Cottus scorpius, Linn.
C. bubalis, Buph.
Trigla hirundo, Linn.
T. cuculus, Linn. °
T. lineata, Gm.
T. gurnardus, Linn.
Agonus cataphractus, Bl.
Lophius piscatorius, Linn.
Tyachinus draco, Linn.
T. vipera, C. and V.
Scomber scomber, Linn.
S. Colias, Gm.
Orcynus germo, Lac.
Thynnus pelamys, Linn.
Lampris luna, Gm.
Caranz trachurus, Lac.
Zeus faber, Cuv.
Xiphias gladius, Linn.
Sciena aquila, Risso.
Gobius niger, Linn.
G. Ruthensparri, Euph.
G. minutus, Gm.
G. paganellus, Gm.
G. pictus, Malm.
G. quadrimaculatus, C. and V.
G. Parnelli, Day.
Aphia pellucida, Nard.
Callionymus lyra, Linn.
Cyclopterus lumpus, Linn,
Liparis Montagui, Don.
L. vulgaris, Fem.
Lepadogaster Gouanii, Lac.
L. bimaculatus, Don.
Carelophus Ascanii, Coll.
Blennius pholis, Linn.
B. ocellaris, Linn.
B, galerita, Linn.
B. gattorugine, Bl.
Centronotus gunnellus, Bl.
Zoarces viviparus, Linn.
‘Gasterosteus aculeatus, Linn.
G. spinachia, Linn.
G. pungitius, Linn.
Migil chelo, Cav.
Labrus maculatus, Bl.
L. mixtus, Fries and Eks.
Centrolabrus evoletus, Linn.
Crenilabrus mélops, Cuv.
Ctenolabrus rupestris, Linn,
Gadus morrhua, Linn.
G. merlangus, Linn.
G. virens, Linn.
G. eglefinus, Linn.
G. luscus, Linn.
G. minutus, Linn.
G. pollachius, Linn.
Merluccius vulgaris, Cuv.
Molva vulgaris, Flem.
Loto vulgaris, Cuv.
Phycvis blennoides, Bl.
Motella tricirrata, Nils.
M. cimbria, Linn.
M. mustela, Linn.
Raniceps raninus, Linn.
Ammodytes lanceolatus, Les.
A. tobianus, Lion.
Rhombus maximus, Cuy.
RR. levis, Rond.
Hippoglossus vulgaris, Flem.
Hippoglossoides limandoides, Bloch.
Zeugopterus punctatus, Bl.
Z. wnimaculatus, Risso. -
Z. norvegicus, Giinth.
Arnoglossus megastoma, Don.
A. laterna, Walb.
Pleuronectes platessa, Linn.
P. limanda, Linn.
P. flesus, Linn.
Pleuronectes microcephalus, Don.
P. cynoglossus, Linn.
Solea vulgaris, Quen.
S. lutea, Risso.
S. aurantiaca, Giinth.
S. lascaris, Risso.
S. variegata, Don.
Maurolicus Pennantii, Walb.
Argentina sphyrena, Linn.
Salmo salar, Linn.
S. trutta, Linn.
S. fario, Linn.
Osmerus eperlanus, Linn.
Belone vulgaris, Flem,
Fngraulis encrasicholus, Lira.
Clupea harengus, Linn.
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA.
Clupea sprattus, Linn.
C. finta, Cuv.
Anguilla vulgaris, Turt. -
Conger vulgaris, Cuv.
Siphonostoma typhie, Linn.
Syngnathus acus, Linn.
Nerophis equoreus, Linn.
NV. ophidion, Linn.
NV. lumbriciformis, Willugh.
Orthagoriscus mola, Linn.
Carcharias glaucus, Cuv.
Acipenser sturio, Linn.
Galeus vulgaris, Flem.
Mustelus vulgaris, Mill.
Lamna cornubica, Gm.
Alopias vulpes, Gm.
Selacke maxima, Gunner.
Seyllium canicula, Cav.
S. catulus, Cuv.
Pristiurus melanostomus, Naf.
Acanthias vulgaris, Risso.
Rhina squatina, Linn.
Torpedo nobiliana, Bonap.
Raia batis, Linn.
RL. oxyrhynchus, Linn.
R. alba, Lacép.
R&R. clavata, Linn.
R. maculata, Mont.
RL. circularis, Couch.
R. macrorhynchus, Raf.
R. radiata, Don.
Trygon pastinaca, Linn.
Petromyzon marinus, Linn.
P. fluviatilis, Linn.
449
LIST OF THE MARINE MAMMALIA.
[See Report on Seals and Whales, by Mr. Moorg, in ‘ Fauna,’ ii. p. 134.]
PINNIPEDIA.
Phoca grenlandica, Fabr. ii. 136.
P. vitulina, Linn. 10th A. R.
Halicherus grypus, Fabr. ii. 136.
Cystophora cristata, Erxl. ii. 137.
CETACEA.
Megaptera longimana, Rud. ii. 139.
Hyperoodon rostratus, Chem. ii. 140.
Balenoptera musculus, Linn. 10th
A. R.
Phocena communis, F. Cuv. ii. 142.
Orea gladiator, Lac. ii. 143.
Lagenorhynchus albirostris, Gray. ii.
144 \
Delphinus delphis, Linn. ii. 147.
Tursiops tursio, Fabr. ii. 148.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
Although this is put forward as a final report of the present Com-
mittee, they do not desire thereby to indicate that the work of exploring
the zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish Sea is finished. Probably
such an investigation can never be finished ; but the Committee feel that
the occasion of the British Association meeting in Liverpool is one that
they ought to take advantage of to present a report which is final, in the
sense that it completes the present series of reports, and brings together
and sums up the results of all previous marine biological work in the
district (see figs. 1 and 2).
For the future, they hope that the work will be carried on actively by
the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, the body of investigators by
whom most of the work has been done in the past. The Port Erin
Biological Station is equipped for such work, and the British Association
can best render effective help by supporting the general investigations
carried on at that station, or by giving grants for special researches.
As may be seen from this and the preceding reports, the greater part
of the work of the Committee has been zoological ; botany, however, has
been represented by several investigators, and lists are given above of
the marine algae, including diatoms. Professor Weiss, a member of the
Committee, has commenced observations on the reproduction of diatoins,
and has collected much material for an investigation of the coralline
alge, upon both of which he will report to the Liverpool Biological
Society during next session.
oh ae to the geology of the sea-floor, Mr. Clement Reid considers
° GG@
450 REPORT—1896.
it premature to report at any length. He has already in previous reports
remarked upon the characteristics of the deposits ; he has all the material,
in the form of samples of the various bottoms brought up by the dredge,
Fie. 1.— Plan of the L.M.B.C. District.
irra |
i MM
«0 «
if
i
aN Tee NR
1
ahs i
NOCACHE
cy
Ny
Wet
,
i)
AI”
a 50 Faths.,
76 Feths,
before him at the Jermyn Street Museum, and he proposes to work these
up at some future date, when he is able to compare them with deposits
from the other seas around the British Isles.
The Iife-History and Economic Relations uf the Coccidee of Ceylon;
by Mr. E. E. GREEN.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
R. McLacuan (Chairman), Professor G. B. Howes (Secretary), Lord
WatsinGHaM, Professor R. MELpoLA, Professor L. C. Miaun, Mr.
R. NewstTeabD, Dr. D. Saarp, and Colonel C. SWINHOE.
Part I. of this work is expected ‘to be ready in October. In addition to
the letterpress it will contain thirty lithographic plates. The estimated
cost of the entire work is about,1,000/., and up to the present time the
promises of financial support received do not amount to 200/., and the ,
Committee ask to be reappointed, and to receive a grant of 100
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 451
Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor NEwTon (Chairman), Mr. JOHN
CorpEaux (Secretary), Mr. Joun A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M.
Barrinetron, Mr. W. HaGue CuarKE, and Rey. EH. P. KNUBLEY,
appointed for the purpose of making a Digest of the Observations on
the Migrations of Birds at Lighthousesand Lightvessels, 1880-1887.
Your Committee have at last the pleasure of reporting that the Digest
which they were appointed to make of the observations on the Migration of
Birds taken at Lighthouses and Lightvessels from 1880 to 1887 has been
completed, and of presenting the same to the Association.
As has been before stated at meetings of the Association, this Digest
is the work of one of their number, and the remaining Members of the
Committee have to record their deep sense of the obligation under which
they lie to Mr. William Eagle Clarke, of the Science and Art Museum,
Edinburgh, for the assiduity with which he has so long laboured on the
enormous task he undertook, and to congratulate him on the success with
which he has overcome the countless dithculties it presented.
In these congratulations the Committee feel that they are entitled to
ask the Association to join, as well as ornithologists of all countries.
It cannot be doubted that henceforth, as regards the British Islands,
there is now established a firm basis on which may rest a sound and
proper conception of many of the phenomena of British migration, for
this Digest contains a plain statement of ascertained facts, and is wholly
free from theory or speculation of any kind. Thus it will be found to
differ from almost everything that has hitherto been published on the
subject,
In saying this much your Committee would, however, guard them-
selves from the inference that the business is exhausted—on the contrary,
a very great deal more is yet to be learned from a further examination of
the observations which have been collected at the Lighthouses and Light-
ships, while the whole subject of inland migration is untouched. Whether
it will be possible for the Committee to proceed further must entirely de-
pend on the action of the Association ; but they may say that Mr. Clarke,
so far from being deterred by the magnitude of the task with which he
has so successfully grappled, is willing to work out the details of migra-
tion for each of the species to which the observations refer, and has even
already begun to do so; and it is to be hoped that he will receive some
encouragement to continue such useful work. And the Committee may re-
mark that the very considerable funds that private generosity has placed
at their service are now exhausted.
Though on the present occasion the thanks of the Committee are so
certainly due to Mr. Clarke, they feel that, while presenting what may be
their final Report, they must again acknowledge their indebtedness to all
who have helped them in prosecuting their enquiries ; first, to the Master
and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House, the Commissioners of Northern
Lights, and the Commissioners of Irish Lights ; but more especially to the
men of the several Lighthouses and Lightships, without whose cheerful!
and intelligent co-operation nothing could have been done.
@a2
452 REPORT—1896.
DIGEST.
INTRODUCTION.
In presenting this Digest of the Results obtained concerning the Migra-
tion of Birds, as observed at Lighthouses and Lightships around the
coasts of the British Islands, to the Committee appointed by the British
Association for the investigation of that subject, during the years
1880-1887 inclusive, I beg to offer an explanation regarding the lapse of
time that has taken place between my appointment and the completion of
the work.
In a word, this has been entirely due to the magnitude of the under-
taking.
I was instructed to base the Digest upon an examination de novo
of the whole of the information furnished to the Committee during the
eight years of its active existence. Thus the whole of the data required
to be reduced to order before it was available for the purposes of the
Digest. Moreover, at the outset there presented itself for consideration
an extremely perplexing problem, namely—How to treat or arrange such
a vast array of facts on a systematic plan which would render them com-
prehensive, and at the same time suited to the enquiry in all its varied
aspects. It was not until a number of abortive attempts had been
embarked upon that a plan was devised which met the very special
requirements of the case. The scheme finally adopted took the form of a
Schedule. This was designed to show graphically for each species during
each month (1) on what Day ; (2) Coast ; (3) Station ; (4) in what Num-
bers ; and (5) whether during the Day or Night the particular species
was observed during the particular month and year. It is needless to
remark that such asystematic tabulation of at least one hundred thousand
records, culled from several thousands of forms filled in by the Light
Keepers, in each of which species were numerous and the dates wide-
ranging, proved to be both a long and laborious task.
The results now presented are, for the first time, based upon the ex-
amination of the whole of the information communicated to the Committee
Jor all the coasts : a most necessary condition, for from such a complete
and comprehensive examination alone could it be at all possible to obtain
results worthy of the enquiry, and an accurate knowledge of the nature of
the various phenomena associated with the migration of British and Irish
birds. Indeed, it is now in our power to declare that it is quite impos-
sible, at certain seasons, to distinguish between the widely different
Immigratory and Emigratory movements, without due examination and
consideration of the whole of the observations, a fact the non-realisation
of which has been fruitful of much misconception and of many misleading
statements in the past.
It is manifestly impossible to conduct an enquiry into the migration
of birds over the entire British area, or even of the smallest section of
it, under other than imperfect conditions. A hundred circumstances are
against such a desirable consummation—even if a party of trained orni-
thologists were placed at each station, it would fail to secure anything like
perfect results.
Remembering, then, the peculiar difficulties and the drawbacks that
beset such an investigation, and the further fact that the entire staff of
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 453
observers were volunteers, the nature of the data obtained is most satis-
factory. It has proved to be adequate for the purpose of the inquiry,
and surprisingly accurate. Indeed, it is often quite wonderful how the
observations made at a particular station are borne out by the records at
others.
The object of the enquiry was to obtain full and trustworthy infor-
mation in connection with the migratory movements of birds as observed
on our coasts, and not to solve problems connected with the causes
of the phenomena, the evolution of the migratory instinct, or other purely
theoretical aspects of the general subject.
As regards the importance of this investigation, it must be borne in
mind that the observers were most favourably stationed for witnessing
migration in its various phases, and that such a voluminous and complete
set of observations has never been amassed at any previous period in the
history of the study of bird-migration. Its special nature can only be
fully appreciated when it is realised that, in order to study the pheno-
mena of bird-migration in the British Islands, it is necessary that the
data upon which any deductions may be satisfactorily or safely founded
should be based upon observations taken synchronously at stations encir-
cling the entire coasts. This cardinal and most important condition has
been attempted and accomplished for the first time, either in this or any
other country, through the labours of the Committee.
The meteorological aspect of the subject has received very careful
attention, and with interesting and important results. In connection
with this portion of the work the ‘ Daily Weather Reports’ issued by the
Meteorological Office have been consulted and correlated with the data
relating to the migratory movements for each year of the inquiry.
Finally, I may state that the results now communicated are based ab-
solutely upon the records obtained by the Committee ; and, also, that I
have approached the subject with an open mind and without preconceived
ideas. I have considered this not the place for theory, but for the esta-
blishment of facts, and for deductions drawn from a direct study of the
observations placed in my hands.
Birp MIGRaTION AS OBSERVED ON THE BritTisH AND IrisH Coasts.
The migration of birds, as observed in the British Islands, is a very
complex phenomenon ; more so, perhaps, than in any other region of the
globe. This is readily accounted for.
First, the Geographical position of the British Islands is eminently
favourable. Placed, as our Isles are, between South-western Europe and
the Scandinavian Peninsula, Iceland, and Greenland, they lie directly in
the course of the legions of migratory birds which annually make a double
journey between their northern summer and their southern winter
quarters. For these Birds of Passage our shores form not only a main
and much accustomed highway, but afford convenient resting quarters.
Secondly, our Islands have a vast bird-population of their own, and
the majority of these birds belong to purely migratory species. Some of
them are either Summer Visitors from the southern regions or Winter
Visitors from continental Europe, Iceland, «ec.
Thirdly, many individuals of species which are sedentary in our Islands
are strictly migratory. This is especially the case in the more northern
454A REPORT—1896.
and elevated portions of the British area ; hence these species are said to
be ‘ Partial Migrants.’
Finally, our remarkably variable climate is a constant element of dis-
turbance, causing much migration within the British area itself and inter-
migration with the islands off our western coasts, especially with Ireland.
This occurs during the winter months, and hence these migrations will be
alluded to in this report as ‘Winter Movements.’
The above important considerations and influences result not only in
much migration of a varied nature being witnessed on our shores, but
often, through a combination of meteorological conditions, in more than
one movement being observed in progress simultaneously, adding much
further intricacy to an already complicated series of phenomena.
Having thus shortly described the British Islands as a highway for
and as a source of migration, having mentioned the nature of the various
movements observed on our coasts, and having alluded to the influence
exerted by climatic conditions upon the bird-population of our area, I
may now proceed to discuss the main results obtained through the enquiry
under the following sections: (1) Geographical, (2) Seasonal, and (3)
Meteorological.
GEOGRAPHICAL.
General.—In passing from their summer to their winter haunts, birds
proceed from a northern to a southern clime, and vice versd in the spring.
It does not at all follow, however, that these seasonal haunts are reached
by a simple movement from north to south, or the reverse. Each species
or individual of migratory bird has its particular summer and winter
resorts, and these do not necessarily lie in the same meridian—indeed this
is often far from being the case. To attain these particular seasonal
habitats many of the voyagers must depart more or less considerably from
a direct course. This is especially the case in Western Europe, where,
owing to the south-western extension of the land-masses, and the conse-
quent irregularity of the coast line, various more or less devious routes
must be, andare followed. The interposition of the British Islands between
the north-western portion of the Continental Area on the one hand and
Iceland and Greenland on the other, is an important additional factor in
this deviation.
The geographical distribution of birds during migration on the British
and Irish Coasts, and the routes traversed, naturally depend upon the
nature of the particular movement.
The chief and most interesting movements from the geographical
standpoint are the intermigrations between our Islands and Europe.
There are, however, a number of movements between the various sections
of the British and Irish areas which are of considerable importance.
Intermigration between Britain and Northern Continental Hurope.—
Between Britain and Continental Europe travel a host of migrants which
are either birds of passage on, or winter visitors to, our shores. The
former visit our eastern coast-line in spring when journeying to their
northern summer haunts lying to the north-east of Britain, and again in
autumn when returning to their winter quarters to the south of our
Islands. The winter visitors are chiefly individuals from the ranks of
certain species of the birds of passage which winter in the British area
and emigrate to the north-east in the spring.
In the autumn these numerous migrants cross the North Sea and
ss —
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 455
arrive on the east shores of Britain at points between the Shetland Isles
and the Humber or the northern seaboard of Norfolk. All the move-
ments do not necessarily cover this extensive stretch of coast-line, but such
is not infrequently the case. Indeed, as a rule, they are recorded from
the greater part of the region indicated. It is possible to define the
southern limit on the coast at which these birds strike Britain, with a
considerable degree of precision. No section of the British coast is so
well equipped with light-stations as that which lies between the north
coast of Norfolk and Dungeness. In addition to an average number of
lighthouses, there is a fleet of lightships off the coast, which are most
favourably situated for recording the movements of birds crossing the
North Sea to the English coast. These lightships have furnished the
Committee with some of the most carefully kept records to be found
among the returns, and it is a very significant fact that these great
autumn immigratory movements are not observed at these south-eastern
lighthouses and lightships. Evidence of a particularly important nature,
in this connection, is also afforded by the records kept at the Outer Dow-
sing Lightship, the most isolated of the stations in the North Sea, situated
about 38 miles E.S.E. of the mouth of the Humber. At this station these
important movements are not observed—another significant fact, indicat-
ing unmistakably that these migrants pass to the northward or westward
of this Lightship.
The conclusion at which I have arrived, after a long and careful study
of the records, is that these immigrants and emigrants from and to
Northern Europe pass and repass between this portion of the Continent
and Britain by crossing the North Sea in autumn in a south-westerly
direction, and in spring in a north-easterly one,! and that, while the limit
to their flight in the north is the Shetland Islands, that on the south ex-
tends to the coast of Norfolk.2 During these movements the more
southern portion of the east coast of England is reached after the arrival
of the immigrants on the more northern portions.
It is to be remarked, also, as bearing upon this important point, that
all the species occur on migration in the Orkney and Shetland Islands,
but not in the Feroes.? And, further, a// the British birds of passage to
Northern Europe are either summer visitors to Scandinavia or are regular
migrants along the western shores of that peninsula.
After arriving on our eastern shores, these immigrants from the
north—some of them after resting for a while—move either down the
east coast, en route for more southern winter quarters, or, if winter
visitors, to their accustomed haunts in Britain and Ireland. A few occur
as birds of passage on the west coast and in Ireland, which they reach
by overland routes across Britain, and then pass southwards to their
winter quarters. The west coasts, however, do not receive directly any
immigrants from Continental Europe.
Intermigration between the South-east Coast of England and the Coast
1 The direction varies. It is probably more westerly (in autumn) or easterly (in
spring) at the most northern British stations, and south-south-westerly (in autumn)
or north-north-easterly (in spring) at the stations on the east coast of England.
2 The formation adopted by the migrants during passage would seem to be an
extended line—perhaps a series of lines—whose right wing extends to the Northern
Islands and its left wing to the coast of Norfolk.
% A few species occur in the Feroes on migration, but these are also summer
visitors to those islands and to Iceland.
456 REPORT—1896.
of Western Europe—‘ East and West Route. —This is one of the discoveries
of theenquiry. It has been already shown that the more southern section
of the East coast of England does not receive immigrants direct from
Northern Europe. There is, however, a considerable amount of migration
of a particular description, and on the part of certain species, observed
at the lightships and lighthouses between the Kentish coast and the
Wash. During the autumn, day after day, a stream of migrants, often
of great volume, is observed off the coast, flowing chiefly from the south-
east to the north-west at the more northerly stations, and from east to:
west at the southerly ones, across the southernmost waters of the North
Sea. This will be hereafter mentioned as the ‘ East and West Route.’
From the stations off the mouth of the Thames as a centre, the birds.
either sweep up the east coast, sometimes to and beyond the Tees (many
proceeding inland as they go), or pass to the west along the southern
shores of England. These important immigrations set in during the latter
days of September, reach their maximum in October, and continue at
intervals until November. They are chronicled with wonderful precision
and regularity in the returns from the stations on the south-east coast of
England. They are renewed during winter on occasions of exceptionally
severe cold, but the birds then pass to the westward along our southern
shores.
There are some remarkable features associated with these movements :
(1) They are frequently observed for several or many consecutive days ;
(2) they often occur when there is an almost entire absence of bird-
migration on other parts of our shores ; (3) the movements appear to be
entirely confined to the daytime, and are usually timed as from soon
after daylight to 1 p.M., sometimes until 3 p.m.—this being probably due
to, and indicative of, the shortness of the passage ; (4) the autumn migra-
tory flocks are chiefly composed of Larks in vast numbers ; ‘ Black Crows’
(Rooks) very many ; Grey Crows, many ; also numerous Redbreasts, Gold-
crests, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Tree-Sparrows, Swallows, Starlings, ancl
occasionally Woodcocks ; and during the winter Larks, various Thrushes,
and Lapwings ; (5) and lastly, on certain occasions these immigrants,
while passing northward along the English eastern seaboard, actually cross
the movements of ‘coasting ’ emigrants proceeding southwards.!
Whether this east to west stream is a branch of one that passes down
‘the coast of Continental Europe, or whether it has its source in Central
Europe, is a matter of conjecture.”
The conclusions relating to these continental migration-routes have
been chiefly based upon the autumn data, because the information for
that season is much more voluminous and complete. When, however,.
we come to examine the information relating to the spring movements,
with a view to ascertaining how far they corroborate the conclusions
so clearly indicated by the autumn chronicles, it is satisfactory to find
decided evidence that the birds retrace their flight to the north and east.
along precisely the same lines as those along which the autumnal
1 It is probable that such species as the Golden Oriole, Hoopoe, &c., which occur
annuaily during spring and autumn migration in southern and south-eastern
England, and the Black Redstart as a winter visitor, are birds that proceed along
this route to and from our Islands.
2 There are no essentially northern species recorded for this route, and the occur-
rence of the Rook so frequently and in such numbers is suggestive of a Central
(Western) European source.
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 457
southerly and westerly journeys were performed. Thus in the spring
these birds depart from the same sections of our eastern seaboard as
witnessed their arrival in the autumn.
Intermigration between Heligoland and Britain.—Much prominence
has been given in some of the Annual Reports issued by the Committee,
and in Herr Gatke’s book, ‘ Die Vogelwarte Helgoland,’ to an intermigra~
tion between Heligoland and the east coast of England by a direct east-to-
west autumn, and it is to be presumed west- to- east spring, movement.
Herr Gatke most obligingly communicated the details of the bird-
movements observed on Heligoland for four of the years (1883-1886)
during which the inquiry was being prosecuted over the British area.
These two sets of data have been carefull y examined and compared, and
it has been found that the dates of the chief movements of the species
common to Heligoland and Eastern Britain seldom if ever correspond, and
do not bear out this theory ; that particular species which are irregular as
migrants in Britain, such as the Ortolan Bunting, and others, occur regu-
larly, often indeed in ‘rushes,’ at the more fav ured. isle off the mouth of
the Elbe ; that other species, which are very rare on our British shores,
occur in Heligoland as regular migrants and in considerable numbers, as,
Motacilla flava, Anthus Richardi, &c.; while species common to both
islands occur in ‘flights like clouds,’ in ‘hundreds of thousands,’ ‘ thou-
sands upon thousands,’ in ‘marvellous numbers,’ ‘astonishing flights,’ ancl
so on, at Heligoland, at periods when there is not a single observation for
the same species on the English shores. A study of the phenomena of
migration at the stations on the east and west sides of the North Sea
compels the investigator to come to the conclusion that Heligoland and
Britain draw their migratory hosts from different sources. The ordinary
movements of any common migratory bird occur in each month of its.
seasonal flight-periods, and the mere coincidence of the species being ob-
served simultaneously i in ordinary numbers on both sides of the North Sea
has no significance whatever. It is not impossible or improbable that
birds may , occasionally cross the German Ocean by an east-to-west flight.
in the latitude of Heligoland, but our data lead us to believe that such
cases are the rare exception and not the rule.
Intermigration between Britain and Feroes, I celand, and Greenland.—
The Froes, Iceland, and Greenland are the summer home of several Pale-
arctic species which occur as birds of passage on the British coasts. The
majority of these visit Iceland, and Greenland claims only two or three of
them (Wheatear, White Wagtail, and Whimbrel). It is natural that these
birds being of strictly Old World species, our Islands should le in the
course of their migrations. It is quite possible that these migrants may
pass along both the eastern and western coasts of Britain and the coasts
of Ireland. Here, at any rate, we have evidence that these birds are ob-
served on passage on our western shores. It may be that some of the
birds proceed also along our eastern seaboard, but this is a point difficult:
to determine. There is good evidence, however, that important move-
ments of Redwings, Wheatears, and Whimbrels are observed on the west-
ern coast of Great Britain and the Irish coasts (both east and west as
regards the passage of the Whimbrel), which are not observed elsewhere.
Such a fact points to the independent nature of these west coast flights,
and indicates that, in some instances at least, the western route alone is
followed.
It is thus evident that, so far as concerns the movements of the birds
458 REPORT—1896.
of passage to and from their northern breeding haunts, the British east
and west coast migratory movements are very distinct in their characters.
The west coast does not receive immigrants direct from Europe; nor do
these continental breeding species depart from its shores in the spring.
Indeed, it is quite remarkable how rare, or comparatively rare, certain
well-known east coast species are on the western portion of our shores.
With the movements of the British migratory birds next to be con-
sidered it is quite different, for, with the exception of a few species whose
summer haunts are much circumscribed in our Islands, the movements are
not only common to both coasts, but the great emigratory flights are
usually simultaneously observed on the east, west, and south coasts, and
also on those of Ireland.
The west coast of Great Britain and the Irish coasts are thus only
under much migration during the great autumn departure movements from
our shores, and to a less extent during the return movements in spring.
Intermigration between Great Britain and Ireland and the South, &e.—
Having shortly described the migratory movements between the British
Islands and Northern and Western Europe, undertaken by birds of pass-
age and winter visitors to our Islands, the routes on our coasts along
which the summer visitors! travel to and from their breeding quarters
in Great Britain and Ireland now demand attention in their geographical
aspect. It will be convenient also to refer to the routes between the dif-
ferent portions of the British area under this division.
The autumn or emigratory movements will be described—but it is
necessary to remark that the data clearly indicate that the spring migra-
tory movements along our western shores are simply return movements,
on the part of the same species, along the same lines of flight as those laid
down for the autumn.
The movements of these groups of migrants will be treated of under
‘the various sections of our coasts. The first movement on the part of all
emigrants among British birds is to the coast, which is reached in some
cases, no doubt, by particular inland routes.
Hast Coast of Great Britain.—The emigratory movements on the east
coast are very simple in their geographical aspect. When the coast is
reached, the emigrants follow the coastline southward, gathering strength
as they go, and finally quit our shores at various points on the south
coast of England.
It is during such autumnal movements that the more southern coast-
line of Eastern England, and its off-shore fleet of lightships, record night
migration. The ranks of the British emigrants are, as we have said, re-
eruited as they fly onward, and if a great movement should be in progress,
the causing-influence will affect also many birds of passage which may be
sojourning on our shores. Two wings of the migratory army thus com-
bine, and a great ‘rush’ to the south is the result.
West Coast of Great Britain —The emigratory movements which pass
down the west coast are far from being so simple in their geographical
details as those observed on the east.
That such should be the case is not surprising. Here we have Ireland,
the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, and an extremely irregular coastline exer-
cising their varied influences. In addition, there are intermigrations
’ Those birds which have been described as ‘partial migrants’ are included in
this category.
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. , 459
between these off-lying isles and the mainland, and often movements of
an independent nature in some portion of the western area.
The general route followed by these departing birds has its north-
western source in the Outer Hebrides, and after leaving Barra Head it
joins an important stream from the Inner Hebrides at Skerryvore. The
course then followed is wi@ Dhuheartach, Islay, the Wigtonshire coast,
the Isle of Man, Anglesey, and the South Bishop (off Pembrokeshire).
Finally, the south-western coast of England is reached (possibly in part
by an overland route across Devonshire and Cornwall) between the
Scilly Islands and Start Point.
In its course southward considerable tributaries, so to speak, are
received at Cantire, Arran, the Ayrshire and Wigtonshire coasts, and the
Solway, of birds passing down the west coast of Scotland. At the
Bristol Channel emigrants are received from western England and Wales,
and often also important contributions‘are added from the south-eastern
coast of Ireland.
In connection with these movements there are several more or less
important features to note. (1) The English shores of the Irish Sea,
'—1.e. the coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire—lie off the main line of
these movements. (2) The north coast of Ireland, which seems to lie
right in the course of the birds, and which would naturally be expected
to come in for a considerable share of such movements, appears to be only
occasionally affected by them. (3) The Irish contributory movements when
they occur are chiefly, nay almost entirely, observed on the southern, and
especially the south-eastern coasts. (4) The south-western coast of
England and Wales—z.e. from the mouth of the Bristol Channel to the
Land’s End and the Scilly Isles—appears to be especially affected when
there are considerable movements on the southern and south-eastern
coasts of Ireland, implying that there is much intermigration between
these particular portions of the English and Irish coasts. Sometimes,
however, these emigrations from Ireland only affect the south-west coast
of England from the Bishop’s Rock (off Scilly) to Start Point.
Irish Coasts.—The Irish chronicles have been most excellently and
carefully kept, and the returns of specimens killed against the lanterns
at the stations have been larger and more valuable than those furnished
from the coasts of Great Britain.
The coasts of Ireland do not constitute in themselves a main highway
for birds, though they participate, along with the western shores of Great
Britain, in certain movements to and from the far north on the part of
the section of the birds of passage already alluded to. Indeed, the
majority of the migrants observed on the shores of the sister isle are
probably the migratory members of her own avifauna.
The movements of departing birds during the autumn at the southern
and south-eastern stations have already been mentioned, and when mi-
gration is going on at this part of the coast there is often recorded an
emigratory movement along the western coast from Slyne Head south-
wards, which probably forms a contributory stream to the general
movement to the south. These Irish emigrations, as a rule, occur
simultaneously with similar movements passing down the western coast of
Great Britain, and the two streams meet and unite at points between the
‘Bristol Channel and the Scilly Isles. Some of the Irish autumnal
flights, however, are quite independent of these general movements.
There is much evidence to show that not only do the autumnal
460 REPORT—1896.
emigrants depart from the south-east coast of Treland en route for more
southern winter-quarters, but also, strange to say, that many birds (e.g.
Thrushes, Redwings, Blackbirds, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Linnets, Star-
lings, Larks) almost simultaneously enter that country by this very same
section of her shores, in order to winter within her limits, These
immigrants are often observed arriving from the south-east in great
numbers for several days in succession. The English west coast observa-
tions also bear evidence that such movements proceed across St. George’s
Channel in a north-westerly direction. These cross-channel flights are
usually observed during the daytime, but sometimes the arrival of certain
of these birds on the Irish coast takes place during the night.
According to the records it is only occasionally, as already stated,
that the southerly autumnal movements from Western Scotland are
observed at the northern Irish stations. Now and then, however, there
is evidence that a considerable number of birds do arrive on, or skirt, the
north coast of Ireland during the more pronounced west coast emigratory
flights.
Independently of, and in addition to, these main Irish migratory
movements, Thrushes, Larks, and Starlings occur in October and November
on the northern coasts of Ireland from Tory Island to the Maidens as
immigrants from Scotland. These are to be correlated with movements
of the same species observed at the Rhinns of Islay and the Wigton
coast. Larks, too, are often recorded for this route during the daytime.
There are also autumnal movements between Ireland and England
and Wales by an east to west flight across the Irish Sea, on the part
of Starlings, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Larks, and sometimes of various
species of Thrushes. Anglesey is the chief Welsh point, and Rockabill
(off the north coast of Co. Dublin) the main Irish station at which these
departures and arrivals are observed.
The migratory movements observed on the west coast of Ireland are
neither many nor important, and consist almost entirely of movements
on the part of emigratory Irish birds. There are, however, remarkable
immigrations from home sources witnessed on the west coast and its off-
lying islets during great cold and snow, to which we shall have occasion
to refer under the Seasonal and Meteorological Sections of this Report.
South Coast of England.—It is much to be regretted that observations
relating to the migrations of birds on the southern coast of England
as a whole were not obtained by the Committee. The data bearing
upon this important English coast-line are from a few stations on the
south-eastern and south-western portions only.
This information points to (1) a considerable amount of migration
taking place between these portions of the coast-line and South-western
Europe, and (2) important movements passing along the entire coast-line
from east to west in autumn and probably vice versd in spring.
The south coast is naturally the great scene of the arrival and
departure of migratory birds of all descriptions, but the movements along
shore are, perhaps, in some of their aspects, more interesting. Regarding
these last, much remains to be ascertained concerning their precise nature
and the destination of some of the birds travelling along this route.
In the autumn this coasting stream of birds has its source chiefly in
the immigratcry movements from the Continent across the southern
waters of the North Sea by the East and West Route, of which it is but
a continuation. It is possible also that British emigrants, after passing
a
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 461
down the east coast of England, may turn to the westward and skirt
the south coast, but this is not shown with certainty.
The continental immigrants strike the Kentish shore, and, as has
been already stated, some pass to the north along the east coast of
England, while others pursue a westerly course along our shores of the
Channel. The stations on the south-western coast again record these
migrants, and the probable destination of many, perhaps most of them, is
Treland, on whose south-eastern shores the birds are chronicled, almost
simultaneously, as arriving in great numbers from the south-east.
It is possible, however, that some of these birds—the Skylark espe-
cially—may reach a much more remarkable destination, for one branch of
the stream sweeps northwards, being observed at the mouth of the Bristol
Channel, at Anglesey, and at the Isle of Man stations, proceeding to the
west and north-west, probably to Northern Ireland ; while on the
Wigtonshire coast and at the rocks of Dhuheartach and Skerryvore these
birds are noted as moving in the direction of the Outer Hebrides.
The great autumnal movements from east to west along the south
coast of England are renewed in winter, when that season is characterised
by periods of unusual cold. At such times it is possible that this
western stream is composed in part of native emigrants which have
passed down our eastern coasts, as well as of birds of continental
origin.
“Channel Islands.—Records from the Hanois Lighthouse, situated
some two miles off the west coast of Guernsey, were furnished for
each of the years of the enquiry, and afford some useful information.
These, when compared with the English and Irish chronicles, show that
on nearly every occasion on which considerable migration was observed
at this station in the autumn, there was also much emigration going on
practically simultaneously on the south-west coast of England. It is
necessary, however, to state that a number of important movements on the
south-west coast of England do not appear in the records for. Hanois,
indicating, perhaps, that many movements to the south in autumn and to
the north in spring pass to the westward of this station. In the spring,
Swallows are observed passing to both the north-east and north-west in
great numbers during April and May, and a number of other summer
birds are recorded on passage.
.
SEASONAL.
The Seasonal Section of the Report is readily subdivided for treat-
ment into Autumn, Winter, and Spring.
A few words are necessary in explanation of the differences between
the autumn, spring, and winter migratory movements as observed in the
British Isles, for they are performed under very different conditions and
influences. These remarks apply more particularly to the birds of
passage, yet they are also applicable, to some extent, to our native
seasonal visitors.
In the Autumn the birds, when they appear on our shores, have
accomplished the great business of the year—procreation. Food is still
abundant in their favourite resting haunts, and hence there is no par-
ticular hurry to move southwards. Thus many species tarry on our
coasts or in their vicinity, some for a considerable period. Their numbers
are, of course, incomparably greater than during the northward journey,
462 REPORT—1896,
as they are swelled by the numerous young birds, now a few weeks old.
All these circumstances and conditions combine to make the autumn
movements comparatively easy of observation.
In Spring the conditions are quite different. The all-absorbing duties’
of the season and the procreative influence are upon the voyagers, and
since our Islands form one of the last stages in the journey of many
species, the birds usually hurry on after a short sojourn for rest and food
only. Thus the spring movements do not afford much facility or oppor-
tunity for observation ; indeed, with most species their appearance
amounts to ‘here to-day, off to-morrow.’ Hence some species and many
individuals entirely escape notice at a number of the observing stations. °
All that it is necessary to say here regarding the Winter Movements is-
that they are entirely the effect of severe weather.
Autumn Immigration.—As the summer, more particularly the arctic
summer, is at its height during JULY, it is not to be expected that immi-
grants among the northern summer-birds would appear on our shores on
their return journey during this month. The initial movements of the
autumn, whatever their significance may be, do, as a matter of fact, set
in towards the end of July. Of the species observed, the Whimbrel
and the Knot are the most frequently recorded. The Green Sandpiper,
Curlew Sandpiper, Bar-tailed Godwit, and Turnstone are less frequent.
A few others appear only occasionally in the chronicles of the month.
In all probability these July immigrants, or the majority of them, are
non-breeding birds of their respective species, which have not, perhaps,.
proceeded far beyond the limits of Britain on their spring journey north-
ward. That such is the case is borne out by the fact that these July birds
are all, so far as reported, adults.
Immigration sets in in earnest during AuGust on the part of those
species breeding northwards beyond the British area, and either occurring
as birds of passage or as winter visitors to our isles. The former include
the northern representatives of several species which are summer visitors
to Britain. The return movements of twenty-six species of birds whose
summer haunts lie entirely beyond the British area are chronicled for the-
month,
During SEPTEMBER a marked increase in immigration takes place as
regards both species and more especially individuals. In all, over forty
species of European birds which do not summer in Britain are recorded
as migrants for September, including all the species regularly recorded
for August. In some years (1881 and 1883) there have occurred in Sep-
tember the first of the great autumnal ‘rushes’ of immigrants from the
north to our shores. These decided movements are, however, entirely
the effect of meteorological conditions at the seat of emigration, of which
special mention is presently to be made in the Meteorological section.
In Ocroser the flood of immigratory birds reaches its highest level,
and there are experienced those vast ‘rushes’ upon our shores justi
mentioned. The additions to the list of extra-British breeding species
are comparatively numerous, forty-seven species of regular birds of
passage, besides many other birds breeding in both Northern Europe and
Britain, being recorded. But, on the other hand, the movements of cer-
tain other species have, according to our chronicles, already ceased to
occur, and it may be taken that the majority have passed,! while a few
others do not appear so numerously as heretofore.
1 These are the White Wagtail, Temminck’s Stint, Wood Sandpiper, Green Sand-
piper, and Spotted Redshank.
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 463
The immigratory movements occurring in NovEMBER are not only on
a very much reduced scale, but after the middle of the month the immigra-
tion of such birds as spend the summer in the North entirely ceases, with the
exception of those of certain marine species (Ducks, Gulls, Grebes, Swans),
whose late movements to the South are dependent upon severe weather
conditions.' This is entirely contrary to the views hitherto propounded
regarding the limits of these movements, but it is, nevertheless, a fact
well established by this inquiry.
A few (six only?) northern summer birds which do not breed in
Britain still occur as immigrants during the earlier days of the month,
often in considerable numbers. The additions for the month are species
which only occasionally occur, and whose appearance is in some cases
indicative of weather influences. A few northern species are recorded
more numerously during November than earlier in the autumn—namely,
the Lapland Bunting, the Swans, Ducks generally, the Ringdove, the
winter Grebes, and the Little Auk, the last, however, irregularly.
The immigrants hitherto considered are those derived from the north.
There now remain for treatment those which reach us by a westerly
movement along the East and West Route, and arrive on the south-
eastern shores of England. These diurnal movements set in during
the latter days of Sepremprr, when Larks, ‘Crows’ (Rooks), Tree-
Sparrows, and some Redbreasts are observed. Immigration increases in
volume in OcToBER, when, in addition to the species mentioned, Black-
birds, Thrushes, Grey Crows, Chaffinches, Greenfinches, Goldcrests,
and, occasionally, Woodcocks are observed. The movements continue
until the middle of NovemsBer, when they too, during ordinary seasons,
cease to be observed. They are renewed again, however, on the part
of Larks, Starlings, Thrushes, and Lapwings on the advent of great
cold, when the birds chiefly pass westwards along the south coast of
England.
During immigration our shores are reached during the late night or
early morning on the part of migrants from the north. On the contrary
the immigratory movements from the east, across the narrows of the
North Sea, appear to be performed during the daytime.
Autumn Emigration.—It is somewhat difficult to determine what
species among our British summer visitors are true emigrants during
Juty. There is no doubt, however, that the departure of adult Cuckoos
dates from the latter days of the month, when they not only appear on
the coast-line, but are occasionally killed against the lanterns of the light-
stations. The Swift is another species that appears with some frequency
at the stations, which fact indicates that the ebb of its summer sojourn
in Britain has begun. During the month, especially towards its close,
there are now and then records of the movements of small numbers
of * Thrushes, * Blackbirds, * Wheatears, Whinchats, Redstarts, * Red-
breasts, Whitethroats, Goldcrests, Chiffchaffs, Willow Warblers, Pied
Wagtails, Grey Wagtails, Meadow Pipits, Swallows, House Martins,
* On a few occasions during the years of the inquiry sereral Thrushes, Fieldfares,
Woodcocks, Snipes, and Plovers have been observed in the Orkneys and Shetlands (e.g.
during the exceptionally severe winters of 1882 and 1886). These may, perhaps,
have been immigrants, or they may have been birds that.had moved to island-haunts
from the mainland during the period of great cold.
* These are the Redwing, Fieldfare, Great Grey Shrike, Brambling, Jack Snipe,
and Knot. The Snow Brnting also occurs in some numbers.
4.64 REPORT—1896.
Chaffinches, Starlings, Rooks, * Skylarks, Short-eared Owls, Herons, Grey-
lag Geese, Land Rails, and Richardson’s Skuas.!
It is well, however, to bear in mind, in connection with such July
movements, that during this month there is a vast increase in our
feathered population in the shape of birds but a few weeks old. These
youngsters are many of them outcasts whose parents are engaged with
second families, and many of them may, in their wanderings, finally reach
the coast, where their appearance is duly chronicled by the observers.
Another class of migratory birds, namely, certain Plovers and Sand-
pipers which spend the summer inland and the autumn and winter on the
shore, also appear on the coast in small numbers accompanied by their young.
The young of several species of sea-fowl —Razorbill, Guillemot, and Puffin—
are mentioned as leaving their rocky nurseries during the month. Lastly,
it is certain that some of the movements recorded for this month are due
to spells of ungenial weather. This aspect of July emigration, however,
belongs to, and will be treated of under, the Meteorological Section of this
Digest.
During AvGust much emigration among our summer visitors is
witnessed, and thirty-three species are recorded as departing. Of the
birds which are partially migratory, no fewer than thirty-four species are
noticed as emigratory during August, though, perhaps, all are not neces-
sarily passing beyond the British area.
Both these groups of emigrants are in all probability swelled during
this and other months by birds of the same species, which pass the sum-
mer in countries north of the British Isles, and which, having reached
our shores as immigrants, are also moving southwards along our coast-
tines.
SEPTEMBER witnesses the height and close of the emigration of the
bulk of the smaller British summer visitors, most of which are absent
from the chronicles for October. The movements of forty-two of these
emigrants appear in the records for the month ; while those of the partial
migrants are also considerable, over forty species being recorded. There
are often during this month considerable emigratory ‘rushes’ on the part
of both these groups of migratory birds, due to outbursts of ungenial
weather in our Islands.
The OcToBer emigrants among the summer birds are not numerous,
and consist of laggard representatives of their kinds. Only twenty-two
species are recorded in the chronicles for the month, and some of these
are only observed occasionally. The partial migrants, on the other hand,
are much on the move, and are numerous both as regards individuals and
species, their ranks, no doubt, being considerably recruited by numbers
of the same species from the north, which sooner or later emigrate in
their company. These movements are often pronounced, and ‘rushes’
are recorded ; but they cease by or during the first half of NovemBeEr.
It is during the great autumn emigrations that the birds are observed
on all our shores simultaneously.
Emigratory birds are observed passing southwards, and feeding as
they go during the daytime ; but their flight to lands beyond our shores
is usually undertaken during the nighttime.
Under certain peculiar weather conditions, which will be fully ex-
1 Those species marked * are recorded as being occasionally killed against the
lanterns,
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 465
plained in their proper place, there are immigratory and emigratory
movements simultaneously observed on our coasts, the former affecting
the east coast line only.
Winter Movements.—In NovEeMBER, and not later than the middle of
the month, the ordinary autumnal southward movements on the part
of birds of passage and of British emigrants cease.
These normal seasonal movements are followed later in the month by
emigratory movements of a very different nature, and entirely due
to a decided fall in temperature, usually in the form of outbursts of:
frost, and to snow. These conditions drive certain species specially
affected either to warmer districts within the British area, or to southern
regions beyond our shores. Such movements as these naturally become
more pronounced as the winter advances, and especially so during severe
seasons. They are repeated during each cold spell in the months of
DECEMBER, JANUARY, FEBRUARY, and in some exceptional seasons as
late as the third week of Marcu.
As soon as frost sets in, particularly if accompanied by snow and
sleet, even if it is only locally diffused, it causes an immediate rush to
the coast and its adjacent islands, especially to the western seaboard and
to Ireland, where a milder climate usually prevails.
The appearance of these birds on the coast in the late autumn and
winter has led them to be regarded as immigrants from abroad. But
when the whole of the data relating to their distribution is examined,
the true nature of these movements is no longer doubtful ; and this is
the case quite apart from the weather conditions, which, in all instances,
also afford an unfailing clue to their true character.
If the cold is very severe and prolonged, the isles off the south-
west coast, such as Scilly and those off the west coast of Ireland, are
sought, and many birds are observed at the southern stations to quit
both Britain and Ireland. At such times these great western movements
form the most prominent feature of the winter migratory records.
In the terrible DecemBer of 1882, even these usually safe western
retreats failed the refugees, and many succumbed, the hardy Snow Bunt-
ing perishing along with the rest. The Januaries of 1881, 1885, and
1887 were also very severe, and were months of great cold-weather move-
ments. In 1881 many birds died of starvation at Valentia, then the
least cold corner of the British area.
During exceptionally severe winters there is a renewal of immigratory
movements from the continent by way of the East and West Route across
the southern portion of the North Sea. On arriving on our south-eastern
shores the Larks, Starlings, Thrushes, and Lapwings, which are the species
recorded, move along the south coast of England, and probably seek the
warmth of the South-west, the Scilly Isles, and Ireland.
The species which appear to be specially susceptible to cold, either
constitutionally or through deprivation of food (most probably the latter),
are the Mistletoe Thrush, Song Thrush, Redwing, Fieldfare, Blackbird,
Greenfinch, Linnet, Starling, Lark, Water Rail, Lapwing, Curlew, Snipe,
and Woodcock.
In mild winters the only movements recorded are a few local
migrations, which strictly coincide with the occasional periods of cold
from which hardly any season is entirely exempt.
Cold-weather migration is performed during both the night- and day-
time. ae the flight is an extended one it is probably undertaken at night,
: HH
4.66 REPORT—1896.
for much emigration is observed at southern stations during the hours of
darkness.
Spring Immigration.—The first bird-harbingers of spring are recorded
for Frespruary, when during genial periods such partial migrants
within the British area as the Pied Wagtail and Lapwing return to the
Orkneys and other northern stations, where these species are summer
birds. Certain rock-breeding sea-fowl are also noted as visitors to their
nesting haunts. .
There is in addition indication of a return movement during mild
weather on the part of Fieldfares, Redwings, Thrushes, Blackbirds, &c.,
which had fled the country through the winter cold. During February
certain summer visitors have occasionally put in a phenomenally early
appearance. In 1885 and 1887 the Wheatear was seen ; in 1887 a Ring
Ouzel was shot at one of the light-stations ; and in 1886 (on the 24th)
a solitary Swallow was observed at the Eddystone.
During the genial periods usually experienced in the changeable
month of Marcu there is a considerable immigration or return of the
birds which quitted our Islands through the pressure of the severe
weather conditions of winter, and also of some partial migrants, including
many Gold Crests and Pied Wagtails. In most years the advent of a few
summer visitors is recorded. The Ring Ouzel, Wheatear, Whinchat,
Willow Wren, Chiffchaff, Swallow, Sand Martin, Cuckoo,! Land Rail,
Garganey, Whimbrel, and Sandwich Tern are recorded for the month,
some of them once only, and others rarely.
APRIL is a month of pronounced immigration on the part of the
summer visitors, for no less than thirty-seven species are recorded in the
chronicles. It thus witnesses the arrival of certainly the majority of
species among the spring migrants, though, perhaps, not of individuals.
There arrive, also, a number of migratory birds belonging to species
which are either resident in, or winter visitors to, Britain, which have
wintered to the south of us and now appear as summer birds, or as birds
of passage on their way to the north.
In connection with the arrival of these earliest immigrants among our
summer visitors during March or April a remarkable and interesting fact
remains to be mentioned—namely, that the great majority of these birds
are recorded first for the south-western area of the British region—the
south-west coast of England and Ireland. Thus in March, out of
94 observations 71, or 75 per cent., were made in the south-west. In
April, out of 157 first records of the arrivals of summer visitors, no less
than 115, or nearly 74 per cent., are chronicled for the south-west coast
and Ireland. These numbers and percentages, however, should be
considerably higher and more remarkable, for it must be explained
that during the years 1880 and 1881 there were no spring data for
Ireland, and in 1883 there was no return made for the west coast of
England, while the east coast has been credited, in the statistics quoted,
with the observations made during all the years of the inquiry. It thus
seems probable that the first arrival of the spring migrants not unnatu-
rally occurs on those parts of our isles which are the warmest so early in
the season.
During May the immigration of summer birds still flows into our
Islands. Several species make their first appearance, and a number of
1 At Langness, Isle of Man, March 28, 1887.
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 467
others are more abundantly recorded than hitherto. There are also con-
siderable arrivals of Wheatears, Warblers, Swallows, and Sandpipers and
Plovers of various species, on our southern coast quite down to the end
of the month, some of their movements being very marked. These are
undoubtedly birds. of passage, on their way to northern summer haunts
beyond the limits of the British Isles, for our own birds of the same species
are then busily engaged in incubation or tending their young.
During the first half of JuNE several species whose breeding range
extends to the Polar regions,appear in considerable numbers on our shores
on their way to the far north ; a few appear even still later. The chief
among these late birds of passage are the Grey Plover and the Knot, and
less numerously or less frequently the Snow Bunting, Wigeon, Barnacle
Goose, ‘Grey Geese,’ Swans, the Dotterel, Turnstone, Sanderling, Ruff,
Bar-tailed Godwit, Whimbrel, and a few Great Northern Divers.!
In connection with the spring immigration it has to be remarked that
the observations are all in favour of the theory that the earliest arrivals
among the summer visitors to our Islands are British-breeding birds.
This is borne out by the fact, well known to all field-naturalists, that our
summer birds appear in their breeding hawnts in our islands immediately
after their first appearance on our coasts in the spring. Additional proof
is furnished by the fact that summer birds arrive in Britain at earlier
dates than in Heligoland, where nearly all the species observed are en
voute for more northern lands than ours. The further fact already men-
tioned, that down to the end of May, and in some instances the first half of
June, large numbers of birds of species which are summer visitants to
Britain, arrive on and pass along our coast as birds of passage, proves that
the migrants bound for the north are the last of their kind to appear in
the British area.
Spring Emigration.—The spring emigration from the British Isles to.
continental Europe sets in on the part of certain species early in the year,
indeed before the winter emigratory movements have ceased to take place.
Thus in FEBRUARY, in some seasons, ‘Geese’ are recorded as moving
northwards in considerable numbers. The chief emigratory movements
of this month, however, are the departure of Larks and Rooks along the
‘East and West Route’ to the Continent. These take place in some years
during the early days of the month, and are observed on the south-east
eoast of England—chiefly at the lightships off the coasts of Essex and
Kent—where the birds observed are proceeding in a south-easterly and
easterly direction across the North Sea, returning by the same lines of
flight as those along which they travelled to our shores in the autumn.
During Marcu these south-easterly movements become more pro-
nounced, and the emigrants include the Hooded Crow, Rook, and
Skylark. Emigration for the north also commences, and the following
winter visitors are recorded as leaving our Islands during’ the month :
Great Grey Shrike, Shore Lark, Swans, ‘ Wild. Geese,’ Gadwall, Scaup,
Golden-eye, Long-tailed Duck, Red-throated Diver, and probably many
others. In March, too, certain species (Greenfinch, Chaffinch, Twite),
which regularly seek the islands off the west coast of Ireland as winter
retreats, are mentioned as taking their departure for the summer.
' The fact that these birds, or most of them, should arrive on our shores as birds
of passage thus late in the migratory season, lends some countenance to the theory
that the birds of certain species going furthest north in summer go the furthest south
for winter quarters,
bw
HH
468 REPORT—1896.
The mild spells of Aprit induce a considerable amount of emigra-
tion, for their northern summer haunts, on the part of no less than
thirty-four species. These comprise fifteen Passeres, two Birds of Prey,
nine Ducks and Geese, six Waders, one Skua, and one Diver, all of
them belonging to species which have wintered in our Islands, or off our
shores. The emigration to the Continent by the ‘ East and West Route’
across the North Sea also proceeds during April, the species observed
departing during the month being the Rook, the Hooded Crow, and the
Tree Sparrow. No migratory movements, however, are recorded for this
route after this month.
May is a month of much emigration on the part both of birds which
have wintered in our Islands, and of birds of passage (including many
individuals of species which are summer visitors to Britain). In all, no
less than fifty-three species of regular emigrants are recorded in the May
returns, showing that the movements to the northern breeding grounds
reach their maximum during this month, and often take the form of
‘rushes’ after the birds have been held back by spells of ungenial weather.
The northward movements from our shores of a few species, whose breed-
ing range lies within the Polar regions, are also observed down to the
middle of Junr, or even beyond that date, and have already been noticed.
The departure for their northern summer quarters of the spring birds
of passage and of the winter visitors to Britain takes place from our
eastern coasts and the northern isles ; a few only of the species, such as
the Redwing, Wheatear, White Wagtail, Barnacle Goose, Swans, Whim-
bre], &ec., passing up our western coasts, possibly en rowte for Iceland.
METEOROLOGICAL.
Special attention has been bestowed upon this section of the Digest,
since the actual relationships between migrational and meteorological
phenomena have not hitherto, received the attention they deserve, no
doubt because the necessary sets of data for a satisfactory investigation
of the problem were not obtainable. The material collected by the Com-
mittee has proved in all respects most valuable for establishing a useful
comparison between these two sets of phenomena, and for determining, to
a certain extent, the precise influence exercised by the weather upon
bird movements. The standard for the weather has been the ‘ Daily
Weather Reports’ issued by the Meteorological Office. For the loan of a
complete set of these valuable official records for the eight years of the
inquiry, I am indebted to the Council of the Leeds Philosophical and
Literary Society, through its esteemed Hon. Secretary, Richard Reynolds,
Ksq., an obligation I here desire to fully acknowledge.
It may be well to state that these ‘Daily Reports’ are based upon
observations made at fifty-four stations, distributed over Western
Europe between Haparanda and Bodé in the North, and Toulon,
Biarritz, and Corunna in the South ; as well as all parts of Great Britain
and Ireland.
When studying bird migration in connection with meteorological con-
ditions, it is essential that the weather peculiarities synchronous with the
setting in of the emigration, and prevailing in the particular area in
which the movement had its origin, should be considered. This alone
has any true bearing upon emigration ; not the weather prevailing upon
the shores reached after an extended migratory flight. Thus the conti-
nental weather conditions must be consulted in connection with the
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 469
arrival of immigrants in the British Isles in spring and autumn, and our
home records referred to for an explanation of the movements of emi-
grants during the spring, autumn, and winter.
As the result of an extensive series of comparisons instituted between
the two sets of phenomena, it has been ascertained that they are most inti-
mately associated, and that a knowledge of the meteorological conditions
prevailing during the movements in most instances contributes in no
small degree to a correct interpretation of their precise nature and the
seat of their origin.
_ The weather influences are of two kinds, as treated of separately
below —
I. Ordinary Weather Inflwences.—It is found that in both the spring
and autumn migratory periods there are spells of genial weather without
marked features, other than those favourable for migration. During
these the movements of the various species are of an even-flowing and
continuous nature. If the weather should prove slightly unsettled during
such periods, it is a matter of indifference to the migrants ; if more pro-
nouncedly so, their movements are slightly quickened thereby.
This may be termed normal migration under ordinary weather con-
ditions.
The duration of such favourable spells, however, is sooner or later
broken by the advent of a cyclonic period of a more or less severe type.
This interferes, to a greater or lesser degree, with the progress of the
migratory movements. ”
Il. Lxtraordinary Weather Influences.—These are exerted by the pre-
valence of particular weather conditions, which may act either (1) as
barriers to the ordinary movements, or (2) in diametrically the opposite
direction as incentives to great movements or ‘rushes,’ as they have been
termed.
The weather barriers to bird-migration are unfavourable conditions of
a pronounced nature, which interrupt and make impossible, during their
prevalence, the ordinary seasonal movements.
The weather incentives to migration are widely different in their nature
and may take several forms. First, there may be favourable weather-
periods immediately following unfavourable periods. Secondly, they may
be due to weather in certain respects unfavourable to the birds, such as
a decided fall in temperature, which either compels the birds to move, or
acts as a warning that the time has arrived for their departure south-
wards. Such cold spells are characteristic of anticyclonic periods, when
the weather is calm and highly favourable for a prolonged flight.
Thirdly, and on the other hand, the advent in spring of a genial spell,
especially if accompanied by a rise of temperature, is an incentive toa
move to the northward for the summer haunts.
The weather influences thus vary considerably ; but temperature
plays the most important part in the various seasonal movements, and is
the main controlling factor in all extraordinary movements, other
meteorological conditions being suitable. Each movement, however, has
its peculiarity, and the conditions controlling it are often due to meteoro-
logical phenomena of a more or less complex nature, most of which,
perhaps, admit of explanation.
Meteorology and Autumn Immigration.—The immigratory movements
of the early autumn are those already mentioned as normal migration
under ordinary weather conditions, and need no further notice.
470 REPORT—1 896
It is not until late in September, and during October and early
November, that the movements into our Islands from the north-east are
sufficiently pronounced to permit of their being associated with and
attributable to the great weather changes of the autumn. In ordinary
seasons the period named is characterised by a series of great immigratory
movements simultaneously performed not only by many species, but also
by a vast number of individuals.
It has been ascertained that a// these great movements are due to
the prevalence in north-western Europe of weather conditions favourable
for emigration. These conditions are the result of the following type of
pressure distribution—namely, the presence of a large and well-defined
anticyclone over the Scandinavian Peninsula, with gentle gradients ex-
tending in a south-westerly direction over the North Sea. On the other
hand, cyclonic conditions prevail to the westward of the British area,
with a low-pressure centre off the west coast of Ireland, or, though less
frequently, over areas further to the south. Under these pressure con-
ditions the weather is clear and cold, with light variable airs over Norway
and Sweden ; while in Britain the sky is overcast, and moderate to strong
easterly winds are experienced, with fog not unfrequently prevailing at
many east coast stations.
The formation of these Goikditions in the autumn usually follows the
passing away from Scandinavia—the area in which the movement has its
origin—of a spell of a more or less pronounced cyclonic nature, during
the prevalence of which the ordinary course of the emigratory movements
is either interrupted or rendered impossible.
The effects of this sequence of meteorological conditions on bird
migration are remarkable.
During the cyclonic spell a weather barrier arrests the progress of,
and dams back as it were, the ordinary seasonal migratory stream.
These periods, too, are not unfrequently characterised by weather of
great ungeniality, and this, no doubt, gives the summer birds warning
that the time for seeking the south has arrived. Upon the duration and
severity of these preliminary conditions depends, to some extent, the
maguitude of the emigratory movement that follows.
The formation of the anticyclone removes the cyclonic weather barrier,
releases the flood, and provides conditions favourable for migration,
adding also an incentive in the form of a decided fall in temperature.
Thus it is not a matter for surprise that such a combination of meteoro-
logical conditions in the north should produce a rush to the southwards of
those vast numbers of migratory birds which appear during the hours of
darkness on our eastern coasts at the fall of each year, and whose move-
ments often extend over several successive nights.
These great movements occur most frequently in October, but during
that month in the year 1887 no such immigration was recorded for our
coasts. On examining the Meteorological Record, it is found that this
peculiar type of weather only prevailed for a few hours on the 9th, and
that a marked immigratory movement immediately set in, only to be
checked by the dispersal of the conditions necessary for a great emigration
from North-Western Europe. This fact illustrates in a remarkable manner
how very direct the bearing of these conditions is upon the great autumn
migratory movements between Northern Europe and Eastern Great
Britain.
The movements just described take place when gentle pressure-
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 471
gradients bridge, as it were, the North Sea, with fine weather between
Scandinavia and Britain. Such an extension, however, of the favourable
conditions does not always prevail for the entire journey—that is to say,
they do not always reach to the British side of the North Sea. Indeed,
it not unfrequently happens that the birds reach our shores under more
or less unfavourable weather conditions. When such is the case the
immigrants arrive in Britain in a correspondingly exhausted condition,
and, no doubt, many sometimes perish during the journey. An exa-
mination of the weather data for such occasions reveals a very simple
explanation of this peculiar, and partially unfavourable, phase in
Migration-Meteorology. It is as follows :—Though the weather-condi-
tions at the area of departure be entirely favourable for emigration, and
induce the birds to move southwards, the conditions prevailing on the
British coast are unfavourable, owing to the too close proximity or the
depth of the western low-pressure centre. On the location and character
of this cyclonic centre entirely depends the nature of the weather in the
immediate neighbourhood of our shores. If the western cyclonic system
is too close to Britain, or if the depression is exceptionally deep, then
unfavourable conditions for migration, with strong winds, prevail beyond
our eastern shores, and the birds perform the latter portion of their
journey under trying conditions. On the other hand, if it is off our
western shores and shallow, then fine-weather gradients entirely bridge
the North Sea.
Between these extremes of autumnal migration-weather there are
intermediate phases, whose influences are easily determined by a study of
the two sets of phenomena.
The autumnal immigration from the east by the ‘East and West
Route’ across the narrows of the North Sea to the south-east coast of
England remains to be considered in connection with its meteorological
aspects. Concerning this, however, there is not much to be explained.
‘It has been ascertained that the movements take place during favourable
weather conditions, and that they are most pronounced when the per-
fectly calm conditions and cold of anticyclonic periods prevail. They are
interrupted by rough weather, to be renewed with increased momentum
when the cyclonic spell is broken.
Simultaneous Autumn Immigration and Emigration—It has been
mentioned in the Seasonal Section of this Report, that under certain con-
ditions in the late autumn decided immigratory and emigratory movements
are witnessed in progress simultaneously. On these not very frequent
occasions, it has been clearly ascertained that the anticyclone in North-
western Europe covers an unusually wide area. This is due to the gentle
character of its gradients, which, having their centre over Scandinavia,
extend in a south-westerly direction to and beyond the limits of the
British Isles. Thus there prevail over this exceptionally extensive region
all the conditions already described as favourable for great emigratory
movements. The result is a great simultaneous inpouring of birds on our
east coast and a general outpouring from all British coasts of migrants of
many species.
Autumn Emigration —The autumnal emigratory movements are con-
trolled, so far as they may be affected by meteorological phenomena, by
weather-conditions prevailing in the British area.
The chief feature in migration during the earlier autumn days is the
departure of British summer birds, including those which have been
472 REPORT—1896.
described as partial migrants. During the prevalence of fine weather or
of weather not ungenial for the time of the year, these emigrants slip
away gradually and almost unobserved, except by those favourably
stationed on and off our coasts, by whom land: birds are only seen when
migrating. The pulse, so to speak, of these movements is, however, from
time to time manifestly quickened under the influence of ungenial
weather conditions of a not too pronounced nature, the chief stimulant
being a fall in the temperature.
Even JULY, in certain seasons, has its ungenial spells, and so it was
in the years 1882 and 1883, which were remarkable for their periods of
unseasonable weather. These outbursts make themselves felt on our
feathered population, and result in movements of a partial nature, per-
haps, but which have left their mark on the migration record. The
weather influences inciting these incipient movements are a com-
plete break-up of genial and normal conditions and the prevalence of
unsettled conditions, not unfrequently accompanied by thunder and heavy
rains, and a decided fall in temperature. The result upon our summer
visitants, or it may be upon their young, is that many of them move from
their accustomed haunts, and appear on the coast at the light stations
—sometimes at the lanterns—where their occurrence is duly chronicled.
The species chiefly affected are the *Thrush, *Redbreast, Wheatear,
*Whitethroat, Willow Warbler, Swallow, Martin, *Swift, and *Cuckoo.!
During Aucusr the ordinary emigratory movements of the autumn
set in, and are usually performed under ordinary conditions—namely, fine
weather. The weather influences other than normal are the same un-
genial spells, especially if accompanied by cold, alluded to for July.
These, however, are not frequent in most seasons, and yet no season is
entirely free from them.
With the great increase to emigration that characterises SEPTEMBER,
there are recorded, usually on several occasions during the month, very
decided movements which may be fairly termed emigratory ‘rushes.’
These occur simultaneously with the weather spells which, among other
characters, are remarkable for a decided fall in temperature, sometimes
amounting to many degrees. In one instance, on September 15, 1886,
the difference in temperature amounted to as much as 20° in twenty-four
hours, and naturally produced a marked effect in the emigration returns.
The conditions causing such decided falls in the thermometer, in the
great majority of instances, are northerly winds, and as these may be due
to anticyclonic weather conditions their force is usually slight. Some-
times, however, these cold spells prevail with a light southerly wind.
This was the case on September 5, 1885, when a cold, showery period
caused much emigration. That low temperatures are the prime factors is
clearly demonstrated by the September records ; inasmuch ‘as during
this month there are unsettled periods which are not characterised by
cold, and it is found that their influence on migration is comparatively
insignificant. When the unsettled periods become very pronounced or
develop gales, which is sometimes the case during this month, the weather
barrier thus formed arrests the emigratory movements, which are ren-
dered impossible under such adverse conditions.
The great autumnal emigratory movements, however, occur late in
' Those marked thus * are recorded as having been killed at the lanterns during
this month.
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 4.73
SEPTEMBER, during October, and early in November. These are the
result of the identical weather-conditions which cause similar emigratory
movements from northern Europe, except that the conditions favourable
for emigration prevail over the British area and to the southwards, and
do not extend northwards. Indeed, the movement is usually kept quite
distinct from an immigration by the interposition of weather barriers to
the north, which cut off migratory communication between our shores
and those of north-western Europe. These barriers most frequently take
the form of a subsidiary low-pressure area lying over the North Sea
between Great Britain and Scandinavia.
These great emigrations from Britain and Ireland, like the great immi-
grations from northern Europe at the same season, set in on the passing
away of the cyclonic conditions unfavourable for bird-migration, and on
the prevalence of an anticyclonic, or fine weather, spell with its charac-
teristic calm and cold. In this case, too, the unfavourable conditions
which have passed away probably act as a warning to many laggards
among the migratory birds, while the cold adds an additional spur and
swells the ranks of the departing birds.
During October movements are observed locally, which are directly
traceable to the influence exerted on emigration by a considerable lower-
ing of the temperature over a particular area. Thus, for example, on
October 20, 1883, there was a remarkable movement of Swallows to the
south-east coast of Ireland. On this day there was a decided fall in
temperature, the lowest readings being recorded for Ireland, where these
laggard summer-birds had until then found congenial quarters.
Again, on October 10, 1885, a local movement to the southward
of Thrushes and Blackbirds was recorded at stations in the north of
Scotland, and in this instance, too, the meteorological data afford the
information that a fall in temperature had occurred within that area.
The emigratory movements in the late autumn and winter are, as has
been already stated in this Report, attributable to the direct pressure of
severe weather-conditions, in the shape of frost or heavy snow. It has
been said, too, that these movements on the part of our resident and
visitant birds are renewed with each outburst of cold, &c., during Novem-
ber, December, January, February, and early March—in some years down
to the third week of the latter month. Little more need be said regard-
ing these simple weather influences on British bird-emigration.
In certain years, however, the months of midwinter are characterised by
conditions of Arctic severity. The January of 1881 was the most terrible
month of the period covered by the inquiry. During its severe days many
hundreds of birds perished even in the climatically most favourably
situated portions of the British area—namely, the isles off the south-west
coast of Ireland. The dominant feature of this month was intense cold,
which for about three weeks reigned supreme.in all parts of the British
area, and was accompanied by severe, harsh gales and heavy snow.
Thus, in spite of an exceptionally warm period during the month,
the mean temperature for this January was from 5° to 12° below the
average. |
Spring Immigration.—In connection with the spring immigration,
two very remarkable instances occurred on February 17, 1887. On this
day several Wheatears arrived at the Chicken’s Rock Lighthouse, and a
Ring Ouzel was observed and shot at the Longship station. This date is
exceptionally early for these species—indeed, they are the earliest records
474. REPORT—1896.
registered for any spring migrants during the eight years of the inquiry.
It is noteworthy to find, from the ‘ Daily Weather Report,’ that this
portion of the British area was the warmest spot in Western Europe on
the date in question.
During genial intervals in March, summer birds arrive, the Wheatear
appearing some years in considerable numbers. In 1884, during a
prolonged spell of warm weather, exceeding in warmth anything recorded
tor very many years, which followed a period of sharp frosts and snow,
no fewer than six species of spring migrants were recorded as arriving in
our Islands. Again, in 1886, five species were noted for a similar genial
period. On the other hand, in the cold wintry March of 1883 one summer-
bird alone—the Wheatear—was noted. Another March colder than the
average was experienced in 1885, during which the arrival of three species
only was chronicled.
Since the first arrivals of the summer birds appear, asa rule, in March,
it may here be remarked that the climatic peculiarities of the British area
would appear to play an important part in the geographical distribution
of these early immigrants.
The remarkable fact that the great majority of the summer visitors to
our Islands are first observed on the shores of the south-west of England
and Ireland, has already been mentioned. This holds good even in
ordinary and genial seasons, but in cold ones it is almost entirely the
case. Thus in March, 1887, with its monotonously low temperature, the
arrival of six species was recorded on twelve occasions, a// for the south-
west. During the exceptionally cold and rough March of 1883, only one
species—the Wheatear—was observed on two occasions, both at stations
on the west coast of Ireland where the temperature was highest. Again,
in the cold March of 1885 every record but one of the fourteen chronicled
was made in this same mild region of the British area.
It must not, however, be supposed that the thermometric conditions
prevailing in our Islands are the cause of the northward movements to
Britain and Ireland in the spring. We must seek their cause in weather
conditions and influences prevailing and acting in regions to the south of
our Islands.
A careful comparison has been made between the migrational and
meteorological phenomena in connection with these spring emigratory
movements from the continent. As the result it has invariably been found
that all such movements, except those performed late in the season, are to
be correlated with a rise of temperature in south-western Europe and
perhaps in northern Africa. That this induces the birds to embark on
their northward journey does not admit of doubt. It is worthy of note
that in not a few instances such movements are recorded for dates on
which the temperature in our Islands was lower than immediately before
the immigration. This clearly indicates that the increase of warmth at
the seat of emigration is the main factor controlling the spring move-
ments to the north. This rise in temperature in south-western Europe
may, and sometimes does, extend to and prevail over the British Isles.
Apart from this simple phenomenon no other peculiar meteorological
condition appears to be. associated with these spring movements from
southern Europe to the British Islands.
Spring Emigration from Britain.—The movements of birds from our
Islands to the northern breeding grounds in spring are influenced by the
weather conditions which prevail in the British area, as all our emigratory
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 475
movements naturally are. That such is the case is manifest on a com-
parison being instituted between the migrational and the meteorological
data for spring. Here, as abroad, it is found, other conditions being
equal, that increase in temperature is the main influencing factor, and
also that upon it depends, to a considerable degree, the extent of the
movement.
The emigratory movements from Great Britain and Ireland naturally
take place at later dates than the corresponding movements into our
Islands from the south. Thus it is not until April, and especially May,
that the decided or great departure movements are recorded which are
relevant to the particular investigation under consideration.
In Aprit the fine weather or anticyclonic periods have varying emigra-
tional values, depending entirely on their temperature. They are favourable
if characterised by high, or moderately high, temperatures ; or they may
be distinctly unfavourable through their decided cold. There is, however,
a medium even in the influence of anticyclonic spells, and thus during
periods which are moderately cold but calm, some emigration, of a
straggling nature it is true, is recorded.
In spring, too, cyclonic periods vary also in their influences on emi-
gration. They are, as a rule, unfavourable owing to their high winds
and ungeniality. On the other hand, when they are of a mild type and
characterised by warm rain and soft breezes, following a cold anticyclonic
spell in April, they are found to be distinctly favourable to a northward
movement from our Islands.
The great spring emigratory flights, and most of the lesser ones too,
are embarked upon under precisely the same type of pressure distribution
as that described as being so markedly favourable for the autumn passage
of birds across the North Sea to our Islands, namely, the presence of a
high pressure centre to the north-east of our Islands over Norway and
Sweden, with gentle gradients to the south-west. Under such circum-
stances of pressure distribution the North Sea between our Islands and
the Scandinavian peninsula is spanned by fine weather, and moderate
easterly or southerly breezes prevail. Such highly favourable periods, as
in the autumn, usually follow spells of weather decidedly ungenial for
bird migration.
Some of these spring movements to the north are occasionally
undertaken during somewhat unfavourable weather. Even in May
there are a few records of emigration during sleet, cold rain, and north-
east breezes, but it has to be explained that these flights followed
prolonged spells of ungenial weather, with decidedly low temperature,
late in the season, and were genial when compared with the preceding
conditions.
Late in the spring—at the end of May and in JunE—it is not surprising
to find that meteorological influences do not play an important part in
the last movements to the north. That this should be the case is due,
no doubt, to the advanced state of the season and its settled, or .com-
paratively settled, weather.
Winds.—The importance attached to winds in connection with bird-
migration has hitherto been much over-estimated by popular writers, and
their influence, such as it is, misunderstood.
The conclusions to be drawn from a careful study of the subject are :
(1) that the direction of the wind has no influence whatever as an
476 REPORT—1896.
‘ancentive to migration ; but that (2) its force is certainly an important
factor, inasmuch as it may make migration an impossibility, arrest to a
greater or lesser degree its progress, or even blow birds out of their
course. We have the clearest proof, indeed, that birds do not emigrate
when the winds are exceptionally high, though they sometimes pass into
high winds and gales when en route, under the meteorological conditions
which have already been described and explained. Ordinary winds—that
is, winds not too strong—appear to be of small concern to the birds, for
they are recorded as migrating with winds blowing from all quarters.
It is, however, a fact that particular winds almost invariably prevail
during the great autumnal movements, and these have hitherto been con-
sidered by some as the direct incentives to such migrations. Such is not the
case, and it may be at once stated that these supposed favourable breezes
are simply another direct result of the pressure distribution favourable
to the movements. This peculiar type of weather has already been fully
described and its effects discussed ; the winds prevailing and dependent
upon these barometric conditions are easterly, chiefly south-easterly
breezes. There is really no reason why westerly (west, north-west, and
south-west) winds, not too strong of course, should not, other things being
equal, be in every way as suitable for migratory movements as those
varying between such divergent points as north-east to south. When,
however, we come to inquire into the meteorological conditions producing
these westerly winds, the reason for their unsuitability becomes at once
apparent. These winds are the result of types of pressure-distribution
which are fatal to migration between north-western Europe and Britain,
namely, the presence of cyclonic areas to the north-east or east of the
British Isles. This means that the area under disturbed conditions would
be the very region from which we derive our autumn immigrants and
render emigration from such sources impossible. Such areas of disturb-
ance, with their high westerly and north-westerly winds, indeed, often
extend to and influence the weather in our Islands, and interfere with
the British emigratory movements in both autumn and spring.
Strong winds have a curious effect on the flight of Gulls, compelling
them to move in a direction more or less directly heading the wind. Thus
a strong westerly wind causes great numbers of Gulls to seek the estuaries
and bays of our east coast. On the other hand, strong easterly winds
will fill the estuaries and sea-lochs of the west coasts with these birds.
The lee side of islands is also sought under similar conditions of the
wind. A south-easterly wind, for the same reason, causes considerable
numbers of Gulls of various species to pass southward along the eastern
coast of Britain. Large parties of Gulls are also recorded as passing N.—
sometimes for a whole day—-with a N.N.W. wind. These movements are
more or less local, and the birds return, no doubt, to their regular haunts
in a few hours’ time. They are, moreover, chiefly observed in the autumn.
Gales.—One effect of gales has already been alluded to, namely, that
they arrest or make impossible the migratory movements.
At sea, however, they have a direct influence on the migrations of
certain marine species, such as Skuas, Phalaropes, Petrels, &c. These
birds in the autumn are occasionally driven out of their course by severe
gales, and appear on our coasts in exceptional numbers. At such times,
indeed, they are often blown far inland. Later in the season (in winter)
Guillemots, Razorbills, Puffins, and Little Auks, are in like manner
swept from their winter retreats on to our shores. Some of these last-
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 477
named birds are sometimes cast up dead in great numbers during the
winter months; the result of prolonged spells of rough weather at sea,
which render the procuring of food, and perhaps rest too, an impossibility.
Fog.—It often happens that during an important migratory move-
ment in the autumn or winter, fog prevails. On such occasions more
birds than usual approach the lanterns of the light-stations and are
killed, sometimes in considerable numbers, by striking against the giass.
This phenomenon is another effect of those anticyclonic spells which
have been mentioned as favourable to and causing emigration, and it is
thus not surprising that the birds should encounter foggy weather
during their movements. Such atmospheric conditions are well known to
meteorologists to be characteristic of these high-pressure systems, and of
their frosty periods, which latter are also the chief cause of the winter
movements.
There is also some direct evidence that birds lose themselves in foggy
weather, since practically non-migratory species, such as Sparrows, appear
during its prevalence at unusual seasons at stations just off the coast.
CoNCLUSION.
In conclusion it remains to be stated that this is merely a Sum-
mary of the Results obtained from a careful study of the data. It is
not claimed for the Digest that it is exhaustive in any department.
Indeed, such is far from being the case, and it is recognised that much yet
remains to be extracted from the enormous mass of information now
reduced to order. Further research will, no doubt, yield results of a
useful, if not an important nature.
It has been found impossible here to enter into many interesting
details in connection with the facts now established, while a vast amount
of useful information of a statistical nature awaits publication. Much of
the latter, however, can only be treated of under the numerous species to
which it relates.
To the further consideration of the data, with a view to obtaining
possible new and interesting facts, I am still actively devoting my atten-
tion. I trust in due course to make a more detailed and supplementary
communication on Bird-migration in the British Islands, and on the inter-
relationship existing between it and the various other phenomena with
which it is associated.
Post Office Regulations regarding the Carriage of Natural History
Specimens to Foreign Countries.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord WatstncHaM (Chairman), Mr.. R. McLacutuan,
Dr. C. W. Stites, Colonel C. SwinHor, and Dr. H. O. Forses
_ (Secretary).
Your Committee have to report that they have been in communication
with the Postmaster-General in reference to the object for which they
were appointed, namely, to obtain from the Post Office the relaxation of
the rule which prevents small parcels of natural history objects, sent for
purely scientific purposes, from passing through the post to addresses
abroad at sample-post rates, a privilege enjoyed by the Continental natu-
ralists when transmitting to England. Your Committee regret that the
latest reply from his Grace leaves no immediate hope of obtaining this
concession, and they therefore do not ask for reappointment.
4.78 REPORT—1896.
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. SCLATER, Professor E. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor J. Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Foster,
Professor S. J. Hickson, Mr. A. SEDG@wick, Professor W. C.
M‘Inrosp, and Mr. Percy SLavEn (Secretary).
APPENDIX.
PAGK
I.— Report on the Occupation cf the Table. By Mr. H. CHAS. WILLIAMSON 479
II.—-List of Naturalists who have morked at the Zoological Station from
July 1, 1895, to June 30,1896. . 481
ill.—List of Papers which were published in 1895 by Naturalists who
have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station . é - . 482
THE Table in the Naples Zoological Station hired by the British Associa-
tion has been occupied during the past year, under the sanction of your
Committee, by Mr. H. Chas. Williamson, whose objects of research were
(a) the life-history of the eel and (6) the absorption of the yolk, and other
points in the development of pelagic teleostean ova. Mr. Williamson’s
investigations extended from August 15, 1895, to July 16, 1896, with
two intervals of absence for the purpose of prosecuting observations in
other localities in connection with these researches. The nature of the
work undertaken is indicated in the report furnished by Mr. Williamson,
which is appended.
An application for permission to use the Table during the ensuing
year has been received from Mr. M. D. Hill, who wishes to: investigate
the ova of certain Hydrozoa.
Your Committee trust that the General Committee will sanction the
payment of the grant of 100/., as in previous years, for the hire of the
Table in the Zoological Station at Naples.
Early in the coming year the Naples Zoological Station will celebrate
its twenty-fifth anniversary, the foundation-stone having been laid in April
1872. The occasion wili be one of special interest, as it marks a period
during which about 1,000 naturalists of various nations have worked at
Naples, and more than thirty smaller institutions have sprung into
existence elsewhere. It is not too much to say that the Naples Station,
as their forerunner, has entirely changed the conditions of marine biolo-
gical study.
As evidence of the successful management of the undertaking, it is
sufficient to refer to the steady development and extension of scope
recorded year by year, as well as to the constantly increasing popularity
of the Naples Station as an international centre for research. That this
feeling is actively maintained is shown by the fact that since the last
report the Smithsonian Institute has renewed its contract with the Station
for a term of years, and that new tables have been taken by the Columbia
College of New York, as well as by Roumania and Bulgaria. The
University of Strassburg has also renewed its contract for five years.
During the past year the two steamers belonging to the Station have
been repaired and improved at a cost of 20,000 francs, and a new com-
pound engine by Thornycroft has been bought for 10,000 francs. Other
improvements and additions to the general equipment of the station, too
numerous to mention here, have also been made.
THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 479
The small zoological station established on the island of New Britain
(mentioned in your Committee’s last report) has been developing slowly,
under the auspices of the Naples Station. The German Colonial Office
and the Berlin Academy have recently granted 250/. and 150/. respec-
tively for the purpose of sending out Dr. Dahl, of Kiel, to investigate the
fauna, both terrestrial and marine.
The progress of the various publications undertaken by the station is
summarised as follows :—
1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ the monograph
by Dr. O. Biirger on ‘Nemertinea’ (pp. 743, 31 plates) has been
published.
2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
vol. xii. parts i. and ii., with 15 plates, have been published.
3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1894
has been published.
4. Anew English edition of the ‘Guide to the Aquarium’ is being
printed.
The details extracted from the general report of the Zoological Station,
which have been courteously furnished by the officers, will be found at
the end of this report. They embrace lists (1) of the naturalists who
have occupied tables since the last report, and (2) of the works published
during 1895 by naturalists who have worked at the zoological station.
APPENDIX.
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. H. Cuas.
WILLIAMSON.
During 1895-96, for three separate periods of three months each,
I have been engaged in the study of (a) the life-history of the eel and
(b) the absorption of the yolk, and other points in the development of
pelagic teleostean ova.
(a) On the Life-history of the Eel.
In connection with this subject, I have been enabled to examine the
large eggs first described by Raffaele,' and referred by that author with
reservation to the family of the Murznide, a diagnosis which has since
received support from Grassi.? A large number of elveos and of eels of
various sizes above that stage were supplied me during the winter. In
the intervals between the periods of occupation of the Table I was absent
from Naples in connection with this research.
(b) On the Absorption of the Yolk in Pelagic Teleostean Ova.
The process of the absorption of the yolk in teleostean ova is not one
which has received much direct attention. In demersal eggs the absorp-
tion of the yolk is mainly effected by means of an elaborate vitelline
blood circulation. In pelagic ova, with one or two rare exceptions, it is
stated generally no vitelline circulation exists. The study of this subject
involves an examination almost solely of /we eggs. I find that, in a
1 Raffaele, ‘ Uova galleggianti del Golfo di Napoli,’ Jfttheil. Zool. Stat.
Neapel, 1888.
* Grassi e Calandruccio, ‘Ancora sullo sviluppo dei Murenoidi,’ Bollet. deil’
Accademia Gioenia in Catania, Fasc, xxxiv, 1893.
480 REPORT—1896.
number of pelagic ova which I have been able to examine, there is a
distinct, though very much modified, vitelline circulation. The elements
of this circulation are not, however, blood corpuscles, but yolk corpuscles.
In the ova of etght species! I found this circulation, the corpuscles of
which are derived from the periblast. Contemporaneously with the
formation of the heart have appeared the primary vessels—viz. (a) the
two lateral arteries uniting to form the median trunk, which passes
posteriorly a point a little short of the tip of the tail ; (b) the primitive
caudal vein, which debouches into the posterior end of the yolk-sac. The
pulsations of the heart are at first feeble and slow. The venous end of
the heart is open to the interior of the yolk-sac. A few corpuscles are
now seen to pass from the yolk-sac into the heart. These corpuscles,
which proceed singly and at intervals, are seen moving along the arterial
trunks to the tail, and immediately thereafter appear in the caudal vein,
from which they pass into the yolk-sac. They then, with varying speed,
pass over the ventral surface of the yolk and enter the heart. Some of
the corpuscles proceed directly from the posterior end of the yolk-sac to
the heart without ; others become attached to the periblast, and remain
fast for longer or shorter intervals. On the posterior surface of the yolk,
where the caudal vein enters the yolk-sac, the periblast shows a well-
marked furrow, which has been worn in it by the circulating fluid.
Before the heart begins to beat, corpuscles, similar to the later
circulating corpuscles, are seen on the periblast, and that these cor-
puscles, derived from the periblast, become the circulating corpuscles
there is no doubt. At first, and even up to the time of hatching, the
corpuscles are few in number. Only in the case of the three species of
the eggs of Murenide have I been able to study the circulation fully.
Eggs of other species which I examined presented difficulties, owing to
their small size, presence of oil globules, or on account of the supply of
specimens being insufficient. Only in the case of two species, in addition
to those of the Murznide, was I able to obtain the ova in abundance.
The corpuscles are minute, irregular in shape and size. In certain of the
eggs the presence of the corpuscles on the periblast, and in motion in the
yolk-sac, the connection between the caudal vein and yolk-sac, and the
furrow continuing the caudal vein on the periblast have been regarded as
sufficient evidence that a circulation of yolk corpuscles, similar to that
clearly followed in others, was present. A certain amount of yolk-
absorption no doubt takes place at the parts of the embryo in connection
with the yolk, but after the formation of the tail of the embryo that
absorption is probably very slight. The heart of the embryo in a pelagic
ovum is said to pulsate before any blood is present, but the heart is not,
however, without a circulation. It is extremely probable that there is, in
addition to the yolk corpuscles, a circulating fluid of some sort being
directed through the vessels by the heart. The first corpuscles are then
formed in the periblast, and pass into the circulating fluid, the existence
of which it is not unreasonable to postulate. A second method of adding
corpuscles to the circulation is shown in a number of ova. This is a
process of budding from the periblast. Slender pseudopodium-like pro-
1 The eight species included:—Ova of Murenide, Raff. (three species) ;
Pleuronectes italicus (?); Merluccius vulgaris; Engraulis encrasicholus; Species
No. 3 (Coryphena ?), Raff.; Uranoscopus scaber. (In the case of the last species I
refer to a stage previous to the appearance of the complete vitelline circulation.)
THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 481
cesses are thrown out from the surface of the periblast, and from the tips
of these processes are budded off corpuscles which enter the heart and the
circulation. These processes have been noticed by several authors, among
others by Ryder. I have been able to observe these processes in the eggs
of seven species. The eggs of the Murenide, from their large size, offer
facilities for the study of this process of budding, and in these eggs the
different stages have been successfully followed. The process is very
slow, and may easily be overlooked. In the other species, the ova of
which are small, the presence of the pseudopodial processes was noted.
In these, unless a large number of eggs is obtainable, it is almost impos-
sible to follow the actual budding off of the corpuscle. The corpuscles
derived from the process of budding do not appear to differ from the
primary corpuscles derived from the periblast. They are irregular in
shape and size, and show, at least in some cases, nuclei. There is thus,
previous to the advent of ‘the blood circulation, a circulation of corpuscles
derived from the periblast in two ways, (1) by simple direct transference
from the surface of the periblast ; (2) transference by means of a process
of budding.
That the processes mentioned above are general I am led to believe ;
but I have not yet had the opportunity of examining a sufficient number
of species to enable me to make a generalised statement.
+ Other points in development, which occupied my attention at Naples,
I must leave over until I have had an opportunity of continuing my
observations.
Any reference on my part to the advantages afforded by the Zoological
Station at Naples is quite uncalled for. This subject has more than once
been treated by zoologists more competent to judge thanI am. To me
the opportunity given by the Committee of the British Association to
occupy the Table at Naples has been of incalculable value, and my sincere
thanks are offered for the honour so done me.
Il. A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
the end of June 1895 to the end of June 1896.
Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of Arrival Departure
857 | Prof. F. S. Monticelli | Italy ‘ 2 . | July 6,1895| Nov. 4, 1895
858 | Prof. J. Ogneff . . | Russia. : 5 39 BOs, Waren Te ess
859 | Prof. V. Faussek ; 53 , F Jel, Seer =sabel ye —
860 | Dr. F. Massa . . | Italy 5 3 ‘ pire awry soNtoniss dle tos
861 | Stud. V. Diamare . a ‘ 3 - shales —
862 | Dr.G. Mazzarelli . oF = : : Sor aniline —
863 | Dr. A. Romano. A 3 2 ‘ a PAPER CH or, ee
864 | Dr.G.Salvi . a : é 5 Dams) sar eh ipepo.LOs,,
865 | Prof. A. Della Valle . By Z F i Sa de ss Oct. 18,
866 | Mr. H.Ch.Williamson | British Association . Seale os July 16, 1896
867 | Stud. W. Daudt .| Hesse . » 24, 4, | Nov. 15.1895
868 | Dr. N. Germanos . | Zoological Station s Sept 2, 5 i 10, mA
869 | D.J.Wagner . , Russia 4 f We Eee ilar, 15,1896
870 | Prof. B. Grassi . . | Italy : i : 3 14, ,, | Oct. 20,1896
871 | Dr. F. Savorani . | Italian Navy . ; eas 5 as Se MD si ¢
872 | Mr.J.S.Gardiner .| Cambridge . OC wee Feb. 13, 1896 |
873 | Dr. T. Reibisch. .| Saxony . : : bf ee RE itl4Aueih Al
874 | Dr. G. Schischko . | Bulgaria. , 7 octet a Apa —
875 | Dr. C. Apstein . . | Prussia . : i Spee hay een ears (Goin
1896. II
482 REPORT—1896.
II. A List OF NATURALISTS, &C.—continued.
Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table .
List was made use of Arrival Departure
876 | Dr. H. Driesch . Hamburg Oct. 22, 1895 June11, 1896
877 | Dr. C. Herbst Prussia . y, ZOE otis 11, St
878 | Dr. Vastarini Cresi . | Italy . | Nov. 13, ae: a
879 | Dr. M. Martens . | Prussia . : «| Decs3ly VjpleA tea Len tes
880 | Dr. Tagliani . . | Italy 3 + | JARs. lel S OO: meer suse
881 | Dr. G. Jatta - | Zoological Station * Pcie ie emt —
882 | Mr. E.S. Goodrich . | Oxford 3 GYM, “|p 4, 5,
883 | Prof. D. Voinov Roumania chit ete DAIL, Sess oe LORY iss
884 | Dr. A. Borgert . Prussia . ; 7 » 18, 5, | May 24,. 4;
885 | Dr. R. 8S. Harrison Agassiz Table . | Feb. 1; ,, Be falls peas
886 | Dr. F. v. Wagner Strassburg feed Coe Mar. 28,. >,,
887 | Mr. H. Bosshard Switzerland WEI SBiee en | July 73; as
888 | Prof. E. Ziegler Baden Feb.19,_ ,, Apr. 13; ‘,,
889 | Dr. A. Russo. Italy Maris3.0 278 iee ties
890 | Dr. K. Hescheler Switzerland - 29-38 | Mayeiienn
891 | Mr. W. T. Swingle . | Smithsonian able . a Osens Sg RORY ps
892 | Prof. Oltmanns. . | Baden sa lille 55 pa ee ADESILS pues
893 | Dr.F. M.MacFarland | Smithsonian T able . spells Wy Srp eaten
894 | Miss Hyde, Dr. Ida . | Zoological Station . Pe ean ars Mayt'ly'4;
895 | Dr. Beneke : . | Strassburg 2 asf Sitae sp Apr. 18, ,,
896 | Prof. T. Boveri . . | Bavaria ir Seg ie Ct o
897 | Prof. E. Korschelt Prussia Pa ee Orme ame) IUCR my
898 | Frof. E. Lahousse Belgium . 9) did) a eae ecee ass
899’ | Dr. Rs CrCoe . . | Agassiz Table. py oils. Se) ol e iene ss
900 | Dr. J. v. Uexkiill Wiirtemberg of) £2 AS, PRS Lt lle eee ss
901 | Dr. A. Weysse . Agassiz Table . 2 pw 19,0 53. | dumeks, THs,
902 | Dr. A. Matthews Columbia College boris rt Oho ser LA eRe op
$03 | Prof. Solger Prussia Apr Ube _-
904 | Dr. N. Iwanzoff Russia eh, Oa-eeaa) aly DULL ates
905 | Prof. P. Mitrophanow 4 ssi LOS sy, Meta enes
906 | Dr. O.van derStricht | Belgium . ia LBs te al. Cee oe
Ill. A List of Papers which were published in the year 1895 by the
Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station.
W.E. Ritter .
S. Fuchs
W. M. Wheeler
H. Ludwig
A. Russo
G. Mazzarelli . 5
Anzeiger,’ B. 10, 1895.
Ueber die Function der unter der Haut liegenden Canal-
‘Archiv f. d. gesammte
systeme bei den Selachiern.
Physiologie,’ B. 59, 1895.
lopoden.
Myzostoma glabrum.
phology,’ vol. 10, 1895.
Luidia.
Napoli.
1895.
Bulle.
On budding in Goodsiria and Perophora.
Bonn, Jahrgg
‘ Anatomischer
. 52, 1895.
Beitrige zur Physiologie des Kreislaufes bei den Cepha-
Ihid., B. 60, 1895.
The behaviour of the Centrosomes in the fertilised egg of
‘Leuckart’s Journal of Mor-
Ueber die im Mittelmeere vorkommenden Seestern Arten
‘Verh. Nat. Ver.,’
. Studii anatomici sulla famiglia Ophiotrichid del Golfo di
‘Ricerche fatte nel Laboratorio di Anatomia
normale della R. Universita di Roma,’ vol. 4, 1895.
Sulla morfologia del Syndesmis Echinorum Frangois.
‘Ricerche Laborat. di Anatomia normale,’ Roma, vol. 5,
Ricerche intorno al cosi detto apparato olfattorio delle
‘Ricerche fatte nel Laboratorio di Anatomia
normale della R. Universita di Roma,’ vol. 4, 1895.
7
THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
G. Mazzarelli . t
C. Crety. : A p
J. v. Uexkiill . A :
”
H. Driesch . A
H. Driesch and T. H.
Morgan.
N. Iwanzofft
”
Ch. Hargitt
N. Léon —
T. H. Morgan
H. Pollard
V. Diamare
H, Klaatsch
”
G. Tagliani
»
Th. List .
R. Schneider . 3 ;
R. Krause
483
Intorno al rene secondario delle larve degli Opistobranchi.
‘ Boll. Soc. Naturalisti di Napoli,’ vol. 9, 1895.
Contribuzione alla conoscenza dell’ uovo ovarico,
‘Ricerche fatte nel Laboratorio di Anatomia normate
della R. Universita di Roma,’ vol. 4, 1895.
Physiologische Untersuchungen an Eledone moschata 4.
Zur Analyse der Functionen des Centralnervensystems.
‘ Zeitschr. fiir Biologie,’ B. 31, 1895.
Vergleichende _sinnesphysiologische Untersuchungen
1. Veber die Nahrungsaufnahm des Katzenhais. bid.
B. 32, 1895.
Von der Entwickelung einzelner Ascidienblastomeren.
‘ Archiv fiir Entwickelungsmechanik,’ B. 1, 1895. _
Zur Analysis der ersten Entwickelungsstadien des Cteno-
phoreneies. 1. Vonder Entwick. einzelner Ctenophoren-
blastomeren. 2. Von der Entwick. ungefurcht. Eier
mit Protoplasmadefekten. ‘Archiv Entw. Mechanik.’
B. 2, 1895. F
Der mikroskopische Bau des elektrischen Organs von
Torpedo. ‘Bull. Soc. Naturalistes Moscou.’ Moskau,
1895.
Das Schwanzorgan von Raja.
ralistes Moscou,’ N. 1, 1895.
Character and distribution of the genus Perigonimus.
‘Mittheil. Zool. Station Neapel,’ B. 11. 1895.
Zur Histologie des Dentalium-Mantels. ‘Jenaische Zeit-
schrift,’ B. 30, 1895.
Half embryos and whole embryos from one of the first
two blastomeres of the frog’s egg. ‘ Anatomischer
Anzeiger,’ B. 10, 1895.
The formation of one embryo from two blastule. ‘ Archiv
fiir Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen,’ B. 2, 1895.
A study of a variation in cleavage. Jbid.
Studies of the ‘ partial’ larvee of Spherechinus. Tbid.
Experimental Studies of the Blastula and Gastrula stages
of Kchinus. bid.
The fertilisation of non-nucleated fragments of Echino-
derm-eggs. hid.
A Study of Metamerism.
vol. 37, 1895.
The cral cirri of Siluroids and the origin of the head in
Vertebrates. ‘Zool. Jahrbiicher, Abth. fiir Anat. und
Ontogenie,’ B. 8, 1895.
I corpuscoli surrenali di Stannius ed i corpi del cavo
addominale dei Teleostei. ‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’
vol. 9, 1895.
Beitriige zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelsiiule.
III. Zur Phylogenese der Chordascheiden, &c. ‘Mor-
phol. Jahrbuch.’ B, 22, 1895.
Ueber Kernveriinderungen im Ektoderm der Appendicu-
larien bei der Gehiusebildung. JZbid., B. 23, 1895.
Intorno ai centri nervosi dell’ Orthagoriscus mola. Notizie
anatomiche e critiche. ‘ Boll. Soc. Natur. Napoli,’ vol.
9, 1895.
Intorno ai cosi detti lobi accessorii ed alle cellule giganti
della midolla spinale di alcuni Teleostei. did.
Morphologisch-biologische Studien tiber den Bewegungs-
apparat der Arthropoden. 2. Theil. Die Decapoden.
‘Mitth. Zool. Station Neapel,’ B. 12, 1895.
Die neuesten Beobachtungen iiber natiirliche Hisenre-
sorption in thierischen Zellkernen, &c. bid.
Die Speicheldriisen der Cephalopoden. ‘Centralbl. fiir
Physiol.’ B. 9, 1895.
‘Bull. Soc. Imp. Natu-
‘Quart. Journal Micr. Sc.’ (2),
Ir2
484. REPORT—1896.
Th. Beer. Der Schlaf der Fische. ‘N. Wiener Tageblatt,’ N. 196,
1895.
H. M. Vernon. The effect of environment on the development of Echino-
derm larve; an experimental inquiry into the causes
of variation. ‘Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, vol. 186,
1895.
3 The respiratory exchange of the lower marine Inverte-
brates. ‘Journ. of Physiology,’ vol. 19, 1895.
F. Reinke Untersuchungen iiber Befruchtung und Furchung des Eies
der Echinodermen. ‘Sitz. Ber. Akad. Berlin,’ 1895.
J. Sobotta Die Befruchtung des Eies von Amphioxus lanceolatus.
‘Anat. Anz.,’ B. XI., N. 5, 1895.
H. Bury . The Metamorphosis of Echinoderms. ‘Quart. Journal
Mier. Sce.,’ V. 38 (2), 1895.
O. vom Rath . Ueber den feineren Bau der Driisenzellen des Kopfes von
Anilocra mediterranea, Leach, &c. ‘Zeitschr. wiss.
Zool.’ B. 60, 1895.
J. E. S. Moore On the structural changes in the reproductive cells during
the spermatogenesis of Elasmobranchs. ‘ Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sc.’ (2), vol. 38, 1895.
M. D. Hill Notes on the fecundation of the egg of Sphzrechinus
. granularis, and on the maturation and fertilisation of
the egg of Phallusia mammillata. bid.
C. Nutting . : . Notes on the Reproduction of plumularian Hydroids.
‘ American Naturalist,’ Nov. 1895.
R. Hesse. Fite ae . Ueber das Nervensystem und die Sinnesorgane von Rhizo-
stoma Cuvierii. ‘ Zeitschr. wiss. Zoologie,’ B. 60, 1895.
E. Korschelt . ; . Uber Kerntheilung und Befruchtung bei Ophryotrocha
puerilis. bid.
§. Trinchese . é . Ricerche anatomiche sul Phyllobranchus Borgninii (Tr.).
*R. Accad. Sc. Istituto Bologna’ (5), t. 5, 1895.
African Lake Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
P. L. SctaTerR (Chairman), Dr. Joon Murray, Professor E. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor W. A. HErpMAN, and Professor G. B.
Howes (Secretary).
On reaching Blantyre, Mr. T. E. Moore, to whom the Committee had
entrusted the investigation of the fauna of Lake Tanganyika, being
detained by the Nyasa war, took the opportunity of visiting Lake
Shirwa, and made observations upon a Green Bacteriwm, which appears
to swarm there. Proceeding subsequently to Tanganyika, he reports that
the fresh-water Medusa there (Limnoclida tanganyike) is exceedingly
abundant, and announces the discovery of an apparent dimorphism in
certain specimens, with active proliferation of each of the dimorphic
forms. He has also collected fishes, molluscs, crustacea, and plants, all
of which bear out the conclusion that Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa are
quite distinct in origin, and has discovered a large fresh-water sponge.
Mr. Moore has also made geological collections, with a special view to
their bearings upon the origin of the great African Lakes. After visiting
some of the smaller lakes, he proposes shortly to start on his return
journey to this country. Under these circumstances the Committee pro-
pose to defer their final report on the results arrived at by Mr. Moore
until the next meeting of the Association, and ask that they may be
reappointed in the meanwhile without any further grant.
a -t
ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 485
Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of
the Commuttee, consisting of Mr. G. C. BourNnE (Chairman), Pro-
fessor E. Ray LanKkEsTER (Secretary), Professor M. Foster, and
Professor S. H. VinEs, appointed to investigate the Relations
between Physical Conditions and Marine Fauna and Flora. .
Algological Notes for Plymouth District. By Mr. Grorce BREBNER.
From January to April (1896) inclusive I had the privilege of occupying
the British Association’s table. As a result of my investigations the
following marine alge were added to the local flora, several of which were
new to Britain, and others (marked thus *) were species or forms new to
science.
NEW TO BRITAIN.
MyYxoPHYCE.
Oscillatoria rosea, Crn. (Queen’s Ground.)
Symploca atlantica, Gom. f. purpurea, Batt. (Yealm.)
Hyella cespitosa, Born. et Flah. var. nitida, Batt.
PHOPHYCES.
Ralfsia disciformis (Crn.), Batt. (Yealm.).
FLORIDES.
*Acrochetium endophyticum, Batt. (Off west end of breakwater.)
Cruoria rosea, Crn. f. purpurea, Batt. (Yealm.)
Cruoriopsis cruciata, Duf. (Queen’s Ground.)
Cruoriopsis Hauckii, Batt. (Off west end of breakwater.)
Peyssonelia rupestris, Crn. (Queen’s Ground.)
NEW TO PLYMOUTH DISTRICT.
CHLOROPHYCE.
Cladophora hirta, Kiitz. (Drake’s Island.)
PHEOPHYCEX.
Lithoderma fatiscens, Aresch. (Bovisand Bay). (Plurilocular spo-
rangia not previously found in Britain.)
FLORIDE.
Acrochetium microscopicum, Nag.
Peyssonelia Harveyana, Crn. (Queen’s Ground.)
Rhododermis elegans, Crn. (Queen’s Ground, &c.)
Lithothamnion Strémfeltii, Foslie. (Queen’s Ground.)
Peyssonelia Rosenvingii Schm. (Wembury Bay.)
The new species of Acrochetiwm is interesting on account of the main
part of the thallus being endophytic—namely, in Dasya coccinea (Huds).
Ag.—this alga therefore occupying in the genus Acrochetiwm a position
analogous to that of Rhodochorton membranacewm Magn. in its genus.
A. endophyticum, Batt., was described in the barren condition at the
Linnean meeting of December 19, 1895, but the monosporangia were not
found till January 1896.
186 REPORT—1896.
Cruoria rosea, Crn. f. purpurea, Batt., is probably only a more ad-
vanced stage in the life-history of Cruoria rosea, Crn., than had hitherto
been recognised. It is so like the figure of Crouan’s Cruoria purpurea
that it would have been identified as such by Mr. Edw. Batters and
myself but for the fact that our solitary specimen showed several inter-
mediate connecting stages.
Cruoriopsis Hauckii, Batt. is an interesting member of the
Squamariacex, obtained from a stone dredged off the west end of the
breakwater. The tetraspores showed almost every transition from zonate
to cruciate. It most nearly resembles Cruoriella armorica of Hauck
(non Crouan). As one of the two species bearing the name Cruoriella
armorica will have to be renamed, Mr. Batters proposes to call our
plant as above.
The other finds do not call for special mention.
Interesting results were obtained from a cultivation experiment with
Ahnfeltia plicata, Fr. The nature of its fructification has not been
satisfactorily made out. The late Professor Fr. Schmitz maintained that
it was a parasite (Sterrocolax decipiens, Schm.), and that the true repro-
ductive organs had not yet been found. His view, however, while widely
accepted by algologists, was opposed by Reinke and others. This plant,
richly supplied with ‘nemathecia,’ was placed in sterilised sea-water on
February 1, 1896, and after two months (March 30) a very great number
of germinated spores, in the shape of small discs, were found on the sides
of the glass jar. The structure and appearance of those discs were such as
to strongly support the view that the supposed parasite of Schmitz was in
reality the sporogenic nemathecium, or fructification, of Ahnfeltia plicata.
Unfortunately, owing to the difficulties of cultivation, I did not succeed
in definitely settling this point, as the culture did not get beyond the disc
stage ; but, if the opportunity offers, another year I hope to repeat this
experiment under more favourable conditions.
As part of my investigation J am studying the attaching-discs of the
red sea-weeds, or Floridez, in order to ascertain to what extent the
conditions found by me in Dumontia filiformis (Fl. Dan.) Grev. (‘Journal
of the Linnean Soc.’—Botany—vol. xxx. p. 436) prevail in other species. So
far I have found no other red sea-weed which shows a mode of development,
from an attaching-disc, similar to that described for D. filiformis (. c.).
A large number of the Floridee (e.g. Gigartina, Polyides, Stenogramme) are
connected with their attaching disc by a simple parenchyma-like tissue ;
one or two species of those which have attaching discs present somewhat
different features, and when their structure is more fully worked out will
be worth describing and figuring, but they in no way resemble the con-
ditions found in D. filiformis.
In conclusion I should like to state that two or three of the above
finds are entirely due to Mr. Batters, the material having simply been
forwarded to him from the Laboratory at my request. He, moreover, has
very kindly acted as expert for me by naming such alge as seemed to
me to be interesting or new, the Plymouth Marine Biological Laboratory
not. being well supplied with the literature necessary for algological
research.
The diagnosis of Acr. endophyticum, Batt., and particulars with regard
to the other new to Britain marine algx, may be found in ‘The Journal of
Botany’ for September, 1896, under ‘ New or Critical British Sea-weeds,’
by Mr. Edw. Batters.
ON THE BIOLOGY OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 487
The Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of Oceanic
Tslands.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
FLower (Chairman), Professor A. C. Happon (Secretary), Mr.
G. C. Bourne, Dr. H. O. Forses, Professor W. A. HErpMAN, Dr.
Joun Murray, Professor A. Newron, Mr. A. E. Suietey, and
Professor W. F. R. WELDON. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
THosE students of Botany, Zoology, and Anthropology who have at all
considered the matter, are impressed with the fact that the present time
is a very critical period for the native flora and fauna of many parts of
the world. Owing to the spread of commerce, the effects of colonisation,
and the intentional or accidental importation of plants and animals, a very
rapid change is affecting the character of the indigenous life of numerous
districts. This is notably the case in oceanic islands, the area of which is
often extremely limited, and whose native forms have been found to be
specially liable to be swamped by the immigrants ; but itis just those spots
which are of especial interest to the naturalist, on account of their isola-
tion from the great land areas. Thus the flora and fauna of many of the
most interesting districts for the field-naturalist are in our day becoming
largely exterminated before they have been adequately recorded. The
Committee, while fully recognising that it is unwise to compare the rela-
tive values of different branches of science, are strongly of opinion that
the naturalists of a future date will have a just cause of complaint against
us if we have not done our best to save to science a record of these
vanishing forms. Certain branches of enquiry may safely be left to the
next generation, but the investigation of disappearing animals and plants
can, in many cases, be undertaken by us alone—and even now much has
disappeared and more is fast passing away. It is, perhaps, scarcely neces-
sary to point out that this investigation is not a matter of interest to
the systematist only, but it is of great importance in connection with the
problems of geographical distribution, variation, adaptation to the environ-
ment, and the like.
We need only refer to the Reports of the Committee on the Zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, and those of the Committee of the Zoology and
Botany of the West India Islands, to show that some work is being done
in this direction by the British Association and other scientific societies,
but we would urge that much more should be done by the Governments,
scientific societies and private individuals of this and other countries.
Mr. Perkins’ investigations in the Hawaiian group prove that quite a
noticeable decrease in the indigenous fauna is taking place each season.
The district around Honolulu was perhaps originally the richest in
endemic forms, but now introduced forms are in vast preponderance ; the
distinctive fauna of the plains, if there was one, has quite disappeared.
Captain Cook found certain birds, for example, near the shore ; of these,
some are extinct, and others are to be found only in the mountains. The
area of the whole group is somewhat larger than Yorkshire. If the
diminution of the fauna is so marked in such a comparatively large group
as the Hawaiian Islands, how much greater must it be in the small
islands.
488 REPORT—1896.
Mr. Knight, in the ‘Cruise of the Falcon,’ describes the prostrate
forests of the island of Trinidad in the South Atlantic. We never can
know what was the nature and extent of this vanished flora and fauna.
‘ What is taking place in the small islands holds good to a somewhat:
less extent for the larger ones. In New Zealand the Government is
taking steps to preserve certain well-known vestiges of its ancient fauna,
which are in imminent danger of extermination ; but it does not interest
itself in the inconspicuous forms, which are subject to the same danger,
nor does the New Zealand Government systematically investigate the
existing fauna of the group.
It is necessary that such investigations should be undertaken by a
competent naturalist. He should not only be a good collector, but a keen
observer, in fact, a naturalist in the true sense of the term; for unless
the work is well done it had-almost be better left undone. There are
many examples of collecting being so imperfectly done as to lead to very
erroneous conclusions. It takes time for a naturalist to become acquainted
with the local types. The endemics do not show themselves, as usually
the conditions of life are such that insects, for example, live retired
lives and are not seen, while those that manifest themselves are often
foreigners.
The extermination of animal life is more rapid and striking than that
of plants, but what has been stated for animals must be applied to plants.
as well.
Not less important than the foregoing is the study of the anthropology
of these districts. The Tasmanians have entirely disappeared and we
know extremely little about this interesting people. In many islands the
natives are fast dying out, and in more they have become so modified by
contact with the white man and by crossings due to deportation by
Europeans, that immediate steps are necessary to record the anthropo-
logical data that remain. Only those who have a personal acquaintance
with Oceania, or those who have carefully followed the recent literature:
of the subject, can have an idea of the pressing need there is for prompt
action. No one can deny that it is our bounden duty to record the
physical characteristics, the handicrafts, the psychology, ceremonial
observances and religious beliefs of vanishing peoples ; this also is a work
which in many cases can alone be accomplished by the present generation.
There is no difficulty in finding men competent to undertake such
investigations if the funds were forthcoming. For the Committee to
satisfactorily organise any expedition it would be necessary to have a per-
manent income or at all events an adequate amount for a defined number
of years. Experience has shown that an annual sum of 400/. is necessary
to equip and maintain one naturalist.
The Committee ask to be reappointed, and hope to propose a definite
scheme at the next meeting of the Association. .
Since the above was in print Dr. D. Sharp has received a letter from
Mr. Perkins, in which the following passage occurs : this is so appropriate
that we do not hesitate to quote it in full :—‘ The country where I camped
here (Lihue, Kauai) was a low-lying, densely covered forest bogland, at
Jirst sight a paradise for Carabide, and differing from any other place
known to me. Its fauna is entirely lost for ever.
‘I turned during my stay thousands of logs, any one of which at
4,000 feet would have yielded Carabide. Of all these there was not @
ON THE BIOLOGY OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 489
single one under which Pheidole megacephala had not a nest, and I never
beat a tree without this ant coming down in scores. The only endemic
insects seen were two earwigs, which appear to be (as I had already found
out on Oahu and Maiu) the only native insects which can resist the ant.
It was hardly possible for me to reach the ground behind the forest, but
when I did get beyond the ant on one occasion, in pouring rain, I got
some native beetles.’—July 21, 1896.
Indea Generum et Specierum Animaliwm.—Report of a Committee,
consisting of Sir W. H. FLower (Chairman), Mr. P. L. Sciarer,
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. F. A. BaTHer (Secretary), appointed.
for superintending the Compilation of an Index Generum et
Specierum Animalium.
In consequence of Mr. W. L. Sclater leaving England for South Africa,
your Committee has added to its number Mr. F. A. Bather, who has
served as secretary. During this past year considerable interest has been
aroused in this work in connection both with the synopsis of species of
living animals proposed to be issued by the German Zoological Society,
under the title ‘Das Tierreich,’ and with the scheme for a subject cata-
logue of scientific literature discussed at the recent International Congress
on scientific bibliography. The importance of this work has been acknow-
ledged by the British Association Committee on Zoological Bibliography
and Publication, and a resolution bearing on the subject will be found in
the Report of that Committee. A paper entitled ‘ Explanation of the
Plan adopted for preparing the Jndex Generum et Specierum Animalium’
was read by Mr. Sherborn before the Zoological Society on June 2, and
will be published in its ‘ Proceedings.’ To this paper those who require
detailed information on the present condition of the work may be referred.
Since the commencement of this work in 1890, a total of 130,000 refer-
ences has been accumulated in duplicate, and a mass of literature has
been carefully and thoroughly indexed. The time available for the work
has amounted to about three years, and the whole work has been done by
Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, the compiler. Every reference slip is at once
sorted into its alphabetical order under the Genus, and the MS. is acces-
sible at the British Museum (Natural History) for daily reference. The
Museum Authorities furnish cabinets and accommodation for the MS.,
and the work is also carried on in that building. A considerable number
of bibliographic researches of value have been made, the fixation of the
dates of publication being regarded as of prime importance.
Your Committee has requested Mr. Sherborn to conduct his work in
such a manner that the Index should be published in three parts, dealing
with the literature from 1758 to 1800, 1800 to 1850, 1850 to 1900,
respectively, and to complete the first of these parts as quickly as
possible.
Your Committee begs to urge upon the Association the importance of
completing this work at as early a date as possible, and venture to recom-
mend that it be reappointed with a grant of £100, so that Mr. Sherborn
may be provided with some secretarial assistance.
4.90 REPORT—1896.
Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir W. H. FLowEer (Chairman), Professor W. A.
HerpMan, Mr. W. E. Hoye, Dr. P. L. Scuatrer, Mr. ADAM
Sepewick, Dr. D. Sarr, Mr. C. D. SHERBorn, Rev. T. R. R.
STEBBING, Professor W. F. R. WELDON, and Mr. F. A. BaTHER
(Secretary).
In consequence of the International Conference on scientific bibliography
convened by the Royal Society, and held from July 14 to 17, your Com-
mittee has deferred expressing any opinion with regard to questions
of —oe co-operation or the use of any system of numerical
notation.
With a view of obtaining a body of opinion to guide it in its decision,
your Committee is circulating among various experts, both British and
foreign, not included in the Committee, the following questions :—
(A) The first questions to be decided are those of Publication, since a
bibhography cannot be compiled till it is settled what is to be included.
(1) What constitutes publication? It is suggested that private pre-
sentation by the author is not publication, but that the work must be
obtainable by any individual through ordinary trade channels. An
exception must be made in the case of reports and bulletins issued by
public bodies gratis to all bona fide applicants, since some of these are not
allowed to be sold.
(2) What is the date of publication? If private presentation be dis-
regarded, as suggested, then the date of private distribution of an author’s
separate copies cannot be accepted ; neither can we accept the date of the
reading of a paper before a learned society, or even that of the issue of
an abstract thereof to the fellows of such society.
(3) As a corollary to the above, it was recognised at the meeting on
May 7, that the isswe of authors’ separate copies before the issue of the
complete volume leads to confusion. Various reasons, however, seem to
render this practice a common one, and it is desirable that some remedy
should be found. It would be possible either to issue each paper or
memoir as soon as printed, with separate pagination and in a separate
wrapper, as done by the Royal Society and the Swedish Royal Academy
of Science ; or to issue the volumes sheet by sheet, as matter might come
to hand and be printed. On this any suggestions would be very welcome.
(4) Is it advisable to limit the recognition of publication (a) 1m manner,
or (b) in matter? (a) Zoologists have generally refused to accept names
of species appearing in the daily press, accompanied by descriptions pos-
sibly sent by telegraph ; but where are we to draw the line between the
popular newspaper or magazine, and, say, the Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society ? It is a serious matter to restrict publication, yet
the modern increase of mushroom magazines suggests the desirability of
legislation in this direction. Again, are we to recognise new names pub-
lished in an unsigned footnote to a report on a public discussion on. a
totally distinct subject ? Here, again, where is the line to be drawn ?
Is a name appearing in the explanation to a plate and not in the text to
be accepted? (b) Can any restriction be placed on language? Russian
and Czech are recognised ; what about Japanese? Is it advisable to
ON ZOOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY AND PUBLICATION. 491
ignore certain authors who refuse to comply with the recognised usages
of zoologists, ¢.g., by brazenly misdating their publications or by persistent
ignoring of the work of others ?
(B) The following questions arise in connection with Bibliography :—
(1) What limits should be set to bibliography? The aim is to bring to
the workers on any one subject information as to all works published on
that subject. Bibliography is limited (a) in degree, (b) in kind). (a) There
are limits to the minuteness of subdivision: is the minute system of
slips (such as a slip for every mention of each species), proposed by the Royal
Society, feasible or desirable? (6) Bibliography being a ‘description of
writings,’ it does not include criticism or interpretation other than may
be needed to explain obscurities. How far should criticism enter into
bibliography ?
(2) What means can be adopted for producing co-operation between the
various bibliographers? Two means have lately come into prominence :
(a) the International Bureau at Zurich ; (6) the Dewey Decimal System
of Classification. (a) The International Bureau has suffered at the in-
ception of its work through the serious illness of Dr. H. H. Field, so that
the results can hardly be criticised as yet. (b) The Dewey Decimal Classifi-
cation has recently been explained for English readers by Mr, W. E. Hoyle
in ‘ Natural Science,’ vol. ix. pp. 43-48, July, 1896. Both of these means
will necessarily be discussed by the International Congress on Scientific
Bibliography, and the Zurich Bureau would doubtless be absorbed in any
ultimate scheme. Any suggestions for the improvement of ‘the Royal
Society schemes, so far as they refer to zoology and paleontology, will
be welcomed by the present Committee.
(3) Is it advisable that authors and editors should co-operate with
bibliographers in the ways that have recently been suggested, viz. : (a) by
construction of catalogue or index slips; (b) by heading articles with
their decimal number? Examples of catalogue slips may be seen in recent
issues of the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and the Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science, while the decimal number has been employed in
the Revue Scientifique, Bulletin de VAssociation pour lAvancement des
Sciences, Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de Paris, Zoologischer Anzeiger,
Natural Science, &e.
It is proposed to sift opinions obtained on these points, and to report
on them on a future occasion.
' Your Committee has also ventured to utilise its existence in sending
out the following circular to the editors of all publications connected with
zoology :—
Dear S1r,—I am desired by the Committee of the British Association
on Zoological Bibliography and Publication to draw your attention to the
following statement :—
It is the general opinion of scientific workers, with which the Com-
mittee cordially agrees :
(1) That each part of a serial publication should have the date of
actual publication, as near as may be, printed on the wrapper, and, when
possible, on the last sheet sent to press.
(2) That authors’ separate copies should be issued with the original
pagination and plate-numbers clearly indicated on each page and plate,
and with a reference to the original place of publication.
492 REPORT—1896.
(3) That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately
before the paper has been published in the regular manner.
The Committee, however, observes that these customs are by no means
universal, and constant complaints are made that one or other of them is
not put into force. In case the Publication or Society with which you
are connected does not comply with these desiderata, the Committee ven-
tures to ask whether it would not be possible for it so to comply in future.
Should you, however, have any good reasons against the adoption of these
suggestions, the Committee would be much obliged if you would kindly
inform it of your reasons, in order that it may be guided in its future
action.
The Committee further begs to ask for your co-operation in the follow-
ing matter. There are certain rules of conduct upon which the best
workers are agreed, but which it is impossible to enforce, and to which it
is dificult to convert the mass of writers. These are :—
(4) That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title,
while keeping the title as concise as possible.
(5) That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when
possible.
(6) That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes or
anonymous paragraphs.
(7) That references to previous publications should be made fully and
correctly, if possible, in accordance with one of the recognised sets of
rules for quotation, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological
Society.
The Committee ventures to point out that these and similar matters
are wholly within the control of editors (rédaction) and publishing com-
mittees, and any assistance which you can lend in putting them into effect
will be valued, not merely by the Committee, but, we feel sure, by zoolo-
gists in general.
The answers received to this circular will, it is hoped, enable your
Committee to make further suggestions upon certain practical points.
Your Committee desires that the following unanimous resolution should
be conveyed to the Committee of Recommendations : ‘Considering how
important to zoologists is the speedy completion of the Index Generum et
Speceerum Animaliwm, now being compiled by Mr. Charles Davies Sher-
born under another Committee of this Association, the present Committee
begs to urge upon the Association the advisability of extending to this
Index substantial pecuniary support.’
Finally, your Committee ventures to recommend its re-appointment,
with a grant of 5/. towards the expenses of printing and posting circulars.
The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Sixth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. Newton (Chairman),
Dr. W. T. BLanrorD, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Professor C. V.
Ritey, Mr. O. Sarvin, Dr. P. L. ScLaTer, Mr. E. A. Smita,
and Mr. D. Suarp (Secretary).
THE Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re-
appointed. Since it reported to the Association last year, Mr. R. C. L.
Perkins has been continuing his work of exploration, and has revisited
ON THE ZOOLOGY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 493
the islands of Molokai, Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai in order to fill up cer-
tain gaps in previous work. Papers resulting from the Committee’s
work have been published—on Orthoptera by Herr Brunner von
Wattenwyl (P.Z.S., 1895), on Slugs by Mr. W. H, Collinge (P. Malaco-
logical Soc., 1896), and on Earthworms by Mr. F. E. Beddard (P.ZS.,
1896). The arrangement with the trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop
Museum in Honolulu, alluded to in the last report, has been
ratified, and the Committee is consequently not in need of funds at
present. Immediately after its last reappointment, the Committee lost
one of its members, Professor C. V. Riley, through his decease conse-
quent on a lamentable accident. It again applies for reappointment and
the sanction of the Association for having availed itself of the offer of the
trustees previously mentioned. This was asked for last year, and no
doubt it was intended that it should be granted ; but by some inad-
vertence the power actually given was only ‘to avail themselves of such
assistance in their investigations as may be offered by the Hawaiian
Government.’ No assistance of any importance has been rendered by the
Hawaiian Government.
Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.—Ninth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScuaTer (Chairman), Mr.
GrorGE Murray (Secretary), Mr. W. Carruruers, Dr. A. C. L.
Gtnruer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. Du Cane Gopman, Professor A.
Newton, and Sir GeorcE F. Hampson, Bart., on the Present
State of owr Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, and on taking Steps to investigate ascertained
Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora.
Tus Committee was appointed in 1887, and has been reappointed each
year until the present time, Sir G. Hampson having been added to it
during the present year.
The Committee has continued the working out of the collections, and
since the last report the following papers have been published :—
1. Lichenes Antillarum a. W. R. Elliott collecti, A. Wainio (Journal
of Botany, 1896).
2. The Non-Marine Mollusca of St. Vincent, Grenada, and other
neighbouring islands, by E. A. Smith (Proceedings Malacological Society,
vol. i. part 7).
3. Report on the Parasitic Hymenoptera of the island of Grenada,
comprising the families Cynipide, Ichneumonide, Braconide, and Procto-
trypide, by W. H. Ashmead (Proceedings Zoological Society, London
1895).
L On the Geometride, Pyralidee, and allied families of Heterocera of
the Lesser Antilles, by G. F. Hampson (Annals of Natural History, xvi.,
1895).
5, Observations on some new Buprestide from the West Indies, by
C. O. Waterhouse (Annals of Natural History, xviii., 1896).
The Committee has other papers in hand which it hopes to publish
shortly, two being, indeed, already in type ; one by W. Dollfus, on Isopod
Crustacea ; the other by Professor Williston on Diptera. The latter is to
494, “ REPORT—1896.
be produced with the assistance of a donation from the Council of the
Royal Society.
During the year further collections of Cellular Cryptogams have been
received from Mr. Elliott, and their working out has been undertaken—
the Musci by Mr. Gepp, the Hepatice by Dr. Stephani, the Lichenes by
M. Wainio, and the Fungi by Miss Smith.
The Committee recommends its reappointment, and applies for a grant
of 50/. to aid it in the working out of the collections already made
The Committee to be constituted as at present.
The Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. J. MackINDER,
(Chairman), Mr. A. J. Hersertson (Secretary), Mr. J. Scorr
Kevtig, Dr. H. R. Mitt, Mr. E. G. Ravenstem, and Mr, Eur
SOWERBUTTS.
No account of the position of geography in our educational system can be
adequate which is not based on a comparison with Mr. Scott Keltie’s well-
known and admirable report on Geographical Education prepared for the
Royal Geographical Society twelve years ago.! It is the best account we
possess of the position of geography at that time, not only in our own, but
also in other countries.
Since it was published several changes for the better have to be
chronicled, but unfortunately much of the criticism of the comparative
neglect of geography in the schools and colleges of the nation that should
foster it most remains only too true. Changes have occurred abroad as
well as at home, and the Committee deem it advisable to compare the
advances made in other lands with our own progress in recent years.
The best way to do this would be to make personal inspections similar
to those made by Mr. Keltie ; but as the Committee have no funds at
their disposal, it has been necessary to carry on their work mainly by
correspondence. Information as to the position of geography has been
sought and obtained from educational authorities all over the country, and
from those of other lands, and the Committee desire to acknowledge their
indebtedness to many correspondents.
In the case of secondary schools, the Committee have had the benefit
of the inquiries carried on by the Geographical Association, whose object
is to improve the position of geography in such schools. The Committee
would draw attention to the memorial prepared by this Association, as a
result of their investigation. This memorial has been sent to the principal
examining bodies in the kingdom.
The Committee would also emphasize the need for immediate improve-
ment in the training of teachers in geography, and the increase and exten-
sion of geographical work in the Universities, as recommended by the
International Geographical Congress last year.
The Committee consider it better to postpone the presentation of their
extended report to the Association until next year, as all the documents
necessary for a complete report have not yet come to hand. Accordingly
they ask that they may be reappointed.
1 Roy. Geog. Soc. Supp. Papers, vol. i. Part IV. 1885,
a i.
ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 495
The Climatology of Africa.—Fifth Report of a Committee, consisting
of Mr. E. G. RavENsTEIN (Chairman), Sir JonN Kirk, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Dr. H. R. Mitt, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Chairman.)
METEOROLOGICAL journals have been received in the course of last year
from eighteen places in Tropical Africa.
Niger Territories—We have a register from Captain Gallwey’s old
station (Warri), as also from a new station (Sapele), opened last year,
about thirty miles to the north-west of the former. In nextyear’s report we
hope to be able to publish abstracts of important observations made by
officials of the Royal Niger Company, which Sir George Taubman-Goldie
has promised to communicate.
Congo.—The Rey. R. Glennie, the oldest and most constant corre-
spondent of your Committee, has forwarded another year’s register for
Bolobo. No information has been received from the Gaboon. A set of
instruments, with full instructions, has been furnished, on payment, to
the Rev. Phillips Verner, who left for the Kasai in November last.
Nyasaland.—The only record received is one by Commander C. Hope
Robertson, communicated by Mr. Robert H. Scott, the Secretary of the
Meteorological Council; but we understand that Mr. Moir, who has been
entrusted with a complete set of instruments, intends to read a paper
on the Meteorology of Nyasaland at the Liverpool meeting of the
Association. Sir Harry Johnston, who is at present in England, takes
much interest in the work of your Committee, and there is some hope of
organising a carefully considered scheme for meteorological work through-
out the Protectorate so ably administered by him.
British East Africa.—Observations have been received from thirteen
stations. Unfortunately, owing to the disturbed state of the country and
to administrative changes, some of the registers are imperfect. The
Foreign Office has met the wishes of your Committee in the most gratifying
manner. Instructions have been given by Mr. Hardinge, Her Majesty’s
Commissioner, to have meteorological returns kept, and these will be sent
to us for publication.
Three sets of instruments (including barometers and anemometers)
have been forwarded by the Foreign Office to Uganda, and since the
beginning of this year observations on the water-level of the Victoria
Nyanza are being made by means of gauges erected at Port Alice and
Port Victoria.
Transvaal._An old series of observations made by Mr. W. H. Jessop
on the Lataba River have been communicated by Dr. H. R. Mill, and
further communications of the same class are very desirable.
The abstracts for Bolobo, Warri, Sapele, and Lataba River, which
accompany this report were made by the Secretary, and those for the
remaining stations by the Chairman of your Committee. The barometer
readings, unless stated otherwise, have been reduced to 32° and corrected
for gravity, but no attempt has been made to reduce them to the sea-
level. This can only be done after the altitude of the stations shall have
been determined by spirit-levelling, and with the extension of railway
surveys this information is likely to be forthcoming at an early date.
Your Committee have expended the 10/. granted. They beg to pro-
pose that they be reappointed, and that a grant be made of 20/,
1896.
REPORT.
496
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500 REPORT— 1896.
Mombasa. Lat. 4° 4’ S., Long. 39° 42’ #., 60 feet. Observer: J. J. W. Pigott.
Pres-| Tempera- Mean Temperatures & Humidity Rain
sure tures: a = e
1895 of Extremes ma |e EI a=) cia ee
Atmo-|———____| Dry | Wet | Mean | Mean M 2) 238 qe 5 Pl eS
sphere High- | Low- |94.M.|94.M.| Max.| Min. |") “a | @ 2 |OU™) g 1A | Sm
9A.M.| est est A|Pa < ise
In, = Bi 5 a iS a a o |iInch | p.c. | Inch Inch
January . |29°818) 85°0 | 75:4 | 80:0 | 76-7 | 82-4 | 767 | 80°0 | 5 7 881] 86 ‘01 1 “O01
February . *824| 85°2 | 75°5 | &1°6 | 76°6 | 83:7 | 77°8 | 80°8 | 59 859) 79 "34 3 27
March *787 | 89:1 | 78:0 | 83:7 | 780 | 86:4 | 79°6 | 83:0 | 68 895| 78 3°05 7 | 1:35
April 5 *820| 88:0 | 76°38 | 82:0 | 77°5 8671 | 78:8 | 82-4 | 7:3 892} 82 3°47 | J1 “91
May. 5 *898| 85°6 | 74:0 | 78°83 | 74:9 | 83:2 | 76°3 | 79°7 | 7:9 831) 85 9999 | 19 | 2°29:
June rn "985 | 84-2 | 73°0 | 77:5 | 72°9 | 82-1 | 749 | 785 | 7:2 756| 80 144] 4 ‘70
July . é “991 | 83°0 | 71:0 | 76:8 | 72°0 | 80°7 | 73°7 | 77:2 | 7-0 730} 79 1:33 9 “42
August . "954 | 88°0 | 72°5 | 775 | 71°98 | 813 | 74:1 | 777 | 7:2 719| 78 *68 3 47
September *972| 83°5 | 71°2 | 78:2 | 73°1 | 816 | 74°8 | 787 | 6:8 757) 79 6°21 9 | 1°86
October . *899| 83:2 | 74:0 | 79:9 | 74°6 | 82:3 | 76°3 | 79:3 | 6-0] -797| 78 3°04 3 | 2-06
November *875 | 85:0 | 74°0 | 8L°1 | 75°8 | 83°6 | 77-1 | 80°3 | 6°5| +832] 78 3°37 | 10 | 1:03
December *816| 86:2 | 751 | 81-4 | 76°1 | 841 | 77-0 | 80°5 | 71] +841] 79 1:42 6 °36 |
Year. . |29°888| 89°1 | 71:2 | 79°9 | 75°0 | 83:1 | 764 | 79°8 66} °816] 80 | 3435 | 86 | 2:22
The barometrical observations have been reduced to 32° and corrected for gravity, but have not been
reduced to sea-level.
The mean temperature is assumed to be the mean of all max. and min., and is therefore too high.
Machako’s (Ukamba). Lat. 1° 31' 8., Long. 37° 18’ #., 5,400 feet. Observers:
R. W. Lane, T. T. Githison, and John Ainsworth.
|
ar area Humidity Rain |
|
1895 popes Ss |
| | £ pa ey bE Stl) agen The rains generally end in May,
Dry | Wet 22 eee] 3 As Ba | een gh es | and the amount recorded for
eo} oS \¢2%| S | = | April is exceptionally heavy. No
cz 5B | 8H |g%o s :
A] Ar | a qe foa| entries were made for January ;
ae z | perhaps no rain fell. (January,
5 i In. | pe. | In. | In. In, | 1894, 0°75 in. on three days.) ;
January .| 68:1 | 58:7 | -409 | 60 = = = 3 Prevailing Winds.—May, S.E. ;
February . | 67:3 | 624 | 519 | 78 | 385 | 319] 11 | 152 | June 1-7,8.W.; June 7-30, 8.
March... | 66°3 _| 62°9 | ‘542 84 |1013 | 7°86 19 1°95
April - | 665 | 63:0 | 543 83 | 12°38 | 1068 28 259
May. - |-65°7 | 62:7 | 541 86 210 | ‘72 7 “89
June. - | 615 | 588 | -470 86 cia) 75 4 34
Fort Smith (Kikuyu). Lat. 1° 14' S., Long. 36° 44'E., 6,400 feet. Observers :
F. G. Hall (Jan. to Feb.), B. Russell (March to May), 7. T. Gilkison (June to Oct.)
eo Mean Temperatures Variableness | Humidity Rain
1894-5 | 2 | 2 y E ta] 8 ae |e
2 | 2 | Dry | Wet | Mean! Mean |, Mean| Ex- | 23 | Ws 3 mb | 28
=| 2 |94'u.l9 a.m. | Max.| Min. |?" Range treme| 28 | G3 2/A | set
Hix be ale A a it
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° In p.c. In In
Nov. 1894. | — | — |[59°0}} — _ _ 61:3 1:27 | 45 = = 6°68 | c. 24} 2°13
December. | — | — |[60°0]} — _ — | 62°5 1°34 | 35 — = 9°32 16 1°67
Jan. 1895. | 78 | 50 | 67-4 | 585 | 74:3 | 53:5 | 63:9 1:79 | 5:0 “408 61 “00 0 _
February . | 75 | 51 | 63°5 | 60°8 | 716 | 55:1 | 63:4 | 1:32] 4:0 “506 | 86 7°43 13 | 2°13
March .| 74 | 52 | 62°8 | 60°71 | 79°9 | 55:1 | 67°5 117 | 25 “494 87 | 10°46 16 2715
April . | 76 | 54 | 636 | 62:1 | 73°6 | 566 | 65-1 133 | 40 543 93 | 16°33 22 2°75
May. . | 74] 52 | 637 | 618 | 73-1 | 568 | 649 | 1:24] 45 “BA 91 678 16 156
June. .| 74 | 52 | 598 | 58-4 | 693 | 55-1 | 62-2 | 1:35 | 2:0 | -475] 92 | 368] 9 | *91
July. .| 76 | 47 | 59-4 | 57-1 | 715 | 52:0 | 618 | 1:27] 4:0 | -445] 88 | 00] 0 | —
August .| 75 | 49 | 585 | 56-9 | 69:8 | 52-4 | 611 | 1:30] 4:0 | -448°} 91-| -65] 6 | -35
September | 78 | 50 | 62°6 | 585 | 735 | B31 | 63:3 1°86 | 3:5 452 80 2°43 10 “49
October . | 82} 50 | 65°0 | 59:7 | 77:8 | 53°8 | 65°83 | 1:50 | 6:0 “463 75 173 8 64
Year. . | 82 | 50 | 62°1 _ _ — | 636 1°40 | 5:0 _ 84 | 65°49 | 140 | 2°75
The following instruments were in use during 1896: Dry-bulb thermometer, B.T. 4634; wet-bulb
B.T. 4635 ; max. thermometer, M.O. 1354 ; min. thermometer, M.O. 1460.
The Mean Temperature assumed = 4(max.+min.) is too high, Annual range, 5°02 ; daily range, 19°°3.
Variableness (difference mean temperature from day to day) : Mean 1°40, extreme 5°.
Rain.—Only 10 thunderstorms are noted: 2 in February,1in March, 6 in April, 1 in May. On
February 11 a heavy hailstorm, when 0°71 inch fell in less than half an hour,
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502
REPORT—1896.
Magarini (Malindi Shambas), Lat. 3° 13’
N.W. of Malindi.
Observer: James Weaver.
Rainfall in British Last Africa, 1895.
| |
Stations — reales lle el ele|slele] e Sie
= > ce = = ear
Beal ee ea Ser ie |3 g\o| 4 a
Takaungu (3° 41’ §.,39° | Inch | -00] -08| 511 |4-56| 12°52 [1-01 “98 | +95 '5-17 |1:08| 3:91 | -34) 35-71
52! ~E.). . Observer: Days 0} 2 8 7 15 3 Lethe 5 9 2 68
K. MacDougall. Heaviest | |
fall | — | -05| 3:30 [1:37| 2°67 | -43| -98 -45| -94| -40| 1°53 | -27| 3°30
- | | bade 2 | |
Inch | — ]1: E \ ‘91 | = 10 11-00 | |) Se 2}
Kulesa, Tana River (2° Days | — ‘ * a 2 de es ae nd es, | a ees
TOUS S021 SEnyS 8 Ol naeatact Prat
fall | — | 50] -95: |1:63| 1-40 | -10|1:20) 69; —} —}| — |—] —
. . | | [Ete |
Kibwezi (2° 25/ S., 37° | Inch | -06|1:72| 5-80 6-99} 32 | -00| -00/ -01| -17| +14] 11-76 |6-14| 33-11
55’ E., 3,000 ft.). Ob- | Days | 2 |[11]| [18] }13] 6 0. | 0) | sTsslesiio atom eer cmd
server: Rey. T.Watson, | Heaviest
E.A.S.M. fall | -04|-95| :99 |212] -16 | -00| -00/ -01| -14/ 09] 2°68 |1:76| 2:68
{ 4 ‘
Mbungu (3° 46’ S., 39° | Inch | -00/1-09| 4:17 {4-03| 3:31 | }—| —
30’E.). Observer: Rev. | Days | 0 | 2 | [10] | 7] 1 —j|—| ee ae
J. Hofmann. Heaviest | |
fall | ==") -90!)! 1°09!"13290)) ead | ce ea ee Pe
Lamu, 2° 16’ §., 40° 54" EB. Observer: | Kisimayu, 0° 22! S., 42° 33'E.
Donald MacLennan. Observer: C.H. Craufurd.
Mean Temp.| jTumidity Rain Rain
et Mean
1895 am 1 1895 Temp “Sant
Vapour} Rel. .| Heavi- 9 AM. _.| Heavi-
Dry || Wet Pressure} Hum. enous) Days est Fall jason Days est Fall
Ls | >. | imch Inch
e eS Inch | p.c. | Inch Inch |} Jan. . «| 81°0 | “00 0 =
meh eer ee F: 3 | Feb. . | 821 “00 0 =
Jan. | 840 | 77-4 | -s66 74 00 0 a Choi cieoael @ aie a eee
: | April . | 847 | 62 6 “36
April | 847 | 787 | -913 17 3:93 5 | 1:55, || May . | 821 | 4:88 11 | 3:33
/ | June . oh Meas Pe = ee |
Ma 4 . - . | July »| TT | 1°55 Buen
VY | 813 | 789 | -960 | 90 | 1346 | 16 | 285 liane... ll 7e7 | es 6 aa
Sept. -com teh 796: |) 08 2 02
June | 79:3 | 76-4 | -876 88 1:97 g | -bl | Oct. . | 81:0 | 00 Oo}; —
| | |
S., Long. 40° 7’ #., 8 Miles
1895
January .
February .
March
May *
|
Temperature : Mean Temperature Rain
Extremes ' ae!
. Heaviest
| Highest| Lowest Max. Min. Mean rome Days Tall
| — =
s ° 2 2 ) Tneh Inch
93 67 91°3 703 80°8 “00 0 “00
93 68 91°4 69'8 80°6 ‘ll BY a
96 68 92:8 69:8 SIS eon 9 2-01
-= _ — _ 776 18 2°21
* Violent earth tremors were experienced between May 15 and 23.
E
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 503 ”
The Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure on the Tides. —Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor L. F'. VERNon Harcourt,
Professor Unwin, Mr. G. F. Deacon, and Mr. W. H. WHEELER
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Arrer the appointment of the Committee at the Meeting at Ipswich ,
a copy of the paper on the Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure, read
at the meeting at Ipswich, was sent to the authorities of all the principal
ports in the Kingdom ; and also through the Foreign Office to the Hydro-
graphic Departments of the principal maritime ports abroad. The paper
was accompanied by a letter asking on behalf of the Committee for |
any information as to the records of tides affected by gales or in any way
bearing on the subject dealt with in the paper, and a form showing the
information required.
To these communications a large number of replies were received
expressing the willingness of the senders to co-operate in the inquiry as
far as possible. In the great majority of cases, however, the records of
the tides at the ports and of the meteorological conditions were not kept
in such a manner as to be useful in affording the information required.
Five ports were selected as fairly representing the tidal conditions
round the English coast. The tidal records of these ports were freely
placed at the disposal of the Committee : those at Liverpool for the tides
by Mr. M. A. Sweney, R.N., the Marine Surveyor, and for the barometer
and wind by Mr. W. E. Plummer, of the Bidston Observatory, with the
consent of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board ; those for Sheerness
and Portsmouth by Admiral Wharton, Hydrographer of the Admiralty ;
and those at Hull by Mr. E. Lake, the Manager of the Hull Docks of the
North-Eastern Railway Company. Those for Boston are from the register
of tides kept by Captain Hudson, the Harbour Master.
Mr. Deas, on behalf of the Clyde Navigation Trustees, furnished
diagrams and particulars of the principal gales which occurred on the
Clyde during the last few years.
The Government of India, through the Secretary of State for India,
offered to place at the disposal of the Committee the records of the tides -
observed at the several ports, and also forwarded a copy of the Handbook
of Cyclonic Storms in the Bay of Bengal. The time available has rendered
it impossible as yet to make use of this information.
The Norwegian Government forwarded for the use of the Committee
five volumes containing tables relating to tidal and meteorological
conditions on the coasts of Norway. These volumes contain a large
amount of valuable information, but there has not been time as yet to
make use of them.
Copies of the Reports for 1894, 1895, 1896, prepared for the Canadian
Government, on the ‘ Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters,’ have also
been sent by Mr. W. Bell Dawson, C.E., the Engineer in charge of the
Tidal Survey. '
A copy of ‘De Ingenieur’ of September 26, 1891, published at the
Hague, containing an article by M. E. Engelenberg, C.E., on the ‘ Influence *
of the Wind both in Direction and Pressure upon the Sea Level,’ was sent
for the purpose of assisting in this investigation by M. Ortt, of the He
504 REPORT—1896.
This article has been translated into English. It contains valuable
information and statistics bearing on this subject.
The analysis of the Tidal Records of the ports of Liverpool, Ports-
mouth, Sheerness, Boston, and Hull has occupied all the time available.
Had more opportunity been afforded it was intended to extend the investi-
gation over a greater number of years.
In considering the report it must be borne in mind that the object of
the investigation was only for the practical purpose of ascertaining
whether the records of the wind and atmospheric pressure as obtained by
an observer at any particular port afforded a reliable guide to pilots and
mariners navigating vessels over bars and up the channels of tidal rivers,
and to those engaged in coast work, as to the variations to be expected in
the height of the tides from those ascertained by calculation and given in
the Admiralty or local tables.
The deductions to be drawn from a careful examination of the
information embodied in the following tables are—
1. That the tides are influenced both by atmospheric pressure and by
the wind to an extent which considerably affects their height.
2. That the height of about one-fourth of the tides is affected by wind.
3. That the atmospheric pressure affecting the tides operates over so
wide an area that the local indications given by the barometer at any
particular port do not afford any reliable guide as to the effect on the tide
at that port.
4. Thatalthough, so far as average results go, there can be traced a direct
connection between the force and direction of the wind, and the variation
in the height of the tides, yet that there is so much discrepancy in the
average results when applied to individual tides that no reliable formula
can be established for indicating the amount of variation in the height of
the tide due to any given force of wind.
5. The results given in the tables relating to atmospheric pressure
indicate that the effect of this is greater than has generally been allowed,
a variation of half an inch from the average pressure causing a variation
of 15 inches in the height of the tides.
It has sometimes been stated that an abnormally high tide is fol-
lowed by a correspondingly low ebb. The investigations of the Dutch
Engineers on the coast of Holland indicate that the effect of gales on the
tides is to raise both the low and high water level.
The accompanying diagrams of the tides of December 1895 at
Flushing, sent by M. Ortt, and of the corresponding tides on the Clyde,
sent by Mr. James Deas, show that on this occasion the result of the gale
was to raise the mean level of the sea at those places during the gale.
Atmospheric Pressure and the Tides.
The variation in the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the
sea must exercise a considerable effect on the tides. It is, however, very
doubtful whether any reliable forecast of the effect can be deduced from
the readings of the barometer at any one station. Water being practically
incompressible, the variation of pressure on the whole surface of a basin
filled with water, to which there is no outlet, cannot have any effect in
raising or lowering the surface. If, however, the pressure is high over
one part of the basin and low on the other part, a variation in the height
of the water in one part, as compared with the other, will take place.
505
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES.
DIAGRAM 1.
Paik OM/IHSNTS
=" ee ee ee A Sgt oo a te See + or ed Ce a oa ee ae ~~ == ae ---- yD
Be Ne) Mn Og Sg) ee Ae GRR —
\ S82 Ag “N
: 6 fete pan
ANA AA
=
2PM oll nO ae ae hk 9 ws
== atop OPO
ae, Lee.
ae
WY
GA BLhL CPE JO WL VOY
506 REPORT—1896.
DIAGRAM 2,
Zoe FH G& TRDC$
Bila
oS
Mean hig fee ee.
Lad i f Ss 8
oe A as
SBS SER
= w eS
Pd & ee R S
S| 5 mw!
nee Sea aS er
x
S| :
y N Ae
‘ie
“Aearus lo eter 2.5 2h 2a, WS, seat Se Bae
Fixe low War NTE Stacia Vie wie beats
GLASCOW
An instance of this is afforded by the effect of the great anticyclone
which occurred over the South of Europe in 1882, when the level of the
water of the Mediterranean at Antibes was lowered a foot, owing to the
exceptionally high pressure, the surface of several inland lakes being
lowered at the same time. It is stated by Mr. Bell Dawson, C.E., in his
‘Report of the Survey of the Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters,
1894,’ that a difference of barometric pressure tends to produce a flow
from the higher towards the lower pressure, and that ‘in the land-locked
area of the Gulf of St. Lawrence he found that the atmospheric pressure
influenced the flow of the water through the narrow inlets of that gulf,
and that in the Gulf of Mexico, with a high barometer over the area of
the gulf, and a lower pressure over the ocean outside, the speed of the
Gulf Stream is appreciably affected.’
The effect of atmospheric pressure in raising and lowering the tides
was investigated by Sir J. W. Lubbock and communicated to the Royal
Society, the general conclusion he arrived at being that a rise of one inch
in the barometer caused a depression in the height of the tides in the
Thames of 7 inches, in the Mersey of 11 inches, and in the Avon of
135 inches. The paper on the subject does not, however, give any
adequate information as to the elimination of the effect of the wind from
the calculations on which these figures are based.
Admiral Wharton, the Hydrographer of the Admiralty, in his address
to the Geographical Section at Oxford in 1894, stated that a difference of
one inch in the barometer has been shown to be followed by a difference
of one foot in the mean level of the sea, and that in those parts of the
world where the mean height of the barometer varies much with the
seasons, and the tidal range is small, this effect is very marked.
This subject was brought before the Meteorological Society in 1886, and
the Shipmasters’ Society in 1894, in papers read by Captain Greenwood,
a
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 507
of Glasson Dock. The results deduced were based on observations
made over a lengthened period of the atmospheric gradients in the Irish
Sea from the south of St. George’s Channel to Morecambe Bay. The
mean gradient over this distance—over 240 miles—he found to be
0-043 in., the mercury standing higher to that amount in the south.
He also states that no storm of serious extent prevails over the United
Kingdom, unless there be a difference of pressure between any two
stations of the Meteorological Department exceeding } in., and that the
force of wind on the Beaufort scale does not exceed from five to six,
unless the gradient is as high as 0-02 in fifteen miles. On the data
obtained, Captain Greenwood prepared a table for use on that part of the
coast, showing the effect of the difference of the gradient on the tides.
This table is given in the ‘Kludometric’ Tide Table published by him
annually.
From an analysis of the tides at five ports round the coast, given in
the following tables, it will be seen that, taking all tides raised or lowered
more than six inches from the calculated height, when the wind was
blowing with a force less than three of the Beaufort scale, coincident with
a variation in atmospheric pressure of 0°25 inch from the average,
the number of tides affected by the pressure, as recorded by the barometer
reading at local stations in a manner that would naturally be expected,
was nearly equal to those affected in a contrary direction, 56 per cent.
being depressed when the pressure was above the average, or raised when
it was below, and 44 per cent. being influenced in the opposite direction.
These results indicate that the reading of the barometer at a single
port is not a reliable guide as to the effect of pressure in raising or
lowering the height of the tide, and that no reliable data as to the effect
of atmospheric pressure on the tides can be arrived at, except by simul-
taneous observations of the barometer, the wind, and the tides over
extended areas of both land and sea.
BAROMETER AND THE TIDES.
Boston—Average of the Four Years 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895.
Average M ._ |Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia-
number of Tide” tion of mum tion of
— Tides ° , Bale Tide from | varia- | Barometer
affected in LWst predicted | tionof | from
one year oY paces aad height Tides average
1891. Ft. In. In. Tn.
| High Bar.—Low Tides . | 48 18°51 10°72 bys) 367
mone? |,,)) Eigh’ .,, 17 19°54 9:90 20 439
Total and Means 65 19:02 9°81 — | 403
High Bar.—High Tides . 32 20°60 9°69 29 B76
Low , Low ,, 13 18°14 10°59 27 “B99
¥ | rs
Total and Means A 45 19°37 10:13 — “B87
1892.
High Bar.—Low Tides 45 18°60 9:62 — 371
Low , High ,, 15 19-00 8°66 = 466
Total and Means 60 18:80 9:14 —_ “418
a 8 EE
508
BAROMETER AND THE TIDES (Boston, 1892)—continwed.
REPORT—1896.
Average M ._. |Mean varia-| Maxi- | ean varia-
number of tT ane tion of mum tion of
— Tides c b 1g Tide from | varia- | Barometer
affected in LWST predicted | tion of from
one year aris height Tides average
Ft. In. In. In.
High Bar.—High Tides. 22 20°60 791 — “BT4
TOW 350M ees 21 18-00 11:57 — 409
Total and Means 43 19°30 9-74 — “291
1893.
High Bar.—Low Tides . 68 18°84 10°78 —- “B34
Low,..255.) viligh)) s; 23 19°87 10:87 —- “407
Total and Means 91 19°35 11°32 — 371
High Bar.—High Tides . 42 20°73 9°26 — Hale
Low Slow’ *:; 13 19°80 11°67 ~- 384
‘Totaland Means . 55 20°27 10°46 —_ 351
1894.
High Bar.—Low Tides . 29 17-92 12°14 — “365
Thow') 4,,,.° ue" .; 19 18°94 10:10 — 340
Total and Means 48 18°43 11:12 — 352
-High Bar.—High Tides . 31 20:09 977 — *Bb9
how... ow. - % 5 16°28 8°60 — “316
Total and Means 36 16°14 9:18 — B37
1895.
High Bar.—Low Tides . 48 18°70 10:37 —- 336
Low , High ,, 12 20°32 10 00 — 545
Total and Means 60 19°50 10-18 25 || ae
High Bar.—High Tides . 33 21:07 11°82 — “381
Owe «45 5 OW Ay; * a 11 18°48 10°54 — “488
Total and Means, 437 44 19°75 11:18 — 434
Out of 437 tides affected in the four years, an average of 110 a year, 259,
or about 59 per cent., were lowered when the pressure of the atmosphere
was increased, or raised when it was decreased below the average ; and
178, or about 41 per cent., were influenced in the opposite direction.
The tidal observations for Boston are taken from the register kept by
the Harbour Master at Boston Dock. Theslight discrepancy between the
figures as given in the above table, and those in the paper read at Ipswich
Meeting, is due to the fact that a different method has been pursued in
separating the tides affected by the pressure from those affected by the
sind.
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 509
Hutt, 1895.
Average M : Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia-
number of “tide tion of mum tion of
_ Tides e h e Tide from varia- | Barometer
affected in fi WS. T predicted | tion of from
one year pgs omni height Tides average
Ft. In. In. In.
High Bar.—Low Tides 15 19°34 6°53 12 “388
Low ,, High ,, 25 19°76 10:00 24 329
40 19°55 8:26 — B58
High Bar.—High Tides . 43 19°60 9°32 20 365
Low ,, Low ,, y 5 18-06 6°20 12 394
48 18°83 776 -_— 379
The tidal observations are from the Register kept at the Albert Dock
of the North-Eastern Railway Company, the calculated height of the
tides being taken from the Admiralty Tide Tables, L.W.8.T. being taken
as 6°15 feet below Albert Dock sill.
SHEERNEsS, 1895.
Ae! é
Maxi- ,Mean varia-
Average M ._. |Mean varia-
number of f ti di SE tion of mum tion of
_ Tides ab age Tide from | varia- | Barometer
affected in LWST predicted | tion of from
one year ee height Tides average
Ft. In, In. In.
High Bar.—Low Tides — — _— Ne cat —
Low ,, High ,, 5 15°58 15:20 33 420
35 15°58 15°20 — 420
High Bar.—High Tides . 72 15°58 12°54 24 *332
Low ,, Low ,, 2 12°66 16:00 23 670
74 14:12 14:27 — 451
The tides, as recorded at Sheerness, appear to rise on an average
about 12 inches higher than the calculated height as given in the Admi-
ralty Tables.
Out of 686 times recorded in 1895, 702 were above the
height given, an average of 1:02 foot, and only 26 were below, an average
of 0°45 foot.
This to some extent affects the results given in this table.
510 REPORT—1896.
PortsmoutH, 1895.
Average M -_. |Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia-
number of < Tide tion of mom tion of
— Tides c b ice | Tide from | varia. | Barometer
affected in LWST predicted | tion of from
one year TE far height Tides average
Ft. In. ~~. ents
High Bar.—Low Tides . 53 11°85 11:26 | 21 “378
Low , High ,, ; 11 12°72 13:19 25) |) 389
64 12-28 12°22 =\ Shee see
High Bar.—High Tides . 8 11:06 9°25 LA fee 43,
Low ,, Low 5, , 3 9°55 13°33 14). |in-286
11 10°30 11:29 -—- B14
The tidal observations for Sheerness and Portsmouth are from the
register kept at the Royal Dockyards. The wind and barometer, not
being recorded at Sheerness, is taken from the daily Weather Reports
issued by the Meteorological Office.
LivERPOOL, 1893 anp 1894.
Average M ._. |Mean varia-| Maxi- |Mean varia-
number of eAL tion of mum tion of
= Tides ¢ b 10e Tide from | varia- | Barometer
affected in Lw. OT predicted | tion of from
one year bee ae height Tides verage
Ft. In. In. | In.
| 1893.
| High Bar.—Low Tides . 3 24-30 15-66 18> | mee
Lov nth) BH ssyovt-alre [37 25-49 19°58 78.) Aaa
oa rae ees ae ee" ’ £ =
40 24-89 17°62 — “aD
High Bar.— High Tides . 18 24-99 12:33 54 | 39
Low ,, TiOW ‘4.55 | = = = — no
—-— —|-
18 24-99 1233 "= 39° ||
1894. | |
High Bar.—Low Tides . 28 24°61 13°78 72 40 ||
Mowe; “Eich, 9.) 5 23°48 18-2 30 “38 |
33 24:04 15°94 — 39
|
High Bar.—High Tides . — — — -— —
Low ., Low ,, F — = — —_ as
The tidal observations are from the register of the Mersey Docks and
Harbour Board, and the barometer and wind from the observations
recorded at the Bidston Observatory. The tides selected are those which
i a eel
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES, 511
were 12 inches or more above the predicted heights as given in Holden’s
Tables, when the wind did not exceed a force of 3 on the Beaufort scale
(as reduced from the mean velocity), and the barometer was 0°25 inch above
or below the average.
Low water of spring tides is taken as 9 feet below the Old Dock sill.
Holden’s Tide Tables appear to give the predicted tides too low, 78 per
cent. of the tides being above those given in the Tide Tables, a mean of
1-04 foot, and only 22 per cent. below—a mean of 0°46 foot. This, to
a certain extent, affects the results obtained in the above table.
BAROMETER AND TIDES.
Summary.
| = : Mean varia-|Mean varia-
| N ped of aoe tion of tion of
| — K Tide from | Barometer
affected in above arated fi
one year | L.W.S.T. Le piehie er
height average
Ft. In. In.
High Bar.—Low Tides | Boston . 65 19-02 9°81 “403
Low Bar.—High Tides { Hull. 40 19°55 8°26 “358
- - Sheerness . 35 15°58 15°20 “420
- - Portsmouth 64 12:28 12:22.-") © “383
fe = Liverpool . 36 24°46 16°78 “445
240 18°17 1245 | -402
The average result is equal to a variation of 13
half an inch variation in the barometer.
inches of the tide for
Number of | Mean rise Secret cam ge Ea
sk, Tices of Vide | Tide from Baroilleter
affected in above védicted f
one year | L,W.S.T. 7 : om
eight average
Ft. Th. In.
High Bar.—Low Tides] Boston . 45 19°37 10°13 387
Low Bar.—High Tides f Hull. “ 48 18°83 7:76 379
7% PS Sheerness . 72 14:12 14:27 451
an a Portsmouth 11 10°30 11-29 “314
a _ Liverpool . 9 24°99 12°33 “390
185 17°52 11:15 B85
Average result equal to a variation of 15 inches of the tide for half an
inch of the barometer.
The above results show that out of an average of 425 tides recorded ina
_ year at five ports varying from the calculated height 6 inches and upwards,
coincident with a variation of 0-25 inch of atmospheric pressure in calm
weather, 240, or 56 per cent., were lowered when the pressure was above,
cor were raised when it was below the mean ; and 185, or about 44 per
cent., were influenced in the opposite direction.
512 REPORT—1896.
WIND AND TipES.—DIRECTION.
Boston, 1892-95.
Tide, Increase in
No. of | Mean | Maxi-| Height Inches
Wind Year Tides Force | mum | above {|__—
of Wind | Force Low Maxi-
Water | Mean mum
High Tides : Feet
North-east 2 1892 29 3°90 8 19°59 11:70 25
+ - 5 : 1893 21 3°62 6 20°75 12°70 26
. - 2 : 1894 31 | 3:80 6 19°34 12°61 23
im ~ * : 1895 17 5:18 6 19°65 10°94 25
North-west 3 4 1892 VStar STV ire 8 20:56 ‘| 19:40 41
rie eee nee er iictes 33. | 4:03 10 | 20-97 | 18-24 60
” > 1894 36 4:22 8 20°11 13°50 28
» ” 1895 41 4:20 8 20 04 18:40 75
Means . 2 = 56 4:18 — 20:12 14:67 _
South-east : F 1892 4 3°72 5 21:70 13:00 18
” ” 5 5 1893 14 4:00 10 19°75 13°85 32
” ” 1894 9 4°77 6 18:08 14°66 26
South-west | 1892 11 4:27 6 20°95 12°82 22
” ” 1894 26 4:50 8 20°16 13:18 29
” ” 1895 16 4:50 10 20:09 13°54 52
Means: see ss) 28 4:37 — |-20:00 | 12°55 =
Low Tides:
South east F : 1892 14 3°33 4 17:30 16°33 33
- : 9 16°42 14:14 27
7 18°75 14:27 25
” iy : : 8 18°45 14:30 18
South-west : - | 1892 61 416 10 18°53 12:14 34
: c 10 17-42 14°67 48
10 18°32 17°22 60
10
” ” : 1895 38 4:67 20°25 12°50 24
Means . : ; — 62 4:32 --- 18°18 14:32 =
North-east : . 1892 9 3°55 6 20°30 10°50 14
5 a : 1893 9 3°22 4 19°42 9°66 16
33 % 1894 4 3°33 4 18:11 10:00 12
” ”» 1895 8 3°75 5 18:47 16°25 35
North-west 1892 5 4:50 8 18°50 12°50 18
” ) 1893 20 5:00 10 19°66 15:70 42
” ” 1894 7 3:13 4 18°75 13°00 25
» ” 1895 8 4:50 6 16:20 12°24 21
18°68 17-48 —_—
=
oO
o
B
n
|
_
a
w
[ee]
~~
|
ee
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 513
WIND AND TipEs.—Forcer.
Boston, 1892-95.
Mean Variation
Maximum
Mean Height of ‘i
Force Year Tide above Low of Tide in Variation of N ve of
W iter in Feet Inches Tide ia Inches
3 1892 19:99 11°64 28 82
1893 19:99 12°75 32 103
1894 18-71 12-28 25 57
1895 19°14 13 06 35 63
Mean 19:20 12°43 30 76
4 1892 19-08 13:63 3t 8
1893 19:79 16°90 48 31
1894 20°86 13°60 33 40
1895 17°52 11°38 24 13
| Mean 19°31 | 13°87 | 34:75 28°75
5 1892 i998 | 1969 -—|° 25 13
1893 1814 11 82 19 11
1894 19°94 14:96 27 23
1895 19:01 11°28 31 34
Mean 19:09 12°68 25 5 20 25
6 1892 19°61 13°60 25 15
1893 20:87 15°35 29 20
1894 19:37 19:20 | 50 21
1895 19:21 16:00 | 26 19
Mean 19°75 16:04 32°5 18°5
7 1892 20:10 15°62 26 8
8 1893 17°56 21 43 50 15
9 1894 18:99 21:07 60 14
1895 21°80 32°57 75 i
Mean 19°61 22°67 52°75 11 25
10 1892 20:50 12°50 13 Ds
1893 17-05 23°20 60 5
1894 18:00 27-00 27 1
1895 18°44 23°20 52 5
Mean 18°49 21:47 38 3:25
1896. LL
514 REPORT—1896.
WIND AND TIDES.
Boston. Average result of 4 years, 1892-95.
Average v aviation of Tide i an Maximum Variation
Force of Number Mean Rise
Wind f Tides f Tid ay
ue o sokels HE SS Mean of 4 | Per Foot | wean of| Per Foot
Ry y Y Rise of 2 Rise of
ears Tide 4 Years Tide
Feet
3 76 19:20 12°43 0°65 30:00 1°54
4 29 19°31 13°87 0°72 34:75 1°79
5 20 19° is 12°€8 0-66 25°50 1°34
6 18 19°7 16°04 0:86 32°50 1-63
7 to9 11 19° 61 22:67 ala lis; Bi 75 2-68
10 3 18-49 21°47 | 116 38:00 2°06
~ a | ie |
= 157 19°24 16°52 87 — —
i
The figures in the tables are taken from the register kept by the Dock
Master at Boston Dock.
From the tables it will be seen that out of 2,822 tides recorded in the
four years, 655, or about 23 per cent., were affected by the wind. Taking
the yearly average number of tides affected as 163, 56, or 35 per cent.,
were increased ane to winds blowing from a northerly Gisecvica: or with
the flood tide, and 62, or 38 per cent., were decreased by southerly winds
blowing in the opposite direction to the tide, leaving about 27 per cent.
affected by the winds in an opposite way to that which might have been
expected.
The number of tides raised by northerly winds is about the same as
those depressed by southerly winds.
WIND AND TIDES.—DIRECTION.
Hull, 1895.
Wind Mean | Increase in Inches |
ee El esht |
_— Tid - f Tid
| ws | Mean | an | ‘above | Mean | Maxi-
Force Tea (LWT mum
——- or -~ = | — — } a {
High Vides : |
North-east . e 2 21 4:00 6 | 19-44 12°57 24
North-west . F ‘ 84 4:12 i.) 19:51 14:78 52
105 406 = 19-42 | 13°68 ==:
— —$$—_____—__ — — | | _ '
Acuti east ‘ 3 F 27 3-70 7 19°80 | 10:93 18
South-west . j ; 69 Serer 8 -{ 19:75) 4) 8328 32
96 3783 ie ¥ 19:77 | 12:10 —
oe
OC
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 515
DIRECTION (HULL, 1895)—continued.
Wind
Mean
Increase in Inches
f Height =
. aay Mean Maxi- pions Maxi-
Force me Tr Mean mum
Horeca (Wesehs |
= = a = —i
Low Tides:
South-east . . .| 24 3:42 6 18°65 | 10-02 25, |
| South-west . F : 20 4:35 8 19:07 14-25 36, of
; ners = a os,
44 3°83 ae ae Cae ee
|
A i
North-east . .. + 3°25 4 15°82 | 10-75 14}
North-west . i F 6 4:00 be) VRBO ‘LT OQ) See aees
10 3°62 Sst en ee: a
'
WIND AnD TrpEes.—Forcr.
Hull, 1895.
a
Mean Variation of Tids Maximum Variation};
a
Force of | Number of Mean Height Se : | pa Se a
= 3 of Tide above j j
Wind Tides | L.W.S.T. | Per Foot Per Foot -
| Inches Rise of Inches Rise of ;
| Tide Tide |
Feet | |
3 104 19°83 11°82 0:59 4 2: |
4 65 | 19-23 13:09 0°67 32 106 =|
5 46 | 19°26 13°68 0-71 29 150 |
6 14 | 18°82 15:14 | 0:80 34 188 «|
7 to 10 12 19°58 21°66 | 1:10 52 2°65
| 241 19°34 1607 | O77 a 23)
The figures in the above tables are abstracted from the tidal register
kept at the Albert Dock, Hull, for the year 1895. ;
The heights of the tides given are above low water of spring tides.
This has been taken as 6°15 feet above the sill of the Albert Dock. The
calculated heights have been taken from the Admiralty Tide Tables.
Comparing the Hull tides with those at Boston for the same year, it
will be seen that the wind was more effective in raising than in depressing
the tides at Hull, 79 per cent. of the whole being raised against 21 per
cent. depressed. At Boston the effect was more equal, 59 per cent. being
raised and 41 per cent. depressed. Southerly winds appear to have much
more effect in raising the tides at Hull than lower down the coast. The
mean effect of the force of wind on the tides is about the same at both
ports.
LL2
516
REPORT—1896.
WIND AND TIDES.—DIRECTION.
Sheerness, 1895.
| Mean Maxi- Height Mean In-| Per Foot Maxi-
; — Neuer Force of | mum of Tide | crease in| Rise of oe
Of ACES Wand Force above Inches Tide ‘Inches
L.W.S.T.
High Tides: Feet Inches
North-west 79 4:10 6 15°83 "| 18°84 1:19 55
North-east . 43 4°80 9 15°95 14:70 0:92 32
122 4:45 — 15°89 16°72 1:05 —
South-west 54 3°82 6 16°21 14:00 0:86 33
South-east 34 4:20 8 15°92 13 20 0:83 28
88 4:01 — 16:06 13°60 0°84 —
Low Tides:
South-west . 2 45 5 13°50 11°50 O85 16
South-east — — = == = Es a,
2 = = = me ea £2
North-west -— _ = -- — — —
North-east — = = = a ou pai
Winp AND TipEs.—FoRrcE.
Sheerness, 1895.
Mean Height Mean 7 >: Maximum
Force N se ye of of Tide above! Variation of Pore a 'S€ | Variation in
L.W.S.T. Tide Taches
Feet Inches
3 111 16:00 14°63 “91 34
4 105 16:03 14:47 90 38
5 60 15°55 12°53 *80 44
6 18 17°25 21°40 1:24 55
7 7 15°66 14:70 94 32
8 4 16°25 17°20 1:06 28
9 2 16°37 15°50 | “95 18
i= ee
307 16:16 15:78 ‘97 ane
The tides at Sheerness appear to be, on an average, 12 inches higher
than the height calculated for the Admiralty Tide Tables, and this has to
some extent affected the above results.
Of the 668 tides, 212
, or about 32 per cent., were affected by the
wind. Of these, 122, or about 60 per cent., were increased by winds
blowing from a northerly direction, and 88, or about 40 per cent., were
increased by winds blowing from a southerly direction.
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 517
WIND AND TripEes.—DIRECTION.
Portsmouth, 1895.
| Mean Maxi
Number} Mean | Maxi- | Height | Mean at
Wind of Force of | mum | of Tide | Increase I ue ¥
Tides Wind Force above | in Inches}... 2c7ease
; L.W.S.T. ne
High Vides : Feet
North-west . d 3 23 408 6 13°52 13°00 44
South-west . 2 - 38 4:39 vi 13°55 12°65 26
61 4:23 13°53 12°82
North-east . . . 8 375 | 6 1937 | 1262 | 93
South-east . Pi ‘ 10 410 fi 14°50 14 30 20
18 3:92 13°43 13°46
Low Tides: :
North-east . 3 ' 18 4-22 6 10°98 13°72 23
South-east 2 3:00 3 12:70 9°50 3
20 3°61 11°84 11°61
North-west . 5 2 10 ers0) 1s 5 10°70 9:90 20
South-west . A - 17 3°64 5 11-50 9°58 5
27 ST | a 11:10 9-74 uae
WIND AND TipEs.—FORCE. -
Portsmouth, 1895.
Mean Mean Variation | Maximum Varia-
_ Number Height of Tide ey
f f Ti PAs 2 a oe faite
os Tides give Per Foot Per Foot
L.W.S.T.| Inches | Rise of |InInches| Rise of
Tide. Tide
Feet Inches
3 ‘ - 60 11:93 11°80 098 23 201
4 : : 46 13:07 12 80 0:98 44 3 36
5 15 12°80 13-00 101 24 1:90
6 12 12-22 13°33 1:09 23 1:99
133 12°50 1273 1:01 — =e
18 REPORT—1896.
Of the 668 tides recorded, 136, or about 20 cent., were affected by the
wind. Of these, 61, or about 45 per cent., were increased by westerly
winds blowing with the flood tide, and 20, or about 15 per cent., were
decreased by easterly winds blowing in the opposite direction to the tide,
leaving about 40 per cent. affected by winds in an opposite way to that
which “night have been expected.
The number of tides raised by westerly winds is three times as great
as those depressed by easterly winds.
| Winp AnD Trpes.—DIreEctTIoN.
Liverpool, 1893-94.
| Mean Mast
Number | Mean Maxi- | Height | Mean ues
Wind Year | of Tides | Force of | mum of Tide | Increase I pe
Wind Force above |in Inches! -DCTe28¢
| L.W.S.T. in Inches
| High Tides: Feet
North-east . | 1893 | 7 3°11 4 25°01 14:00 15
° .| 18941 9 3°60 5 | 23-95 | 15-30 2
North-west . | 1893 | 43 4:23 rf | 24:97 19°74 46
a . | 1894 | 40 4:40 10 25-28 18°55 41
a 45 3:83 65 | 2480 | 1684 | 31
South-east . | 1893 9 3°66 5 | 2313 | 1638 | 20
5 . | 1894 39 3:77 5 | 25°62 19:02 33
South-west a eos 116 4°33 10 | 24°70 20°43 58
‘ . | 1894] 116 540 | 11 | 25:11 | 21-25 80
Meansa acess perl = 140 4:28 775 | 24:64 | 19-25 48
SSS ee eee <> —
Low Tides:
South-east . | 1893 1 3:00 3 | 28°40 14:00 14
% . | 1894 4 3:00 4 ee renD 14:50 20
South-west . | 1893 1 3:00 3 | 24°84 14:00 14
| oe . | 1894 + 6°25 11 1 Babi ¢ 13:25 is)
Wemms . «dae 5 3°81 525 | 26-04 | 18-94 17
North-east 2 | 1395 — — —
« | 1894 uk 3} 24 |} 24:10 24:00 24
North- west . | 1893 1 6 6 19:10 13:00 13
1894. 2 3 3 | 22°43 11-50 12
é Means . 4 = 2 4 Tak 21:87 16:16 16
j
ON EFFECT OF
WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES.
Winp AND TrpEs.—ForRcE.
Liverpool, 1893, 1894.
519
Mean Variation | Maximum
Mean Heicht of Tide | Variation
5 7 Number of pale els Fie == =
Fores Year Tides | oe ys oh is Per Foot | | Per Foot
AS er 2 nee Rise of In Inches Rise of
ie Tide | Tide
Feet |
3 1893 | 70 24-78 18:10 36. Ci
1894 72 25-08 16°60 33./\/|
Mean.| = 71:5 24-93 17°33 69 | 152
* | = — Ps
4 1893 49 24-63 19°60 46 |
1894 60 . | ~ 25:39 18-24 aa!
Mean . 495. | Baral 18-92 74 1-54
5 1893 33 25°37 22-40 | 58
1894 27 24-75 20°40 It 37
i LS ee
Mean . 30 | 25-06 21°40 85 1:87
| “ees ; af
| 6 1893 16 19°43 21:18 35
1894 27 25°56 21-88 37
: Mean . 21:5 22-49 21°53 96 164
7 1893 2 19:47 22°50 25
1894 18 26°10 21-88 36
; Mean.| 10 22°73 22-19 ‘98 | 1:32
:
. 8 1893 1 18°50 19-00 | 19
| 1894 4 26:33 17-70 25
: Mean . 25 22-41 18°35 82 0-97
| 9 1893 * & = ts
: 1894 9 17-92 25-20 40
| i red oe ie
Mean . 5 1:40 2-23
10 1893 3 24-92 20°50 35
1894 8 27:00 36°50 80
; 65 25-96 28-50 | 1-09 219
— Tm }
Mean. 196 23°69 0-94
Oe a a a
The tidal observations at Liverpool are recorded from the Old Dock
sill. In the above tables they are taken as above low water of spring
tides as adopted for the Admiralty datum or 9 feet below the Old Dock
sill. The calculated tides are reduced from Holden’s Tide Tables : these
appear to give the expected height less than it actually is, as 78 per cent.
520 REPORT—1896.
of the tides are below those given, an average of 1:04 foot, and only
22 per cent. below, an average of 0°46 foot. This to some extent affects
the results given.
Of about 2,800 tides recorded in the two years, 393, or 192 in a year,
or about 14 per cent., can be traced as being affected by the wind. Of
these 192 tides, 140, or about 73 per cent., were increased by south-
easterly and south- -westerly winds blowing more or less in the same
direction as the flood tide, and only two depressed by northerly winds,
leaving 50 tides, or about 26 per cent., as affected by wind blowing in an
opposite direction to that which might ‘have been expected.
Summary.
Taking the mean result of the five ports, the following results are
obtained :—
180 tides are affected by the wind in a year, or about 26 per cent. of
the whole.
123 are either increased by winds blowing with the tide or hapretees
by winds against the tide.
67 are influenced in an opposite way.
The mean force of the wind affecting these tides is 4:02 (Beaufort
scale).
With the mean rise of the tide above low water of spring tides
18-14 feet, the mean variation in the height of the tides is 13-89 inches.
The mean variation per foot rise of tide due to wind is for force of
Bice Pre : ; : : 5 - . 0°76 per foot rise of tide
4and5 . ‘ ° 3 : : - 0°80 s Ae
Gua iis in eee nee, mate to ee Se ogy Ge: 3
fT tonlOe =. : : : f ; eel OG ‘5
As showing the extent to which tides may be affected by wind during
gales, the following variations from the expected or natural height are
taken from the observations contained i in the preceding tables :—
Rise of Spring Variations in Difference between |
P.rt Tides above Low | Height of Tide two succeeding
Water due to Gale Tides
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Hull . : - ? ‘ ZO 6 4 5) 0
Boston : : 22 0 5 1 TS
Yarmouth . : 5 0 | 4 9 6 2
Sheerness . - ; : 16 0 | 4 7 210
Flushing . ‘ : ; ita 10) | yal 2 8
Ymuiden : ; Sy 8 bi ee ee
Schokland (Zuy der Zee) . 0 9 (ie if)
Liverpooi . . : 27 6 6 8 Ceo
Giasson Dock . ; : 20 0 es) 30
Glasgow . - - : 11 3 6 2 3 11
Portsmouth ; : , 13 6 3 8 Bie ib
Q
>
H
ti
jR
WIND AND TipES.—EFFECT OF
Gale of November 1893.
In November 1893, on the 16th and 17th, the general direction of
the wind was from the south-east to south-west, blowing with a force
from 4 to 6. In the North Sea the gradient between Yarmouth and
~~ a
SE
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 521
Aberdeen, about 270 miles, varied from 0:12 inch to 0:49 inch, the
depression being in the north, the barometer there being 1 inch below
the average. On the 18th and 19th, the days of the gale, the barometer
rose rapidly until it became in the north 0:21 inch above the average,
and in the south 0:43 inch below, the gradient being reversed to 0°65
inch on the 18th and 0°53 inch on the 19th, with the depression in the
south. The general direction of the wind was north-west to north-east,
blowing after midday on the 18th with a force from 8 to 10. The effect
of these gales, blowing from opposite directions, affected all the ports
round the coast, but in a very varying degree. On the north-east coast
the effect was not great, but in the Wash and in the southern part of the
North Sea its effect was felt to such an extent that at Boston the difference
between two succeeding tides was 7 feet 8 inches ; at Yarmouth 6 feet
2 inches, which is more than the total rise of a spring tide ; at Dover
the variation was 5 feet 3 inches ; while at Portsmouth it was only 1 foot
9 inches, and at Avonmouth 3 feet 9 inches. At Liverpool, on the 17th,
the wind was blowing from 8.E. to 8.W. with force of 5; on the 18th it
backed to the N.W. with force of 6 to 7.
In the following table two tides are given at twenty-four hours’
interval on the 17th and 18th.
Tides after the Gale of November 1893.
F |
a 2 Variation from Tide Table | Differen-e in |
Poi a eaeee L. Height of |
g Above | Below | two Tides
ft. in ft. in | {t. in. ft. in
A f 1s 8 0 10 | — O 4
oe tilt ag % USTED HN RES, BERANE S:
: : rs
Sunderland . | a ee . a2 | “? dey
: 29.9% zt | =
P 19 2 -- hie, BeBe a) Nae] Bt
Grimsby : { 25 0 3 3 jens a:
Boston . ‘ ao 51 | a4 a ;
BMarmouih +. =.) « 1 : 4 9 eos one
Lowestoft : { “a win | ¥, . aa ‘
Sheerness : 3 3 -- | _ : 4 2
Dockyard : : ie — — —
Victoria and Albert { 24 5 — 2 0 3.9
Dock l!| 28 2 ivy os =
London Dock .. { oe = 17 es shi
[ ee, —_ 1 5 3
Dover . i} 15 0 OV 4 =. 2.
Portsmouth . c - “a we : : pated
Avonmouth. . . { a 4 ™ ; ah
iiiverpool) . ai). { : i : yesh 1 8 ie
Glasson Dock a { = a ac a 2 i)
Belfast . : er ts { f: i Ble 2 8 hat
f 9 =
ee oe “| ie ; yall 110 Ae
522 REPORT—1896.
Gale of November 1894.
In the gale of November 13th, 1894, the wind at the Scilly Islands
blew strongly from the north-west, backing on the following day to the
south-west with a force of 7. At Holyhead, on the 13th, the wind was
from the west in the morning with a force of 6, backing to south-west in
the evening, and blowing with force of 8, and continuing in that quarter
during the rest of the week. At Belfast and Cork the direction was S.W.,
force 8. On the north-east coast the direction was 8.W., force moderate ;
further down the coast on 13th the direction was W.N.W., force 5,
changing to 8.W., force 9 ; in the English Channel, direction 8.W., force
7 to 10. The barometer was about 0:25 below the mean, the gradient
between Scilly and Ardrossan being 0:84. The steepest gradient was
across England, being as between Scilly and Denmark 0°84, the reading being
29°84 at the former place, and 29-00 at the latter. Full moon was on
the 13th. With these conditions the tides were affected as follows :—
At Holyhead the evening tide on the 13th was raised 4 feet above
the natural height. The wind continued to blow here stiffly from the
south-west all the week, and the tides were all above the natural height,
varying from 2 feet 5 inches to 4 feet above.
At Belfast the tide on the 13th was raised 4 feet 10 inches, and the
mean increase for five tides was 2 feet 9 inches above.
At Cork on the 11th the tide was raised 2 feet 8 inches, and on the
13th 2 feet 5 inches.
At Liverpool the evening tide of the 13th was raised 3 feet above the
natural height, and the succeeding tides 1 foot 2 inches and 1 foot
10 inches.
At Glasson Dock the evening tide of the 13th was 2 feet 6 inches
higher, and the succeeding tides 10 inches and 12 inches higher.
At Leith on the east coast the evening tide of the 14th was raised
2 feet 3 inches ; and at Sunderland 2 feet 9 inches.
Lower down the coast the force of the S.W. gale was more felt,
blowing in the Wash with force of 8.
At Hull the tides of the 12th were depressed respectively 1 foot
6 inches and 1 foot ; on the 13th 1 foot 2 inches and 0 foot 2 inches ; and
on the 14th 1 foot 8 inches and 1 foot 5 inches.
At Boston the evening tide of the 13th was depressed 1 foot 2 inches,
and the morning tide of the 14th 3 feet 5 inches, the evening tide being
raised 1 foot, and the next morning tide 11 inches.
At Dover, the force and direction of the wind being the same as in the
Wash, the morning tide was depressed 3 feet 3 inches, the evening tide
being raised 1 foot 6 inches.
At Sheerness the tide was depressed 1 foot 6 inches in the evening of
the 14th, and raised 3 feet 3 inches on the morning of the 15th. At the
Victoria and Albert Dock the tide was depressed 3 feet 5 inches in the
evening of the 14th, and raised 1 foot 8 inches on the following morning.
At the lower end of the English Channel the effect of this south-west
gale was to raise the tides 2 feet at Portsmouth on the evening of the
13th, and the two succeeding tides 1 foot 10 inches and 1 foot 6 inches.
At Devonport the morning tide of the 14th was raised 2 feet 9 inches,
and the two following tides 1 foot 9 inches and 2 feet 2 inches.
In the Bristol Channel the tides were raised 1 foot 4 inches at Cardiff,
and 1 foot 5 inches at Avonmouth. .
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 523
The mean result of the effect at fourteen ports round the coast was
as follows :—The mean rise of the spring tides at these places: is
20°43 feet, the mean force of the wind was 6°78, and the mean variation
of the tides from the natural height 2:70 feet. On the west coast the
tides were raised by the gale 3} feet, and on the east coast depressed to
a similar extent.
Gales, December 1894.
On the 20th the wind was from the N.N.W., force varying from 5
to 7. The barometer was about the average.
At Hull the morning tide was raised 3 feet 1 inch.
At Boston the morning tide was raised 3 feet 2 inches.
On the 22nd-23rd ; on the evening of the 22nd the wind blew a gale
from the 8.W.., force 10. The barometer at Hull was 0°97 in. below the
average, at Boston 0°82 in. below.
The tide at Hull on the morning of the 22nd was raised 1 foot 1 inch,
the following tide 1 foot, and the morning tide of the 23rd 4 feet 1 eh
At Boston the morning tide of the < 22nd was 6 inches depressed, the
evening tide raised 1 foot 2 inches, and the morning tide of the 23rd
4 feet "4 inches. High water of the evening aay of the 22nd was
2 hours 33 minutes late, and the morning fide of the 23rd 1 hour 10
minutes early.
At Ipswich the evening tide of the 23rd was raised 4 feet 11 inches,
and the tide flowed an hour longer than its proper time.
On the 28th, 29th, and 30th. the wind blew a gale from W.N.W. with
force varying Febiri 10 to 6. The barometer was 0° 52 to 0°72 below the
average. The gradient between Aberdeen and Yarmouth was 0°48, the
depression being i in the north.
At Hull ihe morning tide of the 29th was raised 2 feet, the evening
tide 6 feet 4 inches, aud the morning tide of the 30th 1 foot 7 inches.
At Boston the evening tide of the 28th was depressed 3 feet 1 inch ;
the morning tide of the “29th was normal, the evening tide being raised
4 feet 3 inciés, and the following tide 1 Bot 4 inches.
On the west coast at Liverpool on the 21st the wind was from the
S.W. with force of 4, and the tides normal. On the morning of the 22nd,
the wind being nearly due south with force of 11, the tide rose to 20 fant
6 inches Shove Old Dock sill, or 29 feet 6 inches above L.W.8.T., and
6 feet 8 inches above the expected height. The evening tide was 13 niches
below the expected height, making a difference of 7 ‘feet 9 inches in the
height of two succeeding fder
Gale, November 1895.
During the early part of November (1st to 10th) there was a gradient
of about half an inch on the English coast, the depression being in the
north and the wind from south-east to south-west, blowing vie the force
of a gale on the 11th. The barometer was from about 4 l'to 3 3 inch below
the average, the mean being 29°85 at the North Boreland: 29-45 at Leith,
and on the west coast 29°69 at the Scilly Islands, and 29°54 at Holy-
head, the mean resultant being a gradient from the south of 0-40. The
new moon was on the 16th.
At Leith the average force of the wind for 12 days was 3°41, and
during this time the tides averaged 1:33 above the natural height. On
524 REPORT—1896.
the 11th, when the wind blew with force of 8 from 8.W., the evening tide
was 2 feet 10 inches above the natural height.
Lower down the coast at Grimsby the wind from the 5th to the 17th
was blowing principally from the 8.W. with force varying from 4 to 7.
On the 12th the tide was raised 2 feet 6 inches in the morning and 1 foot
in the evening ; on the 13th 1 foot 5 inches and 1 foot 2 inches ; on the
14th and 15th 1 foot and 1 foot 3 inches in the morning ; on the 16th
1 foot 1 inch and 1 foot 5 inches ; on the 17th 2 feet and 1 foot. The
mean force of the wind for 7 days was 5, and mean increase of tides
1:30 foot.
At Hull the morning and evening tides were raised respectively on
the 12th 2 feet 5 inches and 8 inches; on the 13th 1 foot 3 inches and
I foot 4 inches ; on the 14th 3 inches and 1 inch; on the 15th 1 foot
7 inches in the morning ; on the 16th 11 inches and 1 foot 5 inches ; and
on the 17th 2 feet 1 inch and 1 foot 1 inch. The mean force of the wind
for the 6 days was 5, and the mean increase in the tides 1°10 foot.
At Boston §8.W. wind had the effect of depressing the tides, the
average force from 10th to 16th was 5:10. On the night of the 10th
there was a 8.W. gale with force of 10, and the two following tides were
respectively 1 foot 3 inches and | foot 6 inches below the normal height ;
the morning tides of the 12th and 15th were raised 1 foot 4 inches and
1 foot, and the evening tide of 13th depressed 13 inches ; the barometer
was 0°43 below the average.
At Ipswich on the 11th the morning tide was depressed 3 feet 9 inches.
At Dover from the 10th to 17th the wind was from 8.W., the average
force being 4°80 and the barometer below the mean. On the 10th and
11th the tides were depressed from 1 foot 3 inches to 1 foot 8 inches, the
morning tide of the 12th was raised 2 feet 1 inch, the wind blowing with
force of 7 from 8.W., the tides from the 12th to 15th averaging about
10 inches above normal height.
At Sheerness on the 10th the morning tide was raised 13 inches, and
the morning tide of the 11th depressed 23 inches, the evening tide being
about normal. On the 12th the morning tide was raised 1 foot 8 inches,
and the following tides respectively 2 feet 3 inches, 1 foot 8 inches, and
2 feet 5 inches.
At Portsmouth on the 13th, with N.W. wind, force 5 to 6, the morning
tide was raised 13 inches and the evening tide 10 inches ; on the 15th
both tides were raised 13 inches.
At the west end of the Channel at Avonmouth on the 15th, with
wind from 8.W. to 8.E. with force of 5 to 8, the evening tide of the 15th
was 3 feet 4 inches above the normal height and the next tide 1 foot
11 inches above ; the former tide flowed for 58 minutes after the calculated
time of high water.
On the west coast on the 6th at Liverpool, with wind blowing force
of 5 from 8.W., the morning tide was 2 feet 4 inches and the afternoon
tide 3 feet 4 inches above the normal height. The barometer stood at
29°26, or 0°59 below the average. On the evening of the 14th the tide
was raised 2 feet, and the following afternoon tide 3 feet 11 inches, and
next morning 2 feet 5 inches, the wind during this time being from 8.W.
with force varying from 3 to 7. Barometer about half an inch low, the
gradient on the west coast between Scilly and Holyhead being 0:16, the
depression being in the north.
At Holyhead the tides from the 10th to the 16th averaged 1} foot
ON EFFECT OF WIND AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES. 525
above normal, the wind being from 8.W. with average force of 5-60, and
mean barometer reading 29°44, or 0°40 low. The afternoon tide on the
15th was 3 feet above normal, and that of the following morning 2 feet
10 inches above, the force of wind varying from 5 to 8.
At Belfast from 10th to the 16th the tides averaged 1:40 above
normal height, wind principally from S.W., with mean force of 5-50,
mean barometer 29°19. The p.m. tide of the 15th was 4 feet 6 inches
above the normal height, being the highest tide of which there is any
record. The two following tides were raised 1 foot 5 inches and 1 foot
11 inches.
At Glasgow the wind from the 11th to the 16th was principally from
the 8.W., blowing with force of 8 on the llth to 6 on the 16th, the
barometer averaging 1:26 below the mean, and the lowest reading being
28°31 on 11th. On the 11th high water occurred three hours before the
proper time, and rose 6 feet above the natural height ; on the following
day the tide was raised 2 feet 1 inch. On the 16th the tide reached high
water 2} hours before the proper time, it then ebbed 2 feet 6 inches and
flowed again 3 feet, the height reached being 5 feet above the natural
height.
Gale, December 1895.
From the Ist to the 7th the wind was blowing from the 8.W. with a
mean force of 5, increasing to a gale on the 5th and 6th, the force on the
west coast being from 8 to 9 and on the east from 5 to 6. The mean
barometer on the east coast was 29-87 at the North Foreland, and
29°44 at Leith, showing a gradient of 0°43 ; and on the west coast 30-04
at the Scilly Islands, and 29-10 at Ardrossan, a gradient of 0°94, the
mean resultant being a 8.W. gradient of 0-60.
At Leith on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th the wind was from the S.W., the
average force was 4:83, the maximum on the 5th being 6. The average
increase in the height of the tide was 1 foot 3 inches, the maximum
increase being 2 feet 6 inches on the 5th. On the 6th and 7th the wind
was from the N.W., mean force 3°75, mean increase of tide 2 feet, greatest
force of wind 5, and greatest increase of tide 2 feet 5 inches.
Tt will thus be seen that at this station the tides were increased both
by S.W. and N.W. winds.
At Grimsby, near the mouth of the Humber, the wind from the Ist
to the 5th was from the 8.W., blowing with a mean force of 5, in¢reasing
toa gale with a force of 8 on the 5th. From the 6th to the 8th the
direction was from the N.W., with force of 6 to 7; and from the 8th
to the 10th S.W., with force of from 3 to 6. The mean force for the
whole period was 5. On the Ist the tides were raised at Grimsby
1 foot 3 inches and 8 inches ; on the 2nd, 1 foot 9 inches and 3 inches 3 on
the 3rd, 2 feet and 2 feet 2 inches ; on the 4th, 11 inches in the morning ;
on the 5th the morning tide was depressed 5 inches and the evening tide
raised 2 feet 9 inches ; on the 6th the tides were raised 3 feet 3 inches
and 1 foot 8 inches ; on the 7th, 3 feet 1 inch and 3 feet ; on the 8th,
1 foot and 1 foot 1 inch; on the 9th the morning tide was depressed
8 inches and the evening tide raised 2 feet 7 inches; and on the 10th
the morning tide raised 1 foot 6 inches, the mean increase for 16 tides
being 1°80 foot.
At Hull, the force and direction of the wind being the same, the mean
increase for 15 tides was 1:57 foot. On the Ist the tides were raised
526 REPORT—1896.
10 inches and 8 inches ; on the 2nd the morning tide 1 foot 4 inches ; on
the 8rd the increase was 1 foot 9 inches and 2 feet’; on the 4th the
morning tide was raised 7 inches and the evening tide depressed 5 5 inches ;
on the 5th the morning tide was depressed 1 foot 6 inches and the evening
tide raised 2 feet 7 inches ; ; on the 6th the tides were raised 3 feet and
1 foot 4 inches; on the 7th both tides 3 feet; on the 8th, 10 and
11 inches ; on the 9th the morning tide was depressed 1 foot, and that
of the 10th raised 1 foot 9 inches.
At Boston the wind on the 4th from W.S.W.., force 5 to 10 ; the evening
tide of the 4th was depressed 1 foot 8 inches and the succeeding tide
1 foot 10 inches. From 5th to 7th, with wind from W.N.W. to N.W.
mean force 7, the mean increase of the tide was 1°82 foot, the maximum
increase being 2 feet 8 inches.
At Yarmouth from the 6th to the 8th the wind was from W.N.W.
with mean force of 5°55. The tides were increased about 3 feet.
At Ipswich on the 6th and 7th, with wind W.N.W. force 7 to 8, the
tides were increased above the expected height from 3 feet 2 inches to
3 feet 11 inches.
At Dover on the 6th and 7th, wind W.N.W., force 4 to 7. Mean
increase of tide 2 feet 11 inches, maximum increase 3 feet 6 inches.
At Sheerness on the 6th the morning tide was raised 3 feet 5 inches,
and the evening tide 2 feet 9 inches ; on the 7th the morning tide was
not recorded, the evening tide was raised 4 feet 7 inches and the next
morning | foot 11 inches and evening 1 foot 8 inches.
At Flushing, where the mean range of tides is 11 feet 9 inches, the
tides from the 4th to the 9th were increased above the mean range,
an average of 2°78 feet, the greatest increase being on the 7th,
5 feet 1 inch. At Ymuiden, the entrance to the North Sea Canal, where
the mean range of tide is 5-4 feet, the maximum increase was 5:31 feet,
and at the island of Schokland in the nee Zee, where the mean range
is only 0-72 foot, the increased height was 7-70 feet,
At Portsmouth on the 6th and 7th the Are rose to about their normal
height, wind on the 7th blowing from N,W. with force 4 to 6.
At Avonmouth on the 6th and 7th, wind W. to N.W., force 7 to 10,
the mean increase in the tides was only 9 inches, the maximum increase
being 13 inches.
At Liverpool, from the 2nd to the 7th, the tides were all high, the
mean increase being 2 feet 8 inches and the maximum 3 feet 5 inches.
The wind was from W.S.W. to W., mean force 6°80 and maximum 9.
At, Holyhead, 2nd to the 7th, wind from W. to 8.W., mean force
6-40, maximum 7, mean increase of tides 1:14 foot, maximum increase
2 feet 1 inch.
At Belfast, Ist to 6th, wind W.S.W., mean force 6°80, maximum 8,
mean increase of tides 1 foot 45 inches, maximum increase 3 feet 1 inch.
At Glasgow, on the 4th, the wind was from the W.S.W., with force of
6, increasing to a gale on the 5th, with force of 8 and continuing to blow a
gale from 8.W. on 6th. The average increase in the height of the tides
for the three days was 3 feet 9 inches, the maximum increase being on
the 5th, when high water was raised 6 feet 2 inches, the normal rise above
low water of spring tides being 10 feet 10 inches, and the actual rise
17 feet. The barometer fell 0:72 inch below the average reading.
a NT ae
ON THE SCREW GAUGE, 527
Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H.
PREECE (Chairman), Mr. Conran W. Cooke (Secretary), Lord
KELvw, Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Sir H. Trueman Woop, Major-Gen.
Wesper, Mr. R. E. Crompton, Mr. A. Stron, Mr. A. LE Neve
Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt, Mr. G. K. B. Evpninstone, Mr. T.
Bucxney, Col. Warkin, Mr. E. Riae, and Mr. W. A. Price, ap-
pointed to consider means by which Practical Effect can be given to
the Introduction of the Serew Gauge proposed by the Association in
1884, (Drawn up by the Chairman.)
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. The Past ° . . . . . . . . . . - ont
II. The Present : 5 ' e : . : : ; 7 ; . 529
Ill. The Future : : : : ° , . : 5 ; : . 531
APPENDIX I.—Fnlarged Shadow Photographs of Screns. By y Col. WATKIN,
CB eieAs jens 532
II. — Gauges Sor Verifying the Aceu "acy of Screws. (for Workshop
Use only). By A. STROH. . 534:
yy“: LL.— Working Dimensions in Millimetres and Thousandths of an Inch.
By A. LE NEVE FostER 3 . 536
Tests of B.A. Serens by Hervé Diameters. By W. A. Price . 537
I. Tue Past.
A UNIFORM system of screw threads was first proposed by the late Sir
Joseph Whitworth in 1842, and his thread, a compromise of the numerous
threads then in use, has poe of almost universal use for all large
screws—that is, screws of over | in. diameter—in the United Kingdom.
Mr. William Sellers in 1864 introduced another thread in the United
States of America, which has come into very general use in that country,
and this thread has recently been accepted by the French.
In 1881 the British Association formed a committee to determine a
gauge for the manufacture of the various small screws used in electrical
apparatus, clock work, and for other analogous purposes ; and after three
years of unremitting labour this committee, in 1884, recommended a screw
gauge which has come into very general use in this country. [t was
based on the metrical system, and with one slight modification on the
system adopted in 1880 by the Swiss watchmakers.
The series of screws recommended is given in the following table :—
British Association Screw Gauge.
Dimensions in Millimetres | Dimensions in Thousandths |
of an Inch | Threads
Number (———W— ona a | per
Diameter | Pitch Diameter Pitch inch
| |
I BEsphao (ern tll Iv Mattes cick
0 6-0 1-00 236 394 | 25-4
1 | «BB 0:90 208 35-4 | 282
2 4-7 0°81 184? 31-9 31-4 ||
3 41 0-73 1622 28-7 348
4 3°64 0°66 142 26:0 38°5
5 3-2 059 126 23-2 | 43-0
6 2-8 | O53 110 20:9 47-9
7 25 | 48 98 18-9 | 52-9
8 2-2 | 43 87 16:9 | 591
9 19 0°39 15 15°4 65:1
528 REPORT—1896.
Dimensions in Millimetres Demensipns in Thousandths
of an inch Threads
Number _per
Diameter Pitch Diameter Pitch inch
I II IIL IV Vv VI
10 17 0:35. 67 13°8 72°6
iil 15 0°31 59 12:2 81:9
12 13 0:28 51 11:0 90°7
13 1:2 0°25 47 9:8 101:0
14 1:0 0°23 3 9:1 1100 |
15 0-90 0°21 35 8:3 121:0
16 0°79 0:19 3 (G5) 134:0
17 0:70 O17 282 6:7 149:0
18 0°62 0715 24 59 169:0
19 0:54 0-14 21 5:5 181:0
20 2 0°47 0:12 19 47 2120
21 0°42 011 17 4:3 231°0
22 0°37 0-098 | 15 379 259°0
23 0°33 0:089 | 1S 3°5 285-0
24 0°29 0-080 | 11 73152 317:0
25 0:25 0:072 10 2:8 353-0
The form of thread adopted was triangular, the sides forming an angle
of 474°, with the top and bottom rounded off to +ths of the pitch,
The diameter (D) is related to the pitch (P) by the formula
D=6 PS, all measurements being in willimetres, and P having succes-
sively the values :—
1 (or 0:9°) millimetre ; 0-9! millimetre ; 0-9? millimetre ; 0°93 milli-
metre; ... 0°9" millimetre. The index (7) thus becomes a convenient
number designating the screw.
The reasons supporting these recommendations were fully given in the
Report submitted by the Committee at the Montreal meeting of 1884.
Experience has justified the adoption of this gauge, which is almost
universally used by the electrical trade, and is very considerably employed
by the clock and instrument makers in the United Kingdom.
It is not proposed to modify it, but there has been great difficulty in
obtaining accurate gauges. No official system has yet been adopted by
which manufacturers can compare their gauges with the standards, nor has
a home been selected to deposit authorised standards for easy reference.
British Association screws bought to-day from any screw manufacturer
are not necessarily of the same dimensions as those supplied by the same
maker a month ago. Screws supplied by different makers vary consider-
ably from each other. Measuring gauges now existing, both male and
female, differ largely from one another, and do not give correctly the true
form of thread specified in the original Report. The essential element of
the value of screws made to a standard gauge—their interchangeability—
has thus never been fully realised.
The British Association, having had their attention called to these
anomalies at their last meeting (Ipswich, 1895), appointed a committee
to consider the subject, which has now the pleasure to submit its first
Report.
~ ia
ON THE SCREW GAUGE. 529
II. Tue PRESENT,
The Committee were formed ‘to consider means by which better prac-
tical effect can be given to the introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed
by the Association in 1884.’ They have held many meetings. They have
added Colonel Watkin, C.B., R.A., Mr. E. Rigg, and Mr. W. A. Price to
their number. They have received great assistance from the Pratt and
Whitney Company of Hartford (Connecticut, United States of America),
who supplied each member of the Committee with a copy of their book on
‘Standards of Length and their Practical Application.’ They were unfor-
tunately deprived of the services of Mr. Hewitt, who was seized with a very
severe illness after the first meeting, but they received from him his paper
‘On the Manufacture of Standard Screws for Machine-made Watches,’ read
before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in October 1894 ; a paper
which has been of great service. Mr. Griffith, representing the Council,
attended regularly, and took advantage of his presence in the United
States of America to visit the Pratt and Whitney works.
Evidence was taken by the Committee from large users of the screws.
Mr. Willmot, of the Post Office Factory, stated that the Post Office had
used some tens of millions of screws made to the British Association gauge,
and he had never received a single complaint.
Various apparatus for measuring screws and different methods of testing
their accuracy were carefully considered and discussed.
The Committee came to the conclusion that it was necessary to con-
sider the subject from the three points of view of the Standards Office,
the Works Manager, and the Workman.
1. The Standards Office.
This must include, not only the custody of recognised and authen-
ticated standards, but also a scientific mode of measuring the dimensions
of commercial gauges and screws themselves, and of comparing their
accuracy with the authorised standards. The peculiarity of the British
Association gauge is this, that material standards are not impera-
tivelynecessary. Thetable of dimensions given at page 527, together with
the formula, enables any draughtsman to reproduce the form and pitch to
any desired scale on paper. Colonel Watkin has shown to the Committee
how to throw side by side, for purposes of very accurate comparison, a
photographic image of —
(a) The screw to be examined.
(6) The standard with which it is to be compared.
(c) Aseale which may be divided to ,,},,5th of an inch, the images of
these three objects being so close to one another that a comparison to
a very high degree of accuracy can be made. The Appendix to this Re-
port contains a description of Colonel Watkin’s method.
Mr. Price submitted to the Committee a microscopical method of
measuring screws. The screw to be measured is attached to the stage of
the microscope, the traversing slide of which is provided with a vernier
and scale, while a vertical cross-hair in the eye-piece forms the index of
the instrument. When the microscope has been adjusted for clear focus
the screw is traversed across the field until the cross-hair intersects the
thread of the screw at the desired point. The traversing screw of the
slide is then turned until the corresponding point of the next thread is
intersected by the cross-hair, and the reading of the vernier on the scale
gives the measurement of the pitch with great accuracy. Mr. Buckney
1896. MM
530 REPORT—1896.
showed also how the angle of the thread could be accurately verified by
this method by having suitable hairs.
2. The Works Manager.
The Committee, after considering various methods, came to the con-
clusion that male gauges for ordinary workshop use were best tested, as
regards pitch and form of thread, by a template or ‘comb’ for each number,
the accuracy of which has been verified by the photographic method.
The screw to be tested is placed against the teeth of the comb, and the
correctness of its fit verified by the eye against a light background.
The external dimensions of the screw can be obtained by any good
micrometer gauge, and the internal diameter or core by a gauge such as
that which is described in the Appendix by Mr. Stroh.
The Committee have failed to discover any very reliable method of
testing, to any degree of accuracy, a female standard gauge. No clearance
was allowed in the original definition of the system between the male
and female standards. Hence a mathematically accurate male gauge
cannot be screwed into a mathematically accurate female gauge. But
by allowing a certain margin—a maximum and minimum diameter—an
internal compatibility of dimensions is allowed in the workshop gauges,
which is of a sound, practical character. The female screw must always
be a little larger than the standard male gauge, but this must never exceed
what is known as a ‘ good fit.’
A working margin is given in Appendix III. by a table prepared by
Mr. Le Neve Foster.
Mr. Price, on behalf of the Committee, has made a series of measure-
ments of certain sizes of B.A. screws which show the limits within which
they are obtained in practice. His measurements indicate that the
variation from the full diameter, which must be allowed for necessary
inequalities in manufacture, is not a function of the diameter, but is rather
in the nature of a constant quantity. This quantity appears to be
approximately 1 mil. below the full diameter for all brass screws of sizes
Nos. 0 to 11, and 1-5 mil. for all iron and steel screws of the same sizes.
3. The Workman.
The measuring gauge, available to the workman as well as to the fore-
man, is one that need not possess the mathematical accuracy of the
standard gauges, but nevertheless it must not be allowed to deteriorate
or to maintain false belief in its accuracy. Those that are subject to
pressure and friction must necessarily wear, become distorted, and, in
time, inaccurate. Hence the Committee were anxious to obtain a mode
of comparison which would be free from this source of error. The most
important measurement, whose accuracy should be easily verified by the
workman is that of the pitch, and this is easily effected with the ‘half-
nut gauge’ described in Appendix II.
The Committee are pleased to find that the result of their inquiry and
discussion enables them to recommend for general use means of comparison
which do not involve the wear and deterioration of the gauges. Defor-
mation is confined to the taps and screw-plates, and as frequent verifica-
tion of the manufactured screw is desirable continued accuracy is insured.
With the introduction of simple methods of comparison and measurement
errors in the screws issued and want of interchangeability are rendered
improbable in a well-regulated shop, and unnecessary in any place.
There remains now to determine a place where material standard
ON THE SCREW GAUGE. 531
gauges are available for immediate comparison, and where the photographic
and microscopic methods can be readily applied to verify gauges and to
obtain a record of those submitted for examination. This means work
to be done, expenses to be incurred, and fees to be paid, as is now done at
the Kew Observatory for chronometers, thermometers, &e.
Ill. Tue Furure.
The opinions formed by the Committee, after full and exhaustive dis-
cussions, for furthering the objects to be attained may be summarised as
follows :—
(a) The Committee recommend the construction and housing of the comb
form of gauges or templates of the B.A. screw thread, by comparison with
which master gauges or templates may be exactly and conveniently verified.
(6) That, as no exact system of testing femaie threads has yet been
devised, the Committee restrict themselves to recommending means for
keeping male threads to gauge, and this they consider will be sufficient
for the purpose of securing practical uniformity in female screws.
(c) Male threads can best be measured by the comb, combined with
suitably arranged tests to give the correct diameters.
(d) That for purposes of verification or standardisation the gauges to
be deposited for reference should consist of a complete set of these comb-
pieces, and a complete corresponding set of male screws, so that new
combs can be compared with those deposited, or male screws can be com-
pared with the standard combs with great accuracy by the photographic
or the microscopic method, and that these two methods may be conve-
niently used to check and corroborate each other.
(e) That in order to obtain interchangeability of these male screws for
practical workshop use it is sufficient that they should satisfy the following
tests :— ;
(1) There should be no appreciable difference in the fit of the screw
with a standard comb having not less than twelve teeth.
(2) The diameter of the core must not exceed that laid down by the
B.A. specification.
(3) The diameter of the screw measured over the thread must not ex-
ceed that laid down by the B.A. specification.
4) The diameter of the screw measured over the thread must not fall
short of that laid down by the B.A. specification by more than a certain
amount, which amount depends on the class of work and purpose to which
the screw is to be applied.
The amount referred to in (4) must be settled by the persons in con-
‘trol of the work for which the screws are to be used.
(f) They recommend for general use in the workshop the half-nut
gauge, as described in Appendix II., combined with inside and outside
diameter gauges.
The Committee, in printing the tables, Appendix III., for which they
have to thank Mr. Le Neve Foster and Mr. Price, do not take the respon-
sibility of recommending any limits, but publish the information as an
indication of the limits of accuracy within which these screws may be
expected to be produced in practice.
If the recommendations of the Committee be approved of, they further
recommend that the Committee should be reappointed for the purpose of
obtaining and verifying standard combs and male screws, and determining
the future home of the gauges.
MM2
ja2 REDORT—1896.
APPENDIX I.
Eniarged Shadow Photographs of Screws. By Col. Watxty, C.2., R.A., de.
The objects aimed at in producing enlarged photographs of screws
are—
(a) To provide a means of verifying the accuracy of the shape of a
thread.
(6) To provide a means of accurately gauging the dimensions of screw
threads.
(c) To provide a “record or certificate of a screw, in a similar manner
to the certificate of accuracy given by Kew Observatory.
As in this process a standard scale is photographed at the same time
as the screw, a direct reading to any desired accuracy can be obtained.
There seems to be hardly any limit to the amount of enlargement, as
the difficulties inherent to the enlargement of an ordinary negative do not
apply to this process.
The question arises, Does the shadow photograph give accuracy as
regards—
1. Dimensions ;
2. Shape of thread ?
To test (1) a No. 2 B.A. thread was enlarged 37:18 times. The linear
dimensions could in this photo be measured to at least soooth of an inch.
The diameter, pitch, and angle of thread of this particular screw were
gauged by a member of the Committee, and found to be:
By an Elliott gauge . - - 01818 alten (os
» &@ Brown and Sharp gauge , 071820 Sa
0:03184 pitch
54° 30’ angle of thread
The photo gave the following :—
01818 diameter
0:03181 pitch
54° 30’ angle of thread
Fig. 1 shows a reduced copy of an actual photograph and scale.
As regards (2) there has been considerable discussion as to whether
the shadow photograph gave the true shape of the thread. There are
two methods of obtaining a
photograph of a screw thread =
one in which the axis of the
screw is at right angles to the
beam of light ; the other im
sp which the axis of the screw
is inclined at an angle which
differs from the right angle
by the angle of the pitch of
the screw.
D Asregardsthe first method,
a mathematical consideration
worked out by Mr. Price seems to show that a slight correction of about
4 degree in the total angle of the screw thread would have to be made.
i think, as regards the second method, no correction is required. In any
inch.
)
P4
Fig. 1.—Standard Glass Scale, lines at intervals of -0
(Photograph magnified 34°415.)
ON THE SCREW GAUGE.
B.A. Thread No. 12,
inch,
000
cale reading to 75}
c
i
534 REPORT—1896,
case the correction is so small that for practical purposes it might be
neglected, as on a No. 2 B.A. thread it only represents about 7,',jth of
an inch, and proportionately less on the smaller sizes.
However, to determine practically whether this was the case, I
suggested filing away a part of the screw to be photographed to make it a
comb. There could be no doubt that the photo of such a comb would
give the true shape of the thread. Mr. Stroh kindly supplied such a
screw. From the photos it would appear that there is no practical differ-
ence in the shape, and that therefore the photograph of a complete screw
gives a true record of the shape as well as the dirfiensions.
The following gives the detail of the method employed in photographing
the screws :—
On a plate A, B, c, D, fig. 2, is a block, £, to which is secured a glass
scale, Fr, which has been carefully etched with lines 4, inch apart. A piece
of spring brass, HG, serves to hold the screw KK to be photographed, with
its axis parallel to the plate a, B, c, D. The distance of the screw from
the plate can be adjusted by means of the screw 1, so that when the scale
FIG. 3.
is sharply focussed on the screen the shadow of the screw may also be
brought into focus.
The frame 4, B, C, D, fig. 2, is adjusted in the same position as an
ordinary microscopic slide in a magic lantern arranged for microscopic
work ; only I found it desirable to employ a photographic lens of modern
design instead of the usual objective.
The arrangement is shown in the accompanying diagram, fig. 3, where
A represents the limelight ; B the ordinary condenser ; c Alum trough
to stop the heat rays; D Small condensing lens ; E Screw, in its
frame as described in fig, 2; F Photographic lens ; c Milled head
screw for focussing the lens F.
APPENDIX II.
Gauges for Verifying the Accuracy of Screws (for Workshop Use only).
By A. Strou.
In the gauge represented in fig. 4 the hole @ is for the external
diameter. It should be of exactly the diameter given in the table of
mem
ON THE SCREW GAUGE. 53D
sizes for B.A. screws. A screw should pass into this hole freely, but
without much shake. The hole é is the minimum gauge, and the screw
should not pass into this hole. The difference of diameter between the
holes a and 6 has not yet been determined by the Committee ; in the
present case it is 0015 in. ¢ is a threaded hole or female gauge in which
a screw should just turn freely. The hole d is for the diameter of the
core, but as it is impossible, without turning down some of the threads
of a screw, to pass the core of it into this hole, the gauge e is provided
for gauging the core, or, in other words, the depth of the thread. It
consists of a fork the inner edges of which are shaped so as to enter
between the threads of a screw. The correctness of the pitch of a screw
is ascertained by placing it in the comb / and against the back-rest g, and
by holding the gauge against the light or a white paper.
It has been found by practice that there is considerable difficulty in
making these combs with any degree of accuracy, and also that it would
be almost impossible to carry out the above form of gauge for the smaller
sizes. It is therefore suggested that the gauge represented in fig. 5 has
certain advantages over the comb-gauge. With this the half-nut h is
employed for verifying the pitch of screws instead of the comb. The
half-nut can be carried out with greater certainty and ease, and is there-
fore less costly, and there is no difficulty in making it for the smaller
sizes, as shown in fig. 6. Gauges on the principle of figs. 5 and 6 have
also the advantage of being more compact and stronger for workshop
use.
The process of making the half-nut gauges is the following :—Two
have to be made at one time. When the two steel bars intended for
the gauges are filed to shape they are placed together, as shown in sketch
536 REPORT—1896.
(a and b) ; a temporary rivet or bolt is put through the hole c, and the
ends intended to receive the half-nut device are clamped together as
shown. A hole of the diameter of the core is then drilled across the two
FIG. 7.
bars at d, so that each bar receives one half of it. The clamp is then
unscrewed, the bars are slightly separated, the tap is inserted between
them, and the clamp screw tightened again gently. Of course now the
two steel bars cannot meet, being prevented by the insertion of the tap.
But the smooth end of the tap is now fixed in a chuck on a lathe, and is
rotated forwards and backwards, while the clamp screw is tightened from
time to time. This is carried on till the threads forming the half-nuts
are complete. It is only necessary towards the end of the operation to
separate the bars once or twice for the purpose of removing the bur
which is raised by the operation.
APPENDIX III.
Working Dimensions in Millimetres and Thousandths of an Inch.
By A. Le Neve Foster.
| D ffer-
External Diameter of | enceof Workin
Diameter Core | Dia- Pitch Margin
ee | meter
ING eee oe SS ee Bs ae he,
| | ag :
' } | co
mm. | inches | mm. inches mm. | mm. o-5 |; mm. mils,
| | a
Bar tacnsslvery a a | ue |
0 6:0 236 48 | -189 ee 10 25-4 “O05 *002
1 53 *209 4:22 | +166 1:08 9 28:2 *O5 ‘002
2 47 185 S12 ay “972 81 31:4 04 *0016
3 41 161 3°22 “127, ‘S76 73 34°8 “Ot ‘0016
4 3°6 142 ZRE (LO "792 66 38°5 “O4 ‘0016
5 3°2 “126 2:5 “O984 708 59 43 0 ‘03 ‘0012
6 2:8 110 | 2:16 085 636 53 479 03 C012
7 2°5 ‘098 1:92 ‘O76 575 48 52:9 03 ‘0012
8 2°2 ‘O87 1°68 ‘066 ‘516 43 59:1 “02 “0008
9 1:9 ‘O75 1:43 “0565 468 39 65:1 02 “0008
10 i ter 067, 28 “0505 “420 35 726 ‘O02 “0008
ON THE SCREW GAUGE. do7
Mr. Foster informed the Committee that in the experience of his firm
these limits are found to be convenient for all screws connecting ordinary
pieces of mechanism.
Tests of B.A. Screws by Hervé Diameters. By W. A. Price.
Of the measurements given in the following table all, excepting the
No. 8 steel and No. 11 brass screws, were made with a gauge of which
the zero was out of adjustment, the measures to be reduced by 0002 in
the first 9 columns.
These measurements. were made to ascertain within what limits a
screw maker can work, not as chausson screws with their theoretical
diameters.
It seems that 1-2 inch below the full diameter is all that is required
for brass screws Nos. 0 to 11, and that the same is required for all sizes.
It is clear that steel screws are more troublesome than brass, but the
lot of No. 4 steel examined were probably not made with sufficient care.
The margins are :
1:2 1:0 =) 11 ‘9 1:8 8 1:2 1:0 1:2 a)
(16) (3:2) (3:0) (@3219) (1:5)
The figures in brackets in each case include the screws, even those that
are clearly too small to pass.
‘| No. 0 No. 0 No. 2 No, 2 No. 4 No. 4 No.6 | No.6 | No.8 | No.8 | No. 11
Brass | Brass Brass Steel Brass Steel Brass | Steel Brass | Steel Brass
2373 *2385 *1852 1852 1424 1438 1110 ‘1111 0865 “0860 “0595
“2372 2382 *185C “1851 "1424 1437 1109 1110 “0864 “0858 “0594
"2371 2382 "1850 "1851 1423 1434 1108 “1110 “0863 “0857 “0594
+2370 “2380 1849 “1851 1422 1434 “1106 ‘1110 *O86L “0857 “0594
*2370 *2380 "1849 “1850 1421 1433 “1106 “LLLO “0860 “0857 0593
2370 “2380 "1849 “1850 1421 1432 1106 1110 “0860 “0857 "0593
*2370 "2380 1849 1850 "1421 1431 “1105 1109 “0860 “0855 0593
*2370 2379 1849 1849 1421 1431 1105 1109 0860 “0855 “0593
“2369 2379 +1848 1848 “1420 1430 “1104 1109 “0859 “0855 “0593
2368 2379 1848 1848 "1420 1430 “1103 1109 “0859 “0854 “0593
"2368 *2378 *1848 1848 "1420 "1430 “1103 ‘1109 “0859 0854 “0592
2367 2378 1848 1847 "1420 1429 +1103 1109 0859 “0854 0592
2367 2378 1848 “1845 1419 "1428 1103 1109 0859 “0853 “0592
2365 “2378 1848 1844 "1419 “1428 1103 “1109 “0859 “0852 0592
"2364 2377 1848 “1843 1419 "1426 1103 ‘1108 “0858 “0852 “0591
"2364 *2377 "1847 “1842 1418 *1425 “1103 “1108 “0857 “0852 “0591
2363 2376 1847 1842 1418 1422 1103 1105 0856 “0852 “0590
*2362 “2375 1842 1842 "1418 "1422 “1103 “1102 "0856 *O851 “0590
* 2362 "2309 .1842 1841 1417 1419 1102 1102 “0856 “0850 0589
* 2362 _— 1845 “1841 “1417 1421 1102 “1101 "0855 “0850 “0589
* 2361 _— "1845 1841 1417 "1420 _— “1101 — “0850 *0587
“1845 (it 832 “1416 "1412 Mean “1100 Mean “0849 “0586
Mean} Mean 1843 *1830 1416 1412 _ — —_ = --
2368 +2379 1843 | “1825 1415 “1410 1104 "1099 “0859 0849 | (0581
1820 1410 —_— 1094 _ “0848 | (| :0580
Omitting 1409 — { “1090 _ "0848 —
Mean | last four| Mean 1408 Omit- Omit-
18475 Mean "14205 1408 ting M ting
1846 1408 last 2 “0833. | last 2
Mean Mean zs Mean
Omitting “1108 “0592
last 8
1429
The No. 11 brass screws were a lot that Hervé had been asked to make
with especial care.
538 REPORT—1896.
Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. B. W. KENNEDY, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Professor J. A. Ewing, F’.R.S., Professor D. S.
CapPER, Professor T. H. BEARE, and Professor W. C. Unwin,
ERS. (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Tr was stated in the previous report, presented at Ipswich in 1895, that
the Committee had decided initially to investigate the accuracy of instru-
ments for measuring the tension coefficient of elasticity, or Young’s
modulus.
It was decided that sets of standard test bars should be prepared to
be subjected to tension and the extensions measured by the instruments
in use in different engineering laboratories. The forms of the test bars
are shown in figs. 1 and 2. Two of the standard test bars of each set
were cylindrical bars with screwed ends suitable for use with shackles
having spherical seatings. The third bar of each set was a flat bar
suitable for wedge grips. All the cylindrical bars were cut from a single
bar of specially strong steel rolled for the Committee by the Blenavon
Company. The flat bars were cut from a single plate of good mild steel.
Four sets were prepared, of which two were used for most of the measure-
ments. The bars were marked as follows :
Flat bars, A, B, C, D, of mild steel, approximately 2 inches by } inch
in section.
Cylindrical bars, E, F, G, H, of special steel, approximately 1} inch in
diameter.
Cylindrical bars, K, L, M, N, of special steel, approximately ? inch in
diameter.
The bars were carefully prepared by Mr. R. W. Munro. The
cylindrical bars had marked gauge points suitable for extensometers
8 inches, 10 inches, 16 inches, or 20 inches in length. The flat bars had
gauge points for extensometers 8 inches or 10 inches in length.
In order to obtain some preliminary information as to the mechanical
properties of the standard bars, one round bar and one flat bar were
tested in the testing machine at the Central Technical College. The
following table gives the results obtained :
Preliminary Tests of Materials used for Standard Bars.
TENSION EXPERIMENTS.
7
Yield Point Maximum Breaking |
Load Load
Mark] _: : : - Elonga- Con- E.
ow Dimensions. Area. tion on traction} Tons
Ban Inches Sq. in. Load | Tons Tons | Tons 8in. |of Area per
Tons | per Tons per Tons per percent,|percent.| sq. in.
sq. in. sq. in. sq. in.
D 2:000 x 0°507 | 1°014 | 16:19 | 15:97 | 23°725) 23°40 ee 19°48 32 62 Sees
N 0°750 diam. | 0°4418 | 9:00 | 20:37 [15-725] 35°59 | 13:76] 31-14 |° 24°5 42
ee ee ee ee ee eee eee ea ee
Bar D was exac:ly similar to the flat bars A, B, C.
Bar N was of th2 same steel as standard bars marked E, I’, K, L, &c.
a a
S.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIE
Fia. 2.
Fig. 1,
Marked End
¢
°
igr a~? Sagas
4 !
'
'
!
—- eee.
—ere eo
16 Whitworth Oread
1896
REPORT
540
———
amen ee a eee art ar pouby /
= 78
|
| i
| |
i|
sd ie L ta ae mod ie ja ie ore x wemoedg Vv uawpoadg d
auarrig) | seta cari|| coon ge | 2zemamaer, || Sekar ur | Soom | caste | ary go anne | SMOUL UE | ere athomototg are ceneng | a
0} $Z ug | ~Sodons soz || 09 $z aoyz bah a0} || SAO COTEHIC : -bioduay, SOPBB EG -etodmay, | prot
a a a
Ss = xX yo
iy =0 "70 =7717 @ oy vnwMI0,T
aaa a age =mM=Bvoly * ivq Jo suotsuautg
7 in x ; + (potmnbar Jr) Surpvar 1oy9u0sua}xKa TOF yULsUO;
soyouL =7T = > a S'S “qUOMOIMsveM 10} pesn syutod asney
*19}OTLOSTI9}.XO —- TITAN
a Aq sjusnIonseva TT
‘ON “Teg ,,FT punoy eyed
[ased yxou v0g] “(warswaz) hnousoyy fo snynpozy
INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. 544
Test sheet forms were drawn up by the Committee, to be issued to
different observers with the sets of test bars, on which the observations
were to be recorded in a uniform manner. A sample of the form of ob-
servation sheet prepared by the Committee is printed on the opposite page-
In January 1895 two sets of test bars were sent out, to be circulated
amongst those observers who had consented to make measurements for
the Committee. A very large number of measurements have been made
with great care, and the record forms have been returned to the
Committee.
It is proposed in the present report to give an analysis of these
results. The following short statement gives particulars, so far as they
are stated on the forms received, of the extensometers used.
Extensometers used in Measurements made for the British Association
Calibration Committee.
Instrument used
|
H Observer
Kennedy’s Extensometer. Lever or mechanical multiply-
ing arrangement.
Ewing’s Extensometer. Measurements taken by micro-
scope with micrometer in eyepiece.
Ewing’s Extensometer. :
Goodman’s Extensometer. A mechanical multiplying in-
strument of Kennedy type.
Unwin’s Mirror Extensometer. The extension of the bar
deflects a mirror. A scale is placed at a distance, and
by a fixed telescope the reading of the scale reflected in
the mirror is taken. Also a lever extensometer with
triple compound levers.
Mechanical multiplying instrument of Kennedy type.
Bronze mechanical extensometer, Kennedy pattern.
| A. B. W. Kennedy .
J.A.Ewing . ‘
H.S.Hele Shaw .
J.Goodman . :
W.C. Unwin . .
T. Hudson Beare .
D.S. Capper . ‘
_1. Variations in Measurement of the Area of the Test Bars by different
Observers.
The following table gives the measurements of the test bars by
different observers. They are satisfactory as showing that the error of
measurement of area of a test bar, by different observers, seldom exceeds.
about one-fifth of 1 per cent. That is the error reckoned from the mean
value of the area given by several observers. The difference of measure-
ment for any two observers may amount to 0:5 of one per cent.
Taste I.—Comparison of Measuremenis of Test Bars.
ry F ¢ | Distin- Observed | Mean value of pret ead Deviaticn in
Meee? guishing} Observer area in | observed atea) po, nen per cent.
Letter sq. in. in sq- in. | valuein sq. in. of mean value
Flat A W.C.U. . | 1:0175 — ‘0002 — "02
A. B.W. K. | 1:0170 — 0007 — 07
T.H. B. . {| 1:0190 10177 +0013 +13
J.G.. - | 1:0170 —°0007 — 07
| | D.S.C. . | 1:0180 +°0003 +08
ay REPORT—1896.
TABLE I.—continued.
cpl 5 . | Deviation of separ
bon f Distin- Observed Mean value of; obderven Grea Deviation in
r “Bat & guishing Observer area in | observed area ean EAT per cent.
BE Letter sq. in. in eq. in. | value in eq. in. | Of mean value
Flat B W.C.U. 1:0157 —-0001 01
H. 8. H. 8. | 1:0180 10158 +°0022 + 22
| J. A. E. 1:0120 — ‘0038 —°37
i | D. 8. C. 1:0175 +:0017 +17
Round F W.C. U. 1:2230 — 0008 —‘07
A. B. W. K. | 1:2230 12938 — 0008 —'07
T.H.B. . | 1:2262 a +0024 +°'20
J.G.. 1:2230 — ‘0008 — 07
Round E W.C. U. 1°2252 +0020 416
H. 8S. H. 8. | 1:22125 12232 —°0019 —'16
J.A. E. 1:2250 ary +0018 +°15
D.8.C. . | 1:2213 —-0019 —-16
Round L W. C.U. 0°4412 +0009 +-20
A. B. W. K. | 0°4394 —°0009 —°20
T. H. B. 0°4418 0°4403 +0015 +34
J.G.. . | 04390 —0013, —-30
D.8.C. . | 04400 —-0003 — ‘07
iw rae tee = Is
Round Kk W.C.U. . | 0°4418 0 0
H. 8. H. 8S. | 0°44179 0-4418 | 0 0
J.A.E. . | 0°4418 0 (0)
D.S.C. . | 0°4418 0 0
Il. Variations in each Observer's Results of the Measurement of Eaxten-
sion for a given Interval of Load.
In the following table have been arranged the greatest and least
measured extensions by each observer on each bar, for an increment of load
of 1} ton in the case of some bars, and of 2} tons in the case of other
bars. For the rectangular bars A, B, the extensions were measured for
increments of 23 tons load, corresponding to stress increments of about
21 tons per sq. in. For the 1}-in. round bars E, F, the load increments
were 24 tons, corresponding to stress increments of about 2 tons per sq. in.
For the 3-in. round bars K, L, the load increments were 1} ton, corre-
sponding to stress increments of nearly 3 tons per sq. in. For each
observer’s measurements on each bar the mean extension for the same
increment in his set of observations is also given. By comparing each
observer’s maximum and minimum values with his mean value, an indica-
tion is obtained of the magnitude of instrumental or observational errors *
in each case.
As this comparison is not affected by error in the determination or the
calibration constant of the instrument, it is an index of the observational
or instrumenta! error of particular extensometer observations.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES.
Taste II,
Comparison of Observer's Greatest and Least Values of Extensions with his
own Mean Values.
j
Mean per
| for exch bar
\cent.deviation
|
—
Oe Hee Ss
ce. 263, 8)
a4 2°95
2
o>
to
. Rar | Greatest | Least | strineer | from mean
Beer No. Sh interval of 2h or | TEST | «ofeach, ieviatton
1; ton observer Tesults
2m
ABW.E .|A | 00200-00140 j-oo1775 | *"Hnnees a3 |
ZL | -00225 00205 |-ooa1g | * 00110 ial
| (700160, 00140 | 00160 rahe eer f
| |-oo160» j00140 |-oo1s1 | + "00080 738 f
J. A.E. (| -oos2 |oous |-oo19 Somme. | ier |
(EK | 00172 foo1ss |-oo170 | *ooo10 | tae}
H} oie 00122 |-oo128 | *‘ooo10 | oar}
T.H.B.. . A} -o190 joo17o |-oo1ss + +059 | tio}
{00220 }00190 00208 = ooteo. | eee |
| |-00220. |-00190 |-oo210 | + 7000100 one
yp | [00185 j00140 | oo15s ni er weds
| | | {-oo16s foo1so |-oo1ss | + 000120 | 7:84 }
ae Sar ae ores Wael:
K | -oo17s16|oo1672 |-oo1716 | *Spoo4s | ase |
| E | 001277 /oo12102/-o01242 | *Sooosis | ae6 |
iG. «| A] -o0190 |oo1s0 |-oo1ss | +:000020 re
! | L | -00220 00210 |-o0216 | *Doo60 | a78}
| F | -00170 | 00150 |-00156 * 0080 35)
[IG «+ A | 00200 00170 | oo1ss | * Noor40 Tat
(Students). | L./ -00210 00200 | 00207 ea war:
_F | 00170 jo0150 |-oo15e | *pooe0 | *2e0f
| W.c.U. . B | -o18o1 }oo17ss |-oo1sss | *Sooss | 598}
(Mirror exten-
someter) K | -ov21s2 }oozoss |-oo2105 | *"Soooey | sis}
BAA REPORT—1896.
TABLE II.— Continued.
| Mean for} Deviation from S8
ia Greatest Least. \ninter-| mean of Pata
Re ar extension |exten-ion| 01, 4 each Per cent sea
Observer 'No.! in Interval of 23 y ». |deviation |2.2 3
| aieaea | eich observer’s oto
4 observer results a 3 =
= | =. i]
| ee tel WHS: Yo fe +-000094 | 6:09
_E | -001638 001447 | 001544 | 7 Goggg7 cal 6-18
W.c.U... .| B | -001852 |.001418 | -001485 Bee pia 451
(Lever extenso- aeq | + 000032 5°54"
- 7 . 9 iy 9 . ‘ ys) = .
meter) E | -001293 |-001217 | 001261 — Soo0014 | 350 3-02
= oilvemienee|tnt 0008s | |) MzeaaNln ls
ars Cae A | -00190 }00185 | 001855 | * Soog95 | o27 f| 1°35
fe Lapua Olleaa@iaecctere COOOKS |) iia
| fap 00430 | 004345 | > ooooas hg 115
eee Gi crag | +:000010 | 0-477}.
| L |,-00215 00210 | 002140 | * oooo4g | tary) 1:70
I]. ha o1ox | +°000075 | 353
| | 00220 00195002125 * “oooi75 398 f 588
, 003088 | + 000012 ees ;
| ( 00310 | 00300 | 003088 | Oooggs 9-35 [| 1°62
|; eg me en eae Ro 3:23
| E | a Looiso |-oo1ss | 7 DNa0e 323 f 3:23
a at (thiolase Cath oc OOOH 3:23) | 9.
00160-00150 | -oo155 | *‘O00NS ae \ 3-23
ar kolck 00002. 1°33 1 | o.
By} 0019 © 0018 "|'-001875 | Nanas | og i 2°66
hanes Pyavat “NN91% + 000046 2°13 .
ws (0022-0021 Ofz16e noosa | oes
is aacts (alte +-000054 | 251
{70022 — }00205 "002146 | Foe | a art 3-49
Tt will be seen that the deviations of the maximum and minimum
values of the extension for 1} ton (or 25 tons) from the mean value are
somewhat considerable, and often exceed 5 per cent. ina
Tn considering the apparently large percentages of error in some cases.
in this table, it must be remembered that the extensions were measured
for a comparatively small increment of stress ; also that the greatest and
least extensions of each observer are those probably affected by the largest.
accidental errors.
Ill. Method of finding the Mean Extension for a given Increment of
Load from which the Coefficient of Elasticity is calculated.
Tf a series of extensions are observed for a series of equal increments
of load, and if the coefficient of elasticity is constant for the whole range
of stress to which the bar is subjected, then the arithmetical mean of the
observed extensions is the true mean extension according to the observa-
tions for the given increment of load. It is this mean which should be
used in calculating the coefficient of elasticity. Also, apart from mere
observational errors, the value of the mean extension will in no wa
depend on the magnitude of the increments of load for which the exten-
sions are observed, *
Tf, however, the coefficient of elasticity is not constant for the range
INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. DAD
of stress to which the bar is subjected, then a different value of the mean
extension will be found for different values of the increment of load for
which the extension is observed.
Professor Kennedy suggested that the simple arithmetical mean of the
observed extensions should be compared with the mean extension taken
wut in the following way.
Suppose six micrometer readings are taken for six equal increments of
load. The extension is calculated for the first and fourth, the second and
fifth, and the third and sixth, loading ; the mean of these is then taken.
The following is a sample of this method for a single set of readings :
1 : Micrometer Differences for Mean Extension | Mean Extension
Load'in Tons Reading 74 Tons for 74 Tons for 24 Tons
0 (40°41)
a 2
23 er 005533
t 7s 52°17 005528 - 005553 ‘001851
ea eee 005599
123 60:05
The following table contains a comparison for some of the sets
of observations of the simple arithmetical mean of the extensions
‘observed, and the mean calculated by the method suggested by Professor
Kennedy : Sa
Taste ITI.—Comparison of Mean Extension.
Mean Extension
Observer Bar | Loading i reel
Arithmetical Mean} Kennedy’s Mean
A. B.W.K. A Ist 23 00178 00182
Be . 2nd Be ‘00177 ‘00181
a L Ist 1} 00214 00215
a ae 2nd a 00214 , -00216
Hs 1 1st 22 ‘00150 “00152
m4 6 2nd aa *0Q150 , 00151
fi EF Ist & “OO151 00153
Fy a 2nd 8 “00151 “00153
W.C.U. B Ist 22 “001851 -001851
Le Fr 2nd tA “001850, 001840
a K { Ist 1} *002097 -002094
od ss | 2nd a 002113 ‘002106
. E lst 22 *0Q1546, *001537
” ” | 2nd is 001542 “001539
As the differences are small between the means found by. the two
methods, compared with the variations due to other causes, the simple
arithmetical mean has been used in the following comparisons.
As the modulus of elasticity is usually calculated for the whole range
of stress, it does not seem to matter which method of getting the mean
extension is adopted. But in a case like this, where.the instrumental or
accidental errors of single readings are obviously not inconsiderable when
compared with the whole extension for small ranges of stress, it would
seem that it is not desirable to take out the extensions for very small
ranges of stress. Professor Kennedy’s method averages the error over a
longer range of stress.
1896, NN
546 REPORT—1896.
IV. Comparison of the Values of the Coefficient of Elasticity
obtained by different Observers.
The different values of the coefficient of elasticity calculated from the
observations are affected by errors of measurement of the bars, errors of
calibration of the testing machine and extensometer, errors of observa-
tion, and errors inherent in the construction of the extensometer,
Taste LV.—Values of Coefficient of Elasticity obtained by different
Observers. (Tons per square inch.)
.
Mean of all
Results by | Mean results| Mean ofall | results on
Bar ‘Observer each by each results on | bars of same
observer observer one bar material and
size
13290
13290
13116 |)
13160 |
13198
13231 |
13260 |
13260
13200
13320
13260
13260 |
13430
13430
|
| 13465
13500 |
)
}
|
|
E J.A. Ewing ,
Dea eee ee ees sce ees ees i ct ee eet CU = bc nat Sg
H. 8S. Hele Shaw
W.C. Unwin , Fy
D.S. Capper . e 13260
13249
A. B. W. Kennedy .
13500
13050
13150
13070
13150
13250
13250
13380
13350
13310
13072
13495
13385
13100
13040
13100
13160
13200
13200
13260
13420
13210
13160
13244
13244
13120
13120
13210
)
)
13210 |
F |. Hudson Beare . 13273
J.Goodman . 5
J. A. Ewing . °
oe
>
H. 8. Hele Shaw ‘
K |W.C.Unwin. . 13274
D.S. Capper . e
A. B. W. Kennedy . 13245
T. Hudson Beare ,
13215
L J.Goodman , 4
D.8. Capper . . - 13153
13130
13130
ba |
INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. 54.
TABLE LV.—continued.
Mean of all
| |
Results by | Mean results} Mean ofall | results on
Bar Observer each by each results on | bars of same
observer observer one bar | material and
| size
A. B.W, Kennedy . {| Teor, |} 18150. | |
T. Hudson Beare f ae j 13210 |
(| 13110 |) Sah nese
A J.Goodman . 13110 j 13110 ||
296
D.§8. Capper . | yeaan | 13260
bad pepiacen lt oa. | ag
| J. A. Ewing ‘| 13310 y 13285 |
|B |H.S.HeleShaw . {| fee doe le |
| | ; |~ 13203
W.C. Unwin a 13294 ) 13298 | |
ae» {| ioe Pg | /
( 13110 } ania
D.§. Capper . y 13110 py 13110 |
The foregoing table contains all the values of E calculated from the
total range of stress to which the bars were subjected in the record sheets
sent in to the Committee. The total range of stress in each case was
about the maximum range which could safely be used without risk of
straining the bar beyond its elastic limit.
It should be remembered that bars E, F, K, L were all cut from the
same rolled bar, and of these E and F were approximately of 1:25 inch
diameter and K L approximately 0°75 inch diameter. Bars A and B
were cut from the same plate, and were approximately*of the section
2 x4 inches.
V. Variation of Individual Results from the Mean of all the Results.
In the preceding table the means are given of all the results sent in
for the pairs of bars of the same material and size. It cannot, of course,
be assumed that these means are the true values of the coefficients of
elasticity of the bars. Nevertheless, they furnish convenient reference
numbers for estimating the probable magnitude of the differences of values
of E determined by different observers with different instruments. In the
following table this comparison of each observer's results with the mean
of all the results is made. The percentage deviation from the mean is, of
course, not necessarily the percentage error, but it is at least some
indication of the probable magnitude of the error of the calibration
constant as distinguished from error due to instrument or observer in
individual determination of the extension.
048 REPORT—1596.
TABLE V;
Variation of Values of Coefficient of Elasticity from the Mean Value
of all the Observations on corresponding Bars.
Mean Value of o\5e
> 7 Mean Value of | Deviation
Observer Bar Gauge aa all Loadings by | from Mean
Points ae Over all Observers | per Cent.
BOT ape. PEPSI A Flats - ae
jae L a.c. 13200 13245 =
A.B. W. Kennedy . f ae 13500 13249 41:89
| Fr c.e. | 13430 13249 +1°37
(B = 13285 | ~ 13193 + °70
J.A.Ewing . .|1K SS HORST e3R5 _ 13245 + 91
(E — | 13290 13249 + 31
A ae Te, 13210 13193 + 13
[1 ac. | 13340 13245 + 72
| T. Hudson Beare Be Wy c.d. | 13185 13245 — ‘45
[E ac. | ‘13100 13249 _-112
F c.d. 13110 13249 —1-05
(B lm,..- | — ‘13120 13193 — *55
' H. S. Hele Shaw 1K eaess OH T5167 13245 = “At
| (E see With fe1ae 13249 ed
| A oe 13110 13193 — +63
J. Goodman . F = 13244 13245 — O01
F = jee 1S95D 13249 + 01
( B kn. | 13298 13193 + -80
Wee Unwin ~- 14K ae 7" 13440 13245 41:47
| (i dltea bird (oageianni: age — 26
| A ps. 13260 13193 + ‘Bl
L BB. >| pp 89120 13245 — 94
L ac. | 13210 13245 — 26
| L c.e. 13130 sus as a
: B is... | 18110 1319 ats
| DS. Capper) s (2 |\K oe 13070 13245 _1:32
K ac. | 183130 13245 — ‘87
E ce. | 13260 13249 + 08
' E ac. | 13260 13249 + -08
E aen fi «T8860 13249 + 08
On the Physical and Engineering Features of the River Mersey and
Port of Liverpool. By GrorGE Fossery Lyster, M.Jnst.0.E.,
Lngineer-in-Chief to the Mersey Dock Estate.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
LIveRPOOL, with its river and docks, is such an important factor in the
history of the world, and has so largely contributed towards England’s
commercial greatness, that, though doubtless the subject is well known,
it would be out of place to allow the visit of so distinguished a body as
the British Association for the Advancement of Science to the city and
its surroundings to pass without briefly submitting to them something of
the history, physical conditions, and progressive development of the port.
Although the Bay of Liverpool is open to the north and west, there-
fore at times subject to very heavy gales from those quarters, nevertheless,
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 549
being sheltered by Ireland from the tumultuous and overwhelming seas
of the Atlantic, and further guarded by the flanking coasts of Wales,
Cumberland, South Scotland, and the off-lying Isle of Man, its position—
as an examination of the map of the British Isles clearly shows—is
assimilated more to a port situated within a large lake, like those of the
North American Continent, than one on an open and exposed seaboard ;
while the numerous sheltered roadsteads, deep estuaries, and good har-
bours abounding along these coasts afford such facilities for economic
interchange of traffic as nowhere else exist throughout the coasts of Great
Britain.
To these peaceful advantages is to be added the invaluable feature of
its unique position as regards safety in time of war, for, though modern
battleships, by reason of their great speed and comparative invulnera-
bility, are able to swoop down and make unlooxked-for raids on an enemy’s
coast, it may be considered that, while England maintains her supremacy
of the sea, a prudent hostile commander would scarcely risk annihilation
by attacking a seaport such as Liverpool, approachable only through the
well-guarded narrows of St. George’s Channel, or the still narrower and
more easily watched North Channel by the Mull of Cantire, and further
protected by the mass of banks outside the port, the channels through
which could be easily defended. Landward, Liverpool has a supreme
advantage over the rest of England by being in close proximity to the
chief centres of manufacturing industry, as well as to great coal-fields
and salt-mines, which are most important adjuncts to its trade.
Further swelling the list of favourable elements are the unusual and
peculiar characteristics of the river Mersey itself; namely, a deep,
capacious, and sheltered roadstead close to its mouth, with shores suitable
for the construction of docks and approached by easy sea channels, and so
large a tidal range and other such physical conditions as to enable it to
maintain its natural advantages without the aid of art—except as regards
its bar, eleven miles seaward of its mouth, where nature is now
being assisted by special dredging operations to improve its deep-water
condition.
These salient advantages, now so briefly outlined, will readily account
for the Mersey having been wisely selected as the best and most secure
position for a great northern trading and distributing centre, to which
the merchandise of the world now easily gravitates.
The foresight evidenced in such a selection has been more than amply
justified, for, from a small beginning, less than 200 years ago, when the
era of the manufacturing trade of the northern counties was com-
mencing, Liverpool has expanded pari passw with that trade, from its
position of an insignificant fishing village of a few hundred inhabitants
to that of the second, if not the premier, commercial port of the world,
and now has, with its surrounding urban districts, a population of
upwards of 800,000.
This splendid and unrivalled progress, though in some degree owing
to the foresight of its early founders and later administrators, is due
primarily to the natural advantages before mentioned, and chiefly to the
magnificent stretch of upwards of six miles of deep water which the
Mersey presents and maintains immediately in front of the city and its
suburbs, thus allowing docks of convenient form and size to be constructed
along its foreshore, easy of approach, thoroughly sheltered, and in all
respects suitable for ships of every class, both large and small.
550 REPORT—1896.
In olden times, and while Liverpool was still in its infancy, the sea
trade of this part of England was carried on through the ports of Preston
and Chester, and that of the south-west of the country by Bristol and
Milford Haven.
Preston was a prominent port of the Romans, but lost its value, even
in the early days of light-draught vessels, by the deterioration and silting
up of the river Ribble and the exposed condition of its estuary ; while
Chester, which chiefly commanded the trade and intercourse with Ireland,
though also a favoured port with the Saxons and Romans, became obsolete
from a like cause. It may, however, be remarked that the authorities of
both the Ribble and the Dee have, in recent days, sought the aid of
artificial works to improve the navigable condition of these rivers.
The precise origin of the name ‘ Liverpool’ has for long been some-
what a difficulty to all inquirers, and, though a great variety of opinions
have from time to time been under discussion, no definite conclusion has
been come to, the meaning of the first portion of the name, ‘ Liver,’ being
the knotty point of contention.
Without having gone sufliciently into the question to justify more than
a general opinion on the much-mooted point, it appears to the author
sufficiently reasonable to suppose that, as the ancient seal on the old deeds
of the Corporation, also on the present city arms, is emblazoned with a
traditional bird called the ‘liver,’ generally accepted as the cormorant
(though, as some suggest, it may have been originally intended for the
more noble symbolic eagle of St. John, the patron saint of the guilds of
that day), it is very probable that the first portion of the name is derived
from that source, and that the creek or pool, evidenced by ancient maps
as existing towards the centre of the old town, was the habitation of the
cormorant, thus providing a fitting terminal for the ornithological puzzle.
As in the case of the doubtful origin of the name ‘ Liverpool,’ and
the variety of opinions that have been urged on the point, a difficulty
exists, though probably not so prominently, as to the origin of the name
‘Mersey,’ though it is generally accepted that the river was so called from
having been the northern boundary line of the kingdom of Mercia, and
this appears to be a reasonable explanation.
It is stated by Picton, in his history of the district, that the earliest
documentary evidence having reference to Liverpool is of the date 1004,
when it is said to be mentioned in a deed of the reign of King Ethelred.
He also relates that King John, about the year 1170, founded the
borough and port of Liverpool, and constructed a castle for their defence :
this was chiefly with a view to facilitate the communication with Ireland,
which was in a chronic state of disaffection and disturbance, rather than
as a commercial enterprise, which in those days was little thought of.
The river Mersey tirst takes that name in Cheshire at a point four
miles to the east of the town of Stockport, at the junction of the two small
rivers Goyt and Etherow, which severally rise in the high lands bordering
South Yorkshire, North Derbyshire, and Cheshire. They are insignificant
streams, scarce worthy of the name of rivers, their courses being narrow,
tortuous, and irregular.
The length of the river Mersey proper, from the point of junction
above mentioned to its mouth between the north end of Liverpool on
the Lancashire shore and New Brighton on the Cheshire shore, is 56
miles. It has, as tributaries, the Tame, running into it near Stockport,
and the Irwell, one of its most important affluents, which has its source in
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 551
North Lancashire, and which, after receiving the waters of minor streams,
passes through the city of Manchester, and joins the Mersey at Flixton,
eight miles lower down. Between that point and Warrington the Mersey
receives from the adjoining marshes the waters of several small streams.
The aggregate drainage area of the combined catchment basins above
Warrington is about 750 square miles. From Warrington downward to
Runcorn, a distance of about ten miles, it partakes of the form of an
ordinary narrow tidal river, passing through the low-lying marsh lands of
the district with little fall.
At the town of Runcorn, where the name Runcorn Gap fitly describes
the narrow and special configuration of its high and abrupt red sandstone
shores, the Mersey is crossed by the high-level viaduct which carries the
London and North-western Railway to Liverpool. From this point the
river passes into the enlarged portion of the estuary, which at high tide
assumes the appearance of a large inland lake. Reaching seaward to the
south end of Liverpool, a distance of about 12} miles, by from 2 to 3
miles wide, with an area of 30 square miles, it is filled to about. half-tide
level with a deposit of sand, which mostly becomes dry at low tide. This
part of the river, owing to its form and size, plays an important part in
maintaining the deep water abreast of Liverpool, as well as the sea
channels.
- About 24 miles below Runcorn the river Weaver passes into the
Mersey on its left bank, and, with its tributaries, forms its most important
adjunct, being the chief drainage basin of mid-Cheshire, with a water-
shed of 550 square miles.
Below the mouth of the Weaver the adjoining part of Cheshire
is drained by the Gowy and a few other insignificant streams, while
on the Lancashire side minor streams of a like character drain that
district.
The drainage of the city of Liverpool is effected by an ordinary system
of sewers which pass into large intercepting culverts, carried at intervals
through the Dock Estate into the river. Owing to the large volume of
‘tidal water which daily passes backwards and forwards, the material from
this source is swept away, leaving little or no trace of fouling along the
foreshores.
The aggregate drainage area of these several rivers and streams
is computed at 1,724 square miles. The total amount of up-river water
discharging into the estuary in each twelve hours is estimated at from
two to three million cubic yards, while the volume of tidal water on high
Springs is computed at about 710 million cubic yards, and on low neaps at
281 million cubic yards. It should not be inferred from this disparity in
quantity between the volume of upland water and that of the tides that
the former does not play an important part in the régime of the river—
on the contrary, the river channel is formed primarily by the land water,
and the wandering tendency which it displays in its downward course to
the sea is the first step towards insuring the capacity of the estuary
being fully maintained. This is effected by its action in grooving out the
surface of the sandbanks, so forming minor channels to receive the
in-flowing tide, which, running through them with great velocity, enlarges
and extends them. This process, repeated in all the varying positions
which the channels take, ploughs up the whole area of the estuary from
‘shore to shore, so preventing the growth of the banks by accretion and
the tidal displacement which would follow such accretion.
bow REPORT—1896.
Near the point where the Mersey leaves the wide portion and enters
the comparatively narrow channel abreast of Liverpool, it assumes the
condition of a magnificent deep-water river passing shore lines largely in
rock, and midway of its course of about six miles to the sea it gradually
narrows to a width of 1,000 yards, widening again towards its mouth to
about 1,800 yards. There is ample width in this deep reach of the river
for the convenient handling and anchoring of a large number of the
largest ships, the soundings at low water for the most part ranging from
40 to 50 feet, with considerable areas below 60 feet. It is here well
sheltered by the high lands on the Cheshire shore from all winds from
south to west, and by the Lancashire shore from south to north. The
Bay, as has been said, is open to north and north-west gales, and these
cause heavy seas on the banks, which, however, having their crests for
the most part much above low-water level, act to a very considerable
extent as breakwaters, and modify greatly the force of the waves through
the sea channels as well as at the mouth of the river and along the line
of docks. From the point where the river Mersey enters the sea at
New Brighton on the Cheshire shore, that shore trends westerly in a
straight line to the mouth of the Dee, a distance of about eight miles,
and the Lancashire shore in a straight line northerly for a like distance.
Within these coast-lines are contained about 23,000 acres of sand-
‘banks, which dry at low tides, and form the formidable barrier fronting
the port.
Doubtless a large proportion of this enormous mass of sand is brought
from the adjoining coasts of Wales, by the action of the sea and currents,
and deposited within this rectangular area, which it cannot pass, to
which is added the large quantity that is necessarily brought down by
the river from the continual wasting of its banks and foreshores, as also.
from the quantity of detritus that is constantly being conveyed seawards.
by floods and freshets. .
Over and through these banks the flood and ebb tides force their
way, maintaining, however, one large well-defined deep channel, used by:
all the important ships of the port, with two subsidiary channels of
less value.
The main channel is known as the Crosby, and for the first six miles.
of its course it takes a straight and northerly direction, running parallel
‘with the Lancashire coast, and at low tide skirting its extended sandy
foreshore in front of the suburbs of Seaforth, Waterloo, and Formby,,.
while the main body of the great Burbo Bank forms its seaward barrier
and boundary. The continuity of the inner face of the Burbo is.
frequently broken by creeks, depressions, and shallow channels, evidencing
the efforts of the ebb currents to find their way to the open sea through a
shorter course than that of the main channel. At the end of the six-mile
reach, which is marked by the Crosby Lightship, the Channel trends,
with a gradual curve seaward, in a north-westerly direction to the Bar,
which is about five miles from the Crosby Light, and thence forces and
maintains its way through the enormous mass of. sand, which forms the
great Burbo and Taylor’s Banks, and which, but for this severance, would
‘present a solid unbroken mass, with a sea face in the form of an ordinary
beach. The outer portion of the main channel is known as the Queen’s
Channel.
The Crosby Channel, considering its leeshore position, and its being
flanked and almost surrounded by vast masses of mobile sand, has main-
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 553
tained its general conditions, both as regards position and capacity, with
‘singular regularity, so that the conditions of navigation have remained
practically uniform.
This indicates the value of the tidal volume flowing into and out of
the Upper Estuary, and clearly points out the vital necessity of main-
taining it undiminished and untrammelled to the fullest possible extent.
The Bar, as is doubtless well understood, is a sandy accumulation or
ridge, with a long sloping foreshore on each side, stretching across the
mouth of the main channel ; on plan its form is that of an irregular
‘curve, somewhat in the shape of a horseshoe with its convex side seaward,
separating the deep water of the channel from that of the offing. It is
the result of the loss of concentration of the current due to the channel
departing from its regularity of form where it issues from the banks
and meets their outer or sea slopes. It is joined up on its north flank to
the tail or westernmost extremity of the most seawardly bank of the
group known as the Zebra Flats, which forms an extension of Taylor’s
Bank under water, and on the south to the western spit of the
‘Little Burbo.
The Bar is not constant in position, but has been found to be moving
slowly seaward, in accord with the growth of the banks in a like direction,
‘maintaining, however, its general characteristics. [F urther on, the
author refers to the works undertaken to give increased depth of
water on the Bar. |
In addition to this main channel, there are two minor or subsidiary
‘channels, viz.—the Formby Channel and the Rock Channel. The
former is a prolongation nearly in the same direction as that of the inner
reach of the main channel, which it leaves at a point abreast of the
Crosby Lightship and continues in a northerly direction to the Formby
‘Spit, after which it reaches the open sea, five miles from its junction with
the Crosby Channel. It is narrow, shallow, and somewhat tortuous when
it leaves the main channel, but is thoroughly buoyed, and is used by
small vessels proceeding to and from the north, as it saves a détour of
several miles.
The Rock Channel, so called from the rocks which crop up at the
point at New Brighton, where it leaves the main channel, runs from that.
point westerly, nearly parallel to the Cheshire shore for a distance of six
miles, when it turns to the north-west and passes into the Bay by an
outlet known as the Horse Channel, between a spit of the Great Burbo
and the East Hoyle Bank, which separates the water of the river
Mersey from that of the river Dee.
Before the Crosby Channel with its bar entrance became stable and
pronounced, the Rock was the chief channel to and from the port, owing
to its position relative to the prevailing winds. Its main body was then
wider and deeper than at present, it having considerably deteriorated
‘of late years and come inshore, while the Horse entrance has become
narrower and more difficult.
The whole of the entrances to the port are buoyed and lighted on the
most approved system. Powerful distinguishing lights to serve both the
Crosby and Rock Channels are placed on the land at the river mouth, at.
New Brighton and North Wall. In the main channel floating lightships
are moored as follows :—the Crosby light at the point where the Crosby
Channel changes its direction ; the Formby light about halfway between
the Crosby and Bar lights, the latter of which is moored about 13 mile
554 REPORT—1896.
outside the Bar. Out at sea, some eight miles from the Bar, a lightship
known as the North-west Lightship is moored, this being the first floating
light to be picked up by vessels making for the port. There are, however,
along the north coast of Wales, to as far as Holyhead, several light-
houses maintained at the expense of the port of Liverpool. Each
important station has its distinguishing light and fog-signal. In addition
to the lightships in the main channel, there are also a number of lighted
gas-buoys. The dredged cut at the Bar is also defined by two lighted
buoys on each side.
The system of buoyage adopted in the sea channels of the Mersey
is that approved in 1883 by the Conference on Buoyage in Ports of the
United Kingdom, of which Captain Graham Hills, R.N., then Marine
Surveyor to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, was a prominent
member.
The width of the main channel varies in its several reaches, its deep-
water fairway being outlined by the buoys referred to, which are moored
to give a width of channel from 800 to 1,400 yards.
Doubtless the several features are well understood and appreciated by
navigators, but they present such interesting characteristics as to render
them worthy of the attention even of landsmen and laymen unacquainted
with. the locality. It will be evident from the foregoing necessarily very
general description that the main sea-channels of the Mersey being wide,
deep, thoroughly well buoyed and lighted, and provided with powerful
fog-horns at all the leading points, there is no difficulty in entering or
leaving the Mersey by day or night, which facility is essential in a sea-
port used by such an enormous number of vessels, of all sizes and classes,
as carry on its trade.
Until a few years ago vessels arriving at the approaches to the port
occasionally ran some risk, and were, in some cases, subject to considerable
inconvenience through being compelled to wait in the open bay outside
the Bar until there was sufficient water over it to enable them to cross
safely. By the very extensive dredging operations carried out in recent
years, and to which the author now proposes to make some reference,
this difficulty has practically been entirely removed.
It has been mentioned above that the main channel of the Mersey has
maintained its general features with regularity, so that the conditions
of navigation have remained practically uniform. ‘This applies, amongst
other features, to the depth of water over the Bar, which has generally
under natural conditions been about 10 or 11 feet below low water of
spring tides. Sometimes in the course of changes it has been somewhat
greater or less. Assuming a depth on the Bar of 10 feet below low-water
springs, then, with the range of tide obtaining in Liverpool Bay, the
depth of water over the Bar at high water would scarcely ever be less than
30 feet, and would vary between that and about 40 feet, so that at high
water (that is, about once every twelve hours) any vessel could enter
or leave the port. Doubtless, therefore, the measure of inconvenience
was not great when vessels were small and slow; but in recent years,
where the size and speed of steamers have greatly increased, the detention
at the Bar of vessels arriving at or about low water became a serious
inconvenience, especially in the case of the ocean greyhounds carrying
a large number of impatient passengers.
Previous to 1890 no attempt had been made to obtain by artificial
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 550
works more than the natural depth of water on the Bar, except that about
the year 1838, when the condition of the sea channels for navigation was
below the normal efficiency as regards depth and otherwise, Captain
Denham, the Marine Surveyor of that day, was authorised to harrow or
rake across the Bar in the channel then forming in the course of natural
changes at the outer end of the main channel. A sum of between 3,000/,
and 4,0007. was spent in this work, the precise effect of which is uncertain,
as in the course of nature a channel having the normal depth was formed
in this position and was adopted for navigation.
It must not be inferred that the subject of the Bar obstruction was
lost sight of through the period intervening between Captain Denham’s
experiment and the commencement of practical work. On the contrary,
it had never ceased to be a source of anxiety to the authorities, and more
particularly, in recent years, to the Dock Board, and the author as their
engineer, and suggestions for its amelioration had from time to time been
under consideration.
There was, however, a natural and wise hesitation to tackle a question
that presented such formidable difficulties and responsibilities, both physi-
cal and financial, at all events unless and until there appeared a fair
prospect of obtaining successful and satisfactory results within reasonable
limits, both as regards time and expenditure.
At New York, the western terminus of the great Atlantic ferry, in-
convenience arising from a similar cause had been felt, and after failure
of certain expedients, experiments by dredging the obstructed channel,
undertaken in 1885 and subsequent years, met with a considerable degree
of success. Although the problems were by no means the same, the
difficulties at Liverpool being infinitely greater than those at New York,
the success at the latter port appeared to warrant an experiment on the
Bar at Liverpool, and it was accordingly decided to undertake an experi-
ment of some magnitude in dredging.
Had the lowering of the Bar been dependent on the old-fashioned
bucket system of dredging, excellent as it is for some positions, experience
teaches that in this instance costly failure would have been inevitable.
The employment of the centrifugal pump as a dredger, which is a com-
paratively recent application, offered the best, and practically the only,
means of removing the Mersey Bar, which consists of sand of various
degrees of fineness. The author had made early experiments with the
centrifugal pump as a dredger, these being carried out after an examina-
tion which he made in 1876 of a plan he saw in practice in the sandy bed
of the river Loire in France, where he found a suction dredger at work
in clearing out the foundations for a bridge oyer that river. His first
attempt to adapt this principle to the work on the Dock Estate at Liver-
pool was by fitting up an old mud hopper barge with a centrifugal pump
and trailing suction-pipe, for the purpose of testing its ability to remove the
silty accumulation from the docks, and thus supersede the clumsy bucket
system which was found very inconvenient to work in such confined spaces,
and was costly.
This experiment, for the most part, failed by reason of the light
flocculent character of the material to be dealt with, and consequent im-
possibility to retain it within the hoppers, as also from the frequency of
foreign substances which had fallen into the docks, such as ropes, baskets,
bags, mats, and the like, choking and breaking down the suction pipes,
556 REPORT—1896.
The system, however, gave such evidence of ultimate success (provided
the material was of a suitable character) that further experiments were
successfully made at that time on the sandbanks within the river. When,
therefore, there appeared a possibility of success warranting an experi-
ment in dredging the Mersey Bar, the experience in pump-dredging indi-
cated the method to be adopted, and the adaptation and use of two of the
Board’s 500-ton steam hopper barges, followed in course by the construc-
tion and setting to work of the gigantic dredger Brancker, novel in many
features besides her size, of 3,000 tons capacity, and capable of filling
herself in about three-quarters of an hour, resulted in a notable ameliora-
tion of the condition of the Bar.
From a channel, having in 1890 a minimum depth of 11 feet at low
water of lowest tides between the fairway buoys, the Bar has now cut
through it a channel 1,500 feet wide between its buoyed alignments, with
a minimum depth of 24 feet—and so small a depth only in a few isolated
patches over its area—by far the greater portion ranging to a depth of
28 feet.
It is fortunate that so important an improvement of the access to the
port has been secured at a time when the enormous growth in the size of
ships, the frequency of their voyages,.and the urgency of trade competi-
tion absolutely demanded some advance of the kind. This achievement
has not, of course, been attained without considerable expenditure, of
which the cost of the two 3,000-ton dredgers (the Brancker above referred
to having been followed by the G. B. Crow, of like capacity), which had ta
be specially designed and constructed for the purpose, forms an important
item. The total quantity of sand removed to this date (September 1896)
and deposited in a safe position, whence it cannot return to its old site,
amounts to 15,511,390 tons, the actual cost of the operation being at the
rate of 1}d. per ton. A description of this work has been so fully and
exhaustively given in the paper read to the British Association last year
by the author’s son and chief assistant, Mr. A. G. Lyster, that it is un-
necessary here to enlarge further on the subject beyond stating that since
last year costly additions have been made to the plant, which, by mini-
mising the chance of a breakdown, still better ensure a successfu}
issue.
The subject of the tides may be considered as collateral to that of the
channels. They are another important feature in the welfare of the Port,
demanding some slight notice, and as a preliminary it may be well to
explain the standard by which local tides are measured.
The datum level, long since arbitrarily adopted for all engineering
work in connection with the Mersey, is that of the level of the sill of the
first dock constructed, which has long since disappeared, but the level has
been transferred to the bench mark on the wall of one of the more
recently constructed pier-heads. This local datum is known as the ‘Old
Dock Sill.’
Several years ago a Committee of the British Association considered
closely its relation to other standard levels, and its relation to Ordnance
datum was then determined to be that the latter was 4°67 feet above Old
Dock Sill. It may be noted in passing that the Ordnance datum was
settled from observation taken by Royal Engineers of the mean level of
the sea at Liverpool during a certain month in the year 1841. The rela-
tions of a number of important tidal levels to Old Dock Sill, mostly taken
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 557
from the record of the self-registering tide-gauge at George’s Pier, Liver-
pool, during ten years’ observations, 1854-63, are as given below, viz.—
Above datum
Ft. in.
An extraordinary high tide, as marked on the Leasowe Lighthouse. 25 0
An extraordinary high tide, January 20,1863 . - 3 B wz D
Average high-water mark of equinoctial spring tides : ¢ Ar) gan
Average high-water of spring tides, including equinoctial tides - 19 02
Average high-water mark of ordinary spring tides, excluding
equinoctial tides . : ‘ ; : 4 18 10
Mean high-water level - ; , ; . 15 6
Highest high-water mark of neap tides. : 14 8
Average high-water mark of ordinary neap tides a ely
Lowest high-water mark of neap tides Spur
Mean tide level . 5 0
Ordnance datum level F ° 4 8
Highest low-water mark of neap tides 4 1
Below datum
Average low-water mark of ordinary neap tides 4 “ X BPE she
Lowest low-water mark of neap tides - 5 : : “ - 310
Mean low-water level 5 - 5 62
Average low-water mark of ordinary spring tides, exclusive of
equinoctial tides . - A ; 7 : - ° 2 ences
Average low-water mark of spring tides, inclusive of equincctial tides 8 10
Lowest low-water mark of equinoctial spring tides . 5 - - 10 4
The abnormally high range of tide in this locality, as shown by the
foregoing figures, is sufficiently interesting to warrant a brief explanation
of its causes. It is, shortly, due to the fact that a part of the great tidal
wave, generated in southern latitudes, enters St. George’s Channel round
by the south of Ireland, and thence moves forward simultaneously in one
vast current throughout, to a position in the Irish Sea abreast of the Isle
of Man, where it meets that part of the ocean tide which passes by the
north of Ireland and turns southwardly with great velocity through the
North Channel by the Mull of Cantire. This meeting causes an up-
heaval of the tidal volume, which is transmitted laterally to such parts of
the adjoining coasts as are within its influence, the Bay of Liverpool
coming in for its share, and thus enabling it to project a tidal wave far up
the river Mersey to Woolston Weir, 33 miles from the mouth of the
river, and to Frodsham Bridge on the Weaver, 19 miles distant from the
same point. At these points the tidal flow is barred by weirs on both
rivers.
The gross volume thus sent into the estuary has been calculated at
10,000,000 cubic yards on springs, and 281,000,000 cubic yards on neaps.
It now remains to describe the share which man has taken to complete
the benefits which Nature has so lavishly bestowed, and this may best
be done by a brief and necessarily very general description of the works
‘and docks which have brought Liverpool into such prominence and active
ouch with the outside world.
The major portion of the space upon which the Liverpool docks have
%een constructed has been gained from time to time by inclosing the
foreshore of the river. Its width varies from 2,300 feet, where back
‘land was low lying, at the mouth of the river, to 700 feet in the centre
of the river frontage of the city, opposite the narrows of the river
558 REPORT—1896.
channel, and widening again to 1,100 feet at the southern extremity,
where, however, width has only been won by excavation of the steep,
rocky banks. The river wall fronting the Estate is continuous for
six miles from the mouth of the river opposite New Brighton to the
southern extremity of the developed portion of the Estate.
The enclosure thus effected with most of the works thereon, and the
expenditure incurred thereby, have been authorised from time to time by
Acts of Parliament.
Beyond this enclosure additional adjoining land and foreshore have been
secured further south, and will admit of dock extensions when the necessi-
ties of trade demand increased accommodation. The total area of the
Board’s Estate on the Liverpool side is 1,105 acres, of which 950 acres are
developed, the remaining area being brought only into partial use for dock
purposes.
The first dock erected in Liverpool, already referred to, was towards
the centre of the system as now existing, on the site of the Old Pool, and
was constructed, under an Act obtained in 1708, from designs of Mr.
Thomas Steers, an eminent engineer of that day. It was only four acres
in area, and afforded accommodation for 100 small vessels. It was filled
in about seventy years ago, and the group of buildings forming the Custom
House, Post Office, and Dock Offices has been built on its site.
The earlier docks were all constructed in the vicinity of the Old Dock,
but nearer to, and running parallel with, the river, and some of them
exist to this day, partly in their original form. They were designed and
carried out by Mr. John Foster and his son, who were then the Surveyors
to the Corporation.
In 1824 the late Mr. Jesse Hartley took charge of the engineering of
the Dock Estate, the business of which was in those days administered by
the Corporation. Mr, Hartley occupied that honourable position with
singular success for the long period of thirty-six years, and died in 1860.
During the latter portion of his useful life he was assisted by his son,
Mr. John Bernard Hartley, who succeeded him as Engineer, but who,
owing to failing health, was shortly obliged to resign.
Undoubtedly the prominent position of Liverpool among the commer-
cial centres of the world is largely due to the practical knowledge and
ability of these eminent engineers and the success of their achievements,
at a period when the science of engineering was but imperfectly under-
stood. This is universally acknowledged both in and out of the profession.
In 1861 the author of this paper was appointed Engineer, and has
remained so ever since. It is, however, but right to say that for the last
six years Mr. A. G. Lyster has designed and carried out all the new works
subsequent to those of the Canada, Huskisson, and Sandon improvements,
which are the last with which the author has been prominently con-
cerned.
The Hartleys designed and carried out most of that group of docks
extending from the Prince’s to the Canada on the north, and from the
Salthouse to the Brunswick on the south, including the fine blocks of
Albert and Stanley warehouses, for the storage of general produce. These
docks all present features of great similarity, having been constructed to
suit the special classes of shipping and trades which in those days were
located in different positions along the Estate. They now require no
special description.
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY, 559
Soon after the author took charge as Engineer, it became evident that
the days of sailing ships were numbered, trade and steam developing on
all sides, so that ships of greater size, with increased speed and draught,
became the ruling requirements to ensure successful trading.
As a natural sequence, it was found that the older docks were rapidly
becoming obsolete for this new class of ship, so that docks of improved
type had to be specially designed and brought into use with all possible
despatch. Fortunately the foresight of the Dock Board had provided for
this contingency by the large enclosure—about 300 acres of foreshore—they
had effected north of Canada Dock. -An area of about 80 acres at the
southern end of the Estate also had for some years been waiting for
development.
These lands were handed over to the author in order to prepare
designs for furnishing them in some form to meet the new conditions, the
result being that the groups, north of Canada Basin, and known as the
Alexandra system, at the North End, and the Herculaneum at the
south, including the Harrington, Toxteth, and Union Docks, were carried
out.
The Parliamentary Estimates for the whole of these works amounted
to 4,100,000/. The main features of these schemes, both north and south,
were such as to afford ample and convenient accommodation for ships of
the largest class, in view at the time of their design, with facility of
ingress and egress to and from the docks, and approaches with entrances
as deep as the conditions of the river would safely justify ; also abundant
quay and water space, large shed accommodation, and all requisite
appliances for the rapid discharge of goods, combined with wide roadways
and convenient lines of railway in full connection with the main trunk
lines of the country. Fortunately the large area of the enclosure at the
north and the favourable condition of the river in the vicinity admitted
of these desiderata being obtained.
The northern scheme comprised the extension and alteration of the
Canada Basin and its pierhead, with the lowering of the level of its
floor ; the formation of the Langton Half-tide dock, which was to be the
vestibule for the surrounding group ; two graving docks, each 950 feet
long ; a branch dock for repairing purposes ; a great steam dock with
three branches, called the Alexandra; and a dock opening out of it
called the Hornby, being the northernmost dock on the Estate. The total
water area of this group amounts to 83 acres, having an aggregate
quayage of 23,700 lineal feet. The Parliamentary Estimates for this
section of docks amounted to 2,691,360/., within which they have been
completed. They were opened for traffic on September 8, 1881, by their
Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales.
In designing works of this important character one of the difficult
matters to successfully accomplish is that of effecting a simple and ready
means of keeping the approaches, entrances, and dock sills clear of silt,
with which the water of the Mersey is largely charged. This becomes all
the more necessary where ships are large and valuable, and difficult where
the sills are laid at abnormally low levels.
In the case of this group the sills were laid at twelve feet below
datum, being the deepest in the river with the exception of those pre-
viously constructed at the northern entrances of the Birkenhead Docks.
For the purpose of maintaining the required depth in the dock approaches
a special arrangement of sluices of an elaborate character was designed.
560 J REPORT—1896.
and carried out, passing along and incorporated with the wing walls and
pierheads of the entrances and basin, and continuing along timber piers
projecting into the river, which structures, being of a heavy and substan-
tial character, materially assist the passage of ships into and out from the
docks. The result of this arrangement is that the fairway is daily swept
clear of all sandy accumulation, and kept in perfect working order, while
the entrances are thoroughly sheltered, even in heavy on-shore gales.
It may not be out of place to mention that one of the most important
features of successfully working a dock system, particularly in a crowded
port like Liverpool, is facility of ingress and egress, especially at times of
heavy seas and bad weather, when big ships are difficult to handle and
keep under control.
This matter received special attention, and the approaches and
entrances were carefully designed to meet that end. The result has been
satisfactory, no difficulty having been experienced with the new entrances,
and no accident of any moment having occurred during the fifteen years
that the docks have been in work. The responsible officer in charge of
this division has informed the author that, no matter what the,weather
is, whenever a ship-master considers it safe to leave his moorings in the
river, or his berth in the dock, he can enter or leave easily and safely by
way of Canada Basin. This is all the more satisfactory as in the incep-
tion of this North End scheme it was freely predicted that in bad weather
from the north-west the entrances would be dangerously exposed, if not
unapproachable with any degree of safety. An instance may be quoted
to illustrate the facility with which vessels are worked in and out of this
group of docks. On February 13, 1889, twenty-three steamships of an
aggregate of 34,197 tons and thirty-five smaller vessels passed in and
cut during the working tide of two and a third hours. This, though an
excellent record, has no doubt been since exceeded, as during the seven
years that have elapsed the docks have been largely overcrowded. Since.
their opening in 1881 they have accommodated an immense amount of
the best steam shipping of the port.
That part of the works at the South End also included in the Act of
1873 consists of a chain of three docks, known as the Harrington,
Toxteth, and Union Docks, extending from the Herculaneum Half-tide
towards the north, up to the old Brunswick Dock. Their sills are laid at
the level of 12 feet below datum throughout, and their main entrances
and wing walls at Herculaneum are provided with an elaborate system of
sluices, carried under a jetty on the river-side on the same principle as
that at the North End, but alongside the river wall instead of projecting
into the river. This has been the means of fully maintaining the sills and
fairway open and free from silt and preventing the tail of the Estuary
banks from approaching too near the entrances.
The Herculaneum Half-tide Dock, which in its original form, with
two graving docks opening out of it southward, was constructed under
the Act of 1863, was, under the Act of 1873, greatly extended eastwardly,
and an additional graving dock was constructed alongside the other two.
These docks were cut out of the solid red sandstone rock, which
originally was much higher than the present quay level. Cliffs therefore
exist on the east and south sides of the dock, and in the face of these
have been excavated casemates separated by solid partitions of rock.
These casemates were designed for the storage of petroleum in barrels,
and are so used. Northward of the Herculaneum Dock the Estate is
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY 561
narrow, and consequently docks on the Alexandra system, of a great
trunk with branches, could not be laid out; but the Harrington and
Toxteth take the form of long docks of ample width, and are provided
with sheds of the most modern type, double storey, of moderate width, on
the eastern quays, and single storey, of exceptionally great width, on the
western. The Union Dock forms a connecting link between the new
deep-water dock and the older group having comparatively shallow sills.
The total area of the docks from Herculaneum to Union inclusive is
32 acres, 3,348 square yards, and the quayage 8,518 lineal feet, and the
Parliamentary Estimate for the works was 1,408,640/.
At night the entrances and passages throughout the new north and
south systems are lighted at tide-time by electric lights raised on tall
lattice masts, placed on the pierheads and standing 80 feet above the
quay level; these being amongst the first introduced into England or
elsewhere for dock purposes, as far as the Author knows.
The sills of the older docks immediately north of the Union Dock, and
extending as far north as George’s Dock, are laid at a level of about
six feet below datum—six feet higher than the Herculaneum- Union group.
These older docks could not, on neap tides, be available for vessels of,
say, more than 16 feet draught, and could therefore not be safely used on
neap tides by deep-draught modern vessels. To meet this ditticulty, the
Author arranged that on such tides the water in the shallow group should
be impounded at such a level as to afford ample draught for all vessels, the
only disability from which they would suffer, and this is only of a trifling
nature, being that, if required to pass between river and docks on neap
tides, they would have to do so by way of the deep-water river entrances
at Herculaneum Dock, the Union Dock being used as a lock between the
old and new groups of docks. Inasmuch as there is a considerable
loss of water by leakage at dock gates, and culverts, and for filling graving
docks, such Joss must be made good if the water is to be maintained at a
constant level, and this is done by means of a powerful installation of
centrifugal pumps, situate at the Coburg Dock, which are used to pump
water from the River Mersey into the Coburg Dock, from which it dis-
tributes itself throughout the system. By these means the effective depth
of the whole of the docks from Brunswick to George’s, having an area
of about 80 acres, is practically increased to that of the lowest sills
leading to them, 12 feet below Old Dock Sill, and much detention of
vessels and consequent loss are avoided, which could not be done in any
other way, except by the reconstruction of the old docks, the cost of which
would be immense, while that of the pumps is moderate, say, some 3,000/.
per annum.
A pumping scheme of this character was first adopted by the Author
in the case of the Sandon Graving Docks, of which there is a group of
six, opening out of the Sandon Dock, constructed in 1851, and which, owing
to the increase in the draught of ships, which prevented them entering
the shallow graving docks on neap tides, had become much less useful to
the Port than they formerly had been. Pumps were therefore provided
of sufficient power to raise the water in the docks to such height as might
be required by any individual ship, to pass her over the sill of any of the
graving docks, and so the graving docks were made fully available for
any ship which could enter the dock from which they opened, the sill of
which was much lower than those of the graving docks. The success of
this experiment warranted the extension of the system, and so it was
1896, 00
562 REPORT—1896.
applied to the Brunswick-George’s group, and, afterwards, also adopted
at Birkenhead, where the area to be deepened was about 150 acres, and
the difference between the outer and inner sills three feet.
In the case of each of these installations it is necessary to do the
pumping in a short time at and about high water, therefore the machinery
is of a very powerful character. At the Sandon there are four pumps,
each having suction pipes 36 inches diameter, and the Coburg and
Birkenhead installations each consist of three pumps having 54-inch suc-
tion pipes. Some idea of the work done may be formed when it is noted
that the discharge of each of the two last-named sets is about equal to
that of the River Thames at Teddington. They have now been at work
for many years without hitch of any kind. In referring to these schemes,
only bare facts are given, details heing purposely omitted as unnecessarily
encumbering a Paper of this general character.
The works carried out under the Act of 1873 added about 44 per
cent. to the dock accommodation previously existing on the Liverpool
side of the River, and this of a class much better suited than the older
docks for modern requirements ; but, notwithstanding this fact, and that
the pumping schemes above mentioned provided much additional accom--
modation for deep-draught vessels, the necessities of the largest class of
steamers in the Port are ever pressing, and the Author is now, and has been
for some time past, carrying out a design for very important alterations
and additions to the group of docks immediately south of the Langton-
Alexandra system. ‘The works comprised in the complete scheme are as
follows : the alteration by deepening and lengthening of the entrance
from the Canada Basin into Canada Dock ; straightening of the walls of
Canada Dock and deepening of berths there ; the construction of a new
Branch dock out of Canada Dock as altered ; a new Half-tide dock to
serve as a vestibule to the improved system and having deep-water river
entrances ; and the construction of a new large and wide graving dock.
The work of altering Canada Lock, though apparently trifling, has in
reality been of considerable magnitude and exceedingly difficult of execu-
tion. It meant the cutting out of the masonry at the bottom of a lock
600 feet long by 100 feet broad, and providing a new floor at a level of
6 feet 3 inches lower than before, without disturbing or letting in the
side walls, which had to be underpinned for a depth of about 10 feet.
The excellence of the granite masonry of which it had been con-
structed made it doubly difficult and costly, as it was the late Mr. Jesse
Hartley’s last work, and indeed his chef d’euvre, and the Author, com-
pelled to interfere with such a substantial model of excellent workmanship,
did so regretfully. The work, however, has been substantially completed
without accident, and ships are now daily passing to and fro through it.
Considerable and costly alterations have also been carried out within
the Canada Dock, in taking down and rebuilding in straight and con-
tinuous form the old walls of contorted shape, originally built so as to
allow of the construction of Huskisson Battery, and quite unsuited for the
berthage of modern ships. The large Transatlantic steamers of the
Cunard Line now berth at the straightened west wall.
This work was rendered more difficult and expensive in consequence
of its being necessary to keep the water within the docks so as not to
allow trade to be interfered with.
The new branch out of the Canada, giving a large amount of extra
accommodation to the Port, has also been completed. This dock is 1,085
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 563
feet in length by 300 feet in width, and has an aggregate quayage of
2,469 feet, amply provided with single and double storey sheds of large
size with improved crane appliances. The White Star Company occupy
berths on the north and south sides of this dock, and there their largest
steamers lie.
In connection with the Canada a new passage 90 feet in width, with a
bridge over, has been constructed, to join up with the Huskisson system.
The new Half-tide Dock occupies the site of Sandon Basin and
Wellington Half-tide Dock, and will afford room for a large number of
great vessels. The sills of the river entrances are laid at a much lower
level than any of the existing docks, viz., 20} feet below Old Dock Sill,
so that vessels of the deepest draught will be able to enter and leave the
Half-tide on any tide in the year. On neap tides this dock will be used
as a lock for vessels passing between the River and docks, which latter
will on such tides be maintained on the impounded system, powerful
pumps being provided in positions near to the Half-tide dock.
The new Graving Dock, 920 feet long, will be constructed out of the
east quay of Canada Dock immediately north of the Branch Dock.
Having now described the dock extensions most recently constructed
and in hand at Liverpool, the Author will, before mentioning the accom-
-modation provided for some of the most noteworthy trades, refer shortly
to the history of that portion of the Mersey Dock Estate situate on the
Cheshire shore at Birkenhead.
In 1855 the dock authorities of that day applied for Parliamentary
powers to extend their docks on the Lancashire side of the river. This
was only partially acceded to, and, in lieu of powers for their complete
proposal, it was arranged that the Birkenhead Docks, then belonging to
two independent authorities and only partially developed, should be
purchased by the Liverpool Corporation, who in those days administered
the affairs of the Liverpool Estate. Two years later the administration
of the combined Liverpool and Birkenhead Estates was handed over to an
independent Trust to be called ‘ The Mersey Docks and Harbour Board.’
The Birkenhead system, therefore, now forms an integral portion of the
Mersey Dock Estate, and is worked in complete unison with the Liverpool
system.
; The Birkenhead Docks are constructed on the site of a tidal creek,
known as Wallasey Pool, which extended inland for about two miles from
the left bank of the River, and formerly was the outlet of the drainage of
the low lands of the Leasowes, lying between the Dee and the Mersey.
The original design, by the late eminent engineer, Mr, James Meadows
Rendel, F.R.S., having been partially carried out, was mainly completed
on the same lines by Mr. John Hartley, who, however, introduced several
important alterations when it came into Dock Board hands.
The main features of the scheme were two large docks, called the East
and West Floats, of 120 acres in area, occupying a large portion of the
pool, the connection between these docks and the River being by means of
a lock, and a half-tide dock called the Alfred, the sills of which, at the
pret end, are nine feet below datum, and at the River end twelve feet
low.
On taking charge of the engineering of the Estate in 1861, the Author
carried out these works to completion, but made seyeral important altera-
tions in Mr. Hartley’s design, unnecessary now to particularise. In con-
sequence of the entire area of the Float, East and West, being excavated
002
564 REPORT—1896.
only to a depth of nine feet below datum, it has been found inconveniently
shallow for large modern ships on neap tides, to rectify which the pumping
scheme before referred to has been adopted.
Towards the middle of the Liverpool Estate, the Author, about twenty-
five years ago, designed and carried out &n important system of docks,
known as the Waterloo group. They consist of two docks, each running
parallel with the river, and approached from the south through the Prince’s
Half-tide dock, which formed part of the design. The easternmost dock is
surrounded on three sides by warehouses of a very extensive character,
having a total length of 1,500 feet. They, with a similar group at
Birkenhead, were especially constructed for the storage of grain, which at
that time was beginning to come into the Port in large quantities. The
combined floor area of the two sets of warehouses is twenty-three acres,
and they are capable of storing upwards of 400,000 quarters. They are
equipped with a novel and elaborate system of machinery, specially de-
signed for facilitating the rapid discharge of ships, and for housing, trans-
mitting, and delivering grain, not only in the warehouse, but also from
ship to quay. This system has since everywhere become the recognised
means of dealing with grain under similar conditions.
The import of live cattle from abroad, chiefly the United States and
Canada, has of late years assumed very large proportions, and a Foreign
Animals’ Wharf, with extensive lairages and slaughter-houses, and other
necessary adjuncts have been provided. These were the first constructions
of the kind in the country, and have been increased from time to time
until they now occupy twenty-two acres ; the lairages or stables are suffi-
cient to accommodate about 8,000 head of cattle, and a vast number of
sheep, the number of cattle which passed through the wharf last year
having been about 200,000, and the number of sheep about 500,000. The
landing of the cattle is effected’ at two floating stages, alongside of which
cattle-ships can berth at most states of the tide. ‘These stages are moored
in the River abreast of the walls, to which they are connected by bridges
formed of girders about 150 feet long. The accommodation thus afforded
amounts to 850 feet of lie-by. Special cattle runs are laid from the stage
to lead into the lairages.
At Liverpool, the Coal Trade of the Port is well provided for on a
high-level structure, midway of the Estate, standing on and above the east
quays of the Bramley-Moore and Wellington Docks, and north quay of
the former. It is abundantly supplied with the most modern appliances,
viz. hydraulic cranes, and an elaborate and extensive system of sidings
and main lines in direct communication with the Lancashire and Yorkshire
Coal-fields. The shipment by this Railway last year amounted to 809,000
tons. Recently a 25-ton hydraulic crane has been erected on the east
quay of Herculaneum Dock, chiefly for Lancashire and Yorkshire coal for
ships’ bunkers.
At Birkenhead an important system of sidings and coal-hoists has
been constructed on the south quay of the West Float. These are worked
in connection with the coal-fields of North and South Wales, and add
materially to the trade and commerce of the Port ; an average of 1,190,000
tons being annually brought to the docks for export and the use of steam-
ships.
"The petroleum trade has of late years become so important as to
require a large amount of accommodation in the immediate vicinity of the
docks. In addition to the storage space provided in the casemates exca-
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 965
vated in the solid rock at Herculaneum Dock, to which reference has been
made, and which afforded thoroughly safe accommodation for 60,000
barrels, extensive provision for the storage of petroleum in bulk has been
made by the erection on some of the undeveloped land at the southern end
of the Liverpool Estate of a group of five tanks, varying in capacity from
2,000 to 3,009 tons, and having a total capacity of 12,500 tons.
They are supplied from the ocean-going tank vessels, berthed alongside
the west quay of the Herculaneum Dock, the connection being by means
of pipes through which the oil is forced by the ships’ pumps. Precautions
against fire are taken, and each tank stands ina moat of capacity sufficient
to hold the whole contents of the tank in case of accident. Railways are
laid in connection with each installation.
At Birkenhead, on land belonging to the Dock Board, there are large
depots for the storage of petroleum in bulk close to the docks. They
belong to the Anglo-American Oil Company, Limited, and have a total
capacity of 18,000 tons. Precautions against fire, similar to those at the
Liverpool depét, have been adopted also in these cases.
Extensive warehouses for the storage of ordinary goods, also for the
special storage of tobacco, have been erected in various positions along the
Estate, the aggregate floor area of which is about ninety acres. Improved
buildings of an extensive character for the storage and display of wool
and tobacco are now in course of erection, from the designs of Mr. A. G.
Lyster.
q The Timber Trade of the Port is located at the north end of the
Estate, where large areas are occupied as storage ground and enclosed
ards.
. The handling of the immense quantities of goods of all sorts in their
transit across the Dock Estate is a very important matter, but scarcely
more than a passing reference to the appliances required for this purpose
and for working the bridges, gates, capstans, &c., can be given, It may
be said, however, that in addition to a large amount of machinery worked’
by hand-power, and to the steam-power available on the steamers now
forming the great majority of the sea-carriers, there are provided by the
Dock Board a large number of steam and hydraulic cranes, including a
100-ton hydraulic crane, and a 90-ton steam crane, fixed on dock quays,
a floating steam crane capable of lifting 100 tons under certain restrictions,
and any load up to 30 tons freely, and another floating steam crane of
25-ton power. For the maintenance of the docks, and River channels,
a large fleet of dredgers of all types, and hopper barges for carrying
dredged material to sea, are provided.
Hydraulic power is largely made use of for working bridges, gates,
capstans, &e. ; centres of hydraulic power being established at a great
many different points at Liverpool and Birkenhead.
The means of communication between the Dock Estate and the
adjoining Towns, and between the several parts of the Estate itself, for
goods and people, are various and ample.
The development of the City of Liverpool has steadily kept pace with
that of the docks, and the interchange of traffic between them is carried
on by means of a wide street traversing the whole length of the Estate
from north to south, upon which the side streets abut. This thorough-
fare is of sufficient width to allow of a double line of railway being laid
along its margin throughout, communicating, where necessary, with lines
along the dock quays, and also with several railway systems, which have
566 REPORT—1896.
their goods termini adjoining. There are in all about fifteen stations
along this six-mile length, divided among the London and North-Western,
Lancashire and Yorkshire, Cheshire lines, Midland, Great Northern,
Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire, and Great Western Railways,
some of which, however, having no direct rail access to Liverpool, have
depots for the interchange of traffic with their fully developed systems
at Birkenhead.
For many years a service of large omnibuses traversed the dock lines,
from north to south and vice versa, every ten minutes throughout the
day, and thus added considerably to the convenient working of the
Kstate.
_ As, however, the docks extended, this arrangement was found to be
inconvenient and insufficient for the wants of the community, and the
Author designed an Overhead Railway to be erected at the level of
16 feet above the street lines, with spans standing on slender wrought-
iron columns, so as to offer as little impediment as possible to the under-
neath street traffic. Twenty-three stations, approached by easy stairs,
were designed to be erected along the line in convenient positions to
some of the side streets.
It was further designed that it should be worked by electricity, that
being the simplest arrangement for a railway in such a situation. The
plans were all matured for the construction of the work, and tenders were
on the eve of being invited, when the Dock Board, as a final decision,
concluded that, considering the great labour and responsibility of admi-
nistering an Estate of such magnitude as that of the Docks, it would be
somewhat anomalous to undertake in addition such duties as those of
directing a passenger railway which was likely to develop to great magni-
tude. They therefore entered into an arrangement with a syndicate,
who undertook the work, which, to the designs and under the able
engineering direction of Sir Douglas Fox and Mr. James Henry
Greathead, has been most satisfactorily carried out to completion, and
now forms not only a most interesting engineering work, but a valuable
public convenience, daily becoming of greater magnitude and importance.
The Mersey Tunnel railway, an important work which has added
very materially to the facilities of the passenger cross-river traffic, as
well as in effect linking up for passenger purposes the railway systems
of the Lancashire and Cheshire sides of the River, was carried out from
the designs of Sir James Brunlees and Sir Douglas Fox, and has since
been in full and constant use.
The construction of the Tunnel presented considerable difficulties
which were very successfully overcome by the Engineers.
Several canal systems, from up the River, work in connection with
the Dock Estate, and are important adjuncts to the trade of the Port,
the entrance to the docks being generally arranged to meet their special
tidal requirements. The only one, however, which has a direct communi-
cation with the docks is the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which traverses
the country to the north of Liverpool, and is in direct communication
with the manufacturing and mineral centres of Lancashire and York-
shire.
In the foregoing sketchy narrative of the Mersey and its great Sea-
port, the Author has been unwillingly compelled, by the exigencies which
a Paper of this description imposes upon him, to exclude many matters
of great interest, even a descriptive outline of Garston, Widnes, Elles-°
ON PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE MERSEY. 567
mere Port, and, though last in time by no means least in magnitude, the
Ship Canal, with its entrance at Eastham and great terminal dock system
at Manchester, each and all of which not only add to the importance of
the River, and the trade which it fosters in its ample embrace, but also
give substantial evidence of the commercial activity of our common
country, and, as such, are well worthy of enlarged, if not exhaustive, com-
ment. Time forbids more than this passing notice, which the Author
trusts will be sufficient apology for not dwelling upon them.
While ships generally, at Liverpool, are discharged, on account of the
great range of the tide, in enclosed docks, which are open to the River
only at high water, the necessary means of access to boats at all states
of the tide, for communication between shore and shore, or with boats in
the River, is for the most part afforded by the Floating Landing Stages,
which form a striking feature of the riverscape. The first stage at
Liverpool, the George’s, 500 feet long, was constructed about 1847, and
the Prince’s, 1,000 feet long, was constructed about 1857 ; the stages on
the Cheshire shore followed these.
The two stages on the Liverpool side, formerly separated from each
other by a length of 500 feet for the purpose of retaining the entrance
into the old George’s Basin, are now joined together, and form one con-
tinuous structure, 2,463 feet in length, 400 feet having been recently
added from the designs and under the superintendence of Mr. A. G.
Lyster. The northern extremity of the stage abuts on to a timber jetty
joined with the south pierhead of the Prince’s Half-tide Dock, to be used
to facilitate the landing of cattle from Ireland and other outside ports.
The Liverpool stage is connected with the shore by a series of girder
bridges, and also by a floating roadway in the form of a bridge of boats,
constructed on the site of the George’s Basin, and which, at low water,
rests on a stone slipway, having an inclined surface of 1 in 20, enabling
the bridge to be easily traversed by wheel traffic. At high water it is
all afloat.
The additional 400 feet lately added to the stage has facilitated the
arrangement of the Dock Board for berthing the great Atlantic liners
alongside the stage for the purpose of landing or taking on board their
passengers, which had been discontinued for some twenty years, and
which can now be effected at practically all states of the tide, and in an
expeditious and effectual manner. Thus the old and inconvenient method
of landing by means of tenders has been done away with, to the great
advantage of the travelling public.
Convenient examining rooms for the use of the Customs have long
been erected at the back of the stage, adjoining these berths, so that
little delay occurs in the transit of passengers and their baggage.
In connection with this a very important additional improvement has
lately been carried out, in order to render passenger service as expeditious
and convenient as possible, by the erection of a capacious railway station
on the quay adjoining, and running parallel with, the stage, thus bringing
the outgoing passengers alongside their ships, and the incoming vice versa.
This station is in direct communication with the London and North-
Western Railway. The arrangements have been designed and carried out
by Mr. A. G. Lyster.
On the Birkenhead side of the River the Dock Board have constructed
a landing-stage, known as the Woodside Stage, 800 feet in length, 300
feet of which is vested in the Birkenhead Corporation. The remainder is
568 REPORT— 1806,
in use for general dock purposes, chiefly for the landing of cattle. Con-
venient bridges connected with the quays and a floating roadway, similar
to that at Liverpool, have been provided for wheel traffic. A second
stage, half a mile further north, has also been provided for general pur-
poses, but is chiefly used by cattle ships.
A large amount of dredging is involved in keeping the docks on both
sides of the River clear of silty deposit, and different kinds of dredgers are
in use for that purpose. The material removed is chiefly composed of fine
silt and mud, and is conveyed to the sea by steam hopper barges and
deposited in positions indicated, on behalf of the Conservancy Commis-
sioners, by their Acting Conservator, Admiral Sir George Richards,
K.C.B., F.R.S.
The total area of the Estate, both at Liverpool and at Birkenhead,
amounts to 1,611 acres, subdivided into 546 acres of water space, made
up of docks, half-tide docks and basins, surrounded by 35 miles of quays,
warehouses, and sheds, with an aggregate floor area of over 150 acres, the
remainder being made up of timber-yards, shipbuilding-yards, open quays
and streets, with a residue of undeveloped land and foreshore. The unde-
veloped portion of the Estate includes a large area of foreshore, amounting
to about 200 acres at Tranmere, about one mile further up the river than
Woodside. This has lately been acquired by the Board for future dock |
extension whenever the trade of the Port demands it.
The total number of graving docks belonging to the Mersey Docks and
Harbour Boards is twenty-three, having an aggregate length of 14,920 feet.
of floor.
The total number of ships which entered the Port and paid tonnage
rates for the year ending July 1, 1896, was 23,695, having a net tonnage
of 11,046,459. In this figure the tonnage in or out only is represented.
The total revenue of the Estate from all sources is about 1,400,000/.
per annum.
The affairs of the Dock Trust are administered by a body named the
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, with a number of members fixed by Act
of Parliament at 28, of whom 24 are elected by the Dock ratepayers, the
remaining four being nominee members appointed by the Mersey Con-
servancy Commissioners.
This important body consists of the First Lord of the Admiralty, the
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and the President of the Board of
Trade, who are represented by an Acting Conservator. That position is
now and has been for some years ably filled by Admiral Sir George
Richards, K.C.B., F.R.S. The Commissioners are appointed under the
authority of Parliament to preserve the navigation of the Mersey, from
Warrington and Frodsham bridges to the sea.
In submitting a Paper of this general character, the Author has been
compelled, from the extent and variety of the subjects he has touched
upon, to do so in the briefest possible manner, with a view to explaining
the general features of the Dock Estate and its surroundings, rather than
dwell upon details and special works of interest with which the history of
the Estate abounds, and which, to be properly dealt with and understood,
would require a lengthy paper to themselves.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 569
The North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Lleventh Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor E. B. TyLor (Chairman), Mr.
Curueert EK, PrEk (Secretary), Dr. G. M. Dawson, Ri. th. Gr.
Hauisurron, and Mr. Horatio Hats, appointed to investigate the
Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Condi-
tions of the North-Western Uribes of the Dominion of Canada.
Tur Committee were originally appointed at the Montreal Meeting of the
Association in 1884, and, as indicated in the Tenth Report, presented last
year at the Ipswich Meeting, it had been determined that that Report
should conclude the series. When, however, it was decided to hold the
meeting for 1897 in Toronto, it appeared to be appropriate that the work
of the Committee begun at the first Canadian Meeting should be con-
cluded at the second, and the Committee were accordingly continued.
The concluding Report of the Committee to be prepared for the Toronto
Meeting may afford the occasion of pointing out to the Government and
public of Canada the necessity for further and systematic investigation of
the ethnology of the country.
The Report presented herewith contains a number of observations by
Dr. Franz Boas, through whose agency the greater part of the work has
been done, chiefly supplementary to articles contained in the Fifht and
Tenth Reports. Although the result of previous journeys by Dr. Boas,
these have not been heretofore published.
It is now hoped to include in the final Report of 1897 the results of
further field work in contemplation and to be directed toward the filling
of some gaps still existing in our general knowledge of the tribes of
British Columbia, particularly in respect to the anthropometric observa-
tions, which, in Dr. Boas’ hands, have already yielded results of so much
interest.
Sixth Report on the Indians of British Columbia. By Franz Boas.
The following pages contain notes that were collected by me on pre-
vious journeys to the North Pacific coast. They supplement mainly the
data on the Kwakiutl Indians, given in the Fifth Report of the Com-
mittee, and those on the Nass River Indians in the Tenth Report of the
Committee.
There still remain two important gaps in our general knowledge of
the ethnology of the North Pacific coast. In order to fill these, further
anthropometric investigations on the Haida and Héiltsuk- and ethno-
logical and linguistic researches among the Hé'iltsuk- would be required,
When these have been added to the data gathered heretofore, it will be
possible to give a fairly satisfactory general outline of the anthropology of
British Columbia.
I. Nores oN THE KWAKIUTL.
The Kwakiutl tribes speaking the Kwakiutl dialect call themselves
by the general name of Kwa'kwakyewak*. The following notes refer to
this group, more particularly to the tribes living at Fort Rupert.
Ox
“I
=)
REPORT—1896.
THE SHAMANS.
The shamans are initiated by animals, supernatural beings, or by
inanimate objects. The killer whale, the wolf, frog, and black bear are
the most potent animals which have the power of initiating shamans.
The cannibal spirit Baqbakualanugsi’waé (see Fifth Report, p. 850), the
warrior’s spirit Wina’lagyilis, the fabulous sea bear Na/nis, the sea monster
Mé’'koatEem or K'elk”’a/yuguit, the ghosts, the hemlock-tree, and the quartz
may also initiate them. Shamans who were initiated by the killer whale
or by the wolf are considered the most powerful ones. Only innocent
youths can become shamans.
A person who is about to become a shaman will declare that he feels
ill. For four days or longer he fasts in his house. Then he dreams that
the animal or spirit that is going to initiate him appeared to him and
promised to cure him. If he has dreamt that the killer whale appeared
to him, he asks his friends to take him to a small island ; in all other
cases he asks to be taken to a lonely place in the woods. His friends
dress him in entirely new clothing, and take him away. They build a
small hut of hemlock branches, and leave him to himself. After four days
all the shamans go to look after him. When he sees them approaching,
he begins to sing his new songs and tells them that the killer whale—or
whatever being his protector may be—has cured him and made him a
shaman by putting quartz into his body. The old shamans place him on
a mat,and wrap him up likeacorpse, while he continues to sing his songs.
They place him in their canoe, and paddle home. The father of the
young person is awaiting them on the beach, and asks if his child is alive.
They reply in the affirmative, and then he goes to clean his house. He
must even clean the chinks of the walls, and he must take particular care
that no trace of the catamenial flux of a woman is left in any part of the
house. Then he calls the whole tribe. The singers arrange themselves
in the rear of the house, while the others sit around the sides. For a few
minutes the singers beat the boards which are laid down in front of them,
and end with a long call: yoo. This is repeated three times. Then the
new shaman begins to sing in the canoe, and after a short time he appears
in the house, dressed in head-ring and neck-ring of hemlock branches, his
eyes closed, and he dances, singing his song. Four times he dances around
the fire. During this time the singing master must learn his song. After
the dance the new shaman leaves the house again and disappears in the
woods. In the evening the people begin to beat the boards and to sing the
new song of the shaman which they had learned from him in the morning.
Then he reappears and dances again with closed eyes. This is repeated
for three nights. On the fourth night when the people begin to sing for
him he appears with open eyes. He wears a ring of red cedar bark, to
which a representation of the animal that initiated him is attached. He
carries a rattle on which the same animal is carved. He looks around,
and says to one of the people : ‘You are sick.’ It is believed that the
shaman can look right through man and see the disease that is in him.
Then he makes his first cure.
The power of shamanism may also be obtained by purchase. The
intending purchaser invites the shaman from whom he is going to buy
the power and the rest of the tribe to his house. There the people sing
and the shaman dances. During his dance he throws his power into
the purchaser, who falls down like one dead, and when he recovers is
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 571
taken by the shaman into the woods, where both stay for four days.
Then he returns, and the same ceremonial is performed that has been
described before.
When the shaman has singled out a person whom he declares to be
sick, he proceeds with the following performance: He carries a small
bundle of bird’s down hidden under .his upper lip. He lets the sick
person lie down, and feels his body until he finds the seat of the disease.
Then he begins to suck at the part where the sickness is supposed to be
seated, while the people beat the boards and sing his song. Three
times he endeavours to suck out the disease, but in vain. The fourth
time, after having sucked, he puts his hands before his face and bites the
inside of his cheek so that blood flows and gathers in the down that
he is carrying in his mouth. Then he takes it unnoticed from his mouth,
and hides it in his hands. Now he begins to suck again, holding his
hands close to that part of the body where the disease is supposed to be
seated. Then he removes them, blows on them, and on opening his
hands the bloody ball of down is seen adhering to the palm of the
shaman. After a short while he closes his hands again, applies them
once more, and shows one or four pieces of quartz, which he is supposed
to have removed from the body of the sick person. Then he closes his
hands again, and upon a renewed application produces the feathers, which ,
he declares to be the soul of the patient. He turns his hands palm down-
ward, so that the ball adheres to his hand. If it becomes detached and
falls down, it signifies that the patient will die an early death. If the
ball adheres, he will recover.
For four months the shaman continues to make cures similar to the
one described here. Every fourth day he must bathe. After this time
people whom he treats are expected to pay him for his services.
It is forbidden to pass behind the back of a shaman while he is
eating, because it is believed that he would then eat the soul of the
person passing him in this manner. The person as well as the shaman
would fall in a swoon. Blood flows from the shaman’s mouth, because
the soul is too large for him and is tearing him. Then the clan of the
person whose soul he has swallowed must assemble and sing the song of
the shaman. The latter begins to move, and vomits blood, which he tries
to hold in his hands. After a short time he opens his palms, and shows
a small bloody ball, the soul which he had swallowed. Then he rises,
while the person whose soul he had swallowed is placed on a mat in the
rear of the house. The shaman goes around the fire, and finally throws
the soul at its owner. Then he steps up to him, blows upon his
head, and the person recovers. It is said that the shaman in this
ease also bites his cheek and hides some bird’s down in his mouth, which
soaks up the blood and is made to represent the soul. The person whose
soul was swallowed must pay four or five blankets for the harm he has
done to the shaman, and for his own cure.
The protector of a shaman informs him if an epidemic should be
about to visit the tribe. Then he warns the people, and in order to
avert the danger lets them go through the following ceremony. He
resorts to a lonely place in the woods for one day. In the evening the
people assemble in his house and beat the boards three times. When
they begin to beat the boards the fourth time, he enters, wearing a large
ring of hemlock branches. It is believed that the souls of unborn
children and also those of deceased members of the tribe are hanging
572 REPORT—1896.
on the branches of the ring, ten to each branch. He talks to them, and
brushes them off from the ring. When he enters another shaman goes
to meet him, and strews bird’s down on to the ring and on the shaman’s
head. Then the latter walks around the fire, and stays in the rear of the
house. Now every member of the tribe must go to him, and he ‘puts
them through the ring.’ The person who is thus cleansed must extend
his right hand first, and put it through the ring, which is then passed
over his head, and down along the body, which is wiped with the ring.
When the ring has almost reached the feet of the person, the latter must
turn to the left, and step out of it with his right foot first, turn on that
foot, take out the left foot and turn once more to the left, standing on
the left foot. Every member of the tribe is made to pass through
the ring. It is believed that this is a means of preventing the outbreak
of the epidemic. Sick persons must pass through the ring four times.
Nobody is allowed to speak or to laugh during this performance. After
the shaman has finished, he speaks to the people, making statements
intended to show them that he knows even their most secret thoughts.
The shaman wears his neck-ring of red cedar bark all the time.
Powerful shamans are able to transform stones into berries.
Their dance is so powerful that the ground gives way under their
steps, and they disappear underground.
Sones oF SHAMANS.
1. Song of Shaman, initiated by the Killer Whale.
1. Koa'h’ ulagyilahyastlie hai’ ligyaitihoastlasa naw’ alakué mahar
Making alive means of healing from this supernatural being wahai
ehé' nau'alakué.
éhé’ supernatural being.
2. Gyilgyildiquilakyastlé hat ligyaitihoaqgsi naw alakué wahar
Making life long means of healing from this supernatural being wahai
che! nau alakué.
éhé’ supernatural being.
3. Gyd'gyayapalaytiadia naw alakuéhkoagsi nau alakué wahar
Going along under water supernatural being from this supernatural being wahai
ehée! naw alakué.
éhé’ supernatural being.
4. St'sonapalayiiedie naw alakué nahai che’ naw alakué.
Made to paddle under water supernatural being wahai éhé’ supernatural being.
TRANSLATION.
1. He received the power of restoring to life from the supernatural being.
2. He received the power of lengthening life from the supernatural being.
3. His supernatural helper gave him the power to travel under water.
4. His supernatural helper gave him the power to paddle along under water.
2. Song of Shaman, initiated by the Killer Whale.
1. Koé'k’ulagyilakyastlie nau'alahua.
Life-maker real this supernatural being.
2. K-a'selétlilayatlie naw alakua.
Making walk this supernatural being.
3. Ts'é'tltsth’uéh tlayatlog naw alakua.
Making life short this supernatural being.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 573
TRANSLATION.
1. My supernatural power restores life.
2. My supernatural power makes the sick walk.
3. My supernatural power cuts life short.
3. Song of Shaman, initiated by the Wolf.
2 Laistalt' srlaytiedies gy lgyildiguilatlaindé kauq nauw'alak
Made to go around the world by making lifelong past the supernatural
hai tlo' koala. being
hai magic.
2. To-isti' liszlaytiedias gyi lgyildiguilatlaindé haug nawalak
Made to walk around the world by making life long past the supernatural
hai tlo' koala. being
hai magic. ‘
3. Ma'tela ond'gua'yask'ai gyi'lgyildoguilatlaindé k:aug nau'alak har
Ahead I the poor one making life long past the supernatural being hai
tlo'koala.
magic.
TRANSLATION.
1. The one who makes life long made me go all around the world, the
supernatural being.
2. The one who makes life long made me walk all around the world, the super-
natural being.
3. The one who makes life long placed my poor self ahead of all, the super-
natural being.
4, Song of Shaman, initiated by Bagbakudlanwasv wae.
1, Ai, hai'alikyilaamede no'gquaia k’od'nastés Bagbakualanuest'waé, do'hula.
Ai, healing all the time I wildness of Baqbakuadlanugsi'waé, behold !
2, Ai, goa'gulagyiydithyas ond'gua k°od'nastes Bagbakudlanuest'waé, do'kula.
Ai, saving life I wildness of Baqbakualanugsi’waé, behold !
TRANSLATION.
1. Behold ! I am able to heal by the power of the wildness of Baqbakualanugsi’ waé
2. Behold ! I save lives by the power of the wildness of BaqbakualanuQsi’ wae.
5. Song of Shaman, wmitiated by the Echo.
1. Yahau, hé'ilikyayatloe gyi lgyildigquilags héilikyayugdé haus’
Yahau, healing with making life long with means of healing of :
tla' koalahyas’o.
the magician real.
2. ntyakayatloe gyi lgyildiguilags Héyak ayoqda haus
Blowing water with making life long with means of blowing water of
tlo' hoalahyas’s.
the magician real.
TRANSLATION.
1. Yahau. The power that makes life long lets me heal with the means of
healing.
2. Yahau. The power that makes life long lets me blow water with the means
of blowing water.
BIRTHe
The husband of an enceinte woman in the seventh month of preg-
nancy prepares to insure an easy delivery by collecting the following
four medicines ; four tentacles of a squid, a snake’s tail, four toes of a
574 REPORT— 1896.
toad, and seeds of Peucedanum leiocarpum, Nutt. If the birth should
prove to be hard, these objects are charred, powdered, and drunk by the
mother. The toad’s toes are also moved downward along her back.
This is called ‘making the child jump’ (dd’yugsté). It is worth re-
marking that Peucedanwm leiocarpum is used as a powerful medicine
also by the Salish tribes of Vancouver Island (see Sixth Report of the
Committee, 1890, p. 577), who call the plant k-rqmé’n, while the Kwakiutl
call it k’aqgmé'n. Judging from the form of the word, I think that it is
rather Salish +han Kwakiutl. Certainly the belief in the power of this
plant was transmitted from one tribe to the other.
During the period of pregnancy the husband must avoid to encounter
squids, as this would have the effect of producing a hard delivery.
When the woman is about to be confined, she leaves the house accom-
panied by two of her friends who are to assist her. The latter dig a hole
in the ground, and one of them sits down on the edge of the hole,
stretching her legs across it so that her feet and the calves of her
legs rest on the opposite edge. Then she spreads her legs, and the woman
who is about to be confined sits down on her lap, straddling her legs so
that both her feet hang down in the pit. The two women clasp each
other’s arms tightly. The third woman squats behind the one who is
about to be contined, pressing her knees against her back and embracing
her closely, so that her right arm passes over the right shoulder, her left
arm under the left arm of her friend. The child is allowed to lie in the
pit until after the afterbirth has been borne. Then the navel string is
tied and cut, and the child is taken up.
For four days the afterbirth is kept in the house. A twig of yew
wood about four inches long is pointed and pushed into the navel string,
which is then tied up. Four layers of cedar bark are wrapped around
the afterbirth. That of boys is in most cases buried in front of the
house-door. That of girls is buried at high-water mark. It is believed
that this will make them expert clam-diggers. The afterbirih of boys is
sometimes exposed at places where ravens will eat it. It is believed that
then the boys will be able to see the future.
The navel string is believed to be a means of making children expert
in various occupations. It is fastened to a mask or to a knife, which are
then used by a good dancer or carver, as the casemay be. Then the child
will become a good dancer or carver. If it isdesired to make a boy a good
singer, his navel string is attached to the baton of the singing master.
Then the boy calls every morning on the singing master while he is taking
his breakfast. The singing master takes his baton and moves it once down
the right side of the boy’s body, then down the left side ; once more
down the right side, and once more down the left side. Then he gives the
child some of his food. This, it is believed, will make him a good singer.
I referred in the Fifth (p. 847) and Sixth (p. 614) Reports to the beliefs
in regard to twins. I have received the following additional information
in regard to this subject. Four days after the birth of twins, mother and
father must leave the village and resort to the woods, where they stay for
a prolonged period. They separate, and each must pretend to be married
to a log, with which they lie dgwn every night. They are forbidden to
touch each other. They must not touch their hair. Every fourth day
they bathe, rub their bodies with hemlock twigs, and wipe them with
white shredded cedar bark. Their facesare painted redall the time. For
this purpose they do not use vermilion, but ochre. They are not allowed
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 575
todo any work. These practices are continued for a period of sixteen
months. During this period they must not borrow canoes or paddles
from other people ; they must use bucket and dishes of their own. If
they should use the belongings of other persons, the latter would have
also twin children. The woman must not dig clams and the man must
not catch salmon, else the clams and the salmon would disappear. They
must not go near a fire in which bracken roots are being roasted. It is
believed that the birth of twins will produce permanent backaches in the
parents. In order to avert this, the man, a short time after the birth,
induces a young man to have intercourse with his wife, while she in turn
procures a girl for her husband. It is believed that then the backache
will attack them. A year after the birth of the twins the parents put
wedges and hammers into a basket, which they take on their backs and
carry into the woods. Then they drive the wedges into a tree, asking it
to permit them to work again after a lapse of four months.
All the young women go to the pit over which the twins were born and
squat over it, leaning on their knuckles, because it is believed that after
doing so they will be sure to bear children.
BURIAL.
When a person is about to die, his friends spit water all over his body.
After death the body is carefully washed, so that every particle of the
bodies of the survivors that might adhere to the corpse may be removed.
Even the places where their breath might have touched the body must be
carefully washed. This is done in order to prevent that the survivors
might accidentally bewitch themselves (see Sixth Report, p. 610). If the
death occurs during the night, the body is left in the house until day-
light ; if it occurs during the day, it is removed at once. It must not
be taken out of the door, else other inmates of the house would be sure to
die soon. Either a hole is made in one of the walls, through which the
Fig. 1.
pao
itt eee oe,
body is carried out, or it is lifted through the roof. It is placed behind
the house to be put into the box that is to serve as a coffin. . If it were
placed in the coffin inside the house, the souls of the other inmates would
enter the coffin too, and then all would die. The coffin is placed at the
right-hand side of the body. Then a speaker calls the relatives of the
deceased, saying: ‘Let the dead one take away all the sickness of his
friends.’ Then they all come and sit down at the side of the corpse, wail-
ing for a short time. Now they arise and give the body a kick. They
turn once toward the left, and give the body another kick, repeating this
576 REPORT—1896.
action four times. This is called ‘ pushing away the love of the deceased,’
that he may not appear in their dreams, and that his memory may not
trouble them.! Then the wife of the deceased lets the children take off
their shirts and sit down, turning their backs towards the corpse. She
takes his hand and moves it down the backs of the children, then moving
the hand back to the chest of the body. With this motion she takes the
sickness out of the bodies of the children and places it into the body of
the deceased, who thus takes it away with him when he is buried.
After this ceremony an olachen net is placed over the head of the
body, his face is painted red, and the body is wrapped in a blanket. Then
it is tied up, the knees being drawn up to the chin. Now four men of
the clans of which the deceased was not a member lift the body to place
it into the box. Four times they raise it. The fourth time they actually
lift it over the box. Four times they move, but only the fourth time they
actually let it down into the box. If the box should prove too small, they
must not take it out again, but the body is squeezed in as best they can,
even if they should have to break its neck or feet. The head is placed at
the edge where the sides of the box are sewed up (see Fifth Report, p. 817)
because the soul is believed to escape through the joint. The soul leaves
the body on the fourth day after death, escaping through the place where
the frontal fontanel of the child is located. The box is tied up, as indi-
cated in fig. 1. As soon as the four men who carry the coffin to the burial-
ground raise it the women cease to wail, because their tears would
recall the deceased. The relatives are not allowed to attend the funeral,
as it is believed that their souls would stay with that of their dead friend.
Twelve women accompany the coffin. Children are not allowed to go
with it. When the tree on which the body is to be deposited has been
reached, four poor men are sent up to carry a rope by which to haul up
the coffin. When they have reached the branch on which the coffin
is to be placed, they lower the rope. The men who remained below pre-
tend three times to tie the rope to the coffin. The fourth time they really
tie it. Then the men in the tree pull up the rope. Three times they rest
in pulling it up, so that the coffin reaches its final resting-place after
having been pulled four times. It is placed on the branch and covered
with a large board. Then the men climb down again, cutting off the
branches for some distance under the coffin. When the men come down
from the tree, the women resume their wailing. They scratch their cheeks
with their nails. (The Koskimo use shells for this purpose.) After they
have returned to the village the blankets and mats which the deceased
used are burnt, together with the objects which he used. Food is also
burnt for him. All this is intended for his use, and is burnt because the
dead can use only burnt objects. If he has left a widow, she must use
his blankets, mats, kettle, &c., once before they are burnt. After the death
of a woman the widower must do the same. After four days a person
belonging to another clan cuts the hair of the mourners. The hair is
burnt. This service is paid for heavily, because it is believed to shorten
the life of the one who has rendered it. The climbers receive a payment
of two blankets each ; those who placed the corpse in the coffin and carried
it to the burial-ground receive one blanket each for their services.
' The widow and the children of the deceased wear strings made of mountain-
goat wool and white cedar bark mixed, one around the neck, one around the waist,
and two connecting ones down the chest; also strings of the same material around
wrists, elbows, knees, and ankles.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 577
Chiefs and common people were buried on separate trees. There is
also a separate tree on which twins are buried.
Nowadays the bodies are mostly buried in small grave-houses. The
custom of raising the coffin three times before it is placed in its final resting-
place is still adhered to.
The customs of the Koskimo and Tlatlasiqoala differ somewhat from:
those of the Kwakiutl. They place the body in the box in the house. .
Before doing so the box is turned round four times. Then a hole is cut
into the bottom of the box with an axe, which is raised three times before
the hole is really cut. This is the breathing hole of the soul, which does
not die or escape until the fourth day after the death of the body. The
coffin, before it is carried to the burial-ground, is placed on the beach.
The Kwakiutl paint twins, before they are buried, red all over. Four
feathers are attached to the coffin. Nobody is allowed to wail for them.
A surviving twin is washed in the water with which the corpse of the
dead one was washed.
When a person dies by an accident, and his body is not recovered, a
grave is made for him, which consists simply of painted boards. The say-
ing is that, if this were not done, it would be as though a dog had died.
Nobody is allowed to walk behind such a grave, as by doing so he would
indicate his desire to lie in a grave.
The widow, particularly if she has many children, must undergo a very
rigorous ceremonial. On the evening of the third day after the death of
her husband, her hairis cut. At the same time a small hut is built for
her. It is made of the mats which were hanging around the bed of the
deceased. The roof is made of the boards which were placed over his bed
in order to keep the soot off. An old woman, preferably one who has
been a widow four times, is appointed to assist her. On the fourth
morning after the death of her husband, she must rise before the crows
ery. She is not allowed to lie down, but must sit all night with her knees
drawn up to her chest. She eats only four bites four times a day, and
drinks only four mouthfuls four times a day. Before taking water or food
she raises it three times. If she thinks that her husband has been
murdered, she takes her food up, saying thatit is the neck of her husband’s
enemy, and calling his name, she bites it four times. Then she throws it
into the fire, saying : ‘This will be your food when you are dead.’ That
means that the person whom she named must soon die. When she is
tired she stretches her legs, first the one, then the other, naming her
enemy. This is also believed to bring him death. After four days the
old woman washes her and wipes her with a ring of hemlock branches, as
described above. This is repeated four times in intervals of four days.
After the last washing her old blanket is hung over the stump of a tree,
and her hat, which she wears all the time, is hung on top of the stump.
Then she is given new clothing, and is taken back to the house. There she
must stay in one corner, where she has a small fire of her own, Her
children are not allowed to see her. When she leaves the house, she must
pass out of a small door of her own. Four times she must turn before
putting her foot in the doorway. Four times she must put her foot for-
ward before actually going out, and in the same manner she returns. The
old woman now washes her every sixth day, and rubs her with the ring of
hemlock branches. After the fourth washing she is permitted to come to
the fireplace, but she must avoid going around the fire. Now the old
age washes her every eighth day, and then four times more every
896. PP
578 REPORT—1896.
twelfth day. Thus the whole period extends over one hundred and twenty
days.
"Tt the woman is poor, and has many children, four washings in intervals
of ten days are substituted for the washings of the last eighty days, thus
reducing the whole period to eighty days. During all this time she must
not cut her hair. She does not wail during the first sixteen days of the
mourning period while she is confined in the small hut.
GAMES.
1. Hibayu.—These dice have the shape indicated in fig. 2, The
casts count according to the narrowness of the sides. This
game is also played by the Tlingit of Alaska.
2. T?e'mkodyu.—A stick, about three feet long, with a
knob at its end, is thrown against an elastic board, which is
placed upright at some distance. If the stick rebounds and
is caught, the player gains four points. If it rebounds to
more than half the distance from the player to the board, he
gains one point. If it falls down nearer the board than one-
half the distance, or when the board is missed, the player does
not gain any point. The two players throw alternately. Each
has ten counters. When one of them gains all the counters,
he is the winner of the stake. When the stick falls down so that the
end opposite the knob rests on the board, the throw counts ten points.
3. A’lagoa, the well-known game of lehal, or hiding a bone ; played
with twenty counters.
4. T’e'nk-oayu, or carrying a heavy stone on the shoulder to test the
strength of those who participate in the game.
5, Mo'k:oa.—This game was introduced from the Nootka. It is played
between tribes. An object is given to a member of one tribe, who hides
it. Then four members of another tribe must guess where it is. They are
allowed, to guess four times. If they miss every time, they have lost.
This game is played for very high stakes.
VARIOUS BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS.
In seal feasts the chest of the seal is given to the highest chief ; the
feet are given to those next inrank. The young chiefs receive the flippers,
and the tail is given to the chief of the rival clan, who must give a feast
in return. The hunter, before returning home, cuts off the head of the
séal and gives it to his steersman. He eats the kidney before going home,
and cuts a strip three fingers wide along the back. These customs are said
to have been instituted by O’magt#’a'latiz, the ancestor of the clan
Gy gqyilk-am of the K’d'moyue.
The lowest carving on a totem pole is that which the owner inherited
from his father. The higher ones are those which he obtained by
marriage.
* The hunter, before going out to hunt seals or sea-otters, or other sea
animals, rubs his whole canoe with the branches of the white pine, in
order to take away all the bad smell that would frighten away the
animals.
In order to secure good luck, hunters of sea animals bathe in the sea
before starting. Hunters of land animals bathe in fresh water. Both
rub their bodies with hemlock branches.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 579
Of the first halibut caught in the season the stomach is eaten first,
then the pectoral fins, next the head. The rest is divided. If this were
not done, the halibut would disappear. :
Hunters carve the figure of any remarkable animal that they have
killed on the butts of their guns, or on their bows.
The souls of hunters are transformed into killer whales ; those of
hunters who pursue land animals become wolves. Only when a killer
whale or a wolf dies can their souls return and be born again, Hunters
have the bow seat of their canoes ornamented, and a hole cut in the centre
of the seat. It becomes their dorsal fin when they become killer whales
after their death. It is believed that, after the death of a hunter, the
killer whale into which he has been transformed will come to the village
and show itself. When a great number of killer whales approach a village,
it is believed that they come to fetch a soul.
Not only hunters are transformed into killer whales. I was told that
at one time a killer whale had been killed, the flipper of which showed a
scar as though it had been burnt. Not long before this event a girl had
died who had at one time burnt her hand. She was identified with the
killer whale.
When a wolf has been killed, it is placed on a blanket. Its heart is
taken out, and all those who have assisted in killing it must take four
morsels of the heart. Then they wail over the body :
AlawéstEns hégyésd qEns nEmoqtséqdé—i.c., Woe! our great friend.
Then the body is covered with a blanket and buried. A bow or a gun
with which a wolf has been killed is unlucky, and is given away by the
owner. The killing of a wolf produces scarcity of game.
Wolf’s heart and fat are used as medicines for heart diseases (see
Sixth Report, p. 613).
Women are forbidden to touch a wolf, as else they would lose their
husbands’ affections (see Sixth Report, p. 613).
The screech owl is believed to be the soul of a deceased person. The
pees catch them, paint them red, and let them free, asking for long
ife.
The root of the bracken (Pteris aquilina, L.) is believed to know
everything that is going on in the house in which it is being roasted. It
must be treated with great respect. If a person should warm his back
at the fire in which it is being roasted, he will have backache. Parents
of twins, and people who have had sexual intercourse a short time pre-
viously, must not enter a house in which the roots are being roasted.
When a person dreams that he goes up a mountain and the latter tilts
over, it signifies that he will die soon.
The gum of the red pine is chewed. That of the white pine is not
used by girls, because it is believed to make them pregnant.
The world is described as a house. The east is the door of the house ;
the west is the rear of the house. North is called ‘up the river,’ south
‘down the river.’ In the north of the world is the mouth of the earth.
There the dead descend to the country of the ghosts.
The part of the beach immediately to the west of Fort Rupert, in front
of the place where formerly the village of the sub-tribe Kué’qa stood,
is called the village of the ghosts, who are believed to reside there from
time to time.
PP2
580 REPORT—-1 896.
When there is an eclipse of the sun a man, named Ba'wulé, is required
to sing :—
Hok-oai’, hok-oai’, hok-valai’, a’tlas lalaq ts’a’ya laqsgya Bawule’—
Vomit it, vomit it, vomit it, else you will be the younger brother
of Bawulé’.
In order to gain the love of a girl the following philter is used : The
tongues and gizzards of a raven and of a woodpecker are placed in a
hollow stick, together with some saliva. They are mixed with the latter ;
the tube is closed and worn under the blanket. The underlying idea was
explained to me thus: The woodpecker and the raven are pretty birds ;
therefore the girl will consider the man who wears them just as pretty and
attractive. .
The tongue of a snake or of a frog is also used as a philter. They are
believed to make the wearer irresistible to everybody.
Another philter is as follows: The man wears a snake skin on his
body for some time. About the month of August he gathers a root
called ¢/’e’tayas, which resembles in shape two people embracing each
other. He procures four hairs of the girl whom he loves, which, together
with four hairs of his own, he places. between the two portions of the root
which resemble the two people. The root is tied up with sinews taken
from a corpse, and wrapped in the snake-skin which the man has been
wearing. For four days after, the man must not look at the girl. Then
she will call him, but he must not follow her. Finally she will come to him.
In order to bewitch a person it is necessary to obtain some of his soiled
clothing, hair, or blood. I described some methods of witchcraft in the
Sixth Report (p. 612). The following method is also used : The clothing
of the enemy is placed in the mouth of a lizard, the head of which has
been cut off. Then a snake’s head is pulled over the lizard’s head, so that
the latter is in the mouth of the snake. The whole is placed in the
mouth of a frog, which is then sewn up. This bundle is tied as tightly as
possible with the sinews of a corpse, and placed inside a stick which has
been hollowed out, and is then tied up again with the sinews of a corpse.
The whole is then covered with gum. This package is placed on the top
of a hemlock-tree which is growing at a windy place. In winter this
method of witchcraft does not do much harm, but as soon as it grows
warm the victim must die.
If a person is believed to be bewitched (é’k-a) his body is rubbed with
white cedar bark, which is then divided into four parts, and buried in
front of four houses, so that the people when entering or leaving the house
must step over it. This will break the spell.
If the children of a couple always die while very young, the little
finger of the last child to die is wound with a string. A notch is cut in
the upper rim of the burial box, in which the finger is placed. Then the
cover is put on, and the finger is cut off. It is hidden in the woods that
nobody may find it. The body of the child is placed on a new tree, not
on the tree on which other children are put.
IJ. Toe Houses oF tHe TsiMsHIAN AND NisxK:a!
The houses of the Tsimshian and of the Niska’ are square wooden
structures, like those of the Haida and Kwakiutl, but they differ some-
what in the details of construction. While the house of the Haida (see
581
eel ssoaieelie cia
me |
mi ie Yl UL semen
Z
2 vats pansanotillip WELLL #,
on
EERO
WH LLL.
———
582 REPORT—1896.
Dr.G. M. Dawson, ‘ Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Canada,’ 1878-79,
Plates III., IV., and V.), generally has on each side of the central line
three heavy beams which support the roof, the house of the Tsimshian
and of the Kwakiutl has only one pair of heavy beams, one on each side
of the doorway. In the Kwakiutl house these two beams, which rest on
heavy posts, stand no more than 6 feet apart (see ‘ Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,’
1888, p. 210). In the houses of the Tsimshian and Nisk‘a’ they stand
about halfway between the central line and the lateral walls. This
arrangement necessitates that provision is made for a ridge-beam. The
heavy beams B rest on the uprights U, which are seldom carved. On
top of the beams four supports S are laid, on which rests the ridge-
beam R. The latter consists of two parts, leaving a space in the middle for
the smoke-hole. Sometimes, but not regularly, two additional beams R rest
on these supports. In a few cases the central ridge-beam is then sup-
ported by a smaller support 8’. The lower end of the roof is either
arranged as shown in figs. 3 and 4, or as indicated in fig. 5. In the former
Fig. 5.
case the roof-supports are separate from the walls ; a beam V is laid on
the uprights C, and the roof-boards rest on the beams R, B, and V.
In the latter case (fig. 5) the corner-post P is connected with the rear
corner-post by a square beam which supports the lower ends of the
roof-boards. The walls of the old houses consist of horizontal planks of
great width. The thick planks of the front, rear, and sides (figs. 4, 5)
are grooved, and the thinner planks are let into these grooves. The two
mouldings of the front are also thick planks, which are grooved. Over
the door D is a short, heavy plank, on which rests a single thinner
vertical plank. The construction of the back may be seen in fig. 3.
Sometimes the houses are built on steep banks, so that only the rear
half is built on the ground. In this case a foundation of heavy
cedar-trees is built. A short log is placed with its end into the bank, the
butt end standing out towards the beach, where the side wall is to be.
Another log is placed in the same manner where the second side wall is
—
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 583
to be. A third heavy log is placed over the butts of the two projecting
logs. Then two more logs are put on top of the preceding one with their
ends into the bank, and thus a foundation is built up to the level of the
embankment. This is covered with a platform, and the house is built
about eight or ten feet back from its outer edge, so that the platform
forms the front portion of the floor of the house, and also a walk leading
to the house-door.
Ill. Tae Growrs or INDIAN CHILDREN FROM THE INTERIOR OF
British CoLuMBIA.
The table below shows the results of a compilation of the rates
of growth of Indian children of the following tribes :—Ntlakya’pamug,
Shuswap, Okanagan, Kalispelm, Yakima, Warm Springs. I have com-
bined all these tribes, because the adults have very nearly the same
stature, and because the geographical environment is very much alike.
The numbers of individuals are rather small, but nevertheless a few
results of general interest may be deduced from it. i
It will be noticed that in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth year's
girls are taller than ‘boys. This agrees closely with the period during
which the same phenomenon takes place among the whites, and is later
than among the Indians of southern latitudes. The decrease in variability
is not very well marked, probably because there is a considerable uncer-
tainty in regard to the estimated ages of the children. Still, it appears
that there is a distinct drop in the fifteenth year in boys, and in the
thirteenth year in girls. Among the Mission Indians of Southern Cali-
fornia this drop takes place between the thirteenth and fourteenth years
in boys, between the ninth and eleventh years in girls. Among the white
children of Massachusetts the drop takes place between the fifteenth and
sixteenth years in boys, between the fourteenth and fifteenth years in
girls—i.e., nearly at the same time as, or a little later than, among the
Indians of British Columbia.
| Boys GIRLs : |
ee Number of Average Average Average Average | Number of
8 cases variation stature stature variation cases:
mm, mm | mm. mm.
2 5 + 2°8 796 || == — —
3 3 +3°0 853 860 +15 ae ||
4 “ +52 983 . || 990 +24 Bt |
5 17 4+ 6°5 1,073 | 1,073 +33 10
6 12 +58 1,161 1,100 +2°8 14
7 12 +3°6 1 200 1,207 245 TH}
8 13 £43 1,256 | 1,207 +59 20 }
9 20 + 4:3 1,286 || 1,263 £45 19
11 19 +5°8 1,386 1,400 +50 18
12 37 +50 1,423 1,443 +65 19
13 18 +59 1,461 1,487 + 54 13
14 21 +58 1,527 1,508 +43 16
15 18 +38 1,578 || 1,517 + 6-0 15
16 17 + 51 1,611 1,537 444 20
17 12 +50 ao a
18 5 +2°5 1674" 1 ee 2
19 6 452 1,692 =
|
|
|
10 29 +65 1,365 1,338 £48 25 |}
584 REPORT—1896.,
It is of interest to compare the rate of growth of Indian and white
children. In the following table I give the statures of the Indian children
of British Columbia and of the white children of Worcester, Mass. :—
Boys GIRLS
Age: Years
Indian White Difference Indian White Difference
5 1,073 1,097 —24 || 1,073 1,074 — 1
6 1,161 1,127 +34 1,100 1,113 —13
7 1,200 1,170 +30 1,207 1,175 +32
8 1,256 1,223 +33 "|| 1,207 1,216 - 9
9 1,286 1,270 1G. ORR 268 1,266 — 3
10 1,365 1,340 +25 || 1,338 1,328 +10
11 1,386 1,388 — 2 1,400 1,370 +30
12 1,423 1,429 — 6 | 1,443 1,447 — 4
13 1,461 1,476 -15 | 1,487 1,479 + 8
14 1,527 1,543 —16 || 1,508 1,537 —29
15 1,578 1,622 —44 1,517 1,570 —53
16 1,611 1,658 —47 | 1,587 1,584 —47
17 1,622 1,685 — 63 — | 1,694. | a
18 1,674 | 1,700 2 ea 1591 3)
19 1,692 | 1,713 —21 | — — | —
It appears from both tables, although more clearly in the case of
boys, that the Indian child is taller than the white child, although in
the adult the inverse relation of statures prevails. I have shown at
another place that a similar relation prevails between full-bloods and
half-breeds (‘ Verh. Berliner Anthr. Ger.,’ 1895, p. 386). It is therefore
probable that the difference in the laws of growth is a racial phenomenon.
NASAL INDEX OF SKULLS,
On p. 544 of the Tenth Report of the Committee I pointed out the
difference of racial types found along the coast, and stated (p. 545) that
the nose of the Kwakiutl represents a peculiar type which is not found in
any other region of the coast. I have investigated the same question on
a series of skulls, and have obtained the following results :—
Nasal Indices of Skulls
Nanaimo and | Songish, not
Index Kwakiutl Comox cara deroned Chinock
re
| | ee] cerererocrno re eee
feilbife secsnateeete [gceesinets pea.
| ilmlitetie | acne + | | ||
Jromremtd = bem] | fd
mesrorow| ooo! ol o | (es
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 585
Nasal Indices of Skulls (continued).
Index Kwakiutl Comox eee h ind pres a Chinook
52 —_— —— — 1 ae
53 — — 3 — —
54 _ 1 3 2 1
55 — a 2 — —
56 = as 1 = es
57 = — — —_ —
58 1 -- 1 — ——
59 = 2 — = es
60 = = = =u =
61 = att Be a a
fe : se ~ a a
71 ae ue 1 ue ae
Cases z 25 7 38 10 12
Average . 45:1 46°6 | 49°6 478 476
It appears that the nasal index of the Kwakiutl is by far the lowest,
and that it increases among the Coast Salish. The nasal bones are at the
same time large and high, while among the Coast Salish they are small,
decidedly flat, and sometimes synostosed.
IV. Ltneuistic Notes.
1. KWAKIUTL.
I indicated on p. 659 of the Sixth Report of the Committee that there seemed to
exist cases in Kwakiutl, I have since investigated this matter more fully, and find
that cases clearly exist.
There is a definite article which has the following forms :—
Nominative: da.
Genitive: sa
Accusative: ga.
Locative : laqa.
The indefinite article is expressed only in the genitive and locative :—
Genitive : &
Locative : laq.
The possessive pronoun has the following cases :—
1st Person. 2nd Person. 3rd Person.
Nominative: —zn —os —as.
Genitive: SEN sos 8és.
Accusative : gen qos ges.
Locative : lagen lagos laqés, lagq—(a) s
Examples: 1. Definite Article :—
Nominative: Ya'h’tgyatle da nemdo'h’'ué begua'nem.
It said the one man,
Genitive : Gytkamaya sa ma'q’énég.
. The chief of the killer whales
Accusative: Aatitsa'la ga dé'wegq.
He tore the cedar twigs
Locative: Zd'gyaa la'ga ts’eld’tl.
He arrived at the lake.
586 REPORT—1896.
2. Indefinite article :-—
Nominative : Ma' généq hy'a'tama’ya sa gyok*.
Killer whale painting on front of the house.
Genitive : tlema'is s Tsd'qis.
the beach of Tsa’qis.
Accusative:. K’d’ga wap.
He found water.
Locative : Gyo' qrulsa sa gyo'hué lag Ky'a'h-a.
He built a house of the house at Ky’a’k-a.
3. Possessive pronoun :—
1st Person. Nominative: Yi’ga gu'nkhyin k’a'lhoa.
This my nettle harpoon-line.
Genitive : Ta'lak'emen sen d'mpée.
Iam sent by my father.
Accusative: amen aqg’é't gen likya'yu.
I took mr hammer.
Locative : Laé'ti ld'gen gyo'hua.
He entered inmy house.
8rd Person. Nominative: Gyd'kuas.
His house.
Genitive : Gyo' guat sés gyd'hué.
He had a house of his house.
Accusative: Da'la és sé'hy'ak-ano.
He took his staff.
Locative : Née'nlat’a lagés tsa'yé.
But he said to his younger brother.
I pointed out in the Sixth Report that these possessive forms may be modified
according to the location, as near speaker, near person addressed, absent visible,
absent invisible. I have not, so far, discovered these distinctions in the genitive,
while they occur in aJl the other cases.
2. NiSK’A.
As my treatment of the Nisk-a language in the Tenth Report of the Committee
was very brief, I give here some additional information in regard to it.
In the Fifth Report (p. 878) I have treated the formation of the plural in the
Tsimshian, and Count von der Schulenburg has treated the same subject on pp. 9 ff. of
his work (‘ Die Sprache der Zimshian-Indianer.’ Braunschweig, 1894). The principles
underlying the formation of the plural will become clearer by the following remarks
on the formation of the plural in the Nisk:a dialect :—
1. Singular and plural have the same form.
This class embraces the names of all animals except the dog and the bear, trees,
and a great many words which .cannot be classified. I give here a list of some of
these :—
8E, day. bam, belly. ia'ns, leaf.
ya'tsEsk‘, animal. ma'dzikys, breast. még’ da'ukst, salmon berry.
kh?’ Ek’a' x, wing. nisk*, wpper lip. lagamda'k‘s, prairie.
misuk’da'n, down of bird. tldtsq, tail of fish. ts'‘aky, dish.
gie, hair. hawi'l, arrow. ' _ wé'6s, dish.
opq, forehead. loatigya' 6th‘, axe. kKotl, yes.
dzak*, nose. ts'anik:srtqa’, moccasins. k-asd'eq, front.
ua'n, tooth. lak‘, fire. ts’én, inside.
ié’mk:, beard. akyc, water. nuldi'gytt, warrior.
?emla'nin, neck. \ prit' st, star. ala'igytg, language.
tlak's, nail. awk‘, night. lé'rlgyit, feast.
gtlh:ao'm, payment. iocand'tlk*, to be astonished.
mi'uke, sweet smelling. leqia'k-, to fall (rain, snow).
hatlha'tluks, lean. . liya'k:, to hang (v. a.).
tlana'k‘t, old. k’a'merqk‘, to wish.
7
.
— =
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 587
ida'hy, to thunder. hasa'k’, to want.
saanund'k-, to rebuke. tlma’zm, to help.
silg-aué'l, to accompany. haitht, to rush,
dé'lemngh*, to reply. gyi'dxgq, to ask.
mé'lek’, to damn. k:ala'n, to leave something.
lé'mén, to sing. bak-, to feel.
gyé, to see.
. The plural is formed by reduplication, the beginning of the word, as far as the
‘ke consonant following the first vowel, being repeated with weakened vowel. The
‘accent of the word is not changed. The reduplicated syllable remains separated
from the reduplicated word by a hiatus.
This is particularly evident in words beginning with a vowel. In these there is a
distinct pause between the terminal consonant of the reduplication and the initial
vowel of the reduplicated word :—
Alvar
ou plural 2x’6 Hy to throw. a'lgyigq plural z?a'lgyiq, to speak.
am » Em a'm, good.
It seems to me that this method of forming the plural may be considered dupli-
cation affected by certain laws of euphony. Monosyllabic words beginning and
terminating either with a vowel or with a single consonant, according to the rule
given above, are duplicated. Monosyllabic words terminating with a combination
of consonants drop all the elements of the terminal cluster of consonants, except
the first one, because else there would be a great accumulation of consonants in the
middle of the word. The same causes that bring about the elision of the terminal
cluster of consonants probably affect polysyllabic words in such a manner that the
whole end of the word was dropped. This seems the more likely, as the repeated
syllable has its vowel weakened. Ifa polysyllabic word was thus repeated the effect
must have been very similar to the repetition of a word with a terminal cluster of
consonants. For instance, wuld'x, to know, duplicated with weakened vowels, would
form wulawuld'n. In this word, according to the rule governing the reduplication
of monosyllabic words with a terminal cluster of consonants, the first # would drop
out, so that the form wulwuld'n would originate.
A few euphonic changes of consonants take place :—
ky, gy, and k, following the first vowel of the word, are aspirated in the redupli-
cation, and form uz.
g and k: are also aspirated, and form gq.
y becomes the surd aspirate w.
ts becomes s.
The weakened vowels have a tendency to change into z or @. The variability and
indistinctness of the vowels make it difficult to establish a general rule.
I classify the examples in order to bring out the points referred to above.
a. Monosyllabic words beginning and terminating either with a vowel or with a
single consonant.
OH plural in’d’n, to throw. Cag plural ?agt’a'g, lake ; also t’xt’a'q.
Us » £8'u's, dog. dzok: » adzik-dzd'hk:, to camp.
am » Emda'm, good. ve » vet’, valley.
ol » @Vo'l, bear. métl a mitlmé'ti, to tell.
dan » dixda'n, bill. gytc » gytcgy?'c, wrong.
Wee » @icd'e'c, to push. (10) nd’ —s,_~—s (10) nod", hole.
tlap » tleptla'p, deep. la'ép » lepla'dp, stone.
bati » betlba'tl, to lay down a flat tsap » tstptsa'p, to do.
thing. ts’al » tsélts’a'l, face.
hap » hapha'p, to shut. ts'é'ip » tsxpts dtp, to tie.
gan » gianga'n, tree.
b. Monosyllabic words beginning with a vowel or a single consonant, terminating
with a cluster of consonants.
sv'éph* plural sips?'épk*, sick. hréch® plural Ieash'é 'ch‘, narrow.
8’ éph* » ts'tpts’é'pk*‘, hard. délpk* » déldé'lpk*, short.
ash* ' 4, @s't/sk‘, stench. (la) da'lth® ,, (Wo) dulda'itk*, to meet.
gick » gicg i'ok', lean. tlantk‘ » tlentla'ntk‘, to move.
588 REPORT—1896.
mith’ plural métmi'th, full. tlinta plural tlenti’ntu, to be angry,
gyith » gyitgyi'th', to swell. qyéphe » gytpgyée'pke, high.
gyatlh§ » gyitlgya'tlk, to pierce. éth'c » avé'th‘c, to end.
hana 3, Aanha'nu, thin. mao xku » maaxmad'xhyu, meek.
yalth* » ytlga'ltk‘, to return.
c. Polysyllabic words beginning with a vowel or a single consonant.
st'eb'en plural stpsz'eb’en, to love. dé'lin plural di/dé'lin, tongue.
had'a'gh' ,, hadhad'a'gk*, bad. lo'lak: » lrllo'lak:, ghost.
wulda'x » wulwuld'h, to know. (gan) mda'la » (gan)ymelma'la, bottom,
ba' sighs » besba'sigk‘, to separate. a'lgytqg » &la'lgyitg, to speak.
wa' lin » wulwa'lin, load, to carry ma‘lg-éksk* » meElma'lgéhysk‘, heavy.
on bark. haeda' k* » hiehaeda'k‘, bow.
a'@ihkysk ,, ad a'@ikysk, to come. ho'mts'tq » hamhd' mts’iq, to kiss.
gyt'deq » gyidgyi'dxq, to ask. ha'qg''at » hagha'gg’at, sweet
asa! » as'asa'u,‘foot. smelling.
d, Change of hy, gy, and & into u.
taky — plural Vint'a'hy, to forget. sakysk* plural stxsa'hysi‘, clean.
hakys » hauha'hys, to abuse. tlégya't », tltntligya't, cripple.
ohye » | aH dkyc, to drop. mok* » minmo'k‘, to catch fish,
id/okys » tid’ dhys, to wash. gyuke » gyéngyw' ke, fish jumps.
akys » éH’dhys, broad. hokeh‘ » hauhd'kek‘, to join others.
dakytl » diuda'hytl, to lie around.
e. Change of y into z.
ho ytq plural hinhd'yigq, just.
J. Change of g' and : into gq.
mag a'nsk’ plural miqmag'da’nsk‘, explanation,
g dik ch » gegqg wik-ch, to sit.
s0'uk:shk* » sEqgso'uk:sk*, to dive.
hak tt » kxgh’aktl, to drag.
ak ktl » aga'kktl, to arrive.
g. Change of ¢s into s, and of dz into z.
yats plural yis’ia'ts, to chop.
hots » kk’ xsk’d'ts, to chop a tree,
hé'its » Aéshe'tts, to send.
a' dzihs » az a'dziks, proud.
hée'tsumeq » hashé'tsumegq, to command.
h. Words beginning with combinations of consonants do not always reduplicate
in the manner described above, as it sometimes results in an accumulation of con-
sonants in the middle of the word. If such inadmissible clusters should result, only
the first consonant of the word is repeated. In such cases initial ¢ is transformed
into k-. :
pte plural ppté, door. gtlko'lug plural k-egtlké'lug, to scold.
gtlho » tk xgtlké, to pray. qtsa'e » hkxgqtsa'e, thick.
(See, however, the words with initial ¢s.
7. Words beginning with hw have in the plural him. When hw is considered as
one syllable, the semi-vowel w standing for a weak w and m, the reduplicated form
would be hwhw, which, when pronounced rapidly and with the following vowel, must
naturally become him. I believe, therefore, that this plural must be included in the
reduplications :—
ha plural hia’, name. Anil plural hini'l, to do.
hnilp » hiini'lp, house. hid » hit’, to call.
hwdt » huwva't, to sell. Andu » Aind'n, paddle.
Ee
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 589
j. Irregular reduplications.
a. Elision of the consonant following the first vowel.
gyin plural gyigyi'n, to give food.
quik Fe qytgui' hk‘, to buy.
ts'ahy ts’Ets’a'hy, dish.
taq FE, vrt’a’g, lake.
ts’ép » ts’£ts’é'p, bone.
gyit x gyigya't, people.
mal 3 mmiéal, canoe.
8. Introduction of (euphonic ?) H.
drda'lek plural dindeda'lzk-, to talk to.
amdo's 73 au’amo's, corner.
Votsh* “A Ciut’o' tsk‘, iron.
yind'tsig 9 yininatsig, whip.
Endd'yEn - au endod'yrn, garden,
Ensqyé'ist »° «© an Ensgyé'ist, grave.
sa'atlk* ‘ siusa'atlk‘, weak.
hatla'alst ty hanétla'alst, to work.
hatlebisk* i hanétlebi' sk‘, knife.
sanlai'dikys — ,. stusantlai'dikys, sign.
é' asks e awé' Esk‘, debt.
aqya' dhysk* 4 ag inya' dkysk*‘, to trust.
ty aluné'lemtlh*,, tg-aluninwé'lemtlhs, servant.
Here may also belong
yo'timeg plural hinio'timng, to command
. Introduction of consonants other than H.
dedé'ls plural dxldé'ls, alive.
makysk* ig mesma’ hkysk*.
heeg eth hetg é'th‘, difficult.
laqlé'ly Een >: laqluplé'lp’en, to roll.
8. The reduplicated syllable amalgamates with the stem.
ali'ch* plural alli'chk*‘ weak (instead of avali'ch‘).
ane’ st Fh anne'st branch ( , 3 an’ane' st).
e. The vowel of the reduplicated syllable is lengthened and the accent is
thrown back upon the first reduplicated syllable, while the vowel of the stem is.
weakened.
Ixk's plural 1a’lzhs, to wash the body.
moh’ 5 mwa wok’ to sleep.
caky x c@icihy, to haul out.
tlaky FC tlé'tliky, to bend.
Vok 55 ¢éa't ek’, to scratch,
3. The plural is formed by dizresis, or lengthening of vowels.
anda's plural and'es, skin. gwula' plural gutla’, cloak.
gytna'm gyé'nam, to give. hala'it E ha' lait, ceremonial dance-
hyiba' ~ hytba', to wait. hana'k: * ha'nak-, woman.
4. The plural is formed by the prefix #;a—. In this class are included many names.
of parts of the body, adjectives expressing states of the body, such as blind, deaf, and
also poor, words of location, and miscellaneous words which cannot be classified.
a. Parts of the body.
emg é'c plural k-at’emg'é'e, head. avon plural z:aan’o'n, hand.
ts'emi'H $s lrats’emi'H, ear. plraie i h-aplna'e or plnde, body.
ts'emd'h ,, hats ema'k:, mouth, k°étlk: sy hak’ étlk, chest.
temk an ,, hat «mk'a'x, arm. gad u h-ag'a'd, heart.
Vemtla’m 4; h-at’emtla'm, leg. tgami'k ,, hratg:ama'h, lip.
~ h-atsuné' ent, fingers. g"é'sEx “ hag’é'ser, knee.
590 REPORT—1896.
b, Adjectives expressing states of the body.
hytba! plural k-tkytba’, lame.
sins * h-asi'ns, blind.
ts ak: % k-ats’a'h’, deaf.
mEnd'tsg x k:amewa' tsq, crazy (=similar to a land otter).
Here may belong also
gqwi'E plural k-agwaii'r, poor.
hug id'nst = huekwio'nst, liberal.
e. Locations.
dau plural k-:adda'n, outside.
laq’o x k-alaq?o’, on top.
sto'ohys ,, k:asto'dhys, side of.
d. Other words, unclassified.
semo'ths plural k-asemd'ths, to believe.
no'den a h-and'd’en, to adorn.
yiegu' sgyith'c a yisk-agu'sqyith‘c, to rejoice.
lz' luke FA k:alé'luke, to steal.
guinsilé'ensgut ,, quink asilé'ensgut, hunter.
nist ds h-ami'st, root.
ha'it xs k-ak‘a'it, hat.
5. Terms of relationship from the plural by the prefix %-a— and the suffix —(4)k*.
nid! plural k-anid'xth‘, grandfather.
ntsé' Ets + h-antsé'rtsk‘, grandmother
nEgua' ot a k'anequa’éthk:, father.
nEbe'p 5 k-anebé'pk‘, uncle.
waky % k:anakyh*‘ (2), younger brother.
The following two have besides reduplication of the stem with lengthening of
the reduplicated syllable :
nakys plural hk-ané'nikysk‘, wife.
nog 3 k:and'neqgk‘, mother.
I found the following two without the prefix h;-a—
naky plural wakyk‘, younger brother.
gyimudé ,, gyimudé'tk‘, elder brother.
Irregular is
hueda'ehyen plural tluedda'eh'enth‘, grandson.
Here belongs also
mé'en plural k-amé'renth‘, master.
6. The plural is formed by the prefix 7— with variable vowel, Words forming the
plural in this manner have a tendency to form irregular plurals.
a. akys plural daa'‘kys, to drink.
yoxrks 9 léy6'xk*, to follow,
gokské lego'hksk‘, to be awake.
Wik: a. led’d'h, to devour.
qbsts'ae F laqgbé'ts nqt, afraid.
b. Some words have the prefix 7— combined with reduplication.
edan plural luudé'din, hunger.
¢e. Initial gy and hk: are elided when they follow the prefix 7—
gyakye plural lakye, a bird swims,
gyrba'yuk ,, liba'yuk, to fly.
leé'neg » lé'nxq, atree falls.
Se
ee
ee
=
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 591
Here belong also the reduplicated plurals :—
gyamkys plural lemla'mkys, to warm one’s self.
gya'mgyitl ,, lzmla'mgyitl, to warm something.
d. Irregular but related to this class are
yae plural 7'léa, to hide.
yeqya'h » lésli'sk’, to hang (v. n.).
adak* 3 lidue, to shoot.
gyené'th® ,, lenédemk‘st, to arise.
7. Irregular plurals.
a. Singular and plural are derived from different stems.
qyaigk' plural hd'ut, to escape. da@utl plural sa'hysk‘, to go away.
Bye » tlé, to walk. malk‘ » tga'ldxt, to put into fire.
ao’ ogh* » tgé'ogk*, to eat. magkt » centh', to go aboard.
toh’ e'n » tgak’x'n, to feed. baq » gl, to run.
Va » wan, to sit. ma'gat ,, atl, to put.
leksda! » lekswa'n, island. gyetl » l@tl, to lie down.
dzahk‘ » yéts,to kill (pl.=to chop). ts’@n » la'mdziq, to enter.
heth* » mak:sk‘, to stand. NOE » dag, to die.
dephé'th ., dxpma' ksh‘, short.
with‘ » bak‘, form. qau » tltlé'ngytt, male slave.
go » dok-, to take. wat ak‘ » tltlé'ngytt, female slave.
dé' gh
(qtina) » (qtina) sgyi'th‘, to kneel. t1go » ober, small.
kyjoie ~~~", ksitlo' (ksi—, out. t16, to tlgdwi'iky- ,, RB openilhycttlh‘,
walk), to go out. cit tks nobleman.
makt » nilkt, to carry. gyat » . @'wet, man.
shatsa'a ,, alisgyt'da, ugly. me » wud a'g, large.
ts’dsky », s888'0's, small.
b. Singular and plural are formed from the same or related stems.
muyeth' plural _ si'ya'th‘, to cry, to weep.
aiana' th ie alaywva' de, to shout.
N7EMEC' E “s nudag alemé'd’z, to shout.
loma' kysa fe lole'dikysa, to wash clothing.
ninak' Ar nné'nek*‘, long.
nid’d'e es d@’EQd’d'a, stout.
k‘stak-s . lukstsa'dek:s, to leave.
gaéema's 5 gaema'k'st, young.
amama's ~ anvama'k:st, pretty.
COMPOSITION.
_ The composition of words in Tsimshian and Nisk:a is remarkably loose. Although
there are a great number of formative elements which have no independent existence
they do not combine very intimately with the words to which they are prefixed. I
pointed out before that the reduplicated syllable remains separated from the stem
by a hiatusorpause. The same is true of all compositions, as the following examples
- will show :—
hagun’ié'r, to walk towards.
ts’'em’a' kys, in water.
leg'em’oH, to throw into (from top).
This loose connection is also shown by the fact that in compounds the plural is
formed from the stem alone.
Iealts'a'p plural kalts’rts'a'p, town. —_nsi'bensk* plural nsepsé'b’ensk‘, friend.
kealhnilp ,, k-alhuwvia'lp, house
daqgya't “6 daqgyigya't, strong.
There are very few cases of contractions.
Siyidemna'k-, chieftainess; plural, styidzmhd'nak. The end of this word was
undoubtedly originally danak, woman.
592 REPORT—1896.
Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Public Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir DouGLas GALTON (Chairman), Dr. FRANcIS
WakrnER (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Dr. J. G. Garson,
Dr. WILBERFORCE SMITH, and Mr. E. WHITE WaLuis.—(Report
drawn up by the Secretary.)
PAGE
APPENDIX.—T7welve tables, shoring for cach division of schools the number of
children seen, the number presenting one or more class of defect. The classes
of defect are distributed first under school standards, secondly in age groups 595
Tue Committee, acting in conjunction with a committee appointed for
the same purpose by the International Congress of Hygiene and Demo-
graphy, and the British Medical Association, is now able to give a
further account of the 50,000 children examined individually, 1892-94,
in sixty-three schools, together with some information bearing on the
causation of defects in childhood.
The methods of examination and the points observed were described
in our first report. The total number of boys and girls, with each class of
defect, was given in 1894. In our last report the number of boys and
girls, with the individual defects,was given as distributed in twelve
divisions of schools, representing Board schools, Voluntary schools, the
nationalities and social classes ; also the primary classes of defect in pro-
portions on the number of children seen and the number noted.
In each of the following tables the heading shows the division of
schools dealt with. The cases are arranged first in school standards,
secondly in age groups. Standard 0 contains children too old for the
infant school and too dull or backward for Standard I. In Table VII. the
column headed ‘No standard’ contains the boys in a high-class school
which was not arranged in standards. The average ages as recognised for
pupils in the standards respectively are :—Infants, five years and under ;
Standard I., six years, rising a standard a year, so that at twelve years of
age the child may reach Standard VII.
The primary main classes of defect are indicated in the tables by
symbols :—
A. Defect in development only : not in combination with other class of
defect.
B. Abnormal nerve-signs only ; not in combination with other class of
defect.
C. Pale, thin, or delicate only.
D. Reported as mentally dull or backward only.
Six other primary groups are arranged by taking cases with two main
classes of defect only.
Four primary groups present three main classes of defect only.
One primary group presents the four main classes of defect combined
in each case.
The remainder—groups E, F, and G—contain the cases with defects
not classed above as main classes ; such as eye cases, children maimed or
crippled, &c.
We thus show for each division of schools the children who presented
an observed defect in development of body, in nerve status, in physical
health and nutrition, and those reported by the teachers-as dull or back-
ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 593
ward, arranged in primary groups presenting only the class of defect indi-
cated by the formula. To obtain the total number of cases with any class
of defect, whether combined with other class of defect or not, the numbers
representing all the primary groups containing such defect must be added .
together. The total or compound group AB=primary AB+ABC+ ABD
+ABCD. It is also possible, for the purposes of research, to arrange
from the tables the children in whom any class of defect is absent, and
thus compare their conditions in contrast with the children in whom such
defects were present. Such actuarial work is useful in seeking the
causation of defects. Examples have been worked out by Dr. Francis
Warner.!
This arrangement of our cases has afforded much information for the
' solution of certain problems, and the means of answering many questions
concerning conditions of childhood. It has become possible to compare
similar groups of children under varied environment and at different ages.
Comparison of the cases presenting some defect, as to their ages in
relation to the standard in which they were placed, shows that 25-6 per
_ cent. of the boys and 26:3 per cent. of the girls were over the average age
recognised for the standard. Thus evidence is obtained of a lower mental
status in children with the signs of defect, apart from the report of the
teachers, while the value of the signs observed is indicated. Facts such
as these can be arranged for any division of schools.
It is well known that developmental and congenital defect forms an
appreciable eause in the high rate of infant mortality, especially among
males ; many children, however, with the lesser degrees of defect, survive
to school age, and form 8°8 per cent. of the boys and 6°8 per cent. of the
girls seen in schools. It was shown in our report of 1894 that conditions
of defect are frequently associated in children ; the tables now published
make it possible to show that such conditions vary in boys and in girls
respectively in the age groups.
Among the children with developmental defects, those who are seven
years old and under have the lowest percentage association with additional
or acquired defects. This is more marked among boys than girls. They
have, however, a tendency to acquire nerve-disturbance, delicacy, and
mental dulness under the continued action of their environment, as they
grow older ; this is specially marked with the girls. When eight to ten
years of age the proportion of those children who have acquired additional
defects has risen 7 per cent. ; while at twelve years and older only 37 per
cent. of the boys and 25 per cent. of the girls with developmental defects
are free from additional or acquired delicacy, nerve-disturbance, or mental
dulness. Further, among developmental defect cases, the signs of nerve-
disturbance are more associated with other defect in boys under eleven
years ; while at all ages the association with low nutrition and mental
dulness is greater in girls. At eleven years of age and over, develop-
mental defect is most associated with nerve-disturbance, delicacy, and
dulness in the girls.
The calculations upon which these statements are made, as founded
upon the tables here given, will be found in the ‘Statistical Journal,’
March 1896.
Brain-disorderliness, as indicated by abnormal nerve-signs, is a more
potent cause of mental dulness than congenital defect of development of
1 See Statistical Journal, March 1896.
1896, QQ
594 REPORT—1896,
the body. Nerve-signs, whether they occur alone or in combination with
defect in development or not, are more directly connected with low mental
ability than congenital defect of the body. This is most marked in
children seven years and under, particularly with girls ; in the age-group
eight to ten it is most marked with boys ; while at eleven years and over
it is about equal in the sexes. It should thus be an object, in training
children, to prevent them from acquiring any abnormal nerve-signs.
In the London Board schools efficient physical training was given (these
children are presented in Tables I. to IV.) ; in the Scotch Board school
(see Table VI.) no physical training was given. The physical condition
of the Scotch children was better—developmental cases, boys 8 per cent.,
girls 4-6 per cent. ; and delicate children, boys 2-2 per cent., girls 3:3 per
cent., as against, in the London schools—developmental cases, boys 8°5 per
cent., girls 6°8 per cent. ; and delicate children, boys 2°8 per cent., girls
3°4 per cent. When, however, we come to look to their brain status, we
find, in the Scotch school, 13-6 per cent. boys and 10:3 per cent. girls
with abnormal nerve-signs, while 9°8 per cent. boys and 6:2 per cent. girls
are dull or backward pupils; as against, in the London schools, 9:7 per
cent. boys, and 8-2 per cent. girls with nerve-signs, and 7:9 per cent. boys,
and 7:1 per cent. girls reported as dull pupils. Further analysis of the
cases shows the nerve-signs as probably connected with the larger propor-
tion of dull pupils. The inference is that good physical training lessens
the proportion of children with inco-ordinated brain action, and coinci-
dently the proportion of dull pupils.
Many other points of interest might be dealt with on the basis of the
facts arranged in the tables, and answers can be given therefrom to many
questions raised from time to time. In the last two reports we have dealt
mostly with the main classes of defects; in searching for the means of
removing or preventing them it will be necessary to make further analysis
and classification of the individual defects, especially as to the nerve-
signs. Cases presenting each nerve-sign should be classified, as the main
class of nerve-cases has been classified ; we should thus obtain information
as to the lines of causation of each, and their relative significance. As all
our cases are recorded on separate cards, this can readily be done, but the
work would involve much clerical labour.
The Committee desire to be reappointed, and ask a grant in aid of this
work.
Description of Tables.
Each table is arranged for a division of schools as given in the heading.
Cases are distributed into primary groups presenting only the class of
defect indicated by the symbols. The numbers on the left hand refer to
definition of the class, as given in the full report published.! In the first
half of the table the groups are distributed according to educational
standards. The numbers seen and the numbers noted are given at the
bottom of this section of the table.
In the second half of the table the groups are distributed according
to ages.
' ‘Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of
Childhood. With particular reference to children of defective constitution; and
with recommendations as to Education and Training, based on 100,000 children
examined.’ Published at Parkes Museum, Margaret Street, W.
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1896.
REPORT
596
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598 REPORT—1896.
TaBLE 1V.—Three London Board Schools; Poor Social Class ; Jewish Children.
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ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.
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Taste VI.—A Board School, Upper Social Class
600
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ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.
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Facies oe ke ememet |) I et sua lade lee
2 Stsendddddddddus | os | 2 | desendeddddddang | 2
Gq
601
Average Social Class ; English.
.
5)
TaBLE VIII.—VFive Voluntary Schools
REPORT—1896.
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gn | ; 2s ae Ga ac ai Va all b=) = 2
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ON THE MENTAL ANQ PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 603
E5 Be ;
Cy
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a5 prety ntti | Bei i EL ei icte p |
ae ee ee se
; oper rere renee
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= |2 Sm PIsTiT itis |e
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a 2O & a
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& ddddnddddddddans | 22 || 4 E aueevedsuddddans [2
Tapue X.—Ten Voluntary Schools in London; Poorer Social Class ; Irish Children.
REPORT—1896,
ai 6 GB ° RAAF RSPAS lag 33 S SE°RALH BRO RSMaAR E
34 —|| $8 —
fo)
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i) z ’ a 2 3 z Q 3
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| & mOoQO0COOMMOOML | = ey MOQ0COAMMOOM: | g
qnmo0gqqqOMOdqaqaMaw | 54 B qmoOdqaqqmmOqaqqMewy | ¥
2s s 2
5 SARA RARAARARRNS | wy || 2 |S SASSRRRRRNPARARRS | Z
ON THE MENTAL AND, PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 600
3 ee Syst [Laie Sed | ,ouen [3 | Se 33 ai ea mesene xo mia | 3
33 3
a Ino] er Ge S919 OCS Resa (Ele, cole Ce F=f CO RS SVE fo) SS BR 00 CNIS cai eeiee 60 4 6a rt 00 lz
SHA hl p]e imitiimiteitiiis [+
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re Loerie Pr erery kee yr |
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me fee Poi hi ei fess
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sb a
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ot A
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cS: * 46
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= 2 S$ imuititinttitiit |=
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ia | SSAA EF a AMMEIETiieritiiit |
AI TE mie:
°C) | SaaS er oo yr a aan in dow DAIS Oa et ee E
Eee
—r: EE OES Sige Solas Moana aes: * a > BY: eae ia ro a .
= 3
p> Bo ne ob ee OSOB00, |S q° ||. 2 Bose saan 4000000 | 8
c | moQ00O0mmo0mu | 35) = | & moacadmmoovan | =e
; | ( <m0OcaqqmmMoOcaecoau | pe | » |? cmoadccamoddcmau |,
. a 2a = zy 2
BW ie igh hahaa le) ayes ites tad 2 es BE as 5 a Be paces seme
& dasensdddddddssd | oe || | § Sosensaaasaraans | 2
606 REPORT-—— 1896,
a3 PD) || SIDSe [Peo es cole) | fea ira i= lez a8 SSS Teer ee he
3s
Be Be
Z| a SE&Qateows jownaye lag Z| BBO SRtows pownays E
== ae :
ao lo llitit | Bile
a6 S LUISE UP URULEUISCOT . | ele taairenemnahh ee Clar
oa le Ieee teeta et fg |} —————____1 __
- eae! id Ea
Bed So A EL Pabay ete Wt
é | 48 =
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a
= awmaeye le se =
SLB eee I ae tee
4 oH S OOH TRH PAN + |
SEE | e le feed ah ee
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OD =
os S MMH MHOMMRAINAA THIS | o
A Ao | LaSalle
ee Ae OMS TS hes) he eee
See
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as) s 5 WANN AR MOH | A meyw | oo || oO Ss r
Sila |a~s [Ta pee 42 : &
Ss
S ea ee a ae aT eer ioe
“ef Bole PT LI Pe hee |
@ | sp ] spl
8 gs [7 : 69) 1 ee
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~ AMS "eae
ARE eh, Sk clalaan Red ol tae 2 =
S [sx =! ;
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= (ee = pa TO Ny Ht kota (al Jia st
$ n i> Cc nt
$ ;
A VETIUELIIETOtIIt| A
dels claelsl TIT LL ea
abe
SS VaRIT. SMIIUTITL IAEA Ita |
CREA Ce ceseakec ce mie ae mt bine
S .
Se NT The 1 —c A VIIEIETTILEEII IT
[go SS it bas
= Erin [- ) fs taeriiertctitiag [1
Safa a aa Peg
Ss
3 a yreyl i111 ee
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eHeVe-6)EYa e e
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a ae ty SUIUUITUVT ETT t nd |
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aq . © @) 0) 6) eye, af a) ey 0 sen Pere °
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i) a 3 | Qa 5
gq ocee- 0q0000 | 3. ] S |e ....------00a00g | 8
Bi MOQACOOgmoom" | 58 |] 2 |B mOoQvaAmmaOOm: | 8
| |% «moacccmm0gqaqmaw | 2% | 2 | a emoncccmmoccamau | =
& ee | 2 le F
eric 88 koe RO ee a oe aq 2 See hi ae eS
§ SAssnsaadddadane | 22 | & | 2 sesensesadddddys | 2
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 607
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—Fourth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. BraBroox (Chairman),
Dr. Francis GALtTon, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A. C. Happon,
Dr. JoseEpH ANDERSON, Mr. J. RomitLy ALLEN, Dr. J. BEDDOE,
Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
Mr. ARTHUR J. Evans, Mr. F. G. Hitton Price, Sir H. Howorrs,
Professor R. MELDOLA, General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. E. G. Raven-
STEIN, and Mr. E. SmipNEY HartTLanp (Secretary). (Drawn up
by the Chairman.)
APPENDIX PAGE
I. The Ethnographical Survey of Ireland. Report of the Committee . . 609
Il. Report of the Ethnographical Survey of Pembrokeshire. By EDWARD
Laws, F.S.A.. . A 2 A " 2 . 5 ; ; - 610
Ill. Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland. By Rev. Dr.
WALTER GREGOR . 612
IV. On the Method of determining the Value of ' Follilore as Ethnological
Data. By G. LAURENCE GOMME, F.S.A. 626
1. As in previous years, the Committee have had the advantage of the
co-operation of several gentlemen not members of the Association, but
delegates of various learned bodies who are interested in the Survey.
Mr. George Payne, one of the delegates of the Society of Antiquaries,
and Mr. E. Clodd, Mr. G. L. Gomme, and Mr. J. Jacobs, the repre-
sentatives of the Folklore Society, Sir C. M. Kennedy, K.C.M.G.,
representing the Royal Statistical Society, Mr. Edward Laws, the Ven.
Archdeacon Thomas, Mr. S. W. Williams, and Professor John Rhys,
representing the Cambrian Archeological Association, and Dr. C. R.
Browne, a representative of the Royal Irish Academy, have continued
their valuable services. Other members of the Committee are delegated
by the Anthropological Institute.
2. In previous reports, the Committee presented a list of villages or
places which, in the opinion of competent persons consulted by the Com-
mittee, appeared especially to deserve ethnographic study. They also
recorded the commencement of such study in several parts of the United
Kingdom by observers residing in the respective neighbourhoods. Since
the last meeting of the Association the Committee have taken an impor-
tant step in advance by commissioning the Rev. Dr. Walter Gregor to
make a special visit to the district of Galloway for the purpose of the
survey. He remained there during part of the months of October and
November 1895, and paid another visit in the spring of the present year.
On these occasions he collected a considerable amount of information on
the current traditions and folklore of the district, and took measurements
of a number of the inhabitants. The Committee have requested him to
complete his observations on the people of Galloway, and to commence a
similar systematic survey of Ayrshire, the results of which will, it is
expected, be ready for insertion in their next Report. Dr. Gregor pos-
sesses special qualifications for this work, and his preliminary notes are
appended to this Report, not merely as being of interest in themselves, but
as indicating by example the manner of recording folklore.
3. The tabulation of the results of Dr. Gregor’s physical measure-
ments, and of those which the Committee have received from other sources,
608, REPORT—1896.
is deferred to a future Report. The Committee hope also, if reappointed,
in future Reports to supply bibliographical information.
4. The Committee have provided, for the use of observers of the
physical characters of the people, a number of the following instruments
graduated in millimetres :-—
1. A two-metre tape.
2, A pair of folding callipers.
3. A folding square.
4, A small set-square.
Sets of these have been supplied to applicants in various parts of the
country, who will communicate to the Committee the measurements they
take. Others are still available for use by competent observers who may
desire to borrow them, and those at present in circulation will be reissued
as soon as returned. Several applications were made in consequence of
an announcement on the matter inserted in the ‘ Academy,’ ‘ Athenzeum,’
and ‘Nature’ by the courtcsy of the editors of those journals.
5. The Committee have to thank the Rev. Fletcher Moss, of Didsbury,
for a number of measurements and other observations.
6. The Committee are much indebted to Mr. G. Paul for undertaking
to organise, through communications to the local papers circulating in
Nidderdale, and communications with the local Naturalists’ Club, a survey
of that district, the results of which the Committee hope to receive in due
course.
7. The Buchan Field Club has published a series of observations made
by Mr. John Gray, B.Sc., and Mr. Tocher, secretary of the club, upon
the anthropological characters of the people of East Aberdeenshire. It is
proceeding with the work upon the lines laid down by this Committee.
8. The Irish Ethnographic Committee, consisting of Professors Cun-
ningham and Haddon, members of this Committee, and Professors Haugh-
ton and Wright, is engaged in tabulating the results of the measurements
of over 500 individuals taken during the last four years in the Anthro-
pometric Laboratory of Trinity College, Dublin. It is intended to
tabulate the statistics with reference to ethnography, to the occupation
of the subjects, and to the success of the students. For the first of these
the subjects will be grouped geographically, according to the districts
from which their parents come, in probably a dozen groups. Dr. C. R.
Browne, who co-operates with this Committee, has undertaken the work
of tabulating the observations and calculating the indices. A Report
from the Committee is appended.
9. The Cambridge Ethnographic Survey Committee have also com-
menced operations. They are at present investigating the villages of
Barrington and Foxton, but as yet there are no results available for this
Report.
70. The Committee have to thank the Congress of Archeological
Societies in union with the Society of Antiquaries of London for printing
and circulating among their members a large number of this Committee’s
code of instructions, with Mr. Hartland’s explanatory paper appended
thereto. At the Canterbury Meeting of the Royal Archeological Insti-
tute a discussion has taken place on the sabject of an ethnographical
survey of Kent.
11. Appended to this Report is an important communication made to
this Committee by Mr. Laurence Gomme, on the method of determining
——
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 609
the value of folklore as ethnological data. The recommendations of Mr.
Gomme will be found to be valuable when the stage arrives at which it is
practicable and necessary to compare the collections made by the Com-
mittee in different localities.
12. The Committee have learned with much gratification from Mr.
Griffith that the establishment of similar committees for the Dominion of
Canada and the United States of America, working on the same lines as
this Committee, is in contemplation.
13. The Committee look upon these several results of their work as
encouraging, and ask to be reappointed for the purpose of continuing it.
They also ask for a further grant of 50/., having wholly expended the
sum granted for the present year.
APPENDIX I.
The Ethnographical Survey of Ireland.—Report of the Committee, con-
_ sisting of Dr. C. R. Browne, Professor D. J. Cunnincuam, Dr. 8.
Havueuton, Professor E. Percevat Wricut, and Professor A. C.
Happon (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Last year the Royal Irish Academy published! a. Report by Dr. C. R.
Browne on ‘The Ethnography of the Mullet, Inishkea Islands, and
Portacloy, co. Mayo,’ illustrated by three plates of photographs. This is
the third Report issued by the Dublin Ethnographic Committee, and the
investigation was carried out on the same lines as previously —that is, it
embraces the physiography of the district, anthropography (physical
characters and statistics, vital statistics—personal and economic, phy-
siology, folk-names) ; sociology (occupations, customs, food, clothing,
dwellings, and transport) ; folklore, archeology (survivals and antiqui-
ties) ; history, &c. The district investigated is a very wild and remote
part of Ireland, and, in spite of great difficulties, Dr. Browne has
produced a valuable and interesting memoir. A full series of observa-
tions were taken on sixty-two adult males, and the eye and hair colours
of 494 individuals were recorded. The average stature of the men is
1-725 m. (about 5 ft. 8 in.) ; they are stoutly built and broad-shouldered.
Over 80 per cent. of the adults have brown or dark hair, and about the
same number have light eyes; but the eyes of the women run darker
than those of the men. The cephalic index of the men is mainly (39)
mesaticephalic, there being 20 brachycephals and only 3 dolichocephals ;
if two units are deducted (as is often done to compare with cranial
indices), the numbers are 41 mesati-, 10 brachy-, and 11 dolicho-cephals.
The mean cephalic index is 79:4, the facial is 111-9, and the nasal 64.
Dr. Browne analyses the differences of the people from the various
districts. Thus the North Inishkea and the Portacloy are the tallest
(ay. 1727 m.=5 ft. 8 in.) ; but the former have the shortest arms, the
proportion of span to height being 102:45; while at Portacloy it is
105-65, and intermediate elsewhere. The nigrescence index is as follows :
Tnishkea Islands 10°5, Mullet 62-3, Portacloy 77-5 ; thus the islands show
® greater proportion of light hair. There is a greater tendency to brachy-
cephalism in South Inishkea and Portacloy, and none of these men were
1 Proceedings (3), vol. iii. pp. 587-649.
1896. RR
610 REPORT—1896.
dolichocephalic. The reader is referred to the original paper for fuller
details.
In 1895 Dr. Browne investigated the natives of Ballycloy, in the
southern portion of the barony of Erris, in co. Mayo. This is an isolated
district, being cut off by a semicircle of mountains from the rest of the
county. The people, who are much intermarried, are largely descended
from Ulster settlers. A statement, originally made by an anonymous
writer, has somehow gained currency, and has been repeatedly quoted
abroad, noticeably by M. de Quatrefages and by M. Devay, that the
descendants of the Ulster people, driven two centuries ago into Sligo and
Mayo, had dwindled into dwarfs of 5 feet 2 inches high, prognathous,
and pot-bellied. Dr. Browne found that the average height of these
people is 1-721 m. (5 feet 7? inches), and they exhibited no sign of physical
degeneracy ; they are very healthy, fond of music and dancing, given to
joking, and sharp in business, Though there is a coast-line of forty-
seven miles, nearly all the men are farmers. The houses are of a some-
what better order than those commonly found in the West of Ireland.
Fifty men were measured, and the hair and eye colours of 298 individuals
noted. The mean cephalic index is 80°5 (78:5), facial index 112°6, and
nasal index 63:9. Full details, as in the last Report, will shortly be
published in the ‘ Proceedings’ of -the Royal Irish Academy.
APPENDIX VII.
Report of the Ethnographical Survey of Pembrokeshire.
Ly Epwarp Laws, Esq., /S.A.
At the annual meeting of the Cambrian Archeological Association,
held at Launceston in August 1895, Mr. Henry Owen, F.S.A., and myself
were requested to institute an archeological survey of the county of
Pembroke.
Mr. Owen undertook to compile a bibliography —no slight task, for
though Pembroke is comparatively a small county it has perhaps been
more freely ink-bespattered than any shire in Wales. Mr. Owen has now
ready for press an annotated catalogue of printed books referring to the
county. This list he will present to the committee appointed by the
Cambrian Archeological Association at their meeting on the 7th Septem-
ber in Aberystwith. When the catalogue of printed books has been issued
it is proposed to prepare and print a list of MSS. relating to the county
of Pembroke. This is a work that cries aloud for the worker. The list of
MSS. relating to the Welsh counties preserved in the British Museum was
compiled just one hundred years ago, and other great libraries are equally
behind the times.
I myself undertook to raise a company of Pembrokeshire men, and
with their assistance archeologically annotate the 6-inch ordnance survey
of the county of Pembroke. I have now ready for press thirty quarter
sheets, and hope before the end of the month of August to receive twenty
more.
The system we have adopted is as follows: I send out one or more
quarter sheets to a volunteer worker, requesting that he will mark thereon
with a pinhole the position of the following objects :—
Camps or spaces enclosed by earthworks.
Camps or spaces enclosed by stone wall.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 61]
Camps or spaces enclosed by banks or walls at right angles,
Earthworks which do not enclose a space. '
Settlements as shown by hut foundations, animal bones, shells, &c.
Intermenis, barrows, graves.
Megalithic remains, cromlechs, rocking stones, menhirs, holed stones,
stone circles.
- Tnscribed stones, with Ogam or Roman lettering, or carved.
Stone implements, or flint chips.
Bronze implements.
Pottery.
Coins.
Ecclesiastical buildings, or remains.
Military buildings, or remains.
Domestic buildings, manor houses, &c., or remains.
Battle-fields.
Holy wells.
Localities connected with legends.
Other spots of archeological interest.
Having marked these spots on the map with a pinhole, the assistant
is requested to put a number on the back of the map by his pinhole, and
a symbol on the face (for this purpose he has been supplied with a
simple code of symbols, which seems to answer fairly well), and then on a
separate piece of paper to writ@ his remarks, measurements, de.
On receipt of the quarter sheet with the accompanying notes, [
schedule the latter thus :—
Symbol | No. | Locality | Object | Notes and References.
I look up former descriptions of the object already published and give
them in the fifth column. If the object is technical, such as an Ogam or
inscribed stone, I ask aid from an expert ; if something that seems to me
important or incomprehensible, I personally inspect.
Of the thirty quarter sheets received two haye proved barren ; on the
remaining twenty-eight I find 246 objects marked, and of these 106 have
escaped the Ordnance Surveyor.
The gentlemen to whom I am indebted for this valuable assistance are
six in number: Lieut. Howorth, R.A. ; Lieut.-Col. Lambton ; A. H.
Lascelles, Esq. ; Henry Mathias, Esq. ; Thos. Wall, Esq., M.D.; Mr,
Henry Williams, editor of the ‘Pembroke County Guardian.’
These gentlemen still hold some sheets, and a good many more have
been distributed among other friends, which I hope shortly to receive.
When finished each quarter sheet will be complete in itself, and, if my
Committee think good, can be supplied to members and non-members of
the Association at a cost very little exceeding the original price of the
map.
Our associate, Mr. Williams, has been good enough to give up to the
survey a column of newspaper in which to collect notices of the customs,
traditions, and superstitions of the people. As the ‘ Pembroke County
Guardian’ is published at Solva, in the Welsh-speaking district of Pembroke-
shire, this is a very valuable aid, for although the English-speaking portion
of the county has been well exploited, the Welshery is still untrodden
ground. We call this column ‘Yn amsang ein Tadau ’—1.e. in the footsteps
of our fathers—and have collected therein a vast amount of matter which,
RR2
612 REPORT—1896.
when properly digested, we hope to reprint at the end of the year. Two
notes I will give as specimens :—
1. The Vicar of Pontfaen draws attention to a custom called ‘ Y Wyl-
nos,’ or the Wake Night.
Formerly, the day before burial, the corpse was removed from the
coffin, a rope passed under the arms, by which it was drawn up the chim-
ney of the house, then lowered again and replaced in the coffin. This
ghastly ceremony was common in the last century : the last recorded per-
formance took place at the Old Mill on the glebe land of Pontfaen.
Several persons have corroborated the vicar’s story as to this unnatural
performance.
2. The hell-hounds, whist-hounds, or dandy-dogs, as they are called in
different places, are still occasionally heard on the slopes of Precelli, but
here they are termed ‘ Cwn bendith y Mamau.’
APPENDIX III.
Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland.
By Rev. Watter Grecor, LL.D.
On October 16, 1895, I went, on the invitation of Sir Herbert Max-
well, to the Airlour, parish of Mochrum, Wigtownshire. He afforded me,
during the time I was his guest, every facility to carry out the work
entrusted to me. From one of his workmen, John Thomson, aged seventy
years, I obtained the Folk-tale of ‘ Marget Totts’ and the tale of Aiken-
drum the Brownie, along with a good many items of folklore, including
the mode of cutting ‘The Hare.’ On Monday the 21st, on the invitation
of Mr. Wright of Alticry, I went to Alticry House, and took measure-
ments of three men, two farmers and Mr. Wright’s gamekeeper, from the
last of whom I got some rhymes and other items of folklore. In the
parish of Mochrum seven sets of measurements were got, and one was
obtained in the neighbouring parish of Glasserton. The best thanks of
the Committee are due to Sir Herbert and Lady Maxwell, as well as to
the Misses Maxwell for their helpful kindness. Mr. Wright showed
great attention. On Tuesday, October 22, I went to Soulseat, the Manse
of Inch, the residence of the Rev. Mr. Paton. He used every exertion
to help me to carry out the wishes of the Committee. He took me to
those of his parishioners whose ancestors had been for the longest period
in Galloway. From this parish, Stranraer and Stoneykirk, were obtained
eleven sets of measurements, nine males and two females. The difficulty
met with in those parishes is the mixture of modern Irish. With the
help of Mr. and Mrs. Paton those whose ancestors were Irish either on
. the father’s or mother’s side were avoided as much as possible in the parish
of Inch, though it was not always convenient to do so. From Inch were
obtained several rhymes and other items of folklore. I have to say that
Mr. and Mrs. Paton were most kind, and without Mr. Paton’s help not
much could have been accomplished. On October 29 I went to the Manse
of Minnigaff, and was most cordially received by Mr. and Mrs. Reid.
Mr. Reid spared no pains to meet my wishes, both by driving me for
miles through the wild Galloway moors and by taking me to those he
considered able to help me both in Minnigaff and in Newton-Stewart.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 613
Eleven measurements of males and ten of females were obtained, along
with some folklore.
Some items of folklore have not been communicated to the Com-
mittee, as I wish to make further investigation into them. It will be
seen that twenty-eight measurements of males and twelve of females—in
all forty—have been obtained, along with a considerable amount of folk-
lore. The items of folklore which follow are numbered for facility of
reference, and the place where each was obtained is indicated at the
commencement of the paragraph.
I have only to add that nothing could exceed the kindness and
courtesy with which I was received by all, and the readiness with which
all gave themselves to be measured, and that all were much interested in
the survey.
1. Mochrum. ‘ Marget Totts.’—Once on a time a man was very hard
towards his wife, and laid tasks on her no one could accomplish. He
at one time gave her such a quantity of flax to spin within a fixed time
that the work was beyond human power. As she was sitting in the
house bemoaning herself, and thinking of what was to be done, a woman
entered. Seeing her in great distress and perplexity, she asked her what
was the matter with her. She told her of the task that had been laid
on her by her husband. The stranger said to her: ‘I'll tack awa’ yir
lint an spin’t t? you, an bring’t back t’ you on such and such a day
(naming the day), if ye can tell me my name.’ The guidwife agreed at
once, and gave the woman the lint. But she was now in as great straits
as ever, and could in no way come to her apparent friend’s name, and the
day on which the lint was to be brought back was drawing near. As she
was one day sitting at her wits’ end in the house a man came in. He
asked her what ailed her that she was looking so cast down and sad. She
told him all her tale. Now near the house there was a small hill covered
with thorn bushes and whins. The man told her to go to this hill and
hide herself among the bushes near an open space on it, and she would
hear something to help her. She did as she was told. She had not
been long in her hiding-place till a lot of fairy women came with their
spinning wheels and sat down on the open space not far from her. She
saw her friend amongst them. As she span she went on saying, ‘ Little
does the guidwife ken it my name’s Marget Totts.’ The woman with-
drew without being seen by the fairies. The day fixed for bringing
back the yarn came, and the woman appeared with it. ‘Here’s yir yarn,
if ye can tell me what my name is.’ ‘ Your name’s Marget Totts,’ said
the guidwife. The spinner went up the lum in a blaze of fire, and left
the yarn.
2. Mochrum.—The Brownie is believed to be, for the most part, of a
kind, obliging disposition.
A Brownie that bore the name of Aikendrum went one day to the
mill of Birhosh and offered his services to the guidwife on the sole con-
dition of getting a ‘cogful o’ brose each evening atween the licht an the
dark’ as his wages. He took in hand for this wages to bring all the grain
into the stackyard and to thresh it, and to gather the sheep into the ‘rees.’
The guidwife was ouite keen for keeping him, but the daughters objected
as no wooers would come to the house so long as Aikendrum was in it.
The mother ordered silence, and took the Brownie into service. The
harvest was late, and he began his work at once. Within a short time
all the grain was safe in the stackyard. One evening he was ordered to
614 - REPORT—1896.
gather in all the sheep. By morning, when the family was astir, the
sheep were all in the ‘rees.’ ‘It must have been a hard job for you,
said the guidwife, on seeing what had been done. ‘I had mair trouble,’
said the Brownie, ‘ wi a little broon ane wi’ waggin’ horns nor a’ the laive
thegither.’ The little ‘broon ane wi’ waggin horns’ was a hare. A
married daughter came to live at the mill. One day she gave him a
pair of her husband’s breeks. He was so offended that he left at once.
Before going away he took out the two millstones and threw them into
the weal below the bridge over the Bladnach. He would have nothing
more than his fixed wages—‘the cogful of brose.’
3. Mochrum.—tThe following story was told to my informant when a
boy by an old woman eighty years of age. It was on the Sacrament
Sunday, ‘the langest day in June.’ She was a girl at the time, and was
left to look after the house in the absence of the other members of the
family at church. She went outside and sat down on a stone ‘t’ read her
beuk.’, While sitting and reading she saw ‘the bonniest wee man she
ever saw in her life come oot amon’ the thorn busses, go to the kiln
knowe, and sit doon on the loupin-on-stane, and for twa oors he played
on the bagpipes “The Birks o’ Aberfoyle,” the bonniest music she ever
heard in her life.’ The bonnie wee man was dressed in green, braided
with yellow, and had a four-cornered hat.
4. Mochrum.—About forty-eight years ago, as some men were approach-
ing the bridge over the Airlour Burn, a big black dog with fire flying out
of his mouth was seen crossing the road into a wood on the opposite side
of the road. Before any of them could come up to him, he had entered
the wood and disappeared.
5. Mochrum.—It is considered to be unlucky to cart away ‘standing
stones,’ z.¢. the stones of the circles called Druidical.
6. Mochrum.—It is unlucky to cart away any of the soil from a grave-
yard, however long it has ceased to be used. There is a farm called
Kirkland in the parish of Mochrum. On it is a spot said to have been
used as a burial-ground long ago. It remained untouched till about
sixty years ago. At that time the tenant set about carting away the soil.
Hardly had he begun work when two of the horses fell dead.
7. Mochrum.—To forget the Sabbath-day and to begin to work as on
week-days was very unlucky. The farmer of D once forgot that it
was the Sabbath, and yoked the plough as usual. A man going to church
saw him ploughing ; he ran to him and told him what day it was. The
farmer said he had forgotten. Within a year the farmer, his wife, and
the farm had all gone to ruin.
8. Mochrum.—If£ one was leaving a house with a grudge and did not
wish the incoming tenant to thrive, the following ceremony was gone
through. After all the furniture was taken out, the house was swept
clean and all the ashes were removed from the hearth, which was also
swept quite clean. Stones were then placed upright on the hearth, in the
same way as peats are placed to make a fire. Those that entered the
house would be as bare as the house, and there would be no luck to the
indwellers till that fire (of stone) would burn. My informant has seen
such.
9. Mochrum.—On taking up one’s abode in a house from which others
had removed, in case ‘ill had been left on the house,’ a hen, a cat, a dog,
or other living creature was thrown into it.
10. Wigtownshire (General).—When one is meeting a reputed witch,
a
Ee ES ee
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 615
the thumbs are stuck into the palms, with the fingers pressed tightly over
them.
11. Whithorn.—A thorn-bush or tree would not be cut down. It is
believed to be a protection against witches.
12. Mochrum.—aA piece of ‘will-grown’ rowan tree about ten inches
long used to be kept in the byre, on the ‘wa’-head’ over the door, with
which each calf was rubbed when it fell from the cow. This act kept off
the witches. My informant, a farmer, had such a piece in his byre not
over six months ago.
13. Inch.—When a cow calved, a piece of rowan tree about two inches
long was tied to her tail. My informant has seen this done.
14. Minnigaffi—Some goodwives keep a small rod of rowan tree in the
milk-house wherewith to stir the cream in the ‘crock.’ This keeps the
witches’ power at a distance.
15. Minnigaff.—My informant has heard of those that carried a piece
of rowan tree in their pocket to protect themselves from the power of the
witch.
16. Mochrum.—A piece of the bark of the rowan tree was carried by
some to ward off the power of witches.
17. Minnigaff.—To find out who was to be her husband, the young
woman took an apple in one hand and a lighted candle in the other on Hal-
loween, and placed herself in front of a mirror, and then ate the apple
in the name of ‘Uncle Geordie,’ z.e. the devil. The face of the future
husband appeared in the mirror when the last mouthful was eaten. My
informant once went through this incantation, but when she came to the
last bit she turned and fled in fright lest ‘Uncle Geordie’ should make
his appearance.
18. Mochrum.—If an unmarried woman takes one of her shirts and goes
to a stream, well, or loch where three lairds’ lands meet, washes it in the
water, returns home, hangs it in front of the fire, goes to bed, and lies
Sia she will see her future husband come and turn the article of
ress.
19. Mochrwm.—When an unmarried woman sees the new moon for the
first time, if she lifts her foot and examines the sole of her shoe she will
find a hair of the colour of her future husband’s hair.
20. Galloway (General).—Friday is the common day for celebrating
marriage.
21. Inch.—A marriage party always carried bread and cheese, with
whisky. The first person met, no matter of what rank, must eat and
drink. A story is told of the Lord Stair (John Dalrymple), who died in
1821, that a marriage party at one time met him, and as a matter of
course asked him to partake of bread and cheese with a glass of whisky.
He refused, but wished the two all happiness, and in token of his good
will made a present of a sovereign to the couple.
22. Inch.—When the bride was brought home a ‘farle o’ bread’ was
broken over her head.
23. Mochrum.—tThe bride was welcomed to her own house by the bride-
groom’s mother, if she was living.
24. Mochrum.—tThe ‘best man’ and the ‘best woman’ attended the
newly married pair to church the Sunday after the marriage —the ‘ kirkan.’
25. Mochrum.—Tuesday was at one time (about thirty-five or forty
years ago) the chief day for celebrating marriages. Few marriages took
place on Friday. Now Friday is the chief day.
616 REPORT—1896,
26. Inch.—The husband’s breeks used to be laid on the bed when the
wife was in travail.
27. Inch.—After the birth there is a feast called the ‘blythe meat.’ It
consists of bread and cheese, buns, whisky, and other good things.
28. Minnigaf-—My informant (aged 85) has seen a live coal cast into
the water in which a new-born babe was washed.
29. Inch.—When a sleeping infant was left alone a Bible was laid below
the pillow to prevent the fairies from carrying it off. (Informant aged 85.)
30. Mochrum.—A Bible was put below the pillow of an infant ; no
Satanic power could then hurt it.
31. Mochrum.—A pair of the husband’s breeks laid on the bed over
the wife when lying in childbed kept the fairies at a distance.
32. Wigtownshire (General).— When a cradle was borrowed it was not
sent empty. An apron, a shawl, or a pillow was put into it. What was
put in might be returned.
33. Minnigaffi—A scone was at times laid into a cradle when borrowed.
34. Mochrum.—Something must always be laid into a new cradle before
being taken into the house in which it was to be used. A carpenter,
known to my informant, had made a cradle. When he was entering the
house in which it was to be used, he was met just outside the door by the
old grandmother, who took off her apron and cast it into the cradle.
This took place about fifteen years ago.
35. Minnigafii— A new cradle was never taken empty into the house
in which it was to be used. A common thing placed in it was a pillow.
36. Minnigaff:-—The cradle when in use is always placed in the back
part of the apartment with the head towards the door.
37. Minnigaffi—The cradle, when there is no infant, is stowed away in
some convenient place. It is not lucky to allow it to stand in the apart-
ments occupied by the family.
38. Minnigaff:— Rocking the cradle when the child was not in it caused
headache to the child.
39. Minnigaff.—It was accounted unlucky if the infant did not cry
when the water of baptism was sprinkled on the face.
40. Inch.—Young women sometimes pin a piece of bread and cheese
under the baby’s dress when attired for baptism. After baptism the bread
and cheese are divided and put below the pillow to call forth dreams as
to the young women’s future husbands. It is called ‘ dreaming cheese.’
41. Minnigaff.—Unbaptized children were buried in a corner by them-
selves apart from other graves.
42. Mochrum.—When a child’s tooth falls out it is thrown over the
left shoulder into the fire, and the words are repeated :—
Fire, fire, burn bane,
And bring me back my tooth again.
43. Inch — When a child’s tooth falls out it is thrown over the left
shoulder in the belief that a sixpenny piece will be found. My in-
formant has done this.
44. Inch.—Of the fingers :—
This is the man that broke the barn,
This is the man that stole the corn,
This is the man that sat and saw,
This is the man that ran awa’,
And peerie weerie Winkie paid for them a’.
SE Ne ee eee
Sees
id
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 617
A variant of the last line :—
And wee Willie Winkie paid for a’.
45. Inch.—Of the face :—
This is the broo of knowledge,
This is the ee of life,
This is the bubbly ocean,
This is the pratie knife.
A variant of the third line is :—
This is the snokie college.
46. Inch.—Dandling the child :—
This is the way the ladies ride,
Mim, mim, mim ;
This is the way the gentlemen ride,
Gallop-a-trot, gallop-a-trot.
47. Inch.—
The way the ladies ride (softly),
The way the gentlemen trot (move quickly),
Cadgers, creels an a’ (roughly).
48. Mochrum.—Bathing in the sea is done when the tide is ebbing.
It is believed that, if there is any disease, the tide carries it in, and that
one, bathing when the tide is flowing, may catch it.
49. Inch.—A cure for whooping cough was to put the patient under the
belly and over the back of an ass.
50. Minnigaffi—A cure for the same disease is to take the patient down
the shaft of a mine (lead).
51. Mochrum.—Patients labouring under whooping-cough are carried to
Chapel Finnan Well, and given a draught of its waters.
52. Wigtownshire (known over).—The well of St. Medana (St. Maiden)
in the parish of Glasserton is resorted to for the cure of whooping-cough. At
times the water is carried away for the same purpose. Not long ago a
lady of title had a quantity of it sent to be administered to some
members of her household that were suffering from the disease.
52a. Kirkmaiden.—There is a well at St. Medan’s cave, at which
visitors were in the habit of leaving pins, buttons, and suchlike small
articles. Some may still be seen around it.
53. Mochrum.—To get a ‘piece’! from a married woman having the
same name as her husband effected a cure of whooping-cough.
54. Mochrum.—A cure for the bite of an adder is to kill a chicken, split
it up, and while still warm tie the whole bird over the wound.
55. Minnigaffi—A mode of curing warts is by ‘selling’ them. The one
‘that has the warts takes as many stones as there are warts, ties them into
a ‘bundle,’ and lays it on the public road. Whoever comes across it and
opens it gets the warts.
56. Mochrum.—One mode of curing a cow or other domestic animal
was to strike the teeth with a clew of blue yarn. My informant has seen
this done.
57. Minnigaff—When one was dying the window or windows of the
apartment were opened.
) A little bit of anything given to a person, particularly a child, to eat.
618 REPORT—1 896.
58. Minnigaff, Inch.— When death looked near or when one was dying,
all kinds of food were taken from the apartment.
59. Minnigaffi—When one was dying, if there was a cat in the room,
it was driven out.
60. Minnigaff, Inch.—When one died the looking-glass was turned or
covered with a cloth.
61. Minnigaff-—The clock was stopped when one died.
62. Minnigaff:—A plate with a little salt was placed on the breast of
the dead body.
63. Minnigaff-—A penny was placed on the eye of the dead if it did
not close.
64. Inch.—A few friends are always present at the ‘kistin’—i.c.,
when the body is put into the coffin.
65. Inch.—There used to be wakes. Those present commonly employed
themselves in religious exercises,—‘read and prayed time aboot.’ Those
of the ‘ wilder sort’ smoked tobacco and kept themselves in good cheer by
drinking whisky.
66. Jnch.—Wine and short-bread are commonly served to those that
are present at a funeral.
67. Inch.—The coffin, when the house of death is at a distance from
the graveyard, is conveyed in a cart to the graveyard.
68. Inch.—The coffin of a suicide was carried to the graveyard on two
rough beech branches, and not on the ‘spokes’ on which the coffins of
those who died a natural death were carried. The coftin was hoisted over
the wall and buried close under it. The two beech branches were cast on
the side of the grave next the wall. In later times the coffin was carried
through the gateway.
69. Minnigaffi—A suicide was not buried in the graveyard. The
clothes of the unfortunate were either buried in the grave or burned.
70. Mochrum.—lIt is believed that if one is ill and about to die, the
cat of its own accord leaves the apartment in which the patient is lying.
71. Mochrum.—aA dog’s howling at night forebodes death.
72. Mochrum.—If£ one was ill and confined to bed, a Bible was placed
below the bolster. My informant has seen this done.
73. Wigtownshire (General).—One on setting out on a journey, or to
transact any piece of business, must not turn back to fetch anything that
may have been forgotten.
* 74. Mochrum,—lIt is accounted unlucky to meet a bare-footed woman.
75. Mochrum.—It is unlucky to meet a hare. (Gamekeeper, Alticry).
76. Mochrum.—It is unlucky to shoot a cuckoo. (Gamekeeper, Alticry).
77. Mochrum.—Crows flying high is an indication of coming wind
and rain.
78. Mochrum.—Sea-gulls coming inland during the afternoon is a sign
of rain. (Gamekeeper, Alticry).
79. Mochrum.—Geese ‘ flaupin’ up the water with their wings when
they are swimming is a sign of rain.
80. Mochrum.—oOf the magpie it is said :—
Yane’s sorrow,
Twa’s mirth,
Three’s a beerial,
Four’s a birth,
Five’s a ship in distress at sea,
Six is a love-letter comin’ t’ me. (Gamekeeper, Alticry).
SO OP CREO as 2 ar See LS NT ee ea
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 619
81. Mochrum.-—It is unlucky to meet a single magpie. To meet two
brings luck.
£2. Mochrum.—A few magpies flying and hopping about a house is an
indication of a death in the house within no long time.
83. Mochrum.—If a hen crows she is killed at once. She is not cooked
and used as food, but buried. Such a crowing is accounted most
unlucky.
84. Mochrum.—It is looked on as unlucky if a hen lays a very small
egg.
Re ob Minnigaf.—A little of the cow’s droppings—‘sharn’—was put
into the calf’s mouth when it fell from the cow.
86. Mochrum.—A little salt is sprinkled along the cow’s back when
the calf is dropped.
87. Inch.—A sixpenny piece and a little salt were put into the bottom
of the milking pail into which the first milk of a cow just calved was
drawn.
88. General.—‘ Beesnan ’ is the name given to the first drawn milk of a
newly calved cow. Jt is sometimes given asa draught to the cow, and
sometimes part of it is made in scones, which are called ‘ beesnan scones.’
89. Mochrum.—Some put a pinch of salt into the churn when the
cream was to be churned.
90. Minnigaff:i—One day the goodwife at the farm of Waterside parish
of Minnigaff began to ‘kirn the kirn.’ She churned in vain. No butter
would ‘come.’ A horseshoe was put below the churn, and the butter
came at once.
91. Jnch.—Each child carried every morning to school a peat to serve
as fuel for the day. A scholar was appointed to see that each brought a
peat, and of the proper size. If he considered any peat too small, or if
any one neglected to bring one, the defaulter had to bring two next morn-
ing. This inspector bore the name of ‘ Peat-bailie.’
92. Inch.—The first reading book was called ‘ Reed-a-ma-daisy.’
93. Minnigaffi—It was a custom that the beadle got a fleece of wool
from each farmer in the parish at ‘clippin’ time.’ The sheep-shearing took
place in June, and the beadle made his rounds commonly in July to collect
his dues.
94. Minnigaffi—W hen a carpenter finishes his apprenticeship he treats
some of his fellow-workmen and companions to strong drink. This treat-
ing is called the - Lowsan.’
95. Mochrum.—tThe quantity of oats taken to the mill to be ground into
meal at one time for household use was commonly four bolls. This quan-
tity was called a ‘kilncast,’ and the meal made from it a ‘melder.’ When
the ‘ melder’ was brought home, a bannock of 14 or 13 inches was baked,
and ‘fired’ in front of the fire. At the evening meal a dish of ‘brose,’
called the ‘melder brose,’ was served to the whole household, and then a
piece of the bannock was given to each member of the family. A small
quantity of the ‘melder’ was given to a poor neighbour, or to a working-
man with a large family. This deed was thought to bring a blessing on
the ‘melder’ and make it last well.
_ 96. Inch.—A small cake with a hole in the centre, called the ‘melder-
bannock,’ was baked from the ‘melder’ for each member of the family.
The younger members not unfrequently put a piece of string through the
hole and hung it round the neck.
97. Mochrum.—If a sower inadvertently omitted to sow a ‘rig’ when
620 REPORT—1896.
he was sowing the seed, a member of the family would die before that time
next year.
98. Mochrum.—The reapers, when ‘ shearing,’ would not allow a woman
to put off her bonnet and ‘shear’ with bare head. If a woman did so,
one of the reapers would soon cut his (her) fingers.
99. Minnigaf—When a young horse was taken to the smithy to
receive the first shoes, whisky was carried by the one that took the animal
to the smithy. When the first nail was driven into the first shoe, the
smith and any others that might be present were treated with a glass each.
100. Port William, Mochrum.—An old blacksmith told me that it was
the custom to give the smith a glass of whisky when he had finished
putting on the first shoe of the first set of shoes of a young horse.
101. Minnigagi—oOn the first day of April jokes used to be played.
One would pretend to send a letter to a friend, and the ene on whom the
joke was to be played was asked to carry it. The victim, suspecting nothing,
took the letter and carried it. All that the letter contained was, ‘Send
the gowck another mile,’ and this might sometimes be done.
102. Minnigaff-—On Halloween a dish of mashed potatoes—‘beetlt
praties’—was prepared. Into it were put a ring, a sixpenny piece, and a
button. The dish was stirred in the form of the figure 8. The household
partook all together of the dish.
103. Minnigaff-—There existed at one time in the parish of Minnigaff
a Hell-fire Club. The members used to meet at Creeton. On one occasion
they celebrated the Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper by giving the bread
and wine to their dogs. The room in which this profanation took place
was afterwards haunted. All the members died untimely deaths.
104. Minnigaff—lIf a fire was kept constantly burning for a period of
years, a beast grew at the back of it. Such was the case with the fire of a
woman called Nelly Coull. that lived at Corbreknowe or Cordorkan.
105. Minnigafi—Over the river Penkiln there is a bridge not far
above the point where it joins the Cree. It is called Queen Mary’s Bridge.
It consists of two arches. The middle pier rests on a rock. On the top
of this rock is a round hole like a small cauldron. It is a custom to
take three stones, to form a ‘silent wish,’ and to lean over the parapet,
and drop the stones, the one after the other, into the hole. If the stones
fall into it, the wish will be fulfilled.
106. Minnigaff:—Children’s Hogmanay rhyme :—
Rise, guidwife, an shake your feathers ;
Dinna think that we are beggars,
Boys and girls come out to play,
To seek our Hogmanay.
Gin ve dinna gee’s our Hogmanay,
We dunner a yer doors the day.
107. Inch.—Everything was made ready for the New Year’s welcome.
Oaten cakes had been baked ; and a haggis had been cooked, and was
served cold. The ‘first fit’ got a ‘farle o’ bread’ and a slice of the cold
haggis.
108. Minnigaffi—A cake of flour with dried fruit is made by each
household. It is of a round shape. It is baked in a pot.
109. Minnigaff-—A day or two before Hogmanay a haggis has been
cooked and set aside to cool. On Hogmanay it is laid out on a table with a
knife beside it. When the ‘first fit’ has finished his congratulations he
EES
SS
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 621
helps himself to a slice of the haggis, and walksaway. Each one that calls
afterwards does the same. The custom still exists, but not to such an
extent as in days of old. ‘There’s not one in fifty’ compared with old
times.
110. Minnigaf—All dirty water and ashes —in short, all that is usually
carried out of a house each morning—are carried out on the last evening
of the year. This is done that nothing may have to be taken out on New
Year’s Day.
111. Znch.—The ashes, as well as all dirty water, were carried out of
the house on the last evening of the year.
112. Minnigaff:—Nothing was given out of a house on New Year’s
Day.
113. Inch, Minnigaff—tIt was deemed unlucky to give a burning peat
to a neighbour to kindle a fire on the morning of New Year’s Day, and
no housewife would do so.
114. Minnigaff.—It was taken as an omen for good if one brought
anything into the house on New Year’s Day.
115. Jnch.—It was accounted unlucky for a man with red hair to come
into the house on New Year’s morning as ‘ first fit.’ If it was known that
one with such hair intended coming as ‘first fit,’ means were taken to
forestall him.
116. Mochrum.—One with fair hair is accounted an unlucky ‘ first fit’
on the morning of the New Year. There are some that will not open the
door to one having such hair.
117. Mochrwm.—One with dark hair is counted a lucky ‘ first fit’ on the
morning of New Year’s Day.
118. Jnch.—One of good character was preferred as ‘first fit’ on the
morning of New Year’s Day.
119. Creebank Farm, Minnigaffi—At 12 o’clock on New Year’s Eve
the ‘foreman’ entered the master’s bedroom as ‘first fit.’ He carried
with him a sheaf of oats and a bottle of whisky. He cast the sheaf on
the bed over the master and his wife. A glass of whisky was then
poured out and health to the family and prosperity to the farming opera-
tions were drunk to.
120. Mochrum.—It was customary on the morning of the New Year to
give a portion of unthreshed oats to each of the horses and the cattle of
the farm.
121. Mochrum.—One must have on some piece of new dress on New
Year’s Day.
122. Minnigaff:—As the clock strikes twelve at night on Hogmanay
a large bonfire is kindled on the Green of the village of Minnigaff. For
some weeks before the boys are busy collecting brushwood and pieces of
fallen trees from the neighbouring woods. The Earl of Galloway, to
whom the woods belong, gives all facilities for this purpose. By the last
day of the year a goodly quantity of material has been gathered. On that
day everyone is busy in erecting the pile to be burned, and before the
appointed hour everything is ready. There is no ceremony before or at
the kindling, and there is no special person set apart to apply the fire. The
pile burns through the night and commonly through part of next day.
{t is always erected on the same spot. About seventy years ago the
bonfire was composed of different material. For months before the bones
all round the district were collected and stored in a little hut built by the
boys with rough stones in a corner of the village green. The bones of
622 REPORT—1896,
any animal that had died and been buried for a considerable time were
dug up and stored. For about a fortnight previous to Hogmanay the
boys went the round of the village and laid all the peat-stacks under
tribute. The peats were all carefully stowed away till required. On the
last day of the year the peats were first piled up, and then the pile was
covered with the bones. At twelve o'clock at night the whole was set on
fire, and the younger part of those present ran round the blazing pile, but
no words were repeated. My informant (eighty-three years of age) has
engaged in all this. He also said that he as well as others used to get
empty tar-barrels, put a little tar into them, place them on their heads,
have the tar in them set on fire, and, with them blazing on their heads,
parade the village. About thirty years ago those in authority set them-
selves to put down the custom. The bonfire was erected as usual, but
the word went round that the kindling of it was to be prevented, and if
anyone succeeded in kindling it every endeavour would be made to ‘droon’t
oot,’ and this could have been easily done, as the village pump is quite
close to the site of the bonfire. Nothing daunted, the villagers assembled
to wait the current of events. As the midnight hour approached, the
policeman made his appearance carrying a pail. He came up to the pile,
put down his pail, and began to walk round and round the green. The
boys stood at a distance, peeping from every corner, and watching if an
opportunity of throwing a piece of fire on the pile could be found. <A few
yards from where it stood is a house in which lived at that time a woman
named Jess Clelland. Jess was on the side of the old custom, and she
was on the watch to outdo the men of authority. The policeman took a
rather wider turn than usual, and when his back was turned Jess seized a
burning peat from her hearth, rushed out, and thrust it into the bonfire.
When the policeman turned he saw the pile ina blaze. He ran, seized
the pail, and made for the pump, The pump-handle was gone, and the
policeman withdrew. Jess gained the victory. Let Mr. Lang indite an
ode to her.
122a. At Newton-Stewart there is a fire procession which starts
from ‘The Angle’ on Hogmanay exactly at twelve o'clock at night. A
tar-barrel is fixed on two long poles by means of two cross-bars. The
barrel is well filled with tar and paraftin. The whole is mounted on the
shoulders of four (?) men, and the contents of the barrel are set on fire.
The procession marches along the street past the bridge over the Cree
that leads to Minnigaff village. When the end of the street is reached
the processionists retrace their steps till they come to the bridge. This
they cross and march through the village of Minnigaff to the green, where
the bonfire is now in full blaze. Here they get their barrel replenished
if need be. They then retrace their steps through the village and over the
bridge to Newton-Stewart, and then along the street to ‘The Angle,’ the
point from which they started. Here the poles and barrel are thrown
down and the whole burned. During the procession the carriers of the
blazing barrel are changed every now and again. Last year an attempt
was made to put a stop to the procession, under the plea that it gave
occasion to much drunkenness. Mr. J. Reid, the minister of Minnigaff,
remonstrated with the authorities against such a step, and most luckily
his remonstrance prevailed, and the procession took place with all order,
Mr. Reid himself being witness.
[A bonfire is burned at Invergordon, Ross-shire, on the last day of the
year. It is kindled at twelve o’clock at night. |
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ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 623
123. Jnch.—When one saw the new moon for the first time, the hat or
whatever was worn on the head was lifted.
124. Inch.—The money in the pocket must be turned the first time the
new moon is seen.
125. Mochrum.—Human hair was never burned. Burning the hair
made one cross. It was twisted up, and put commonly on the ‘wa’ head,’
but at times into crevices of the walls of the dwelling-houses. My in-
formant has seen tufts of human hair in holes of the walls of old un-
inhabited houses.
126. Mochruwm.—If one puts an indignity on a good spring-well, he
(she) will not do well in after-life.
The ‘Hare.’
127. Mochrum. — Notwithstanding the introduction of reaping ma-
chines, the ‘ hare’ is still cut in the old fashion. Here is the mode of
cutting it. A small quantity is left to form the ‘hare.’ It is divided
into three parts and plaited, and the ears are tied into a knot. The
reapers then retire the distance of a few yards, and each throws his or
her ‘heuk,’ 7.e. hook, in turn, and tries to hit and cut down the ‘hare.’
It must be cut below the grain-knot, and the reapers continue to throw
their hooks in regular succession till one is skilful enough to cut it below
the knot. This one is said to be the ‘best han’, and receives as reward
double the quantity of whisky the others receive. The ‘hare’ is carried
home and given to the female servant in the kitchen, who places it over
the kitchen-door inside. The christian name of the first male that
enters the kitchen is the christian name of her future husband. If there
are several female servants, each in turn, as agreed, gets her chance.
The ‘hare’ is allowed to hang for a considerable length of time in the
piace where it is first laid.
128. Minnigaffi—The ‘hare’ was often kept till the following
harvest.
129. Minnigaff—The one that cut the ‘hare’ carried it home and
placed it over the kitchen door, and the kitchenmaid had to kiss the first
man or boy that entered.
130. Inch.—When the ‘hare’ was cut, there was great cheering. It
was carried home and placed over the kitchen door. The goodwife had
to kiss the first male that entered.
131. Minnigafi—When the ‘hare’ was cut the unmarried reapers
ran with all speed home, and the one that reached it first was the first to
be married.
132. Mochrwm.—In reaping grain during the time of harvest a reaper,
if a capable reaper, was set to reap ‘a rigg.’ The first ‘rigg’ was called
the ‘pint,’ z.e. point, and the one that reaped was named the ‘ pintsman.’
The last ‘ rigg’ of those occupied by a set of reapers was called the ‘heel,’
and the reaper bore thesame name. Incutting the ‘hare’ the ‘ pintsman ’
was the first to throw the ‘heuk,’ and then each reaper threw in succes-
sion till it came to the ‘heel,’ if it had not been cut before. If not cut
the first round, the same mode was followed till it was cut.
133. Mochrwm.—The ‘ Winter,’ z.e. the one that took the last load of
grain to the stackyard, was treated in a somewhat rough manner. Some
one of his fellow-servants watched for him to dash over him a quantity of
dirty water, and the dirtier so much the better. To avoid such a bath he
624 REPORT—1896.
had to be on the outlook, but at times the opportunity occurred, and over
him the dirty water went. My informant has been so served oftener
than once.
134. Mochrum.—It may be stated that for each four capable reapers
_there was one to bind and ‘stook,’ 2.e. set the sheaves on end opposite
each other with the heads pressed together. There were commonly twelve
sheaves in the ‘ stook,’ 7.e. six on each side.
My informants have all assisted in cutting the ‘hare.’!
The Seventh Son.
135. Mochrum.—A seventh son born in succession has the power of
healing running sores by rubbing them with his hand. My informant, a
blacksmith, had an apprentice of the name of Wallace, who was a seventh
son. One day aman having running sores in one of his legs arrived.
The young apprentice and he retired together to go through the process,
so that my informant did not see the mode of procedure. This took place
about twenty-five years ago.
Sting of an Adder.
136. Portlogan.—‘ Gee a fat cat a bit knap,’ i.e. give a fat cat a blow
to stun it, rip it up and put it hot over the wound.
137. Kirkmaiden.—Tear a fowl ‘sindrie,’ 7.e. asunder, and put it hot
and bleeding over the wound. This was done, according to my informant,
about thirty years ago in the case of a man named James Garva.
Measles.
138. Kirkmaiden.—Measles or any kind of infectious disease is cured
in the following way. The operator stands in front of an ass with the
patient in her (or his) hands, and passes him (or her) three times round
the animal’s neck from left to right, repeating each time on reaching the
upper side of the neck the words, ‘In the name of Jesus of Nazareth.’
Whooping Cough.
139. Kirkmaiden.—aA sail is considered efficacious.
140. Kirkmaiden.—Take the patients out to sea in a boat and keep
them at sea till the tide turns.
141. Kirkmaiden.—Place a slice of raw pork ham on the chest of the
patient.
142. Kirkmaiden, Kells.—Let the patient get a ‘piece’ from a married
woman whose maiden name is the same as that of her husband. My
informants have seen this cure carried out.
143. Kirkmaiden.—The patient is taken to the house of a married man
and woman whose maiden name was the same, but who are not relatives.
The patient gets a ‘piece’ on arrival. After a time porridge is cooked
and given, and after another interval tea is partaken of. Food has to
be eaten three times. Afternoon is the time when the visit is paid.
144. Kirkmaiden.—There is a cave on the west coast of Kirkmaiden,
about two miles west of Logan House. From the roof of the cave hang
a good many stalactites, which go by the name of ‘ Peter’s Paps.’ Those
‘See Zhe Golden Bough, vol. ii. pp. 10, 11, and the Folklore Journal, vol. Vii.
pp. 47, 48.
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ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 625
labouring under the disease are taken to the cave, held up under one of
the paps, so as to allow the water from it to fall into the mouth. Some-
times the pap is taken into the mouth and sucked.
145. Dalry.—The patient is put into the hopper of a mill. This was
done to my informant’s father.
Erysipelas, or ‘ Rose.’
146. Zwngland.—Tow sprinkled with flour is laid over the affected
art.
: 147. Kirkmaiden.—Dry flour is sprinkled over the spot affected, which
is then covered with hemp.
148. Kirkmaiden.—Flour warmed and dusted over wormwood is laid
over the diseased part.
Warts.
149. Dalry—The juice of the dandelion rubbed on warts dispels
them.
150. Kirkmaiden.—Rub the wart with the red-hot stalk of a new
clay tobacco-pipe. My informant has seen this done.
151. Kells——Rub the wart with a black snail. My informant has
done this.
152. Kirkmaiden.—Rub the wart with a black snail (Arion niger),
and then hang the snail on a thorn-bush. As the snail wastes, the wart
wastes till it is gone.
153. Kirkmaiden.—Rub the wart with the hot blood as it flows from
a pig when it is being killed. My informant has seen this done,
154. Kells.—My informant’s foot was covered with warts. A pig
was being killed. He took off his boot and stocking, and held the foot
under the blood as it flowed from the animal. Without wiping off the
blood, he put on the stocking and boot. The warts disappeared in a short
time.
155. Dalry.—Rub the wart with rain-water from a natural hollow in
a rock or big stone.
156. Portlogan—Rub the wart with a halfpenny, tie the halfpenny
in a piece of paper, and Jay it on a public road. The one that picks it up
gets the wart.
157. Kirkmaiden.—My informant saw lately a young woman whose
hands were disfigured with warts rub them with a copper coin. It was
cast away. The warts in due time vanished.
158. Kirkmaiden.—Cut a potato into nine pieces, rub each wart
with each of the nine pieces, then tie up the pieces in a bit of paper and
bury the parcel. As the pieces waste the warts waste. My informant
has done this.
Colic.
159. Kirkmaiden.—A cure is to sit with ‘bare bottom’ over a pot of
warm water.
160. Kirkmaiden.—In a child the cure was effected by turning it
_ three times heels over head.
Cholera.
161. Mochrum.—When cholera visited the country in 1832, pieces of
raw beef were fixed to long poles, and the poles were erected on Mill Hill,
near Port William, to catch the disease.
1896. SS
626 REPORT—1896.
The Styan.
162. Dalry.—Nine thorns are picked from a gooseberry-bush and
put into the hand of the patient, who throws them over the left shoulder.
This was done to my informant.
Sea-bathing.
163. Mochrum.— Bathing in the sea is done when the tide is
ebbing.
164. Mochrum.—Once bathing in the sea is considered dangerous to
the health. Several baths must be taken to turn off the evil effects of
only one bath, and to produce good results. My informant knew a man
that bathed only once. ‘Blushes,’ i.e. red spots, appeared all over his
body.
Deafness.
165. Kirkmaiden.—Hare’s urine is used as a cure. The bladder is
taken from the animal, and the urine is squeezed out of it, and allowed to
drop into the ear. Mr. MacDouall, of Logan, has given a hare for this
purpose. :
Nettle-sting.
166. Dalry.—The burnt part is rubbed with the leaf of a dock, and
the following words are repeated :—
Nettle, nettle, gang awa’,
Dockan, dockan, come again.
‘ Black Leg’ (Anthraz).
167. Portlogan.—The animal was groped all over till the spot of the
disease was found. The skin over the diseased part was cut open, anda
quantity of chewed garlic was rubbed into the slashes.
APPENDIX JY,
On the Method of determining the Value of Folklore as Ethnological Data.
By G. Laurence Gomme, £.S.A.
The survey of one distinctive area, such as Galloway, by so well trained
an observer as Dr. Gregor, has brought into notice a number of customs
and superstitions differing from each other in form, motif, and in almost
all characteristics. The question is, Of what value is this material as
data for ethnology, and how are we to find out the value? The Com-
mittee engaged upon this important inquiry will have collections from
other parts of the British Isles, indeed, it is to be hoped, from all parts,
before their work is finished ; and it is important that at this early stage
it should be understood upon what basis they are going to work. Dr.
Gregor has rightly put his collections into the simple form of a catalogue.
That is the only way in which they should appear fresh from the hands
of the collector. But other branches of the survey—physical types and
measurements, material monuments, implements, and other evidence of
the history of the district from the earliest times—though presented in the
same unattractive form of a catalogue, are practically all ready to be dealt
2 eee eee
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 627
with upon approved and generally recognised principles ; and it is in
respect of folklore only that no principle has been determined or even
discussed, upon which to arrange the material placed before us.
In the following pages I shall attempt to determine such a principle.
For this purpose [ shall need to select some one custom or belief as an
illustration of the method of dealing with all items of custom and belief.
Fortunately there is ample material to select from, and I shall take the
fire custom at Minnigaff (No. 122) for my purpose. I shall endeavour to
show how this custom has to be treated if it is to be of value for ethno-
graphical purposes; and I shall suggest that each single custom and
belief must be treated in the same way and on the same lines.
1. The Principles of Analysis and Classification.
It is generally admitted that much of the custom and belief which is
known under the name of folklore is ancient. How ancient, or, being
ancient, how much it contributes to the history of ancient times, has not
been determined. It is even questionable whether the general admission
of the antiquity of popular custom and belief is of any value, because,
although specialists who deal with the myths and early religions of the
ancestors of civilised people use the evidence of folklore, the general
historian is always loth to admit such evidence even if he is aware that it
exists.
The historian is not altogether to blame. He has nothing very
definite to work upon. Even the great work of Grimm is open to the
criticism that it does not prove the antiquity of popular custom and
belief—it merely states the proposition, and then relies for proof upon the
accumulation of an enormous number of examples and the almost entire
impossibility of suggesting any other origin than that of antiquity for such
a mass of non-Christian material. Then the great work of Grimm,
ethnographical in its methods, has never been followed up by similar work
for other countries. The philosophy of folklore has taken up almost all
the time of our scholars and students, and its contribution to the anthro-
pology of the civilised races has not been made out.
In all scientific investigation nothing is accepted as proved except
upon the most careful and laborious investigation. Darwin’s great work
is the result of such an accumulation of experiments in all branches of
natural history that no naturalist could, even if he would, afford to neglect
such evidence. The mathematical element of proof formed so large a
proportion of the entire case that it was impossible to upset it unless, by
following exactly the same laborious methods, it had been found that there
was a mathematical answer to the problem as stated by Darwin. And no
such answer has been forthcoming.
The exact opposite of this process has obtained among investigators
into the origin of custom and belief. The comparative method of inquiry
has been used to an extreme extent. The unmeaning custom or belief of
the peasantry of the western world of civilisation has been taken into the
domains of savagery or barbarism for an explanation without any thought
as to what this action really signifies to the history of the custom or belief
in question. No doubt the explanation thus afforded is correct in most
eases ; but I question whether such an explanation will be admitted as
an important element in the history of European peoples until it has been
proved to be scientifically justified, For it must be obvious that the
882
628 REPORT—1896.
effective comparison of a traditional peasant custom or belief with a
savage custom or belief is only a very short cut indeed to the true process
that has been accomplished. This process includes the comparison of an
isolated custom or belief belonging, perhaps secretly, to a particular place,
a particular class of persons, or perhaps a particular family or person, with
a custom or belief which is part of a whole system belonging to a savage
race or tribe ; of a custom or belief whose only sanction is tradition, the
conservative instinct to do what has been done by one’s ancestors, with a
custom or belief whose sanction is the professed and established polity or
religion of a people ; of a custom or belief which is embedded in a civilisa-
tion, of which it is not a part and to which it is antagonistic, with
a custom or belief which helps to make up the civilisation of which
it is part. In carrying out such a comparison, therefore, a very long
journey back into the past of the civilised race has been performed. F'or
unless it be admitted that civilised people consciously borrow from savages
and barbaric peoples, or constantly revert to a savage original type of
mental and social condition, the effect of such a comparison as we have
taken for an example is to take back the custom or belief of the modern
peasant to a date when a people of savage or barbaric culture occupied the
country now occupied by their descendants, the peasants in question, and
to compare the custom or belief of this ancient savage or barbaric culture
with the custom or belief of modern savage or barbaric culture. The line
of comparison is not therefore simply drawn level from civilisation to
savagery ; but it consists, first, of two vertical lines from civilisation and
savagery respectively, drawn to a height scaled to represent the antiquity
of savage culture in modern Europe, and then the level horizontal line
drawn to join the two vertical lines. Thus the line of comparison is
ancient savagery ancient savagery
|
savagery civilisation
The custom and belief of savage and barbaric races have been gene-
rally accepted as identical with the custom and belief of early or primitive
man. It has followed from this that wherever, as is so often the case,
the custom and belief surviving among the peoples of civilised countries
are found to he exactly or nearly parallel to savage or barbaric custom and
belief, these survivals are put down as belonging to early or primitive
peoples. This conclusion is in the main correct ; but it is correct not
because it has been proved by the best methods to be so, but because, of
all possible explanations, this is the only one that meets the general posi-
tion in a satisfactory manner.
If this be the short-cut process that has been accomplished by the
comparative method of research, it must be drawn out in detail if we
would scientifically prove its results, and if those results are to be recog-
nised by the historian as new data for the prehistoric periods. The
magnitude of such an enquiry as this suggests has to be considered. The
labour and research might in point of volume be out of proportion to the
results, and it may be questioned, as it has already been questioned by
inference, whether it is worth the while. The first answer to this objection
=
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 629
is that all historical investigation is justified, however much the labour,
however extensive the research. Secondly, considering the very few results
which the study of folklore has hitherto produced upon the investigations
into Prehistoric Europe, it must be worth while for the student of custom
and belief to conduct his experiments upon a recognised plan in order to
get at the secret of man’s place in the struggle for existence, which is
determined more by psychological than by physical phenomena. Thirdly,
if the psychical anthropology of prehistoric times is to be sought for in the
customs and beliefs of modern savages, it is of vital importance to anthropo-
logical science that this should be established by methods exactly defined.
Whatever of traditional custom and belief is capable of bearing the test
and of being definitely labelled as belonging to prehistoric man becomes
_thereafter the data for the psychical anthropology of civilised man.
Now if the several items of custom and belief preserved by tradition
are really ancient in their origin, they must be floating fragments, as it
were, of an ancient system of custom and belief—the cultus of the people
among whom they originated. This cultus has been destroyed. It has
either struggled unsuccessfully against foreign and more vigorous systems
of religion and society, or it has slowly developed from one stage to
another. In the western world at all events we know that the former
has been the process at work, and that it is matter of definite historical
record that all non-Christian culture has had to succumb to Christianity.
To be of service to the historian of our country and people, therefore, each
floating fragment of ancient custom and belief must not only be labelled
‘ancient,’ but it must be placed back in the system from which it has been
torn away. To do this is to a great extent to restore the ancient system ;
and to restore an ancient system of culture, even if the restoration be
only a mosaic and a shattered mosaic, is to bring into evidence the pre-
historic race of people to which it belongs.
This hypothesis of traditional custom and belief being relics of an
ancient cultus helps to form the method and principles of enquiry. It
would be impossible to suppose that all these relics have been preserved
equally well, all at the same stage cf arrested development, all equally
untouched by later influences. Their existence has been attacked in
different places, at different times, by different influences ; and therefore
the actual form of their survival must vary almost as frequently as an
example occurs. The modern connection of a custom or belief is no
sure guide, and is very often a misleading guide, to its ancient connection.
it is only by correct analysis and classification, therefore, that the various
examples can be put into a condition for examination and identification.
We have for our purpose nothing more than a series of notes of cus-
toms and beliefs obtaining among the lower and lowest classes of the
people, and not being the direct teaching of any religious or academic
body. These notes are very unequal in value owing to the manner in
which they have been made. They are often accidental, they are seldom
if ever the result of trained observation, and they are often mixed up
with theories as to their origin and relationship to modern society and
modern religious beliefs.
The method of using these notes for scientific purposes is therefore a
very important matter. It is essential that each single item should be.
treated definitely and separately from all other items, and, further, that
the exact wording of the original note upon each separate item should be
kept intact. The original account of every custom and belief is an
630 REPORT—1896,
organism, not to be tampered with except for the purpose of scientific
analysis, and then after that purpose has been effected all the parts must
be put together again, and the original organism restored to its form.
The handling of each custom or belief and of its separate parts in this
way enables us, in the first place, to disentangle it from the particular
personal or social stratum in which it happens to have been preserved,
and, secondly, to prepare it for the place to which it may ultimately be
found to belong. The first step in this preparation is to get together all the
examples which have been preserved, and to compare these examples with
each other, first as to common features of likeness, secondly as to features
of unlikeness. By this process we are able to restore whatever may be
really deficient from insufficiency of any particular record—and such a
restoration is above all things essential—and to present for examination
not an isolated specimen but a series of specimens, each of which helps to
bring back to observation some portion of the original.
The first important characteristic which distinguishes a custom or
belief in survival from a custom or belief belonging to an established
system is that not only do different examples present points of common
likeness, but also points of unlikeness. The points of likeness are used
to determine and classify all the examples of one custom or belief, the
points of unlikeness to trace out the line of decay inherent in survivals.
This partial equation and partial divergence between different examples
of the same custom or belief allows a very important point to be made in
the study of survivals. We can estimate the value of the elements which
equate in any number of examples, and the value of the elements which
diverge ; and by noting how these values differ in the various examples
we may discover an overlapping of example with example which is of the
utmost importance. A certain custom consists, say, of six elements, a, 6,
c, d,e, f. Another example of the same custom has four of these elements,
a, b, c, d, and two divergences, g, h. A third example has elements
a, 6, and divergences g, h, 7, k. A further example has none of the
radical elements, but only divergences g, h, i, 7, m. Then the statement
of the case is reduced to the following :—
l=a, 8, ¢, d, ¢, J.
pe a, b,c, d+g, h.
= a, b+q, h, i, k.
4= +g, h, i, l,m.
The conclusions to be drawn from this are, first, that the overlapping of
the several examples (No. 1 overlapping No. 2 at a, b, c, d, No. 2 over-
lapping No. 3 at a,b, g,h, No. 3 overlapping No. 4 at g,h, 72) is the
essential factor in the comparison. Secondly, that example No. 4, though
possessing none of the elements of example No. 1, is the same custom as
example No. 1. Thirdly, that the divergences g to m mark the line of
decay which this particular custom has undergone since it ceased to belong
to the dominant culture of the people, and dropped back into the position
of a eee from a former culture preserved only by a fragment of the
people.
The first two of these conclusions are not affected by the order in
which the examples are arranged ; whether we begin with No. 4 or with
No. 1, the relationship of each example to the others, thus proved to be
in intimate association, is the same. The third conclusion is necessarily
dependent upon what we take to be ‘radical elements’ and ‘divergent
7
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 631
elements ;’ and the question is, How can these be determined? Asa rule
it will be found that the radical elements are the most constant parts of
the whole group of examples, appearing more frequently, possessing
greater adherence to a common form, changing (when they do change) with
slighter variations ; while the divergent elements, on the other hand,
assume many different varieties of form, are by no means of constant
occurrence, and do not even amongst themselves tend to a common form.
To these considerations, derived entirely from a study of the analysis, is
to be added the fact that the radical elements are alone capable of being
equated with customs or beliefs obtaining among savage or barbaric
peoples.
When any given custom or belief, having undergone this double pro-
cess of analysis of component elements and classification of the individual
examples, reveals a distinct parallel between its radical elements and the
elements of a custom or belief occupying a place in the cultus of a barbaric
or savage people, we may then, and only then, discuss its right to a gene-
alogy which can be traced back to a prehistoric cultus of the same stage
of development as that of modern barbarism or savagery. This right will
depend upon several important conditions. The custom in question must
in the first place be not a single isolated example of such a possible ge-
nealogy, but must be found associated with several other customs, each of
which, being treated in exactly the same manner, has been found to ex-
hibit exactly the same relationship to the same barbaric or savage cultus
or religion. In this way classification and analysis go hand in hand as
the necessary methods of studying survivals. Without analysis we cannot
properly arrive at a classification of examples ; without classification we
cannot work out the genealogy of survivals. The argument for detecting
in modern survivals the last fragments of a once prevailing system basea
upon this extensive groundwork is of itself a very strong one, and can
only be upset by one counter argument. This is nothing less than proof
that no such system ever existed, or could have possibly existed, in the
country or among the people, where and among which the survivals have
been discovered. Clearly the burden of such a proof could hardly be sup-
ported ; for the very fact of the existence of such survivals becomes in
itself one of the strongest arguments for the existence of the original
system from which they descended, and of the race or people among
whom such original system obtained.
2. Fire Rites and Ceremonies.
The particular custom which I purpose examining on the principles
laid down relates to the use of fire. I shall not attempt to draw any
general conclusions until the work of analysis and classification is
completed, but shall first of all simply put together the evidence as it
appears from the notes of the collectors and chroniclers of this group
of customs. Apart, however, from general conclusions, there are a
few special characteristics which it wili be well to specify during the
progress of our work, partly because their significance would not appear
so usefully if deferred until the work of analysis and classification is
completed, and partly to avoid what must always be an obstacle to
researches of this kind—namely, repetition of description.
The most important example is the well-known custom of burning
the clavie at Burghead. The fire is made by the youths of the village,
who must be the sons of the original inhabitants, and every stranger is
632 REPORT—1896.
rigidly excluded from the ceremony.'! This is a clear recognition of the
blood bond, because the early ties of relationship still hold their place
against the later ties of locality, a mere resident not being recognised as a
person fitted to take part in the ceremony. Secondly, the clavie must be
lighted by a burning peat, the custom being that no form of modern
lighting is allowed to approach the precincts.2, The next point is that
the smoking embers of the clavie were scattered among the assembled
villagers, by whom they were eagerly caught at, and with them the fire on
the cottage hearth was at once kindled.’
The date fixed upon for the ceremony, namely, New Year’s Eve, is the
next important element to note, it being obvious that a fire kindled on the
last day of the old year, and allowed to burn into the first morning of the
new year, has carried on its flame from one year to another, though actually
only through one year’s end into another year—a fiction which may very well
stand for an original perpetual burning. And, finally, there are details of
ritual in this custom which are as significant of archaic origin as they could
well be. The object of the ceremony is the perambulation, with the sacred
fire, of the bounds of the village and of the fishing boats. At certain houses
and at certain street corners a halt was made, and a brand whipped out
of the clavie and hurled among the crowd. He who seized the brand was
the favourite of fortune during the months of the coming new year. After-
wards the fire was carried to a small artificial promontory, where a circular
heap of stones, called the ‘ Durie,’ was built up for the purpose, and the
still burning clavie was placed in the hollow centre, from which it was
distributed to the villagers.* The whole community joined in the ceremony
as an act necessary to its welfare and prosperity during the year. If the
bearer stumbled it was looked upon as a dire calamity foretelling disaster
to the place, and certain death to the bearer in the course of the next
year. As the ceremony was therefore a sacred one, those who took
part in it, especially those who acted as carriers of the fire, would be
honoured above their fellows by the distinction. Accordingly, in the
clavie custom, ‘the first lift is an honour,’ and was usually conferred upon
some member of the community who had recently been married. As soon
as one bearer gave signs of exhaustion, another took his place, and should
any of them meet with an accident during the journey ‘the misfortune
excites no pity even among his near relatives.’ °
Injury in the service of the fire is clearly not a misfortune, but a
sign of recognition of dutiful service; and it is just possible that
the prominence given to the recently married member of the community
may represent some early recognition of the service thereby rendered in
securing a future mother of the kindred. In entire keeping with these
very significant facts are the details attending the construction of the fire-
pile. ‘Unwritten but unvarying laws’ regulate every action, one of
which laws is that every article is borrowed, nothing bought. And in
this we have, I think, a clear indication of the time when personal
property in the nature of tools was not the subject of barter —a time,
that is, before the days of commercial economics, and consequently coinci-
dent with tribal society. This indication of a prehistoric date for the
origin of the custom is confirmed by one other detail, namely, that although
1! Folklore Journal, vii. 12. 2 Trans. Soc. Antig. Scot. x. 649.
3 Folklore Journal, vii. 12. * Proc. Soc, Antig. Scot. x. 649.
5 Yolklore Journal, vii. 12, 13.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 6353
the long nail which fastens the staves of the clavie is iron, and is made
specially for the purpose by the village smith, the hammer used for the
purpose must be a round stone.!
The completeness of the Burghead example in so many details of
_ significance enables us to fix upon it as the typical form of survival of the
- fire-custom. The justification for this conclusion will appear later on, when
we have fully examined the other examples and compared them with the
Burghead example; but in the meantime I can state that it has no parallel
for completeness anywhere. I will now set out the elements it contains
in the shape of a formula, so that reference back to these elements may
be made in as simple manner as possible. The following is the formula
required :—
(a) The fire is made by a group of men connected by a common
descent, that is, a kindred.
(6) The original inhabitants of a village form the unit from which
common descent is traced.
(c) The flame for the fire is obtained in a sacred manner.
(d) Continuous life of the fire (symbolised).
(e) The house-fire is derived from the village-fire.
(/) The possession of an ember is the means of good fortune.
(7) The bounds of the village have the fire carried round them.
(h) Welfare and prosperity of the community dependent upon the
performance of the ceremony.
(i) The bearers of the fire are honoured.
(k) Early economic conditions are enforced in the performance of the
ceremony.
(1) Stone-age implements are used.
A custom in Lanarkshire has preserved some essential elements of the
Burghead example. Thus, at Biggar the villagers collect a large quantity
of fuel, and about nine o’clock on the last day of the old year the pile is
lighted, each member of the crowd ‘thinking it a duty to cast into the
flaming mass some additional portion of material.’ It is necessary to
maintain the fire until New Year’s day is far advanced, and if the house
fire has been allowed to become extinguished, recourse must be had to the
village pile.2 Here the collective action of the villagers, the connection
between the village-fire and the house-fires, and the symbolical continuation
of the fire from one year to the next year, are still closely preserved. But
the sanction for the proceeding has changed. In the Burghead example
the prosperity of the whole community depended upon the lighting of the
village-fire ; in the Biggar example it was to provide the flame for the house-
fire on account of the unluck of giving out fire on New Year's day. The
two sanctions, different in form, are practically identical in motif; the
Burghead example in this, as in other features, is the more archaic ; the
Biggar example has assumed the usual condition of survivals and substituted ~
the non-specific notion of unluck for the specific notion of prosperity of
the community as the sanction for the ceremony of the village-fire. In
this respect the Biggar example is an important link in the evidence we are
1 Folklore Journal, vii. 13. The stone is thrown away after use; and it may be
that in this act we have an indication of the sacred character of the stone, in that it
was not to be used for any other purpose after being used in the clavie ceremony.
2 N. and Q. 2nd Series, ix. 322.
634 REPORT—1896.
now seeking. It is, on the one hand, definitely connected with the
form preserved at Burghead ; on the other hand it departs from that form
in one important particular which, however, as we shall see, reappears in
many other examples which do not equate so nearly in other respects with
the Burghead example. Thus, we have a partial equation and a partial
divergence in the Biggar example, as compared with the typical form of
Burghead, and the formula would appear as follows :—
(6) Making the fire by group of co-villagers.
(d) Continuous life of the village-fire.
(e) Lighting of the family fires by the village-fire.
(m) Unlucky to give fire from the house.
So that the Biggar example equates with the typical form at Burghead in
three elements, and introduces the first divergence in the belief of unluck
attending the giving out of fire from the house. That this belief is an
essential part of the custom is an important factor in the argument ;
it is because of this taboo against giving fire from the house that the
village-fire is necessary, and the two conceptions are part and parcel of the
same set of beliefs.
We can now go forward to examine other examples of the fire cus-
tom. In the country parts of Ireland (unfortunately no direct locality is
fixed upon) the May-day fire was formed by the inhabitants of each village.
When the fire had nearly expired each individual present provided himself
with a brawne or ember of the fire to carry home, and if it becomes
extinguished before reaching the house it is an omen of impending mis-
fortune ; the new fire is kindled with this spark. They also throw lighted
embers into the cornfields, or among the potato crops or the flax to preserve
them from witchcraft and to ensure a good return.!' Here there are three
elements of the typical form, 0, e, and g; and possibly a variation of f.
The divergences, however, are extremely important. Many of the old
people might be seen circumambulating the fire and repeating to them-
selves certain prayers. If a man was about to perform a long journey he
leaped backwards and forwards three times through the fire to give him
success in his undertaking ; if about to wed he did it to purify himself for
the marriage state ; if going to undertake some hazardous enterprise he
did it to render himself invulnerable ; as the fire sank low the girls tripped
across it to procure good husbands, women great with child to ensure a
happy delivery ; and children were carried across.? These details give us
two additional divergences, namely :—
(n) Walking round the fire saying prayers.
(0) Passing through the fire for success and good luck.
The significance of these rites lies in the fact that they are performed
for the express purpose of obtaining aid in time of need. They brought
the devotee into direct and close contact with the fire, and hence
obtained for him its protection. This is the meaning of the ceremony ;
and it allows no room for a trace of a malevolent deity demanding
sacrifice, whether human or animal, all the evidence pointing to a
1 Wilde’s Irish Popular Superstitions, 49; Vallancey, Collectanea, ii. 67, records
practically the same rite as obtaining in Waterford and Kilkenny; Brand’s Pop.
Antig. (Ellis), i. 305; Trans. Kilkenny Arch. Soc. i. 373, 381, Kerry, Kilkenny, and
Dublin being the places mentioned specifically.
2 Wilde, loc. cit.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 6309
beneficent influence affording help to those who performed the necessary
rites. Other examples only confirm this view, the significance of which
will presently appear. The Manx custom was to light fires on the hill-
tops on the eve of St. John the Baptist and on May-day. The household
fires were put out on that day and rekindled with some of the sacred fire.
This fire was also placed on the windward side of fields, so that the smoke
might pass over the corn ; and the cattle were driven between two fires as
an antidote against murrain or any pestilential distemper.! This preserves
four elements of the typical form—d, d, e, and g—and one important
divergence, 0. The contact with fire as the means of obtaining its
support is here extended to animals. Beginning with the fields and boats
in the Burghead type form, the action was extended to crops generally,
and to human beings in the Irish example, and to the corn crops and
animals in the Manx example. There can be no doubt that we are
dealing with the same rite in all these cases ; and as no idea of a sacrifice
could occur in the case of the fields and crops, as no idea of a sacrifice is
conveyed by the actual ceremony performed by animals and human beings,
it is important to note that the evidence so far distinctly points to the
conception of contact with some sacred power to ensure help and protec-
tion, and therefore negatives any supposition of a sacrifice. In the
western islands of Scotland the ceremony was for “eighty-one married
men (being thought the necessary number for effecting this design)” to
take two great planks of wood, and nine of them were employed by turns
to rub one of the planks against the other until the heat thereof produced
fire. From this forced fire each family is supplied with new flame to light
its household fire which had previously been put out.? Elsewhere it is
mentioned that it was an ancient custom to make a fiery circle about the
houses, corn, cattle, &c., belonging to each particular family ; a man carried
fire in his right hand and went round.* This example equates with ele-
ments 6, e, and g of the type, and supplies a new and very important
variant of the method of kindling the fire, c.
In the Burghead example it was noted that the sanction of married
life was an element in the choice of the man who was to be the bearer of
the fire ; in this western isle example it is the same sanction which governs
the choice of the men to create the fire, and the significant repetition of
this feature cannot be wholly due to accident. But the Scottish historian,
Hector Boece, tells a curious legend about the fire on the same island—
-Lewis—to which Martin refers. ‘The fame is,’ says Boece, ‘als sone as
the fire gangis furth (dies out) in this ile, the man that is haldin of maist
clene and innocent life layis one wosp of stra on the alter, and when the
pep are gevin maist devotly to thair praers, the wosp kindelies in ane
bleis.’* Here the resort is to the church, where miraculous fire is obtained
_ for the same purpose as the sacred forced fire ; and it may be that we have
“3 late example of the method the Church adopted to occupy the place of
_ the older religion. The point is of some importance, because we shall
_ presently have to note the survival of these fire customs among the ritual
observances of the early Church.
All these examples point to a periodical renewal of fire on some par-
1 Mona Miscellany, p. 143.
_ # Martin’s Western Islands, 113.
* Ibid. 116. Cf. Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot. xii. 556, for the importance of fire as a
symbol of possession in Lewis and St. Kilda.
* Brown’s Early Descriptions of Scotland, p. 89.
636 REPORT— 1896.
ticular day, the last day of the old year, May eve, and so on ; and the
significance of these, in the indication they give of continuous life, has been
noted. I now come to examples of sacred fires which are not created on
a particular day, but for a particular purpose. The points of contact
between the two groups of examples are, however, many. The alleged
purpose of the fire in these new examples is the same as one of the cere-
monies performed during the fire ritual in the examples just given ; the
actual mode of creating the fire is the same ; the connection between the
village-fire and the house-fires is the same. In short, the elements of each
example are the same, but the assumed importance of each element in the
popular mind is not the same.
In the isle of Mull, off the west coast of Scotland, the people carried
to the top of Carnmoor a wheel and nine spindles of oak-wood. They
extinguished every fire in every house within sight of the hill, and the
wheel was then turned from east to west over the nine spindles long
enough to produce fire by friction. They then sacrificed a heifer, cutting
in pieces and burning while yet alive the diseased part. Finally, they
lighted their own hearths from the pile, and ended by feasting on the
remains of the heifer. The cause of the ceremony was to cure the disease
among the black cattle.! Here we have three elements of the typical form
6, c, and e, and the important divergence 0. More important, how-
ever, are the facts of sacrifice and the sacred feast ; and I suggest that
these are not radical elements, but signs of the degradation of the ritual
into other uses or channels. Clearly there is no connection between the
sacrifice and the ceremony of lighting the house-fires from the village-fire ;
and as this element is the strongest link to the other examples which have
been examined it must be regarded as the test of origins. Another form
of this example confirms this view. In the Highlands and in Caithness
new fires were made ‘ to defeat sorceries.’ ‘Certain persons who have the
power to do so’ were sent for to raise the new fire? The qualification of
the persons engaged in the ceremony is extremely important. It may
point to a kind of priesthood, or to the descendants of persons originally
qualified. Up to the present it is remarkable that no idea of a priesthood
is hinted at in these customs ; and on this I shall have something to say
presently ; while in the Burghead typical form common descent from origi-
nally qualified persons, who were not priests, appears. In the absence,
then, of direct evidence on this important point, I am inclined to class the
‘certain persons’ of the Caithness custom with the common descendants
of qualified persons of the Burghead custom.’ The ceremonial of creating
the fire is very curious. Upon any small island in a river or lake a cir-
cular booth of stone or turf was erected, on which a couple or rafter of a
birch tree was placed, and the roof covered over. In the centre was set a
perpendicular post fixed by a wooden pin to the couple, the lower end
being placed in an oblong groove on the floor, and another pole was placed
horizontally between the upright post and the legs of the couple, into
both of which the ends, being tapered, were inserted. This horizontal
? Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, ii. 608.
2 Logan, Scottish Gael, ii. 68.
% Jamieson, Scottish Dictionary, s.v. ‘ New fire,’ quotes, from the Agricultural
Survey of Caithness, the same ceremony as that described by Logan, which, however,
says, instead of ‘certain persons,’ that ‘ charm doctors’ superintended the lighting of
the new fire. This, of course, may point to a priesthood, but I do not think it does,
and the point needs further investigation.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 637
timber was called the auger, being provided with four short arms or
spokes by which it could be turned round. As many men as could be
collected are then set to work, having first divested themselves of all kinds
of metal. From this the new tire was instantly procured, and all other
fires having been quenched with water! they were rekindled from the new
fire and accounted sacred ; and the cattle were successively made to smell
them.2? In many ways this is more important than the Mull example.
It gives five elements, a, b, c, e, and /, and the important divergence
0, which imposes the smelling of the fire by the cattle. In this
latter incident lies the justification for asserting that cattle sacrifice
is no part of this ritual. It is contact with the sacred element which
is necessary, not sacrifice. So, too, in Moray, when a contagious dis-
ease occurred among the cattle, the people of the villages extinguished
all their household fires and then produced a fire by means of friction. On
this a vessel was placed in which juniper branches were boiled, and with
this decoction all the cattle were sprinkled. On the conclusion of the
ceremonies the household fires were relighted by a brand from the friction
fire? Shaw wrote this account in the last century, and it is somewhat
difficult to localise the customs he records. He says that the midsummer
solemnity was celebrated by making ‘the deas-soil about their fields of
corn with burning torches of wood in their hands to obtain a blessing on
their corns.’ On Midsummer eve ‘they kindle fires near their corn fields
and walk round them with burning torches,’ and ‘the like solemnity was
kept on the eve of the first of November as a thanksgiving for the safe
ingathering of the produce of the fields.’ This example yields five ele-
ments, 6, c, d, e, and g ; and it accentuates the conception of contact with,
rather than sacrifice to, fire by the act of sprinkling water heated by fire
instead of the natural action of the smoke as an indication of contact.
With these facts before us we pass on to the well-known example at
Kildare sanctioned and upheld by the Christian Church. Giraldus Cam-
brensis is the authority for this. He says that ‘the nuns and holy women
tend and feed the fire, adding fuel with such watchful care that from the
time of St. Bridget it has continued burning through a long course of
years.’ Twenty nuns were engaged. Each of them had the care of the
fire for a single night in turn, and on the evening before the twentieth
night, the last nun, having heaped wood upon the fire, said: ‘ Bridget, take
charge of your own fire, for this night belongs to you.’ The nuns then left
the fire, and in the morning it was found alight as usual. The fire was _
surrounded by a hedge made of stakes and brushwood, and forming a
circle within which no male could enter.® Giraldus wrote in the twelfth
century, and St. Bridget was born, according to tradition, in 453. This
would give a life of seven hundred years for this fire. Henry de Londres,
Archbishop of Dublin, caused it to be extinguished in 1220, but it was
afterwards again lighted and remained so until the suppression of the
monasteries by Henry VIII.° This supplies remarkable evidence of the
fact of perpetual fire, which has only been symbolised in the examples
hitherto adduced, but on the other hand the adaptation to church and
1 The mention of water is given by Jamieson’s authority only, not by Logan.
2 Logan, op. cit.; Jamieson, op. cit. s.v. ‘ Black spaul.’
8 Shaw, Hist. of Moray (2nd edit.), iii. 154 ; ‘all this I haveseen done,’ says Shaw.
4 Thid. iii, 146.
5 Giraldus Cambrensis, Topography of Treland, lib. ii. can. xxxiv.-vi.
® Archdall’s Mon. Hib. iii, 240.
638 REPORT—1896.
monastic purposes has left the Kildare example shorn of other primitive
characteristics, except perhaps the substitution of an artificial kindred,
the monastic group, for the real kindred. There are also two divergent
elements, p, g, in the virgin attendants and the circular form of the fire.
It leads us, however, to the action of the Church elsewhere. In the
island of Inismurray is the church of Teach-na-Teinedh, or the Church of
Fire, and there was formerly a remarkable flagstone upon which, accord-
ing to tradition, the monks kept a fire always burning for use by the
islanders.'. The flagstone is called Leac-na-Teinidh, the Stone of Fire.
It consists of seven stones, four of which are placed on edge and set
deeply in the ground in the manner of a cist. The sides face as nearly
as possible the cardinal points, and are in position not coincident with
the surrounding walls of the church. The natives aver that here of old
burnt a perpetual fire, from which, all the hearths on the island which
from any cause had become extinguished were rekindled.2 Here we have
elements a, d, and e, and the fact of perpetual fire. In England, church-
wardens’ accounts contain entries of payment for fuel ‘for the holy fire ;’#
and the explanation of these entries is that hallowed or holy fire was
kindled in the church porch on the morning of Easter Eve, and was
obtained from the sun by means of a crystal or burning glass if the
morning was bright, or a flint and steel if the weather was unpropitious.
This fire was blessed by the priest, and from it the Paschal candle, the
lamps of the church, and the candles on the altar were lighted for Easter
Day. The people, too, took home with them a light from the sanctuary,
and the hearth that had been allowed to become cold and brandless then
became warm and bright once more, and the evening candle shone
brightly again with a flame from the new hallowed fire. This would
seem almost to be a direct handing on of the pagan sacred fire to the
Christian priesthood. At least four elements, a, c, d, and e, of the type
are preserved, the continuation of the light from Easter eve to Easter
morn being of the same characteristic as that from New Year’s eve to
New Year’s morn already dealt with, as Easter was looked upon by the
early Church as the beginning of the Christian year.’
Finally we turn from the church to the record evidence of the Irish
tribal system. In an ancient tract which was written at the time of the
break-up of the Irish tribal system, and shows the transition from blood-
ties to economical ties, a chieftain, who is not noble, but who represents
the tribesmen as their chief official, stands out as the outcome of this
1 Wood-Martin, Pagan Ireland, 93.
2 Journ. Roy. Hist. and Arch. Assoc. of Ireland, 4th Series, vii. 228-9.
3 Bilson, Leicestershire County Folklore, 75. Municipal accounts also contain
entries of payments for ‘coals for the new fire on Easter Eve,’ Hist. MSS. Com. iv.
432, vi. 495 (Hythe and Bridport).
* Rock, Church of Our Fathers, iv. 94. Dr. Rock quotes only one passage from
an English authority for his facts about the Anglo-Saxon ritual, namely, Bede, De
Tabernaculo (lib. iii. cap. 1) ; but he rightly points out that to understand this passage
the ceremony above described is necessary, and he Craws it up ‘from the older ritual
and the early liturgical writers in those parts of Germany which heard and took their
Christian belief from Anglo-Saxon preachers.’
5 There may be something of archaic significance, too, in Dr. Rock’s observation
that ‘ for church use at least this fire might truly be said to have lived the whole year
through, for as lamp was lighted from lamp it thus kept on burning from one Holy
Saturday to another’ (loc. cit.).
'
ij
i
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 639
transition period. He was known as the Bruighfer chief ; and among his
duties and privileges, enumerated with the usual precision of the Irish
legal treatises, are certain objects which ‘he shall have without borrow-
ing—a grinding-stone, a mallet, an axe, a hatchet, a spear for killing
cattle, ever-living fire, a candle upon a candelabra without fail, a perfect
plough with all its requirements.’! I refer back to the Burghead custom
to note the significant parallel in the taboo against borrowed articles, to
the specified articles themselves in connection with the construction of the
clavie, and to the ‘ ever-living fire’ of the Bruighfer chief.
Here the examination of the more perfect examples of the custom
fire—that is, those which contain the element of the house-fires of the
family units being derived from the village-fire—ends ; and we must next
ask as to the less perfect examples. These will be found to consist of
many well-known, but little understood, customs, which equate with the
examples just dealt with in one or more particulars, and which gradually
shade off into examples which have reached the last stages of decadence.
Perhaps with few other instances of traditional usage has the unfettered
imagination of writers been more busy than with this. The lighting of
fires at Easter, May-day, Midsummer, and Yule, has been so wide-
spread in the Celtic parts of the islands that the subject has been
peculiarly attractive to every school of Celtic scholarship. The result is
unfortunate for the cause of science. It has served to make the subject
peculiarly distasteful to sober inquirers who do not care to go on a roving
expedition to Pheenicia and all sorts of ancient civilisations for the origin
of a cult the remnants of which exist in modern Britain ; and hence very
little attention has been given to the evidence supplied by the customs
themselves when studied with due regard to scientific conditions.
Leaving out of consideration all those general statements as to lighting
of fires on particular festivals, which do not supply any of the details which
have been the subject of particular observation, I will proceed to classify
those definite examples of ceremonial fires which do not contain the
essential feature of supplying the flame for the household fire, the object
of the classification being to see how far their elements equate with the
elements of the more perfect examples already examined.
In Cornwall the festival fires were kindled on the eve of St. John the
Baptist. The people attended with lighted torches and made their
perambulations round the fires and proceeded from village to village.*
Later writers give further details, but do not state that the house-fires
were lighted from the village-fire. At Penzance young men and women
passed up and down the streets where fires were lighted, swinging round
their heads heavy torches, the flames of which almost equalled those of
tar-barrels. At the close of the proceedings a great number of persons of
both sexes used to join hand in hand forming a long string, and running
through the streets playing thread-the-needle, and leaping over the yet
glowing embers.4 Sir Arthur Mitchell has collected from the Kirk
1 Brehon Law Tracts, iv. 311.
* It seems probable that the word bonfire is derived from boon-fire, i.e. from he
fact that the materials were obtained by boons gathered from everyone in the neigh-
bourhood. (See Ellis’s Brand, i. 301.) Murray, however, decides that etymologi-
cally the derivation is from bone fire.
® Borlase, Antiquities of Cornwall.
* Edmond’s Land’s End District, 66 ; Hunt’s Pop. Rom. of West of England, pp.
207, 208; Brand, Pop. Antig. (Ellis), quotes an eighteenth-century writer that these
fires were called ‘ Blessing Fires’ in the west parts of England.
64.0 REPORT—-1896.
session records of Elgin, Kinneddar (now Drainie), Duffus, and Inveravon,
many interesting particulars of the attempt to put down the burning of
clavies round the boats and the fields of the fisherfolk and peasantry in
the country round about Burghead, attempts which take back the custom
to 1655, when it was considered an ancient ‘idolatrous and heathenish
practice,’ and shows that the custom of ‘burning the clavie is not a
ceremony peculiar to Burghead, and has no special connection either with
that spot or with a sea-going community.’' At Warkworth in North-
umberland every year the farmers kindled a new fire with some ceremony
at a certain farm agreed upon, and the cattle were then shut up in the
straw barn, where the fire was kept up among them for some time, after
which a lighted brand was carried on to the next farm where preparations
had been made for a similar proceeding. If the brand went out, the virtue
was gone ; and that year would be looked forward to with dread of many
deaths among the herd.?_ In Herefordshire and Somersetshire fires were
made in the fields to bless the apples. It will be readily detected that
these examples contain four elements which belong also to the group of
examples just examined, 0, c, g, i, and only one divergent element, namely,
the Penzance thread-the-needle ceremony (7). Perhaps the Warkworth
custom of carrying fire from farm to farm is the divergent form (s) of the
lighting of the house-fire at the village-fire.
One thing further has to be noticed, and this is of singular interest to
the present line of enquiry, because it links on fire customs to an im-
portant social institution. The meeting-place of the tribe, sacred to it
in many ways, is preserved in many places throughout the kingdom ; and
some years ago I collected the evidence together in my little book ‘ Primi-
tive Folk Moots.’ We have seen how the fire is connected with the tribal
chieftains in Irish evidence, and we know that the care of the tribal fire
was a part of the chief’s duty as priest-king of the tribe. The relation-
ship of the place of fire-kindling to the place of meeting is therefore an
important feature of the cult. Is it to be found among the surviving
fire customs of the class we have been examining ?
A splendid example is to be found in Ayrshire. The Torbolton moot
hill and the ancient so-called altar for kindling the fire adjoin each other,
The moot hill was used as a meeting-place until recent times, while the
fire-kindling is carried on to this day. The date is the nearest Tuesday
to June 3; the fire is kept burning for three days, and the boys of the
neighbourhood indulge in the ancient practice of ‘leaping on the altar.’ +
T have not been able yet to give other examples of tbe close connection
between the tribal meeting-place and the place for j:indling the fire ; but
I suggest that the various toot hills throughout the country, and the
many examples of a second and smaller hill, or a second and smaller stone,
which occur near to the hill or stone of meeting, afford ample ground for
believing that the necessary evidence will be forthcoming when my
researches are completed.
These examples complete the evidence I am able to bring forward as
to the village phase of the fire custom, and I will now tabulate the results
up to this point. The following table gives the result of the analysis of
1 Trans. Antig. Sue. Scot. x. 652, 659.
2 Denham Tracts, ii. 365, 366.
3 Aubrey, Remaines [1685], p. 96.
4 Smith’s Prehistoric Antiquitics of Ayrshire, p. 149.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 641
each example into its constituent elements (a to 7) and divergent elements
(m to t) :-—
Burghead! =a, b,c, d,e, f,g,h,%
Lanarkshire = b, d,e+m
mie
pend - b, e,f,g9 +n, 0
Dublin
Isle of Man = b, d,e,g+o
Western
Isles } + By trad
Mull = b,c, e+o
Caithness? = a, b,c, e+o
Moray = b, c, d, 0g
Kildare = b,d+p,q
Inismurray = a, d, e
Church rite = a, ¢, d,e
Irish tribe =
Cornwall = +r
Elgin
Drainie eS
Duffus a g
Inveravon
Warkworth = b,c, h+s
Herefordshire = g
Somersetshire = g
Ayrshire = ad+o,t
In all these cases some of the elements which belong to each are com-
mon to all; and therefore whatever has been the later history of each
particular example, whether it has continued by traditional sanction kept
up by a body of co-villagers, or whether it has been preserved as a part of
church ritual kept up by the priesthood, the origin of all the examples must
be referred to one custom, and one custom only. A number of different
local customs have been shown to closely interlace with each other, to con-
tain elements of a common origin, to converge in certain particulars upon
a condition of things far removed from the epoch of modern civilisation,
to point unmistakably to prehistoric times, even if they do not actually
touch prehistoric culture, to belong to a given social organism which, if
represented by the modern condition of co-villagers, also contains the
conception of co-worshippers at a common altar, and of co-relationship
in a common blood tie ; and the very terms which we are enabled to use
in describing the first results of classification and analysis suggest to a
great extent the final conclusions to be drawn.
3. The House-fire Cult : Origin of the House-fire.
The most important element brought out by the analysis of these
examples of the fire custom is the practice of lighting the house-fires once
a year in a ceremonial fashion from the village-fire ; and we have now
to see what this evidence indicates in connection with the house-fire.
A custom so remarkable in itself, when judged by the modern ideas of
the house-fire, points to a connection between house-fires and village-fire of
a more or less sacred character ; and, if so, the question is, What is the
1 The # and 7 elements are general indications of the Burghead custom, and not
special, and accordingly they need not be counted in the analysis at this stage.
? This example also contains the 7 element.
1896. TT
642 REPORT—1896,
nature of the sanctity conveyed from the village fire to the house-fires ?
Perhaps we may not get this question answered from the evidence
afforded by British usage ; but at all events it leads up to another pertinent
question, namely, whether the kindling of the house-fires from the village-
fire on one particular day in the year signifies the sanctity of the house-
fire on that particular day only, or a sanctity which can only be conveyed
by contact with the village-fire. There can be little doubt that the latter
is the true interpretation of the rite; and it carries with it the assumption
that throughout the year, from one anniversary of the formal lighting of
the village-fire to another, the house-fire must have retained the sanctity
derived from the village-fire. The only method of doing this is by con-
tinuous life, a feature we are already familiar with in connection with the
village-fire.
The examples to be taken first are those house-fires which have already
been mentioned as actually derived from the village-fire. The house-tires
of Burghead, having been kindled from the clavie as already described,
were kept up throughout the year, ‘it being considered lucky to keep the
flame from the clavie all the rest of the year.’! The Lanarkshire example
is not so perfect, the continuous life.of the house-fire, lighted from the
village pile, being represented only for the period of transition from old
year to new year,and not for the actual year, it being considered ‘ un-
lucky to give out a light to anyone on the morning of the new year.’ ?
The Irish example falls into line by the evidence of Sir William Wilde
that ‘portions of the extinguished [village] fire are generally retained in
each family’ ’—a form which we may accept as an obvious divergence from
the continuous house-fire. In the Manx evidence we once more get a per-
fect form. There is not one of the native families ‘but keeps a small
quantity of fire continually burning, no one daring to depend on his
neighbour’s vigilance in a thing which he imagines is of such consequence,
everyone consequently believing that if it should happen that no fire were
to be found throughout the island most terrible revolution and mischief
would immediately ensue.’ The Western Islands example again is not
so clear, Martin simply saying that ‘the fires in the parish were extin-
guished,’° each family being then supplied with new flame from the
village-fire ; but there can be little doubt that the continuous life of the
house-fire is here symbolised if not actually recorded. In one of the
islands of St. Kilda the evidence is complete. Turf fires are always kept
burning, and if one happens to go out a live turf is borrowed from a
neighbour. The fires of St. Kilda have probably been burning for
centuries. The fact of continuous life and its symbolisation in a recog-
nised form are therefore both represented in these examples.
In the next group of examples we have the house-fires kept alive
perpetually without renewal from the village-fire. This divergence from
the more primitive form need not surprise us. The more archaic
elements in the fire-cult would be the first to die out before the march of
new social and economical ideas, and these are undoubtedly those ele-
1 Folklore Journal, vii. 12.
* N. and Q. 2nd Series, ix. 322.
3 Trish Popular Superstitions, 49.
4 Waldron, Description uf the Isle of Man, p. 7.
5 Martin, Western Islands, 113.
® Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot. xii. 191. Lucifer matches are only used by the minister,
and there is no flint and steei on the island
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 643
ments which belong to the village phase. The family element, left to
struggle on by itself, would take upon itself some of the features thus lost,
especially such an extremely important characteristic as that of perpetual
life. This is the explanation of the following remarkable survival. In
Lakeland of northern England the old hearth-fire was raked or put into a
condition of smouldering at nights with superstitious reverence, and was
thus ‘kept up from day to day, from month to month, from year to year,
and from generation to generation,’ and more instances than one are
known ‘where the house-fire had been kept up for three generaticns, and
during all that time had been so zealously guarded that it had not. been
once allowed to go out. There is a well-known instance where a man had
what he called his “grandfather's fire,” that is, a fire that was known to
have been kept up without extinction for at least three generations, and
when it once accidentally went out he went to some woodcutters who had
lighted their fire from his and brought back from their fire a fire to his
own hearth, that thus he might possess as it were the seeds of his ances-
tors’ original fire.’! The elimination of the ceremony of annual renewal
in this case has caused the accentuation of the idea of perpetual life, but
the process for renewal where perpetual life has been broken by accident
brings back the old conception of the house-fire being derived from a
sacred source.
This example, significant as it is of itself, becomes all the more so
when it is discovered that other examples of the house-fire which do not
renew their life annually from the village-fire have adopted a form of
annual renewal which cannot but be considered as due to an original
renewal from the village-fire. We have seen above that this particular
element would be the first to give way before advancing civilisation.
Granting that this had taken place in cases where the perpetuation of
the cult of the house-fire was inclined to go on much longer in sur-
vival, we should get a form of annual renewal minus the village-fire from
which such renewal was obtained. A further advance in the line of
degradation may lead us to a form of annual renewal where not only
has the village-fire ceased to be a part of the ceremony, but some other
element has been introduced into the gap caused by the village-fire
having dropped out of the ceremony. Thus there are two groups of fire
customs to allow for—one where annual renewal pure and simple takes
place, or is symbolised as taking place ; the second where annual renewal
takes place in connection with some other element than that of fire.
The examples where the annual renewal is symbolised are numerous.
They take the following forms : embers of a particular fire are preserved
to light the next anniversary fire, old and new fires being thus connected ;
the fire of New Year’s eve in the old year is kept alight until New Year's
morn in the new year, old and new years being thus connected by an un-
extinguished fire ; the prohibition against giving light out of the house at
certain sacred periods, or on certain sacred days, the life of every house-
fire being thus held to be sacred on that day and kept up by the house-
family itself and not by kindling from without. Variations of these forms
will of course occur, but these variations do not suggest new forms of the
symbolisation of the annual renewal of the house-fire. They only show
the direction which degradation of the survivals takes when once symbo-
lisation is made to do duty for actual fact.
1 Trans. Cumberland and Westmoreland Antig. and Arch. Soc. xii. 289, 290.
pis
644 REPORT—1896.
In these cases annual renewal from an old fire, which was in turn
derived from an old fire, and so on backwards, takes back the ‘seed of the
fire’ to the original method of obtaining it, namely, from the village-
fire ; and in this way these imperfect examples are connected with the per-
fect examples. But the formula of annual renewal also contains the
formula of continuous life, and it becomes a ‘struggle for existence’ be-
tween these two formule as to which should ultimately prevail in deter-
mining the form which each survival should finally take. In the first
of the above-mentioned groups both formule appear; in the second and
third only the symbolism of continuous life ; and thus we obtain a very
instructive lesson in the process of degradation in survivals.
Of the first form a Nottinghamshire example is the best. There must
always be a portion of last year’s yule log left in the house to be burnt
upon the next Christmas eve. The method is to first put a bit of last
year’s log into the fireplace and burn it, then the fresh log must be put on
the fire and be allowed to burn for a little while. It must then be taken
off and burnt a little every night until New Year's eve, when it is put on
the fire and burnt, all except the small portion which is kept in the house
until next Christmas Day. It is believed that the observance of this
custom will ‘keep the witch away.’! Ido not think the significance of
this piece of ritual will be lost upon any student; and the sanction for its
due observance is the safety of the household, the same sanction, that is,
which was noted among the survivals of the tribal fire rites at Burghead,
in the Isle of Man, and elsewhere. In Lincolnshire the yule log was placed
with ceremony on the fire on Christmas eve, the unconsumed part of the
old log having been carefully preserved to burn with the new one.” In
Northamptonshire it is taken from the fire when only half burnt and care-
fully preserved in a cellar or some other safe place, its possession being
looked upon as bringing good luck to the house and preventing fire
throughout the coming year.* This last divergence in the form of pro-
tection obtained from the fire is clearly a modern addition due to associa-
tion of ideas; and we next come upon an example of this form of
«protection when it is unaccompanied, as in the present case, with the more
archaic conception of safety to the family being bound up with the
preservation of the sacred fire. In Northumberland a fragment of the
Christmas log was saved for next Christmas,* during which time it secures
~ the house from fire, and a small piece of it thrown into a fire occurring at
the house of a neighbour will quell the raging element. A tall mould
candle is also procured for the evening, and it would be unlucky to light
either the log or the candle till the proper period. A piece of the candle
is also kept to ensure good luck.® Here yule log and yule candle are
evidently struggling for mastery as the emblem of the house-fire annually
renewed, while the foreign element of protection from fire receives its
most advanced form. The same evidence is derived from the district of
_Nidderdale. There the fag-end of last year’s yule log is used to light the
new one, which in its turn is saved for a like purpose in the following year.
_Each house is provided with twelve or more candles, which are all lighted
* Addy, Household Tales and other Traditional Remains, p. 104.
2 Brogden, Provincial Words, s.v. ‘Yule log.’
3 Sternberg, Folklore of Northamptonshire, p. 186.
4 My authority does not actually say ‘to light’ the next Christmas log, but there
is no doubt, I think, that this is implied.
5 Denham Tracts, ii, 25-26.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 645
together on Christmas eve, and the members of the household hold them
in their fingers alight for about ten minutes, when all but one are extin-
guished, and the one is left to cut the cheese by. After dark no person
must take a light out of doors, as it is considered unlucky to do so.' In
the North Riding of Yorkshire a large tire, known as yule clog, is made on
Christmas eve, a piece of the clog being carefully preserved by the house-
wife, and on New Year’s eve no one will suffer a light to be taken from
his fire.2. We now turn to the simplest form of this group. In Cornwall,
the Christmas log was lighted by a portion saved from the last year’s
fire.?
-Of the second group the most remarkable example is the South Yorkshire
practice at Penistone. When the yule log was burnt on Christmas eve
the fire was not allowed to go out during the night, and in the morning
whatever burning ashes were left in the grate were carefully collected and
taken down into the cellar and put under the ‘milk benk’ [stone bench
where the milk vessels stood]. These ashes were supposed to ‘keep the
witch away ’ during the following year and bring good luck to the house ;
they were kept for years, forming a great pile in the cellar, and were not
allowed to be taken away.‘ Although in this example we for the first time
lose the element of annual renewal which has hitherto been present in all
the examples, it is remarkable that other important elements remain. Not
only do we get here the symbolism of continued life in the burning from
Christmas eve to Christmas morn, but in the sacred character of the ashes
preserved from year to year; and once again the connection of the house-
fire with the prosperity of the family is contained in the survival. In
Derbyshire exactly the same custom obtains, but it has reached its last
stage of decline, as it is not in an absolute form, but only permissive. Jf
the yule log is not burnt away on Christmas eve, the ashes or embers must
on no account be taken out of the house.*
Next we note some customs where the Christmas log is kept alight
during the whole season of Christmas and New Year, and the continuity
of life in the fire is expressly made a solemn act of ritual, while the
element of annual renewal has almost, if not entirely, disappeared. In
Shropshire, half a century ago, the scene of lighting the hearth-fire
on Christmas eve to continue burning throughout the Christmas season
might have been witnessed in the hill country, from Clunbury and Worthen
to Pulverbatch and Pontesbury. A great trunk of seasoned oak, holly,
yew, or crabtree was drawn by horses to the house door, and thence by the
aid of rollers and levers placed at the back of the wide open hearth. The
embers were raked up to it every night, and it was carefully tended that
it might not go out during the whole season, during which time no light
might either be struck, given, or borrowed.® On all fours with the other
1 Lucas, Studies in Nidderdale, pp. 43, 44. Mr. Lucas distinguishes between the
yule log and the Christmas candle, and it is possible that we have here the meeting of
two influences, northern ano southern, upon the waning archaism of the Christmas
festival. \
2 Gent. Mag. 1811, part i. p. 424.
8 Whitcombe, Bygone Days in Devonshire and Cornwall, p. 194.
4 Addy, Household Tales, p. 103.
5 Thid. p. 104.
§ Burne’s Shropshire Folklore, pp. 397-401. Miss Burne’s evidence should be care-
fully read throughout, for although it adds no more details than those I have quoted
above, it emphasises the country conception of, the sacred fire during the Christmas
season.
646 REPORT—1896.
examples, as to the sacred character of the house-fire during the Christmas
or New Year season, this example emphasises one important particular,
namely, that the unluck of giving out a light includes the prohibitionagainst
receiving a light or making a light. Clearly, therefore, we have here
symbolised in very direct form the continuous life of the New Year’s house-
fire during the season which carries it on from the old year into the new.
In Warwickshire the Christmas block was not to be entirely reduced to
ashes until the end of the twelve days of Christmas.!
The limitation of continuous burning through New Year’s eve and
morn has now to be considered as the last of this group, symbolising
that the house-fire was carried: on from one year to another. In
Lancashire if any householder’s fire does not burn through the night
of New Year’s eve it betokens bad luck through the ensuing year ; and if
any one allow another to take a live coal, or to light a candle, on that
eve, the bad luck extends to the grantor.? In the border counties it is
deemed highly unlucky to Jet the fire out on New Year’s eve, All-
Halloween, Midsummer eve, and Christmas eve, and no one will on the
following morning give out a light lest he should give away his luck for
the season.
In the Northumberland example, quoted above, it was seen how the
more modern yule candle was apparently displacing the archaic yule log.
This provides the necessary connecting link to a group of customs where
the burning of a candle or lamp all night on Christmas or New Year's
eve appears as the sole remaining form of the survival. That this custom
is a direct and genuine descendant from the house-fire can be proved by
the fortunate preservation of the ‘missing link’ evidence between it and
the Northumberland type. This comes from Lyme Regis, where the
wood ashes of the family were formerly sold throughout the year as they
were made, the person who purchased them being obliged to send as a
present on Candlemas day a large candle. This candle was lighted in
the evening, and only upon its self-extinction did the family retire to
rest. JI think this explains the significance of the burning candle
in connection with the survival of the house-fire cult ; for the trans-
ference from Christmas or New Year’s eve to Candlemas Day is not a
serious flaw in the argument. I pass, then, to the more general form of
keeping a burning candle all night on certain sacred anniversaries. In
Yorkshire it was believed that unless this was done on Christmas eve
there would be a death in the house.® In Scotland candles of a particular
kind were made for Christmas Day, and each candle must be so large as to
burn from the time of its being lighted till the day be done ; if it did not,
the circumstance would be an omen of ill-luck to the family for the
ensuing year. In some parts the candle is not allowed to burn out, but
is extinguished and carefully locked up in a chest, in order to be burnt
out at the owner’s date-wake.®
The third form of this particular phase of the cult of the house-
1 Yolk-lore Jowrnal, i. 352.
2 Harland and Wilkinson, Lancashire Folklore, pp. 155, 214.
3 Henderson, Yolklore, p. 72.
4 Dyer’s Popular Customs, p. 56. There is also the case of Dublin where, because
the May-day fires were prohibited, the people fix a bush in the middle of the street
and stick it full of lighted candles ( Gent. Mag. 1791, p. 428).
5 Addy, Household Tales, p. 105.
6 Jamieson, Dictionary, s.v. ‘ Yule.’
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 647
fire does not assume many variations. It will be remembered that
the prohibition against giving out fire included, in the Shropshire
example, the prohibition against receiving it or creating it ; and this
significant inclusion of three definite forms for lighting the house-fire
from within the house appears to suggest that continuation of the house-
fire was symbolised. Further down, however, this symbolisation is re-
duced to very simple limits ; but simple as they are they are connected
directly with the whole system of the house-fire cult. ‘No fire must on
any account be taken out of the house between Christmas eve and New
Year’s eve,’ is the Derbyshire survival ;1 and perhaps, as it carries the
practice over a period longer than a particular day, it may be taken as
the most archaic. In Scotland people would not allow a coal to be
carried out of their house to that of a neighbour on Christmas Day, New
Year’s Day, Handsel Monday, and Rood Day, the reason being that it
might be employed for the purpose of witcheraft.?, Here again we have
not a continuous period but certain selected sacred days. In North-
umberland, however, although the ceremonial of the Christmas log
obtains, as we have already noted, in a somewhat degraded form, it is
only on New Year’s Day that the prohibition against giving out fire
obtains.* In the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, the people will not
allow any fire to be taken out of their houses on Old Christmas
Day.'
ae Herefordshire we meet with the extreme divergent form of this cus-
tom, showing the direction of its decline into mere superstition. On Old
Christmas Day and during the twelve days no person must borrow fire,
but they may purchase it with some trifle or other, for instance a pin.’
4. The House-fire Cult continued : Customs associated with the
Household Fire.
In the most perfect examples of the village-fire ceremonial certain
elements were noted to be associated with the formal attribute of the fire
—perpetual life—which, whether in their primary forms or in divergence
from the primary form, were ascertained to contain fragments of ritual or
primitive associations. Such associations cannot be claimed for the survi-
vals of the house-fire in its formal attribute of continuous life, because
the observers of examples of continuous life in the house-fire have not
extended their work to gather together what the peasantry thought
about, or how they treated the fire thus guarded from extinction. There
are, however, one or two associated customs which have been noted, and
these are of some importance. On the other hand there is another body
of customs, drawn altogether from another set of examples, generally
from another part of the country, which can only be explained by re-
ferring their origin to the same system of fire customs as those which
stamp the village-fire and the house-fires lighted therefrom.
We will note, first, the few actually associated customs. In Lewis
after the house-fire has been newly kindled from the village-fire, ‘a pot
full of water is quickly set on it and afterwards sprinkled upon the
people infected with the plague or upon the cattle that have the murrain.’
1 Addy, Household Tales, p. 104. 2 Jamieson, Dictionary, s.v. ‘ Yule.’
3 Denham Tracts, ii. 340. 4 Gent. Mag. 1822, part ii. p. 603.
5 Gent. Mag. 1822, part i. p. 13.
648 REPORT—1896.
Fire is also carried ‘round about women before they are churched after
child-bearing, and it is used likewise about children until they be christ-
ened, both which are performed in the morning and at night... as an
effectual means to preserve both the mother and the infant from the
power of evil spirits who are ready at such times to do mischief and
sometimes carry away the infant.’! In the Western Isles of Scotland, as
Candlemas Day comes round, the mistress and servants of each family,
taking a sheaf of oats, dress it up in woman’s apparel, and after putting
it in a large basket, beside which a wooden club is placed, they cry three
times, ‘ Briid is come, Briid is welcome.’ This they do just before going
to bed, and as soon as they rise in the morning they look among the ashes,
expecting to see the impression of Briid’s club there, which if they do, they
reckon it a true presage of a good crop and prosperous year.?, The same
conception is more generally expressed in the Manx custom. In many of
the upland cottages it is customary for the housewife, after raking the fire
for the night, and just before stepping into bed, to spread the ashes smooth
over the floor with the tongs, in the hope of finding in them, next morning,
the trace of a foot. Should the toes of this ominous print point towards
the door, then it is believed a member of the family will die in the course
of the year ; but should the heel of the fairy foot point in that direction,
then it is firmly believed that the family will be augmented within the
same period.
I will next proceed to formulate the various elements which distinguish
the ceremonies of the house-fire in those examples which are unconnected
with any of the evidence previously dealt with.
That the hearth is the residence of a house-spirit is to be illustrated
by many scraps of our fairy mythology. In a seventeenth-century work
quoted by Brand, we read ‘ Doth not the warm zeal of an Englishman’s
devotion (who was ever observed to contend most stifly pro aris et focis)
make him maintain and defend the sacred hearth, as the sanctuary and
chief place of residence of the tutelary lares and household gods, and the
only court where the lady fairies convene to dance and revel?’ (ii, 504).
Maids are punished by the fairies (fairies being the generic folklore title
for any form of spirit) for untidy household habits, and particularly for
not attending properly to the hearth. Thus in the old ballad of ‘ Robin
Goodfellow ’ it is said :
‘Where fires thou find’st unraked and hearths unswept,
There pinch the maids as blue as bilbery.’
In Ireland the fairies are believed to visit the farmhouses in their
district on particular nights, and the embers are collected, the hearth
swept, and a vessel of water placed for their use before the family retire
to rest ;4 Spenser observes that at the kindling of the fire and lighting of
candles the people say certain prayers, and use some other superstitious rites,
which show that they honour the fire and the light ;° and in an old diary,
printed by the Kilkenny Archeological Society (vol. i. [n. s.] p. 183), we
read that ‘servants when they scour andirons, fire-shovell, or tongues,
1 Martin, Western Islands, pp. 113, 117.
2 Thid., p. 119. ;
3 Train’s History of the Isle of Man, ii. p. 115; also Hampson’s Medii Zvi Kal.
i. p. 221.
4 Croker’s Researches in the South of Ireland, p. 84.
5 Spenser’s View of the State of Ireland, p. 98.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 649
setting them down make a courtesie to each.’ Drayton, in the ‘ Nymphidia,’
records a piece of genuine traditional folklore in the following lines :—
‘Hence shadows, seeming idle shapes
Of little frisking Elves and Apes,
To earth do make their wanton scapes,
As hope of pastime hastes them ;
Which maids think on the hearth they see
When fires well near consumed be,
These dancing hayes by two and three,
Just as their fancy casts them.’
The same idea is given by Reginald Scott. ‘Indeed, your grandam’s
maids were wont to set a bowl of milk before him (Incubus) and his
cousin Robin Goodfellow, for grinding of malt or mustard, and sweeping
the house at midnight.’! Not above forty or fifty years ago, says Brand,
in his ‘ Description of Orkney, Zetland, c.,’ almost every family had a
‘ Brownie, or evil spirit, so called, who served them, to whom they gave a
sacrifice for its service ; as when they churned their milk they took a part
thereof, and sprinkled every corner of the house with it for Brownie’s
use ; likewise when they brewed they had a stone, which they called
Brownie’s stone, wherein there was a little hole into which they poured
some wort for a sacrifice to Brownie.’? We get a glimpse of the same
living belief in the hearth-spirit in Ireland. Among the Irish the expres-
sion ‘the breaking of cinders’ means to charge and confirm guilt on a
man at his own hearth, so that his fire, which represents his honour, is
broken up into cinders. The trampling of a man’s cinders was one of the
greatest insults which could be offered to him, as it conveyed the idea of
guilt, and not only on the individual himself, but also on his family and
household.*
At Fermanagh, a peculiar manner of cursing, rapidly dying out, is
usually fulminated by tenants who suppose themselves to be in danger of
wrongful eviction. The ‘plaintiff’ collects from the surrounding fields as
many small boulders as will fill the principal hearth of the holding he is
being compelled to surrender. These he piles in the manner of turf sods
arranged for firing, and then, kneeling down, prays that until that heap burns
may every kind of bad luck and misfortune attend the landlord and his
family to untold generations. Rising, he takes the stones in armfuls and
hurls them here and there in loch, pool, boghole or stream, so that by no
possibility could the collection be recovered.*
From Cornwall I have obtained a note of a custom which is, to all
intents and purposes, a hearth sacrifice. The practice of resorting to the
hearth, and touching the cravel (the mantle-stone across the head of an
open chimney) with the forehead, and casting into the fire a handful of
dry grass, or anything picked up that will burn, is regarded as the most
effectual means of averting any impending evils of a mysterious nature.°
These are the general superstitions which indicate a peculiar set of
beliefs attaching to the domestic hearth in places where it is no longer
Jighted from the village-fire once a year. We now turn to the more
1 Reginald Scott's Demonology, p. 980. See Keightley’s Fairy Mythology, ii. p. 108.
2 Keightley’s Fairy Mythology, ii. pp. 273, 274.
3 Sullivan’s Introduction to O’Curry’s Lectures, i. p. 278.
_ 4 Journ. Roy. Hist. and Arch. Assoc. Ireland, 4th series, iii. p. 460. [Cf. Dr.
Gregor’s No. 8.]
5 Bottrell’s Stories and Folklore of West Cornwall, 3rd series, p. 17. For another
curious chimney custom, see Folklore Record, v. p. 160. :
650 REPORT—1896,
specific ceremonials of marriage and birth. In north-east Scotland the
bride was led straight to the hearth, and into her hands were put the tongs,
with which she made up the fire. The besom was at times substituted for
the tongs, when she swept the hearth. The crook was then swung three
times round her head, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,
and with the prayer, ‘May the Almichty mack this umman a gueedwife.’
The last act of her installation as ‘ gueedwife ’ was leading her to the gir-
nal or mehl-bowie, and pressing her hand into the meal as far as possible.
This last action, it was believed, secured in all time coming abundance
of the staff of life in the household.'’ Again, when the bride is entering
her future home, two of her female friends meet her at the door, the
one bearing a towel or napkin, and the other a dish filled with various
kinds of bread. The towel or napkin is spread over her head, and the
bread is then poured over her. It is gathered up by the children who
have collected round the door. In former times the bride was then led up
to the hearth, and, after the fire had been scattered, the tongs were put
into her hand, and she made it up.?
In Scotland, according to Mr. Gregor’s account, on the birth of the
child the mother and offspring were sained, a ceremony which was done
in the following manner : A fir-candle was lighted and carried three times
round the bed, if it was in a position to allow of this being done, and if
this could not be done, it was whirled three times round their heads ; a
Bible and bread and cheese, or a Bible and a biscuit, were placed under
the pillow, and the words were repeated, ‘ May the Almichty debar a ill
frae this umman, an be aboot ir, an bliss ir an ir bairn.’ When the biscuit
or the bread and cheese had served their purpose, they were distributed
among the unmarried friends and acquaintances, to be placed under their
pillows to evoke dreams. Among some of the fishing population a fir-
candle or a basket containing bread and cheese was placed on the bed to
keep the fairies at a distance.* Dalyell records the following curious
custom : ‘The child put on a cloth spread over a basket containing pro-
visions was conveyed thrice round the crook of the chimney ’ 1—thus pre-
serving the proximity of fire. Pennant describes a christening feast in
the Highlands, wherein the father placed a basket of food across the fire,
and handed the infant three times over the food and flame.’
In West Galway we meet with the curious notion that no fire must be
removed out of a house in which a child is born until the mother is up
and well.®
The mothers of Scotland are much afraid of the household fairy who
changes the new-born babe ; and the question is put to the test by an
appeal to the house-fire. Mr. Gregor says the hearth was piled with peat,
and when the fire was at its strength, the suspected changeling was placed
in front of it and as near as possible not to be scorched, or it was sus-
pended in a basket over the fire. If it was a ‘changeling child’ it made
its escape by the Jwm, throwing back words of scorn as it disappeared.’
? Gregor’s Folklore of the North-east of Scotland, p. 93. See also Henderson,
Folklore of Northern Counties, p. 36.
2 Gregor, op. cit. p. 99.
3 Thid. p. 5.
4 Dalyell’s Darker Superstitions of Scotland, p. 176.
5 Pennant’s Tour in Highlands, iii. p. 46. Cf. Miss Gordon Cumming’s Jn the
Hebrides, p. 101.
6 Folklore Record, iv. p. 108.
% Folklore of the North-east of Scotland, pp. 8-9.
- ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 651
And so to discover whether it was a fairy-child, the hearth was again the
place of operation. A new skull was taken and hung over the fire from a
piece of a branch of a hazel tree, and into this basket the suspected
_changeling was laid. Careful watch was kept till it screamed. If it
screamed it was a changeling, and it was held fast to prevent its escape.'
In Scotland we meet with the significant extinction of fire, on the
occasion of a death, Pennant stating, in his ‘Tour in Scotland :’ ‘ All
fire is extinguished where a corpse is kept.’ How clearly fire is repre-
sented at death is shown, I think, by the widespread custom of the use
of torches and lights while the body is lying in the house, a custom that
is lengthily described by Brand.”
af There is one other instance of the special use of the hearth-fire
which I must mention before passing on. Mr. Hunt relates a story
: in his ‘Popular Romances of the West of England’? which well intro-
duces the subject. ‘The child of a miner who had been suffering from a
disease, and had been sent on several occasions to the doctor without
any good resulting, was one day discovered by the father to be “over-
looked.” The gossips of the parish had for some time insisted upon the
~ fact that the child had been ill-wished, and that she would never be
_ better until “the spell was taken off her.” It was then formally an-
7 nounced that the girl could never recover unless three burning sticks were
taken from the hearth of the “overlooker,” and the child was made to
walk three times over them when they were laid across on the ground,
and then quench the fire with water.’
5. Comparison with Primitive Custom.
This survey, by analysis and classification, of the fire customs sur-
viving in Britain has been kept clear of any terminology which is not
actually justified by the circumstances of each individual example or
group of examples. But it cannot have escaped notice that the facts
_ which have been quoted all tend in one direction, namely to the con-
nection of the fire customs with the family, and through the family to
some unit larger than the family, represented by the modern village in a
geographical sense and by a group of common descendants in a personal
sense.
But if we are justified in using such significant terminology as this,
we have already made the first step towards the identification of these
survivals as the remnants of a system of fire-worship belonging to some
one or other of the early tribes who conquered Britain before they had
conformed to the Christian religion ; for I shall assert that the con-
nection between the modern village-fire and the house-fire is due to the
survival in traditional custom of the ancient connection between the
tribal fire and the family or clan fire. When, therefore, in addition to
this essential feature of the connection between the village-fire and the
house-fire, an examination of the details of both village-fire customs and
house-fire customs has revealed certain significant indications of the once
sacred character of these fires, of ceremonies which recall almost the
1 Gregor, op. cit. p. 9.
? Brand’s Popular Antiquities, ii. p. 276 et seq.
3 Popular Romances of the West of England, p. 212.
652 REPORT—1896.
formula of a lost religious rite, and of usages which go back to pre-
historic civilisation for their only possible explanation—when it has been
found that these conceptions cluster round the burning embers of the
modern fire, the case for deciding that the whole group of evidence
belongs to the ancient tribal fire cult is provisionally at all events amply
made out, and there only remains the work of comparison with the
tribal fire cult of a primitive people to complete the proof.
Let us, however, first note whither this conclusion almost insensibly
leads us. Nearly every writer on this subject has, it seems to me,
begun at the wrong end. He has commenced with the few references to
the god Bel, and has built up a theory of sacrifice and worship which
has little or no evidence in its favour in the examples which have been
examined in the previous pages. And in thus accentuating the re-
ligious element of these rites he has left wholly untouched the one
clue to their origin, namely, the social organisation of the people who
performed them. It is always useless to discuss early religions with-
out taking count of the social organism of which the religion is
only a portion. Early peoples did not differentiate, as modern peoples
do, between the various elements of their culture ; all the parts were
closely interwoven, and cannot be divorced from each other even for
the purpose of a separate analysis. To have established that these fire
customs are intimately connected with a social unit is to connect them
with a tribal religion and tribal society, and to limit their interpretation
and meaning by what is conveyed by the term ¢ribal. That term is
applicable to the conditions of both the Celtic and Teutonic settlers of
this country ; and it is to these peoples, therefore, branches of the Aryan-
speaking peoples, that we must provisionally at all events allot that
portion of the tribal system which has been revealed by the customs
already examined. They reveal the solemn rekindling of the tribal fire
at least once a year, and the carrying of the sacred flame therefrom to
the fire of the household, as the two essential details of the cult ; and
the several very significant rites which accompany these details are all
illustrative of the tribal conditions to which the whole ceremonial
belongs.
Having ascertained all there is to be deduced from the several elements
preserved in the customs, there is one very important matter finally to be
considered from an element which does not appear in the customs—I mean
the entire absence of anything like a priestly caste as the necessary
performers of the sacred rites ; and the question is: Is this absence due to
the degradation of the modern forms in survival, or is it due to the original
conditions from which the survivals have descended? This is one of the
questions not to be answered from the study of survivals, but which can
only be deferred until the conclusions to be drawn from comparison with
primitive rites are before us.
We will now turn, for confirmation of these views, to the comparison
of the survivals of the British tribal fire cult with the system belonging to
the early Aryan tribes elsewhere than in Britain.
The points of analogy are numerous and important enough to establish
the intimate connection between the British and non-British evidence.
But in one very important particular, just where it might be expected
perhaps that the analogy of the modern survival to the early Aryan
survival would not obtain, the conclusions drawn are very considerably
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 653
strengthened. If the house-fire was in itself continuously kept up as
a sacred duty, how is it that the time arrives for it to be put out and
relighted from the tribal fire? Is this indeed a primitive characteristic,
or is it a form of decay into which the survival has fallen? This is an
important question, because if it has to be answered in the latter direction
the answer would tell against the general evidence cf which it is a part ;
but if it can be answered in the first sense, namely, that it is a primitive
characteristic, it strengthens the position immeasurably.
The reasons for renewing the house-fire once a year ata solemn tribal
festival are indeed not far to seek. Its employment in daily life, more
particularly by its application to industrial purposes, made fire unhallowed
_ according to the notions of the ancient Iranians ; and hence it had to be
purified from time to time, and to be brought back to the ‘ lawful place,’
the holy fire altar of the community, from whence a fresh brand was
obtained wherewith to revive the fire of the home hearth.! This explanation
is, in fact, drawn from the early Avesta religion, and it not only accounts
for the fire cult belonging to that religion, but also for customs among
Greeks and Germans. There can be no harm, therefore, in using it to
explain some of the peasant customs in Britain. It suggests that the
annual or periodical extinction and renewal of the house-fire and the
continuity of it from the time of its renewal to the time of its extinction
are primary forms of survivals of the sacred hearth-fire in modern peasant
custom. One other detail I must mention. It will be remembered that
T laid special emphasis upon the fact that animals and human beings being
made to ‘pass through fire’ did not tell for evidence of sacrifice, but for
evidence of contact with some sacred element in the fire. This, too, is con-
firmed by the tribal fire cult of the Iranians : ‘From the smoke and the
flame of fire it was believed that the will of the deity could be recognised.
His crackling flame was the means whereby he spoke to men.’ ”
T shall not elaborate further on this occasion the parallels between the
fire customs of Britain, which I have here classified and analysed, and the
fire customs of the primitive Aryan tribes. But I will refer to Mr. J. G.
Frazer’s admirable paper on ‘The Prytaneum, the Temple of Vesta,
the Vestals, Perpetual Fires,’ in the ‘Journal of Philology,’ vol. xiv.
. 145-172, as the parallel evidence in Greek belief—evidence so mar-
‘shalled and arranged as to make it nearly unnecessary to attempt an
exhaustive comparison, especially on an occasion like the present, when
detail is not so needed as general principles. Suffice it to say, then, that
the scattered remnants of fire customs which appear in our folklore can
be restored by the comparative method, only possible when we have duly
classified and analysed the customs, as a part of the early tribal system of
organisation—a system, be it remembered, which governed every detail of
early life, political, religious, and social, and which has left its marks on
the map of Britain and on the early constitutional history of our people.
The importance of this conclusion to folklore is that it enables us to
proceed from the identification of tribal custom and belief to the identifi-
cation of tribes : from the identification of tribes to the identification of
races ; and the importance of it to history is that it gives to historical
data a large body of evidence not otherwise obtainable.
1 Geiger, Civilisation of the Eastern Iranians, i, 78.
2 Thid. i. 75.
654 REPORT—1896.
6. The Tribal System from the Evidence of Early Records.
The importance of studying the details of the tribal organisation in
the early development of Aryan-speaking peoples has only been tardily
recognised by historians. The material for it is not in fact to be found in
the records, and it is only the recent comparative study of institutions
which has revealed the tribal organisation as the basis of the early economic
and social condition, and has enabled the student of records to understand
passages that once passed for corrupted or obsolete texts not to be under-
stood easily by modern commentators. From early records the tribe is
seen very dimly ; from the comparative study of legal institutions it is
seen more clearly in so far as its own construction and position are con-
cerned, less clearly when attempted to be identified in any particular
country of Europe whose history has flowed on into the existing civili-
sation. Probably in Britain these two conditions are exemplified more
sharply than elsewhere, the one in the Celtic divisions of the te 8 the
other in the Teutonic.
The Celtic tribe can be studied from the early MSS. of Scotland, Wales,
and Ireland ; and the fascination of Celtic studies generally has caused
a considerable amount of very valuable research. The Teutonic tribe is
less observable from the laws, the poems, and the charters which have
come down from early English times ; and research into this branch of our
history has concerned itself more with the origins of existing institutions
than with the relics of lost institutions. It is taken for granted that some
sort of tribal system existed ; but what has become of it, and how it has
stamped itself upon the history of the people, have never been shown.
The records have been studied through a long line of eminent scholars,
of which the names of Stubbs, Freeman, Kemble, Elton, Skene, Maine,
and Seebohm, stand out conspicuously. Bishop Stubbs contents himself
with a masterly sketch in brief of the arrival of the first tribes of English-
men, stating it as the starting-point of his investigations that ‘ the invaders
come in families and kindreds and in the full organisation of their tribes
the tribe was as complete when it had removed to Kent as when
it ‘stayed i in Jutland : the magistrate was the ruler of the tribe, not of the
soil ; the divisions were those of the folk and the host, not of the land ;
the laws were the usages of the nation, not of the territory. 71 Clearly as
this is put, it does not entirely shake off the influence of Kemble and of
Freeman, neither of whom quite got clear of the terminology of a territorial
constitution. Mr. Elton breaks new ground and deals with some of the
anthropological evidence which was ignored by his predecessors ; but the
evidence of the tribe is lost in his accumulations of the fragments of
primitive custom and belief. Mr, Skene deals rather with the tribes
themselves than with the tribal organisation under which they lived.
And thus it is only from Sir Henry Maine and Mr. Seebohm that the
tribal life of the British peoples receives any light ; the former deals with
it from the juridical side, and the latter from the economical. It is
therefore obvious that the history of the tribal constitution is not exhausted
by these authorities ; and Mr. Seebohm very grudgingly allows that folklore
may be the means of restoring some of the lost evidence of the tribal
system which is not supplied from the records.2
1 Stubbs’s Constitutional History, i. 64.
2 Seebohm, Zribal System of Wales, p. 86.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 655
The tribe as known by the records is :—
1, A group of kindred.
2. The kindred is formed by blood-tie primarily, with powers of
assuming a blood-tie by ceremonial forms.
3. The blood-tie is reckoned by fatherhood, with power to reckon
by motherhood by ceremonial forms.
4, The tribal group:is divided into clan-groups by the break-up of
kinship ties at the seventh generation.
5. The centre of the tribal group as of the clan-group is the sacred
hearth-fire.
6. The sacredness of the tribal blood is the ruling force which governs
the relationship of tribesmen to each other.
7. Tribal economics provide for the maintenance of every tribesman as
an inalienable right.
8. Sonship is the essential factor of the tribal marriage system.
The tribe as known to traditional custom and belief contains the germs
of all this and something more, namely, the cement which bound tribesmen
together and formed them into an inseparable group—the cement of a
tribal religion which had its seat in the fire of the tribe and the clan.
7. Conclusion.
T have stated above that, after the work of classification and compari-
son is completed for any one custom, there are further conditions before
the first results of comparison can be properly and finally accepted. One
of these conditions imposes the necessity for proving that the fire customs
which have by the application of the comparative method been identified
with the fire customs of the early tribal system of Aryan peoples shall,
upon examination, be found to be associated with other customs which,
upon classification and comparison, can be identified with the Aryan
inhabitants of these islands. This work is, of course, a matter of time
and further research ; and we can only accept the conclusion I have drawn
in this report as preliminary to the final results whenever they be obtained.
In the meantime, justification for this conclusion is derived from the
evidence of the records upon the tribal system—evidence which is com-
_ plementary to that derived from traditional custom. I have, however,
also prepared a diagram to show how this part of the investigation may
be most readily proved. I first of all mark on a map of Britain the
Places where the fire customs obtain. I then join these places together
by a straight line, and, withdrawing from this result all reference to the
map which formed the basis of it, a geometrical figure of a certain shape
in outline and a certain shape in internal detail is obtained. This figure is
of great importance. We may call it, for practical use, ‘ the ethnological
test-figure.’ Upon working out other groups of customs the process
would be to see how far the same figure is reproduced, and how far one
figure of a series differs from other figures, whether in simply being
incomplete or whether in radical form. I have not been able, in the time at
my disposal, to bring forward a test case, that is, another custom of Aryan
origin to equate with the fire custom, but from some provisional studies I
am satisfied that the test-figure produced by the fire customs will be pro-
duced by other customs similarly dealt with. In the meantime there is
the important question to ask—Are there customs which will not produce
656 REPORT—1896.
the test-figure? For the purpose of answering this I have compared
roughly the important group of customs relating to water-worship.
Now I have stated in my ‘Ethnology in Folklore’ reasons for consider-
ing water-worship customs to be non-Aryan in origin, to belong, therefore,
to the pre-Celtic people of these islands ; and it is remarkable that the
‘ethnological test-figure’ produced from the water customs differs radi-
cally from that produced by the fire customs. I suggest, therefore, that
in this interesting fact we have provisionally a proof of the value of
this method of studying the ethnological basis of folklore.
The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Third Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
Sir JoHn Evans, General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. A. J. Evans, and
Mr. A. BULLEID (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Tue fifth season of the Exploration of the Lake or Marsh Village near
Glastonbury began in May last, and the investigations have already
yielded results of more than ordinary interest and importance. The
recent dry weather has been most favourable for deep digging, the ground
being examined in many places to the depth of nine or ten feet ; a depth
not admissible in former seasons owing to flooding by rain, or the rapid
percolation of water from the surrounding peat. Since presenting this
report at Ipswich the following work has been carried out. The remaining
500 feet of the palisading bordering the village has been traced, and the
peat examined immediately contiguous and outside it for the width of
from 10 to 40 feet. The circumference of the village has now been
completely explored, and an accurate and detailed plan of it made.
Besides this eight more dwelling mounds have been examined, together
with the spaces of ground between and around them. The portions of
the border palisading remaining over from last year and exposed this
season were situate at the north and south sides of the settlement, and at
both places it was found to be stronger and in a better state of pre-
servation than elsewhere. In many places, but more especially at the
south part of the border, the horizontal pieces of timber and trunks
of trees, although much displaced and decayed, still formed a platform
3 feet thick ; and the vertical palisading posts bordering this frequently
formed a line three or four abreast.
Near the north edge of the village some large mortised oak beams
were found in situ, and fixed by their original piles. Other beams of the
same kind were discovered among the timber forming the substructure of
an adjacent dwelling mound, evidently not in their original position. As
a rule, where the palisading was strongest, the peat outside contained
a larger amount of débris, and the signs of occupation were dug up
at a greater depth than elsewhere.
With regard to the construction of the dwellings, an important
discovery of wattle work was made early in the season. Among the
wood and débris underlying the clay of a dwelling mound three hurdles
were uncovered ; the more complete one measured 6 feet 3 inches high
by 10 feet 6 inches wide, with an average space between the upright
posts of 5 inches. In close proximity to the hurdles was a beam of oak,
having small mortise holes arranged along one side parallel to the edge ;
the distance between the holes exactly tallied with the spaces between the
ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 657
hurdle posts. From the way the under surface of the beam was cut
and notched, it was evident that it had been placed at right angles to a
similar piece of timber. We have here distinct proof that some of
the dwellings were not angular, and that the walls were about 6 feet in
height.
With reference to thé eight dwelling mounds examined, one especially
needs mentioning, although all have yielded their various points of
interest. The mound in question was one of the largest in the field, and
was found to be composed of nine layers of clay or floors, with a total
thickness of 6 feet, the substructure being 3 feet indepth. At or near the
centre seven superimposed hearths were unearthed ; the two uppermost
were constructed of stone, the rest being composed either of gravel
or baked clay. ‘The fifth hearth made of clay was the most remarkable
one of the series, its shape was, roughly speaking, a square of
5 feet 3 inches with the corners rounded ; it was raised 4 inches above
the surrounding floor level, and its edges bevelled off ; the surface was
smooth and flat and covered with an impressed decoration of circles
measuring 53 inches in diameter, arranged in rows parallel to the edges.
In the clay floor apparently corresponding to hearth No. 4, a basin shaped
hollow was found measuring 2 feet in diameter and 9 inches deep, with
the sides and base baked hard ; with the exception of a little fire ash,
it contained nothing of importance. Near the edge of No. 3 hearth a
circular hole was discovered 6 inches in diameter and about 9 inches
deep, filled with charcoal and fire ash. There was also a somewhat simi-
lar hole near hearth No. 5, but of larger size. The dwelling correspond-
ing to the lowest floor had evidently been destroyed with fire, as shown
by the quantity of baked clay bearing wattle, timber, and crevice marks,
and also by the pieces of charred timber. Passing now to the smaller-
objects, the following may be mentioned.
Wood.—The handle of a quern.
Two blocks, probably the sockets for the pivots of a door.
Several lathe-turned wheel spokes and part of an axle box similar
in shape to the piece discovered and described last year.
A large ladle quite complete, and parts of two smaller ones.
Portions of two small tubs cut from the solid, one being decorated’
with two bands of incised herring-bone pattern.
Part of a large basin-shaped bowl cut from the solid, with a grooved’
rim intended for holding the projecting moulding of a cover; the outer
surface of the fragment is ornamented with an incised circular design.
Amongst other things made of wood may be noticed fragments of*
several stave-made tubs or cups, pieces of awl and spade handles, a
mallet, part of a basket, and fragments of a thin piece of wood fifteen
‘inches long by three inches wide, perforated with small holes at the
ends and along one ridge, and ornamented on one side with a triangular-
design.
Pottery.—As in former seasons quantities of both wheel- and hand-
made pottery have been met with, and include six vessels quite perfect ;
many others, although found in fragments, will be complete when recon-
structed. Several new designs of ornamented pottery have been met with
this season.
Flint.—Some well-made scrapers and a few cores and flakes.
Stone.—Spindle whorls, whetstones, and three circular and saddle-
shaped querns.
1896. UU
658 : REPORT—1896.
Bronze.—Six spiral finger and other rings, the upper flattened surface
of one being ornamented with three groups of concentric circles. An
awl-shaped implement five inches long
Portions of several fibule, a few inches of a cup or tub hoop, several
rivet-heads, and other fragments.
Jron.—Amongst the implements of iron are :
Two reaping-hooks.
Two adzes,
A saw.
A gouge.
And a billhook, all of which were found intact with wooden handles.
Part of a second billhook.
A stay or loop.
A roughly semicircular-shaped implement fifteen inches long, pointed
out and bent at one end for fixing in a handle.
A bar of iron eighteen inches long.
A small ring, and many nondescript fragments.
Lead.—A spindle whorl,.a fishing-net weight or plummet.
Kimeridge Shale.—¥ ragments of several armlets and rings.
Glass.—Three complete blue beads.
Horn.—More than thirty pieces of cut horn, including ferrules
haftings, handles, cheek pieces, and eight long-handled weaving combs.
Worked Bone.—A number of implements, among them being needles,
gouges, polishing bones, and twenty or more perforated metacarpal sheep
bones.
Baked Clay other than Pottery.—Portions of several large triangular
blocks or loom weights, spindle whorls, sling pellets, and part of a small
three-cornered crucible.
Human Bones.—The following list of human remains have been found
at various parts of the excavation this season :
1. A complete adult skull, badly cut in the occipital region.
2. Three more or less complete skeletons of very young children ; one
was found on the floor of a dwelling two feet from the hearth.
3. An adult skull in fragments, and portions of the lower extremities
belonging to the same body.
4, Several fragments from other bodies—one of these, a clavicle, bears
distinct traces of having been gnawed by a dog.
Bones of animals have been as abundant as formerly. Geological and
botanical specimens have been collected and carefully preserved for ex-
amination ; among the latter is a sack full of sloe, wild plum stones, and
other seeds, found together within the space of a few feet among the
débris outside the palisading.
Shallow test borings have been made through the peat at various
parts of the village, and in the surrounding fields. The greatest depth
of peat met with has been sixteen feet ; underlying it isa layer of soft
blue clay more than six feet thick. The borings are being extended at
intervals of 100 yards in a line north and south of the village between
the raised lands of Glastonbury and Godney. Of the original sixty-five
dwelling mounds there still remain twenty-six unopened ; these, together
with the spaces of ground around them and near the centre of the village,
representing more than one-third of the total area of the settlement, await
future examination. Some of the more recent discoveries are being
exhibited during the meeting of the Association.
a ee
action in the matter.
€,
ON LINGUISTIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 659
Linguistic and Anthropological Characteristics of the North Dravidian
and Kolarian Races.—the Urdnws.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. E. Sipney Hartianp (Chairman), Mr. HuGu
RayYNpirdD, jun. (Secretary), Professor A. C. Happon, and Mr.
J. L. Myres.
Tus Coramittee was appointed to report upon the materials accumulated
by Mr. Hugh Raynbird, jun., during several years’ residence among the
Uranws and other non-Aryan races of Chutia Nagpir. The languages
of these races are almost unknown to philology. Dr. Oscar Flex has
published an elementary introduction to Uranw, and there are grammars
and vocabularies of an elementary character in some of the Kolarian
dialects, but these languages have not yet been treated scientifically or
fully. Mr. Raynbird has collected, including variants, more than 800
folk-tales, 4,000 folk-songs, many riddles, proverbs, and phrases ; has
compiled vocabularies, and begun a systematic Uranw grammar. His
materials are already partially, and will, it is hoped, be eventually wholly,
deposited with the Royal Asiatic Society, where they will be accessible to
specialists. Mr. Raynbird is now in England, but is prevented by his
circumstances from devoting his time to the elaboration of his materials.
He hopes eventually to be enabled to return to India to resume his
investigations.
The Committee have conferred with Mr. Raynbird, have examined
some part of his materials, and have assisted him to prepare some part of
them for publication ; a representative selection from them is appended,
consisting of three tales which illustrate points in the cosmology, historical
traditions and customs of the Uranes, with Mr. Raynbird’s explanatory
notes.
As the work of translation, transcription, and indexing so large a mass
of quite new and unfamiliar data is necessarily slow and laborious, the
Committee ask to be re-appointed, and hope at the end of the coming
year to be in a position to recommend the Association to take effective
APPENDIX,
I. The Sun and the Moon.
' This tale was first of all told to me in English by a Christian Uraon
named Elias Bochcho whilst we were out for a walk together. As soon as
we got home he wrote it down for me in English. I then asked hin if he
_ €ould write it down in the Uraon language, and he did so.
He was at that time a schoolmaster in the 8.P.G. Mission school at
Ranchi. He could speak and write High Hindi and the dialect of Eastern
Hindi spoken in Chutia Nagpur. He was well acquainted with both the
Roman and Devanagri characters. {[ taught him Church history, Euclid,
and Algebra, and he was the most intelligent specimen of his race I have
met with.
He said that the tale was told him by his mother. She belonged to a
uu 2
660 REPORT—1896.
small village named Chipra, which lies six miles to the west of Ranchi,
the chief town in the wild and hilly district of Chutia Nagpur. This is
the most western part of Bengal, and borders on the Central Provinces of
India. This old woman was entirely uneducated. She only understood
the Uraon language and perhaps a little rustic Hindi. She had very little
idea of civilisation.
There are internal evidences of matter, idioms, and words in the tale
itself which seem to me to stamp it as a genuine Uraon folk tale and not
made up by the Christian narrator or borrowed from literary or Aryan
sources.
1. Once upon a time the Moon covered up her children with a large
leaf basket, and, having boiled sweet potatoes, sat down to eat them.
2. At that time the Sun came to her and said : ‘Sister, what are you
eating? Give me also a little.’
3. The Moon gave.
4, The Sun tasted it, and asked her : ‘Sister, what is this ?’
5. The Moon said : ‘I have boiled my children from hunger, and I am
eating them.’
6. The Sun slunk away to his home, and boiled his children in a very
large pot and ate them.
7. Then the Moon uncovered her children.
8. The Sun saw this, and he seized a bow to kill the Moon with, and
chased her.
9. The Moon went and hid in a banyan tree.
10. The Sun came up and hit the Moon, and took out a small piece.
11. The Kunr’gars (that is, the Uranws) say that the same banyan
tree is seen in the Moon to this day.
12. Again, they say that the Sun cut the Moon in two ; therefore the
Moon is sometimes small and sometimes large.
13. They say there were also many children of the Sun, but if they
had remained all men would have died from the heat.
Ill. The Tale of Dadgo Village.
This tale was first of all written down for me as an exercise in English
by one of my pupils, the Rev. Markas Manjan, a native Uraon pastor in
the S.P.G. Mission in Chutia Nagpur. He came originally from the
village of Dadgo. It is a remote village about twenty miles south-west of
Ranchi. A few miles south of it we begin to meet with the Uriyas, the
Aryan people who inhabit Orissa, and who speak a language closely allied
to Bengali. Markas Manjan wrote the tale first in English, but long
afterwards I got the Uraon version from him. The two versions agree in
all important particulars.
Though Markas Manjan could write in the Roman and Deva Nagri
characters, and was a fair High Hindu and English scholar, I very much
doubt if he had ever read any tales, as his education had been for the
most part in Biblical and theological literature.
This tale is important, as containing much wndesigned evidence about
the habits and customs of the Uraons. £.g. :—
1. Division of lands.
2. Husking of rice. (Manner and locality.)
3 Two kinds of rice fields. (Upland and lowland.)
1
ON LINGUISTIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 661
_ 4, Human sacrifice. (Compare the Meriah of the Khands of Central
India.)
5. Drinking of rice beer ; ce.
1. Dadgo is a small village eighteen miles south-west of Ranchi.!
2. Formerly it was a large village, but now it has been divided into
three villages, viz. Dadgo, Balandu, and Nawaz¢oli.
3. At first it was divided in two villages, viz. Dadgo and Nawazfolt,
and the latter was quite separate from Dadgo, but the other two were
reckoned as one.
4. The following tale is told about the separation of Dadgo and
Balandu.
5. Dadgo itself was a big village, and contained many rich people.
6. In such villages there are many young women, and they make their
Kanri (7.e. the place where the rice is husked) outside the village.
7. According to this custom the young women here also had made
their Kanvri outside the village, just where two tamarind trees now stand
south of Markas Manjan’s (the narrator’s) house.
8. Now it happened that a man called by the Urdnws Ondok, and by the
Sadans (low caste Hindus) Otanga (7.e. a man who offers human sacrifice
to his god), came by with a boy in his bag, whom he was carrying to
sacrifice.
9. Hearing the noise made by the people he thought they were tipsy.
10. He hung the bag on a tamarind tree, and going into a house he
asked for rice-beer.
11. When he had taken rice-beer, then he became tipsy.
12. Meanwhile the young women of the village came to the tamarind
tree to separate the husks from the rice.
13. They saw the bag and heard the child cry inside the bag.
14. They took away the child, and in place of it they put some thorny
bushes and lumps of earth.
15. Next morning the man came to the tree and took the bag on his
back and went away on his journey.
16. And it is said that when the thorns pricked him, he said, ‘Be
quiet, little child, now we are near your mother ;’ for the man did not
know what the young women of the village had done.
17. That little child was brought up by the chief men of the village,
and when he became a young man his marriage took place.
18. After this the chief men of the village consulted together among
themselves about him, and settled that some portion of the land, apart
from their children, should be given to him, because he was their adopted
child.
19. It is said that in those days there was more rain in Chutia
Nagpir than nowadays, and therefore the land which is called ‘ chaura,’
i.e, the high land, was more fertile than the ‘ kudar,’ z.e. the lowland.
20. Now when the chief men of the village met to fix what part of
the village they should give to him, they chose that part where the soil
was least fertile, and thus they gave their adopted son the spot on which
the village of Balandu now stands.
21. They gave half of the lands to him.
22. This*is now more fertile than the other part.
‘ Ranchi is the chief town of the province of Chutia Nagpir.
662 REPORT—1896.
23. So Balandu is now a bigger village than Dadgo, because it has
more fertile land than Dadgo.
24. And thus the inhabitants of Dadgo are very poor.
25. It is now a very small village, and contains only twenty or thirty
houses.
26. It now belongs to Jagnaéth Khutiya, who is one of the heathen
priests of Puri.
27. He got it from the king of Chutia Nagpur.
28. The king presented it to him when he was on pilgrimage to
Port
XII. Zale of a Mouse.
This tale was told by our ayah or nurse, Elisaba, wife of Budhu. She
came originally from the village of Kachabari, on the south-west side of
Ranchi. She could neither read nor write, and understood very little
High Hindi, but could talk fluently in Eastern Hindi. _
This tale was written down for-me by my wife, Asa Lakza (‘ Hope
Tiger’), a Christian Uraon, who could at that time read and write in the
Deva-nagri character only. She has since come to England and learnt to
read and write English. She assists me in these studies.
My wife was told this tale also by Susannah, the wife of Philip the
carpenter. Susannah is also from the village of Kachabari.
1. A mouse had a field.
2. He ploughed it and sowed hemp in it.
3. In course of time the hemp grew up and blossomed.
4. The mouse was always watching it.
5. One day, what happened? Some young women, who were picking
herbs,! went into that hemp field, and were engaged picking the hemp
flowers.
6. At once the mouse cried out, ‘ Who is picking my flowers ?”
7. The young women heard him erying out and ran away.
8. Whilst they were running away, the comb of one of them dropped
in the field.
9. As the mouse was going along he found the comb and took it home.
10. When the young women had gone a little distance, they saw that
one of them had lost her comb.
11. Then she, whose comb was lost, said to the others, ‘Come along,
we will go and look for my comb.’
12. Then they all went to look for the comb, and wandered about in
the hemp-field looking for it, but could not find it.
13. The mouse soon came forward from somewhere or other, and said,
‘What do you want in my field ?’
14, They said, ‘ We are looking for a comb ; give it to us if you have
found it.’
15. He said, ‘Whose comb is lost? If she will live with me then I
will give it, otherwise I will not.’
16. She said, ‘I will go and live with you. Give me my comb.’
17. Then he gave up the comb, and took her away to his home.
18. When they arrived she would not enter his house.
19. Then the mouse said : 5
1 By ‘herbs’ would be meant any kind of greens or leaves boiled to eat asa
relish with rice.
Ct i ee
ON LINGUISTIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 663
(Song) ‘ Will you enter my house or not ?
Will you remain crying ?
Give me my hemp flower.
Go to your parent’s home.’
20. Then she entered the house, but did not want to cook the food.
21. Then he said :
(Song) ‘ Will you cook or not ?
Will you remain standing ?
Give me my hemp flower.
Go to your parent’s home.’
. Then she cooked the food.
. After eating and drinking, he told her to spread a mat.
Lo bo
Oo bo
(Song) ‘ Will you spread the mat or not ?
Will you remain standing ?
Give me my hemp flower.
Go to your parent’s home.’ ;
24. Afterwards she spread the mat, and they lay down to sleep.
25, Early the next morning they both went to her parent’s home.
26. The mouse was darting about saluting every one.
27. Whilst he was engaged saluting he fell into some hot rice-broth,
and after struggling a time he died.
The possible Infectivity of the Oyster, and wpon the Green Disease
in Oysters. By Professor Rupert W. Boyce, M.B., M.R.C.N.,
and Professor W. A. HerpMan, D.Sc., F.R.S., University College,
Tiverpool; being the First Report of the Commuttee, consisting of
Professor W. A. HErpMAN (Chairman), Professor R. BoYcE
(Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bourne, and Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON,
appointed to report on the Elucidation of the Life Conditions of the
Oyster under Normal and Abnormal Environment, including in the
latter the effect of sewage matter and pathogenic organisms.
Ar the last meeting of the British Association, Ipswich, 1895, we brought
forward, as a paper ‘On Oysters and Typhoid’ laid before Section D,
some results based upon the artificial feeding and cultivation of oysters
in sewage-contaminated sea-water. We concluded that the laying down
of oysters in localities where there was a constant change of water, by
tidal current or otherwise, was beneficial to the health of the oyster, and
we surmised that by methods similar to those employed in the bassins de
dégorgement of the French ostreiculturist, where the oysters are carefully
subjected to a natural process of cleaning, oysters previously contaminated
with sewage could be freed of pathogenic organisms or their products ‘
without spoiling the oyster.
Nature of Present Report.—The present report, which is still incom-
plete, deals almost exclusively with the bacteriology of the oyster and the
behaviour of the Bacillus typhosus in sea-water and in the oyster. The
subject of the green coloration in oysters will be treated more fully in a
subsequent report. The questions investigated are the following :—
I. The identification and differentiation of the Bacillus typhosus and
B. coli communis.
664. REPORT—1896.
II. The action of sea-water upon the growth of the Z. typhosus.
IIT. The bacteria present in the alimentary canal of the oyster.
IV. The infection of the oyster with the B. typhosus and its removal
by washing.
V. The green coloration and green disease in oysters.
I.—The Identification and Differentiation of the Bacillus typhosus and
B. coli communis.
We have systematically tested the majority of the chief differential
reactions upon samples of Bacillus typhosus and B. coli obtained from
numerous sources, and have in all cases found unmistakable differences
between the two bacilli.
Table showing Differences of Reaction.
3 Fermentation. Indol Cosgula- | Potassium Iodide
ounce Glucose Gelatine} Reaction tion Potato Gelatine
A. B. typhosus.
1. Institut Pasteur 3 none none none very small growth
2. From spleen of ty-
phoid patient +; ” ” ”
32 Prot. Delépine . . ” ” ” ”
4. Prof. Wright (Net- | A slight trace | clot slow- | a5
ley). f | ‘ly formed
5. (| ” none | none} Nt
6. | Dr.Sims Woodhead , | a A = | ie
ie ” ” ” | ”
e: \ Dr. Kanthack {| 2 2 ay | z
“ot Rate Yj ” i wet a v”
10. Institute of Preven- |
tive Medicine eal “ s rs fi
B. B. coli.
1. Institut Pasteur . | well marked marked marked | growth abundant
spinks. «|
2. Prof. Delépine . Sy) “A slight pink f Bes
3. Prof. Wright . dl af | _ pink FP _
4. | | Slight pink | + 9
5. | 5 marked pink) ts ns
6. | ” ! pink | ” ””
4 ;Dr. Sims Woodhead. | " Liaise nelde soal "
9. \ ” | ‘ } ” i
10. | 7 ” 9 ”
i 3 | ” ” ”
12. i = f bc slight pink , A 5
13. | Dr. Kanthack 1 ‘ Sokent ; / i
14. Institute of Preven- | /
tive Medicine ; | + * | F F
Summary of Constancy or Variability of Reactions.
A. For B. typhosus :—1. Fermentation test. Constant (Burri and
Stutzer have shown gas formation). 2. Indol reaction. Slight indication
in one case. 3. Milk coagulation. Slight clot in one case. 4. Potassic
todide potato gelatine. Characteristic invariably ; very little use as a
separating medium. 5. Potatoes. Constant with usual precautions.
6. Reaction in gelatine. Marked differences of rate of diffusion.
ON INFECTIVITY, ETC., OF THE OYSTER. 665
B. For 2. coli:-—1. Fermentation. Rate of gas formation variable,
otherwise constant. 2. Jndol reaction. Reaction not constant. 3. Milk
coagulation. Rate variable. Constant with us, with others not constant.
4, Potassic iodide potato gelatine. Abundant growth. 5. Behaviour in
gelatine. Diffusion very variable ; in many cases less rapid than B. typhosus.
6. Motility. Very variable.
II.—The Action of Sea-water upon the Growth of the B. typhosus.
EXPERIMENT I. EXPERIMENT LY.
No. of No. of
Bacilli Bacilli
At time of mixing . : - 29,250 | At time of mixing . : 5 130
After 21 hours E : - 20,475 | After 6 hours : 3 : 41
i> Ti. aes - 5 ; 9,945 ake DBE w ‘ é : 31
” 71 ” . : . 9,360 ” 48 ” O 0 2 38
cnt is ‘ é 5,850 Penk (aes 5 = . negative
az ..,, big” Siewithy 260 A aoa rome Bas 1
o) 340°, Oa FAS yt ihe), hagrsaies |g ces Na 0
EXPERIMENT II. | EXPERIMENT VY.
At time of mixine . : : 1,300 At time of mixing . : Be Re E240,0)
After 21 a . ; ; : 1,105 Afcer 172 hours “ : 9,360
ah Lath a Es 780 » 244 ,, eo Eras Se 325
e wl is why are 650 -
_ re 5 ‘ : 20K EXPERIMENT YI.
St ae - 3 c 2 | At time of mixing . 2 : 325
5 40! = P ‘ # O | After 172 hours ‘ i - 2
EXPERIMENT III. EXPERIMENT VII.
At time of mixing . % . 22.750 | At time of mixing . ; 3 325
After 5 hours : , . 17,550 | After 504 hours (water kept at
eas oe, Say Oo S' Cfo 1G) 2-74; 79
Mg = bs Ap.) Pipa oe EXPERIMENT VIII.
” ” . . . ’
» 247 4 i’ Auvtrds 455 | Attimeof mixing .. 325
me OLb CC, F 5 ‘ 325 | After 504 hours : - : 0
These results are fairly uniform. When a large number of bacilli are
added to the water their presence may be demonstrated longer than in
cases where smaller quantities are used. Fourteen days would appear to
be the average duration in sea-water incubated at 35° C., whilst kept in
the cold their presence was demonstrated on the twenty-first day. There
appears to be no initial or subsequent multiplication of the bacilli.
Between forty and seventy hours after infection there is less decrease than
at other periods ; but there is no evidence of increase in numbers of the
bacilli when grown in sea-water either when incubated or at ordinary
temperatures. We do not think, however, that these experiments can be
taken without reserve as an indication of what might take place in
nature.
II1.—The Bacteria present in the Alimentary Canal of the Oyster.
This research has proved of very considerable utility in guarding us
against errors in our subsequent infection experiments, and are of further
666 REPORT—1896.
interest in demonstrating the large number of cases in which the colon
bacillus was normally present.
No, of Colonies Bacillus isolated giving following Reactions :
Oysters v : a
Salt-water) Fermen- Coagula- KI as
Agar Gelatine tation Eadol tion Gelatine Motility =?
A 0 | not made)
B 5
F 0 B. coli not
[2 looked for
F 6
( 108 |
Shop 2 | 1080 active marked | marked | marked -- decolorised
390 |
Ae 455
2 | | |
2 | active | marked | marked | marked | very motile| decolorised
102 |
350 | |
» O 12 | /
| 1,170 |
21
195 / |
5 |
» 6 i| 29 | :
{| 5 | |
» 74 3
g ! 3 | |
” (| 70 | active | none marked | marked | motile decolorised
( 9 | active | none marked | marked | = decolorised
5
» 95 65 ) |
( 260
195
» 10 { | 590 | |
n! 65 | active | marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised
” { 70
q2 J | 650 | |
ye iit) (eee od active none marked marked | motile decolorised
131) 150 | | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised
” l| 195 | |
14 $| 6 none none marked | marked | motile decolorised
” il | 2 |
ip {| 100 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised
” ( | 5 | |
16 f 20 4 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised
” UI 70 | }
sy) pola | 25 8,025 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised
19 1 2,330 |
* 90 | 265 | 13,000 |
ae 100 1,755 | active marked | marked | marked | motile decolorised
3 22 35 | 2,330 | active marked | marked marked | motile decolorised
sree 15 3,025. | active marked | marked marked | motile decolortsed
a 24 40 6,500 |
3) 95 5 13,000 |
26 2 8775 |
ea 29 325 | 17,550 | active marked | marked marked | motile deecolorised
30 50 20,475 |
es 31 65 | 2,925 | active marked | marked | marked motile | decolorised
Methods.—In analysing the contents of the stomach we have in all
cases cauterised the mantle over the region of the stomach, and have
inserted a sterilised fine glass pipette and withdrawn a quantity of fiuid
varying from ;\, to #1, of a cubic centimetre. The contents of the tube
have then been mixed with liquefied agar, ordinary gelatine, or sea-water
gelatine, and Petri dishes made. The agar dishes have been incubated at
ON INFECTIVITY, ETC., OF THE OYSTER. 667
37° C., the gelatine at 21°C. to 24°C. As the figures will subsequently
demonstrate, there is an enormous difference between the number of
organisms appearing upon the agar incubated at the high temperature and
the simple or sea-water gelatine incubated at the low temperature. This
heat method of separation proved quite equal to, if not better than, the
earbolic acid or potassic iodide methods.
Experiments.—In the first six cases examined precautions were taken
to ensure that the oysters were especially fresh ; in the other cases they
were obtained haphazard from the various shops (see table opposite).
The number of organisms taken from the stomach of the oyster which
could survive a temperature of 37°C. were comparatively small. In
a very large proportion of cases (4 to }) the organism present was
4. coli in overwhelming numbers, and next in frequency were species
of Proteus. It will be seen that in one instance at least the organism
approached in its reactions the typhoid type. We believe that on account
of the presence of this coli group the identification of the B. typhosus
would be difficult in nature. We cannot at present state whether the
coli group found in these experiments indicates sewage contamination, or
whether we are dealing with a group common in the intestine of the
oyster and in salt-water. The matter is being investigated by us. But
as bearing upon the next question we have found that the perfectly fresh
oyster contains far fewer bacteria, and that the percentage of &. coli is
much less.
IV.—The Infection of the Oyster with the B. typhosus and its Removal
by Washing.
The following table shows that the typhoid bacillus does not increase
in the body or in the tissues of the oyster. The figures would rather indi-
cate, comparing the large number of bacilli present in the water with
those found in the alimentary tract, that the bacilli perish in the
intestine. :
Table showing Number of Organisms present in Stomach after infecting
Water.
| ee ae | Organisms | = y
Oyster! Inoculated | Examined ~°°™®S!) _ present oe present in the
75 0 alee in Oyster Sess
Agar |
1 Aug. 25 | Aug. 26 1,700 almost en- | water in the same case
| |tirely typhoid) 585,000 per c.c.
2 ” ” } ” ”
3 A Aug. 27 7,020 b water in the same case
| 468,000 per c.c.
4 i | Ang. 28 7,000 | + | water in the same case
40,950 on agar, 5,200
| gelatine
5 Aug. 26 | Aug. 29 455 7
6 Aug. 28 | Aug. 30 195 3 | water in the same case
2,047,500 per c.c.
7 a Sept. 4 390 4
8 Aug. 31 Fa 325 pe
9 3 Sept. 10 455 As
668 REPORT—1896.
In the following series of experiments infected oysters were taken, the
duplicates of which, as seen in the preceding table, contained comparatively
large numbers of the B. typhosus, and were subjected to a running stream
of pure clean sea-water. The result is definite and uniform ; there is a
great diminution or total disappearance of the B. typhosus in from one to
seven days.
No. of
Oyster | Inoculated | Washed | Examined a Kind of Organisms present
Agar
i Aug. 25 | Aug.26 | Aug.30 | 80 2 colonies B. typhosus
ory 3 | Aug. 28 3 gee B. typhosus present
3 (| Aug. 26 | + ” | 44 3 fe
a: ” | Aug. 29 ” 40 ” ”
5 Aug. 2 ” ” | 5 ” ”
6 = = Aug. 31 700 abundant B. typhosus
7 Aug. 28 | Aug. 30 Ege | meta B. typhosus present
8 Aug. 26 | Aug. 28 Sept. 3 | 4 1 B. typhosus
9 Aug. 27 Aug. 29 oi 10 no B. typhosus found
10. 4 i * # 8 3 colonies of B. typhosus
11 | Aug.28 | Aug.30 | Sept.4 | 4 1 colony of B. typhosus
12 a Sept. 3 bs 200 mInajority B. typhosus
13 Aug. 31 | 2 | - 4
14 | Aug. 28 | Sept. 3 Sept.6 | 65 no B.typhosus, but Proteus
15 =| Aug. 3l ES Be 5 ? B. typhosus
16%) = Sept. 5 as | 70 one half colonies B. typhosus
1 7 | Sept.3 | Sept. 10 1 no B, typhosus
13} i; | Sept.5 | Sept. 11 2 ? B. typhosus
V.—The Green Coloration and ‘ Green Disease’ in Oysters.
We have been investigating the well-known green coloration of
certain healthy oysters grown at Marennes and other places on the west
and north coasts of France, and in the river Roach in Essex. It has
long been known that copper has nothing to do with this green colour,
but an attempt has lately been made to show that it is due to the presence
of iron in the mud which is taken up by cells in the gills, &e. At our
request Dr. Kohn has made a chemical analysis of oysters from a number
of localities for us, and his results (given in detail as a separate paper)
show conclusively that, while there are minute quantities of both iron and
copper in all oysters, the amount present bears no proportion to the degree
of green coloration. There is not more iron in the gills and labial palps
than in the rest of the body, and there is, on the whole, more iron in
ordinary white or yellow American and Dutch oysters than in the green
‘huitres de Marennes.’
We have made experiments in the feeding of oysters with various
strengths of a number of saline solutions of iron and of copper salts, with
the result that, although in some of the experiments the oysters lived
healthily for weeks, and the shells and other exposed parts became strongly
coloured—green, blue, brown, and yellow, according to the salt deposited—
in no case did the soft tissues take in any staining until after death.
There was no evidence that any iron had been taken up by the animal.
The cause and meaning of the green coloration of the French cultivated
=
ON INFECTIVITY, ETC., OF THE OYSTER. 669
oyster are still under investigation, and we hope to give a fuller account of
it in our next report. We do not doubt that these oysters are in a
thoroughly healthy condition, and their colour is not due to copper or iron.
There is, however, a pale greenness (quite different in appearance from
the blue-green of the ‘ huitres de Marennes’) which we have met with in
some American oysters laid down in this country, and which we regard
as a disease. It is characterised by a leucocytosis in which enormous
numbers of leucocytes come out on the surface of the body, and especially
on the mantle. The green patches visible to the eye correspond to
accumulations of the leucocytes, which in mass have a green tint. These
cells are granular and ameboid. The granules do not give any definite
reaction with the aniline stains, and so far we have not made out their
precise nature. Associated with the green disease we have found numerous
exceedingly small flagellate organisms both in the blood and in the green
patches, and observations so far lead us to believe that there is some
relationship between the two. We have tried growing oysters under
various unusual conditions, including the addition to the sea-water of
fluids from alkali works, such as may enter our estuaries, in the hope of
getting some clue to the cause of this green disease, but have so far failed
to reproduce exactly in the laboratory the changes which apparently take
place in nature. Our present opinion, however, is that oysters exhibiting
this pale-green leucocytosis are in an unhealthy state, and we may add
that we find the liver in these specimens is histologically in an abnormal,
shrunken, and degenerate condition. Whether actually ‘unfit for food’
or not, they are at any rate in very ‘poor’ condition, and have lost the
aroma and flavour of the normal healthy oyster.
For much assistance in connection with this research the authors
acknowledge their indebtedness to Mr. Andrew Scott, Drs. Abram, Evans,
and Balfour Stewart.
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.—Report by the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor JoHN G. McKEnpRICK (Chairman),
Professor G. G. Murray, Mr. Davin 8S. WINGATE, and Mr.
Joun S. McKenprick, on the Physiological Applications of the
Phonograph, and on the Form of the Voice-curves made by the
Instrument."
1. THE work of the Committee has, during the past year, been directed
to improving the method by which the curves of the phonograph may be
transcribed. The arrangement described in the ‘Journal of Anatomy
and Physiology ’ for July 1895 has been much improved in two respects :
(1) by driving the phonograph at a slow rate by a small electric motor ;
and (2) by adapting the recording lever, now made of aluminium, to a
new form of siphon recorder.? In this way beautiful curves may be
obtained, amplified from 500 to 800 times, and on strips of telegraph
1 See Brit, Assoc. Report for 1895, p. 454.
2 The Committee are much indebted to Lord Kelvin for encouragement during
the research. They also desire to express their obligations to Mr. Reid and to Mr.
Keen, of James White and Co., for executing the mechanical devices employed.
670 REPORT—1896.
paper moving at such a speed that the vibrations occurring in 0°5 second
are spread over a distance of about 12 feet. The curves are thus greatly
amplified, and the following facts may be demonstrated graphically :—
(1) That many instruments have a curve-form so characteristic as to
enable one by inspecting the curve to recognise the instrument. (2) That
the curve-forms of sounds produced by instruments giving a pure tone
are comparatively simple, while the curve-forms of instruments giving a
mixed tone (with numerous partials) are more complicated. (3) That
the curve forms of sounds produced by a band of music, or such a noise
clang as that of a boiler-maker’s shop, are very complicated. (4) That if
the tone of an instrument predominates in the sound of a band, the
characteristic curve-form may be seen, modified to some extent by the
other instruments. (5) That the curve-forms indicating a gradation from
a tone of one pitch to a tone of another pitch may be observed. (6) That
when numerous sounds, varying in pitch, follow each other in rapid suc-
cession (as when a piece of music is quickly played), from ten to fifteen
vibrations appear to be sufficient to enable the ear to appreciate the
relative pitch of any one of the tones, or, in other words, pitch may be
appreciated by vibrations lasting only a fraction of a second. This time
cannot yet be definitely stated, as it has been found to vary from ./j>th to
!,th of a second.!
_ 2. The Committee has carefully studied the mechanism of the recording
point in the English form of the phonograph, and they have constructed a
model which makes the matter easily understood. The original tinfoil
phonograph was so constructed that when the diaphragm was pressed
inwards by the condensation of the air wave, the marker made a corre-
sponding depression on the tinfoil, and when the diminution of pressure
came on, corresponding to the rarefaction of the air wave, the marker
passed away from the tinfoil. There were thus a series of marks the
depth of each of which corresponded to the degree of pressure on the
diaphragm. A hasty inspection of the more complicated apparatus
in the English model might lead one to suppose that the action in it was
of the same nature, but a careful scrutiny will show that this is not the
case. By a large model made for the Committee it can be seen that,
when pressure is made on the diaphragm, the effect is to cause the cutting
edge of the recording gouge to be directed downwards. As the cutting
edge of the gouge is directed against the wax cylinder, and is opposed to the
rotation of the latter, it is evident that this change of the angle of the
gouge to a downward direction will cause the gouge to cut a deeper
groove into the wax cyliader. The depth of the groove, as determined by
the angular movement, is therefore a measure of the pressure on the glass
disk. It must be borne in mind that when no pressure is exerted on the
glass disk the marker cuts a groove. When there is greater pressure, by
the cutting edge being placed at a larger angle with the tangent of the
curved surface of the cylinder, a deeper groove will be cut. On the other
hand, when the cutting edge is placed at a smaller angle with the tangent
of the curved surface of the cylinder a shallower groove will be ploughed
on the surface of the wax cylinder. It follows that, if the sound acting
on the wax cylinder of the phonograph be very intense, during the
increase of pressure, the groove will be deep, and during the diminution
1 A detailed account of the investigation will appear in the Trans. of the Roya
Soc. of Hdin., 1896. ;
ON PHYSIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 671
of pressure the groove will be shallow ; and so great may be the difference
between the plus pressure of condensation and the minus pressure of rare-
faction that during the latter the recording point may only skim the
surface of the wax cylinder, without making any groove. This explains
an anomaly in several of the photographs taken of portions of the surface
of the wax cylinder. For example, a photograph of a portion of a record
taken of sound emitted by a full organ shows deep furrows, continued for
a considerable distance, corresponding to the long chord-like sounds of the
instrument, and these are succeeded by portions in which there is no
groove. In this case, so great has been the rebound from the state of
great pressure that the cutting edge has only slid along the surface of the
wax cylinder without cutting a groove. '
Tt is possible that here we have the explanation of one of the imperfec-
tions of the phonograph, or, perhaps, rather an illustration of the wrong
way of using the instrument. All who have tried the instrument must
have observed that the best effects are obtained by tones of moderate
intensity. If too weak, the tones given out by reproduction are only
imperfectly heard on account of their weak intensity, and by no system of
reinforcement or electrical relays can these be made fairly audible. On
the other hand, if too strong, there are two risks :—(lst) The intensity of
the tone may cause a jarring between the end of the wire in the loop
connecting the wire of the lever with the wire from the glass disk, and,
as this is communicated to the glass disk, a noise is produced ; and (2nd)
the intensity of the tone may be so great as to cause, during the rarefaction
of the air corresponding to the diminution of pressure, the recording
marker to come to the surface of the wax cylinder, or even to leave it
altogether. Suppose the marker just skims the surface, it will produce a
friction sound which must affect quality, and suppose the marker leaves
the surface altogether for a fraction of a second, there will be a rebound
from the glass disk (owing to the removal of pressure coming from the
marker) which is not exactly the same as the diminution of pressure due
to the rarefaction of the aérial wave in the immediately preceding vibration
These changes must affect quality of tone.
3. The Committee has also been engaged on a method of recording
variations in the intensity of the sounds of the phonograph. Suppose a
series of sound waves of gradually increasing intensity to act on the disk
of the phonograph, the pressure on the disk will gradually increase, and
the normal groove will be cut deeper. In this process each vibration wil.
be a little deeper than the one immediately before it, but the difference in
depth will be very small. If the increase of pressure of the note or chord
lasted more than half a second, the extent of surface covered by the
recording point during that time would be nearly 7 inches, and there
might be from 500 to 1,000 depressions in that distance. Suppose, now,
that we recorded all these little depressions, it will be evident that the
_ gradually increasing differences in height of the little curves would
scarcely be appreciable. The slow method of recording vibrations, there-
fore, whilst it is the method by which data can be obtained that have to
do with pitch and quality, will fail in giving us a record of variations in
intensity. This aspect of the matter came under notice at an early period
of the investigation. So far as the Committee are aware, no one has
attacked this side of the problem. Nothing is more striking in listening
to the phonograph when it is reproducing either human speech or musical
672 REPORT—1896.
sounds than the way in which it catches every inflection of the voice or
the slightest emphasis, diminuendo, and crescendo of the sound. This
must be due to variations of pressure. How may these variations be
recorded ?
The most evident method is to attempt to record mechanically the
variations in an electro-magnet produced by pressures on a variable
resistance apparatus in the same circuit. The first attempt of the
Committee was to place Graham’s transmitter over the glass disk of the
phonograph and to place in the same circuit an electro-magnetic marker
such as is used for physiological purposes. This gave poor results, but
still they were encouraging. On placing a Breguet’s chronograph in
circuit the results were much better, and it was evident that there was a
movement of the vibrator of the chronograph for each note or chord
emitted by the phonograph. The Committee then heard of an ingenious
apparatus devised by Heurtley of Breslau, by which he has succeeded in
recording by electrical and mechanical arrangements the sounds of. the
heart. His apparatus consists essentially of a large stethoscope on which
a peculiar resonator is fixed. The resonator carries a small wooden
tuning-fork, between the prongs of which is fixed a simple microphonie
contact of two carbon buttons. This is one half of the apparatus. The
other half consists of an electro-magnet, over the poles of which is fixed,
face downwards, a shallow tambour, of the Marey pattern, having on its
under surface a broad ferrotype plate. This tambour is then connected
with an extremely delicate recording tambour. It is evident that the
second half of this apparatus is exactly what is wanted for the phono-
graph work, and, by the kindness of Professor Heurtley, the apparatus
was made in Tiibingen without delay. When placed in the circuit along
with the carbon transmitter the pen of the recording tambour moves at
right angles to the line of revolution of the cylinder with each tone and
chord played by the phonograph. When the ear perceives tones of con-
siderable intensity the lever point is seen moving through a greater
distance than when the tones are weaker; consequently we have a
graphic record of the variations in intensity. If the recording cylinder
is timed to travel at the same rate as the cylinder of the phonograph,
then the curves on the former exactly correspond to the ensemble of the
minute marks on the latter corresponding to a particular variation in
intensity. When the recording cylinder is caused to travel as fast as the
phonograph cylinder, the variation in the heights of the curves recorded
on the revolving cylinder is not so apparent as when the recording
cylinder travels more slowly. It is easy, however, to time the rate of
revolution of both cylinders by a chronograph. Thus we have found that
when the recording cylinder is travelling at such a rate that an extent of
surface of one-fourth of an inch corresponds to one-fourth of a second, an
easily read tracing is obtained. In such a distance we may have one little
wave representing the pressure of a chord lasting for one-fourth of a
second, or we may have from two to as many as fifteen little waves, often
varying much in general character. Suppose we find as many as fifteen ;
then each must have lasted not more than ,,th of a second. Even then
the ear is able to follow the individual notes when the phonograph is
listened to simultaneously. This may be readily done either by listening
directly to the phonograph or by connecting a telephone with the secon-
dary of an induction coil, while the current in which the variable resistance
ON PHYSIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 673
apparatus is interposed passed through the primary. If, then, we. hold
the telephone to the ear while we look at the little pen writing on the
recording drum, it is easy to see that the sensations are simultaneous.
Now if a note of a pitch, say, of 300 vibrations per second lasts only
gpth of a second, it is evident that only five vibrations must have occurred
in that time. This shows that we may appreciate a tone and decide
as to its pitch if only five vibrations fall on the ear. This conclusion
coincides with the opinion previously arrived at from a careful inspection
of the photographs and of the mechanically recorded curves. Of course
we assume that the music is being played by the phonograph in its proper
tempo. If the phonograph is made to travel faster, possibly it may be
found that pitch may be appreciated for even shorter periods. Examina-
tion of the curves shows that as a rule no ‘chord’ lasts longer than half a
second. This method of recording seems well suited to the study of the
time relations if a series of complex sounds pour in upon the ear. By
causing the lever of the tambour to act on the siphon recorder, large curves
are readily obtained, and a complete tracing of a piece of music from the
phonograph cylinder may be transcribed on a band of paper about four
feet in length.
If one doubts whether the movements of the recording lever are ex-,
pressions of the tones of the phonograph, three ways are open by which
the statement may be put to the test :—(1) Listen attentively with the
telephone, and at the same time watch the recording point. The sensa-
tions of hearing and of vision for any particular note are simultaneous.
(2) Remove the elastic tube from the recording tambour and place it
in the ear, and the music will be heard. (3) Lead the elastic tube from
the electric tambour to a recording phonograph, and a feeble record will
be obtained of the music, showing that all the vibrations are present.
In the last two experiments, as might be expected, quality suffers, but
the rhythm, the tempo, and the general character of the tune are repro-
duced.
The apparatus may also be used for recording phonetic sounds, such as
syllabic sounds, words, sentences, cc.
4. The Committee desire reappointment and an additional grant of
15/. It is proposed to carry out the following work during the year
1896-97 :—
(1) To continue the investigation, with the improved recorder, of the
phonographic curves of one or two selected instruments.
(2) To investigate the curves of speech, taking simple syllabic sounds,
such as man, can, pat, rat, &c.
(3) To begin a series of phonographic records of dialects with the
view of ascertaining how far such records can be made available for
philological purposes, This investigation was suggested in the report of
re “ohana made aetna at Ipswich in 1895, but it had to be
elayed from pressure of other work.
1896. pa 2
674 REPORT—1896.
On the Ascent of Water in Trees. By Francis Darwin, F.R.S.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
Wiruin the last few years the problem of the ascent of water has entered
on a new stage of existence. The researches which have led to this new
development are of such weight and extent that they might alone occupy
our time. It will be necessary, therefore, to avoid, as far as possible, going
into ancient history. But it will conduce to clearness to recall some of
the main stepping-stones in the progress of the subject.
The two questions to be considered are—(1) What is the path of the
ascending water? (2) What are the forces which produce the rise ?
(1) The first question has gone through curious vicissitudes. The
majority of earlier writers assumed that the water travelled in the vessels.
This was not, however, a uniform view. Czsalpinus, 1583, seems! to have
thought that water moved by imbibition in the ‘nerves.’ Malpighi and
Ray held that the vessels serve for air, and the wood fibres for the ascent
of water. Hales,” who believed in the ‘sap-vessels’ as conduits, speculated
on the passage upwards of water between the wood and the bark. Also,*
that water may travel as vapour not in the liquid state. In the present
century Treviranus,‘ 1835, held that water travelled in vessels ; De Candolle,
1832, that the intercellular spaces were the conduits. In Balfour’s ‘Manual
of Botany,’ 1863, vessels, cells, and intercellular spaces are spoken of as
transmitting the ascending water.
The change in botanical opinion was introduced by the great authority
of Sachs,” who took up Unger’s view ® that the transpiration current travels
in the thickness of the walls as water of imbibition.
Then followed the reaction against the imbibitionists—a reaction
which has maintained its position up to the present time. Boehm, who
had never adopted the imbibition theory, must have the credit of initiating
this change : his style was confused and his argument marred by many
faults, but the reaction should in fairness be considered as a conversion
to his views, as far as the path of the travelling water is concerned.
Nevertheless, it was the work of others who principally forced the change
on botanists—e.g., von Hohnel,’ Elfving,® Russow,® R. Hartig,!® Vesque,!!
Godlewski,!? and others.
(2) The second question has a curious history, and one that is not
particularly creditable to botanists generally. Jt has been characterised
' Sachs, Hist. of Bot. (English Trans.), p. 451.
* Vegetable Staticks, p. 130.
3 Loe. cit. p. 19.
4 Sachs, History.
5 Physiol. Végétale (French Trans.), 1868, p. 235, and more fully in the Lehrbuch.
Sachs also partially entertained Quincke’s well-known suggestion of movement of a
film of water on the surface of vessels.
* Sitz. kk. Ahad. Wien, 1868. Dixon and Joly’s paper in the Annals of Botany,
September 1895, gives evidence in favour of a certain amount of movement of the
imbibed water.
7 Pringsheims Jahrb. xii. 1879.
8 Bot. Zeitung, 1882.
® Bot. Centr. xiii. 1883.
‘0 «Ueber die Vertheilung,’ &c., Untersuchungen aus dem Forst. Bot. Inst. zu
Miinchen, ii. and iii.
n Ann. Se. Nat. xv. 1883, p. 5. 2 Pringsheims Jahrb. xv. 1884.
5 a at NR OM _
ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 675
by loose reasoning, vagueness as to physical laws, and a general tendency
to avoid the problem, and to scramble round it in a mist of vis & tergo,
capillarity, Jamin chains, osmosis, and barometric pressure.
An exception to this accusation (to which I personally plead guilty) is
to be found in Sachs’ imbibition theory, in which, at any rate, the baro-
metric errors were avoided, though it has difficulties of its own, as Elfving
has pointed out.
But the most hopeful change in botanical speculation began with those
naturalists who, concluding that no purely physical causes could account
for the facts, invoked the help of the living elements in the wood. To
Westermaier ' and Godlewski ? is due the credit of this notable advance ;
for, whether future research uphold or destroy their conclusions, it claims
our sympathy as a serious facing of the problem by an ingenious and
rational hypothesis.?
We may pass over the cloud which arose to witness for and against
these theories, and proceed at once to Strasburger’s great work,‘ in which,
with wonderful courage and with the industry of genius, he set himself
to work out the problem de novo, both anatomically and physiologically.
In my opinion it is difficult to praise too highly this great effort of
Strasburger’s.
Strasburger’s general conclusion is now well known. He convinced
himself that liquid can be raised to heights greater than that of the
barometric column in cut stems, in which the living elements have been
killed. Therefore, the cause of the rise could not be (1) barometric
pressure, (2) nor root pressure, (3) nor could it be due to the action of
the living elements of the wood. His conclusions may be stated as
follows :—
(a) The escent of water is not dependent on living elements, but is a
purely physical phenomenon.
(5) None of the physical explanations hitherto made are sufficient to
account for the facts.
Strasburger has been most unjustly depreciated, because his book ends
in this confession of ignorance. I do not share such a view. I think to
establish such distinct, though negative, conclusions would be, in this
most nebulous of subjects, an advance of great value. Whether he has
established these conclusions must of course be a matter of opinion. To
discuss them both would be to go over 500 pages of Strasburger’s book, and
will not here be attempted. Conclusion (a) that the ascent is not de-
pendent on living elements must, however briefly, be discussed, because it
is here that the roads divide. If we agree with Strasburger, we know
that we must seek along the physical line ; if we differ from him, we are
bound to seek for the missing evidence of the action of the living
elements.
Schwendener’s Criticism.—Perhaps the best plan will be to consider
the most serious criticism that has been published of Strasburger’s
work, namely, Schwendener’s paper ‘ Zur Kritik,’ &c.?
! Deutsch Bot. Ges., BA. i. 1883, peor.
2 Pringsheims Jahrb., xv. 1884.
* It is of interest to note that Hales, in speaking of the pressure which he found
to exist in bleeding trees, says: ‘ This force is not from the root only, but must also
proceed from some power in the stem and branches’ (Veg. Staticks, 1727, p. 110).
+ Leitungshahnen, 1891.
* K. Preuss. Ahad. 1892, p. 911,
xx2
676 REPORT—1 896.
Schwendener objects that although a continuous column of water
cannot be raised by air pressure to a greater height than that of the
barometric column, yet when broken into a number of columns, as in the
case of a Jamin chain, that a column considerably over 10 m., even as
much as 13 or 14 m., of water can be suspended. This, though not fatal
to Strasburger’s conclusions, is no doubt a serious criticism. For if 13 m.
can be supported, some of Strasburger’s experiments are inconclusive. He
finds that a branch can suck up a poisonous fluid to over 10 m., and, as
above explained, argues that all ascent above that height, not being due
to barometric pressure or to the living elements (since the wood is
poisoned), is for the present inexplicable. But, if Schwendener is right,
the effect above 10 m. may have been due to atmospheric pressure.
Askenasy (loc. cit. infra, 1895, p. 6) objects to Schwendener that the
supposed action cannot be continuous. By repeating the diminution of
air pressure at the upper end the movement of water becomes less and
less, and sinks to almost nothing. Askenasy adds, moreover, that the
amount of water which could be raised according to Schwendener’s theory
would be very small.
One diticulty about Schwendener’s theory is that the result depends
on the length of the elements of which the chain is made up (such
element being a water column plus an air bubble). In his paper ‘ Ueber
das Saftsteigen’! he finds that the elements of the chain in /agus equal
in round numbers 0°5 mm. In his paper? ‘ Wasserbewegung in der
Jamin’schen Kette’ he finds the element in Acer psewdo-platanus=0'9 mm.,
in Acer platanoides and Ulmus effusa=0°2. But the calculation (1892,
p. 934) is based on the existence of a chain in which the water columns
are each 10 mm. in length ; a condition of things which he allows does not
occur in living trees.
But even if we allow Schwendener to prove theoretically the possi-
bility of a Jamin chain being raised to a height much greater than that
of a barometric column, I do not think he invalidates Strasburger’s posi-
tion. Schwendener’s idea necessitates the travelling of a Jamin chain as
a whole, 7.e., the translation, not only of water, but of air bubbles. But
this cannot (as Strasburger points out) apply to his experiments on coni-
fers, in which the movement of air to such an extent is impossible.*
And for the case of dicotyledonous woods, Strasburger has shown that
the movement of air is excluded by the fact that transverse walls occur
in the vessels at comparatively short distances. In Aristolochia the sec-
tions may be as long as 3m., but in ordinary woods, according to Adler,‘
we get: Alnus, 6 cm.; Corylus, 11 cm.; Betula, 12 cm. ; Quercus,
57 em. ; Robinia, 69 cm. These facts seem impossible to reconcile with
Schwendener’s views.
Action of the Poisonous Fluids in Strasburger’s Huperiments.—
The question whether the living elements are killed in Strasburger’s
experiments is of primary importance in the problem.
Schwendener does not criticise it at length ; he seems to assume °—as
far as I can understand—that since the death of the tissues extends
gradually from the cut end upwards, there are living cells in the upper
' K. Preuss. Ahad. 1886, p. 561.
2 K. Preuss. Ahad. Sitz., 1893, p. 842.
3 ‘Ueber das Saftsteigen,’ Hist. Beitrdge, v. 1893, p. 50.
' As quoted by Strasburger.
5 Zur Kritik, loc. cit., 1892, p. 935
ee Si
gy IO ¢
ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 677
part which may still be effective. He also doubts ‘whether the cells were
always killed at once.’ The first objection of Schwendener’s may or may
not be sound, but in any case it does not (as Strasburger points out) ac-
count for the experiment! in which an oak stem was poisoned by picric
acid, and three days afterwards was placed in fuchsin-picric. The second
reagent had to travel in tissues already killed with picric acid, yet a height
of 22 m. was reached.
The question whether the reagents kill the cells in Strasburger’s
experiments does not lend itself to discussion. It is difficult to see how
they should escape, and we have Strasburger’s direct statement that the
living tissues were visibly killed. It must not be forgotten that in some
of his experiments the death of the tissues was produced by prolonged
boiling, not by poisons.?, Thus the lower 12 m. of a Wistaria stem were
killed in this way, yet liquid was sucked up toa height of 108 cm. In
the Histolog. Beitr., v. p. 64, he has repeated his air-pump experiment,
using a boiled yew branch, and found that eosin was sucked up from a
vessel in which almost complete vacuum was established, so the action of
living elements and of atmospheric pressure was excluded.
On the whole, the balance of evidence is, in my judgment, against the
belief that the living elements are necessary for the rise of water. In
other words, I think we should be justified, from Strasburger’s work, in
seeking the cause of ascent in the action of purely physical laws.
Strasburger’s general argument from the structure of wood.—lt seems
sometimes to be forgotten that, apart from the physiological or experi-
mental evidence, there is another line of argument founded on the
structure of wood. Strasburger’s unrivalled knowledge allows him to use
this argument with authority, and he seems to me to use it with effect.
Thus? he points out that though in coniferous wood the action of the
living elements in pumping water is conceivable, yet this is far from being
universally the case. He points out that in the monocotyledons such
theories meet with almost unconquerable difficulties. This is, he says,
especially the case in Dracena. He goes on to point to difficulties in the
case of such dicotyledons as Albizzia. The case may perhaps best be put
in the generalised manner that Strasburger himself employs.* If the
living elements are of such importance as Godlewski, Westermaier, and
Schwendener hold, we ought not to find these difticulties; we ought
rather to find structural peculiarities pointing distinctly to the existence
of such functions. For instance, we ought to find the tracheal water-path
actually interrupted by living elements, which might act like a series of
pumping stations one above the other. It should, however, be remem-
bered that if we deny the importance of the medullary rays and other
living elements in raising water, we ought to be able to point more clearly
than we can at present to the function of the medullary rays and to
structural adaptations to these functions.
The work of Dixon and Joly and of Askenasy.—I now pass on to the
recent work in which Strasburger’s indications to search along a purely
physical line have been followed ; namely, the paper of Dixon and Joly,”
1 Hist. Beitr. v. p. 12.
2 Leitungsbahnen, p. 646.
8 Hist. Beitr. v. p. 17.
4 Loc. cit. p. 20.
5 Proc. Roy. Soc., vol, lvii. No. 340. Also Annals of Bot., vol. viii.; Phil. Trans.,
vol. 186, 1895 (B).
678 REPORT—1896.
which was followed by that of Askenasy.' The leading idea common
to these works is now well known, namely, that the raising of water
to the tops of trees depends on the quality which water possesses of
resisting tensile stress. To most botanists the existence of this quality
is a new idea. To believe that columns of water should hang in the
tracheals like solid bodies, and should, like them, transmit downwards the
pull exerted on them at their upper ends by the transpiring leaves, is
to some of us equivalent to believing in ropes of sand.
Askenasy has earned the gratitude of his botanical readers by giving
some of the evidence which demonstrates the existence of this property of
water.?, A tube a meter in length was filled by Donny with water, and the
remaining space was as far as possible freed from air. When the tube was
placed vertically the water-column at the upper end hung there, and could
not be made to break or free itself from the glass by violent shaking.
Berthelot filled a thick-wall capillary tube completely with water at
28°-30 C.° ; it was allowed to cool to 18°, so that the space left by the
shrinking of water was filled with air. It was then sealed up and again
warmed to 28°-30°, so that the air was dissolved in the water. When it
was allowed to cool again it retained its volume, filling the tube com-
pletely. A slight shake, however, allowed the water to break and return
to its proper volume at 18° with the appearance of a bubble of air. In
this experiment the water contained air, yet it seems to have been until
recently assumed by some physicists that, to show cohesion, water must
be air-free. If this were the case the application of the principle to
plants would be impossible. Dixon and Joly have, however, proved that
this is not so, and this forms an important part of their contribution to
the subject.
They also? investigated the amount of tension which water under
these circumstances will bear, and found it about equal to seven atmo-
spheres. If, therefore, the leaves at the top of a tall tree can exert the
requisite upward pull on the water in the trunk, it seems certain (if no
other conditions in the problem interfere) that the pull can be transmitted
to the level of the ground. This opens up the question whether the leaves
can exert this traction on the water in the tracheals, and what is equally
important, Are there any factors in the problem incompatible with the
theory ?
1. Lhe sucking force of the leaves.—In Dixon and Joly’s first paper 4
they assume that tractional force is given by the meniscuses ‘formed
inthe membranous réseau of the evaporating cell walls,’ as well as pos-
sibly by the osmotic action of the cells of the mesophyll. We shall take
these theories in order. Our knowledge of the cell wall does not allow us
to believe in the existence of pores visible with even the highest powers of
the microscope. Dixon’s more general expression, ‘surface tension forces
developed in the substance of the walls of the evaporating cells,’ is there-
) Verhand. d. naturhist. med. Vereins Heidelberg, N.F., Bd. v. 1895; and N.F.,
Bd. v. 1896.
* He gives references to Donny, Poggendonff’s Annalen, 67. Bd. (143. Bd. d. g. R.),
1846, p. 562; Berthelot, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 8. 3, t. 30, 1850, p. 232;
Worthington, Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 1. 1892, p. 423.
° Phil. Trans. vol. 186, p. 570. With ethyl alcohol Worthington records a ten-
sion of 17 atmospheres. See Proc. R. Soc., vol. 1.
4 Phil. Trans. pp. 563, 567.
> Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. Jan. 13, 1896, p. 767.
i i i i a i Re ee eee
_—————— ss rc‘é (<&P’””~=s— ,
ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 679
fore preferable. But Askenasy seems to me to state the matter much
more conveniently by using the term ‘imbibition.’! The force with which
vegetable membranes, e.g., the thallus of Laminaria, absorb water has been
demonstrated by Reinke and others, and the existence of such a force is
familiar to botanists.
Both Askenasy (loc. cit.) and Dixon and Joly? have pointed out that the
force of imbibition, or the surface tension forces, as the case may be, can
exert a tractional effect on the water in the tracheals, when the turges-
cence of the mesophyll has been destroyed. But Askenasy in his original
paper (1895), Dixon in the January 1896 paper, and again Askenasy in his
second paper (March, 1896) have also considered the imbibitional or surface
tension forces in connection with the turgescent cell. In his 1896 paper
Dixon in fact gives up the view published in the Pil. rans. and adopts
the view given by Askenasy in his original paper, that the tractional force
is supplied by the osmotic suck of the leaves. It must clearly be under-
stood that this does not remove imbibition from the problem. It is one
of the chief merits of Askenasy’s work that he clearly sees and states the
important relation between these forces. The sun’s heat causes the
evaporation of the water with which the walls of the mesophyll cells are
imbibed : this water is replaced by imbibition from the cell-sap. The con-
centration of the cell-sap so produced maintains the osmotic torce of the
cell, which again exerts suction on the water on the tracheals.!
I have now given, in its simplest form, the modern theory of the rise
of water. Apart from the main idea, it combines the points of several
familiar views. Imbibition becomes a factor of paramount importance,
though not in the way that Sachs employs it. The suspended threads
of water remind us of Elfving’s capillary theory, while the living-element
factor is represented by the turgescent mesophyll cells.
Resistance.—It is not possible to discuss the question whether the
tractional forces in the leaf are sufficient for the work imposed on them
until we know what is the resistance to the passage of water through wood,
For it is clear that the work done by the leaf includes, not only the lifting
of a given column, but the overcoming of the resistance to its flow.
The resistance to the flow of the transpiration current is in want of
further investigation. Janse° has discussed the question, and points out
(loc. cit., p. 36) that two kinds of resistance must be reckoned with. The
first (which he calls statical) is illustrated by means of a cylinder of Pinus
wood fixed to the short arm of a J tube filled with water, when it was
found that in five days the level of water in the long arm was only
1 mm. above that in the short arm.6 That is to say, when time enough
is given, the resistance is practically nothing. Janse has also investigated
the resistance to the passage of water flowing through wood at the rate of
an ordinary transpiration current. His method seems to me open to criti-
cism, but this is not the place to give my reasons. His experiments give
a wide range of results. With Pinws strobus a pressure of water equal to
ten times the length of the wood was required to force water through at
1 Loe. cit. 1895, p. 10.
? Annals of Bot. Sept. 1895.
3 Askenasy, 1895, p. 11.
* Sachs, Zert Book, edit. iv. Eng. Tr., p. 679, describes evaporation taking place
in the cell wall, which makes good the loss by imbibition.
° Pringsheims Jahrb. xviii. 1887, p. 1.
§ Strasburger (Leitungsbahnen, p. 777) observed equilibrium established a good
deal quicker.
680 REPORT—1896,
a pace equal to the transpiration current. In Ginkgo the pressure was
twenty-one times the length of the wood. Strasburger’ has repeated
Janse’s experiment, and finds a coluinn ‘several times the length of the
object’ necessary. Nigeli? found that 760 mm. of mercury were needed
to force water through fresh coniferous wood at the rate of 4 mm. per
second, 7.¢., at 180 mm. per hour. If we allow one metre per hour as a
fair transpiration rate,? we get a pressure of 5 atmospheres required to
produce such a flow. To return to Janse’s experiments: even if we
assume that the resistance (expressed in water) = 5 times the length, it
is clear that with a tree 40 m. in height, the resistance of 20 atmospheres
has to be overcome. This would not be a pressure greater than that which
osmotic forces are able to exert ; but when we come to a tree of 80 m.
in height, and a resistance of 40 atmospheres, the thing becomes serious.‘
A great difficulty in the question of resistance is that the results hitherto
obtained are (though here I speak doubtfully) much greater than those
obtained by physicists for the resistance of water flowing in glass capil-
laries. Until this discrepancy is explained, it is rash to argue from our
present basis of knowledge.®
Is the osmotic suck sufficient ?—The osmotic force of a turgescent cell
is usually measured by its power of producing hydrostatic pressure within
the cell. Thus, De Vries® investigated the force necessary to extend
a plasmolysed shoot to its original length ; Westermaier’ the weight
necessary to crush a tissue of given area ; Pfeffer’ the pressure exerted
by growing roots ; Krabbe ® the pressure under which cambium is capable
of maintaining its growth.
The figures obtained by these naturalists have a wide range ; it may
be said that the hydrostatic pressure varies between 3 and 20 atmospheres.
Another method is to ascertain the osmotic strength of the cell-sap in
terms of a KNO, solution, and calculate the pressure which such a solution
can produce. According to Pfeffer,!° 1 per cent. KNO, with artificial
membrane gives a pressure of 176 cm. = 2°3 atmospheres. De Vries!!
calculates that in a cell a 0:1 equivalent solution (practically=1 per cent.)
gives a pressure of 3 atmospheres. We may therefore take it as between
2-5 and 3 atmospheres. Now, De Vries found that beetroot requires
6-7 per cent. KNO; to plasmolyse it ; this would mean 15—21 atmo-
spheres. Ido not know what is the greatest pressure which has been
estimated in this way. Probably Wieler’s '? estimate of the pressure in
the developing medullary ray cells of Pinus sylvestris at 21 atmospheres
is the highest. It is clear that investigation of the osmotic capacity of
' Leitungsbahnen, p. 779.
® Das Mikroskop, 2nd edit. p. 385.
% Sachs, Ardeiten, ii. p. 182.
‘ Schwendener’s experiments, K. Preuss. Ahad., 1886, p. 579, do not particularly
bear on this question.
5 Tt is possible that the rate of the ascending water is much less than is usually
assumed. ‘Thus Schwendener (K. Preuss. Ahad., 1886, p. 584) calculates from an
observation of v. Héhnel that the transpiration current in the stem of a tall beech
was only 2 metres per day.
® Untersuchungen iiber d. mechanischen Ursachen der Zelistrechen, 1877, p. 118.
7 Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 1883, p. 382.
8 Abh. kh. Stichs. Ges. 1893.
® K. Ahad. Berlin (Abhandlungen), 1884, pp. 57, 69.
10 Pfeffer, Phys., i. p. 53.
1 Pringsh. Jahrb., xiv. p. 527.
2 Thid., xviii. p. 82.
ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 681
leaves for high trees is wanted ; also investigations of the variation in
osmotic power produced by varying resistances in the flow of the current.
The experiments of Pfeffer and others | show that the osmotic strength of
cell-sap is capable of great adaptation to circumstances—cells respond
by increased turgescence to various stimuli, Whether they can respond
sufficiently to account for the ascent of water is another question.
My own opinion is that the question of resistance to the flow of water
is a difficulty which the authors of the modern theory have not sufficiently
met. Unless it can be shown that the resistance to the flow of water in
wood is less than that indicated by existing researches, we must face
the fact that we do not at present know of osmotic forces which we can
suppose capable of raising water to a greater height than 40 metres.
Continuity of the water in the tracheals.—The theory we are considering
apparently requires that there shall be continuous columns of water from
leaf to root, because a break in the column means a collapse of the
machinery. This seems at first sight a fair assumption, though I doubt
its complete correctness. It is in any case worthy of discussion. It has
been constantly insisted on by Sachs and others that at the time of most
active transpiration the vessels contain air, and not water. It is therefore
a violent disturbance of our current views to believe in continuous
columns of water.
For evidence on this point we are chiefly indebted to Strasburger. It
is a remarkable fact that he should, without any theory to encourage such
a view, have come to the conclusion that approximate continuity of water
columns is a condition of primary importance, and that he should have
made out the cognate fact that the whole of the alburnwm need not be
simultaneously occupied by a transpiration current ; parts of it may be so
eccupied, while parts of it are filled with air, and do not function as water
ways. This is a valuable contribution to knowledge, and to the adherents
of the new theory it is priceless; the very existence of their hypothesis
may depend on it.
Strasburger’s statements and reasoning are by no means accepted by
everyone ; for instance, Schwendener refuses to take them seriously.”
Strasburger has microscopically examined the condition of the tracheals
as regards air.? He found in the spruce fir in July ‘almost no air bubbles’
in the wood of the current year, but air in considerable quantity in four-
year-old wood. In the same month Pinus Salzmanni (Laricio) showed
scattered bubbles in the spring wood of last year, and more in the autumn
wood. In a larch there were only very occasional bubbles in the two
last years’ wood. In the silver fir the current year’s wood was practically
free from air: the air increased in the inner rings. TZsuga canadensis
had no air in this year’s wood, only a little in last year’s, and an in-
creasing quantity in the older rings, the fifth being very rich in air. In
February Pinws strobus had hardly any air in this year’s wood, and the
silver fir was all but free from it in the youngest ring. Robinia in July
had the youngest wood almost air-free. Ficus elastica and spuria, various
Acacias, and willows gave vessels not entirely free from air, but nearly so.
1 Pfeffer, Ahhand. der hk. Sachs. Ges. xx. p. 300; Eschenhagen, Untersuchungen
aus d. Bot. Inst. z. Tubingen, 1889; Stange, Bot. Zeit., 1892.
2 K. Preuss. Akad., 1892, p. 931.
3 Leitungsbahnen, p. 683 et seg.; Russow in 1882 (Bot. Centr., Bd. xiii. 1883)
observed similar facts in the distribution of water and air.
682 REPORT—1896.
He concludes! that the path of the transpiration current is not absolutely
free from air. The younger wood, which especially functions as the water-
carrier, is the most free.
Dixon and Joly quote Strasburger’s results, which they consider
sufficiently favourable to their views. They rely, in addition, on the
impermeability of wet cell-walls to air isolating the conduits in which
air has appeared ; and on the possibility that the air may be redissolved
under root pressure,” an idea well worth testing.
I think Strasburger’s facts are not so favourable to their theory as
these authors believe ; in the same way it seems to me that Askenasy is
rash in saying? that the tracheals in many cases contain continuous
columns of water. It is true that this statement does not affect the
validity of his general argument, since he faces the undoubted occurrence
of air bubbles in many cases. This is undoubtedly necessary, and fortu-
nately we can once more turn to the Leitungsbahnen. Strasburger states
that he has seen water creep past the air bubbles‘ in coniferous tracheids.
The best evidence for this seems to be the fact mentioned * that the part
of a single tracheid in front of an air bubble gets red with absorbed
eosin, though the neighbouring tracheids are colourless. This clearly
suggests the creeping round the bubble which Strasburger believes in.
Schwendener® has been unable to confirm Strasburger’s microscopic obser-
vations, and, moreover, denies the physical possibility of the phenomena.
I am unable to judge of the validity of Schwendener’s theoretic objections,
and must leave this point. It is a question of great importance whether
it is possible that on the breaking of a column of water a film of water
remains surrounding the air bubble, and capable of holding the two
columns together. If this is impossible we must suspend our judgment
until we know more of the contents of the tracheals.
To sum up this part of the subject, we may believe that the tracheals
in their youngest condition may contain water in continuous columns,
since the cambium cells from which they arise certainly contain fluid.
But we know also that this condition is not absolutely maintained, since
Strasburger has shown that the young wood contains air, though in small
quantity. We must therefore believe either (1) that the transpiration
current is able to travel past the air-bubbles, or (2) that tracheals partly
filled with air may again become continuous waterways by solution of the
air. If we adopt the first alternative we must believe that the film of
water between the bubble and the wall of the vessel is able to bear such
a tensile stress that it can serve to link the column above with the
column below the bubble. But this is analogous to trusting a rope so
nearly cut through that only a few threads remain intact. With regard
to the second alternative, we have at least indications from Strasburger’s
work that a tracheal, partly filled with air, does not necessarily remain
permanently functionless (see Leitungsbahnen, p. 692).
The isolation of the tracheals.—There are a number of points connected
with the structure and properties of wood which ought to be considered
' Loc. cit. p. 688.
2 Phil. Trans. p. 572.
% Verhand. naturhist. med. Vereins Heidelberg, 1895, p. 15.
* Leitungsbahnen, pp. 704, 709. See also Hist. Beitr. v. p. 76.
5 Ibid. p. 79.
5 Zur Kritih, &e., p. 921.
ON THE ASCENT OF WATER IN TREES. 683
in relation to the modern theories. Want of space forbids my doing more
than referring to two of them.
The resistance which the wetted cell-wall offers to the passage of un-
dissolved air is a point on which many writers have laid stress. It is
clear that on any theory of the movement of water in the tracheals it
is essential that air should not filter into the waterway. This necessity
is not, however, stronger in the case of the modern theories we are consider-
ing. The pressure tending to fill the tracheals with air from outside cannot
be greater than atmospheric pressure, and since the wetted cell walls of
gymnospermous wood can resist the passage of air under a pressure of
about an atmosphere,! we need not fear criticism of the theory on this
ground. The above remarks seem, however, to be needed in face of the
frequently recurring statement that wet wood membranes are impermeable
to free air. Schwendener has some good remarks on this head.*
Strasburger has called attention to the important subject of the
localisation or isolation of vessels or of certain lines of tracheids. When
this is possible we may have one set of tracheals containing continuous
water columns, while neighbouring ones contain air at negative pressure.*
This is especially important in connection with the Dixon-Joly-Askenasy
theory, since, if there were no such isolation, a functioning tracheal con-
taining a continuous column of water would give up its water to one which
was not functioning. In other words, the inactive tracheals would, by nega-
tive pressure, suck water from the active ones. In the coniferous trees the
young wood is cut off by the absence of pits in the tangential walls * from
free communication with the older wood, where air is more frequent.
In the same way the valve-like closure of the pits by the aspiration
of the pit membrane comes to be a subject of much importance.
At present I merely wish to show by a couple of examples the necessity
of a complete study of the minute structure of wood in relation to the
modern theories. It is at least a hopeful fact for Messrs. Dixon, Joly, and
Askenasy that we cannot point to anything in the anatomy of wood which
is absolutely inconsistent with their views. Finally, with regard to the
question at large, whether we are friends or opponents of Messrs.
Dixon, Joly, and Askenasy’s theory, the broad facts remain, that water
has the power of resisting tensile stress, and that this fact must hence-
forth be a factor in the problem. There are difficulties in the way of our
authors’ theory, but it is especially deserving of notice that many of these
_ difficulties are equally serious in the case of any theory which excludes
the help of the living elements of the wood, and assumes a flow of water
in the tracheals. The authors have not only suggested a vera causa, but
have done so without multiplying difficulties. There is therefore a dis-
tinct balance in their favour.
Huxley, quoting from Goethe, makes use of the expression thdtge
Skepsis. 1t is a frame of mind highly appropriate to us in the present
> juncture if we interpret it to mean a state of doubt whose fruit is activity,
_ and if we translate activity by experiment.
_ en
1 Leitungsbahnen, p. 722. Niigeli and Schwendener, Das Mikroskop, 2nd edit.,
'p. 367, give 225 cm. of mercury.
” Zur Kritik, p. 9438.
3 See Histolog. Beitrige, v. p. 87.
4 Strasburger discusses in this connection the existence of tangential pits in the
autumnal wood (see Leitungsbahnen, p. 713).
684 REPORT-—1896.
Preservation of Plants for Exhibition Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor
J. BayLtey Batrour, Professor L. Errera, Mr. W. GARDINER,
Professor J. R. GREEN, Professor J. W. H. Trait, Professor
F. E. WEtss, and Professor J. B. Farmer (Secretary), appointed
to Report on the best Methods of Preserving Vegetable Specimens
for Exhibition in Museums.
APPENDIX PAGE
I.—Report on Experiments made at the Institut Botanique de Université de
Bruxelles. By Professor ERRERA . . - : 5 - 686
Il.— Report by Prof. J. W. H. TRAIL, WA, ERS. . : ; . + G92
THE Committee are not yet in a position to present a definitive report ; in
the meantime they desire to place on record the results obtained by in-
dividual members of the Committee and others, as their experience may
be of immediate service to those interested in this subject.
Mr. W. Gardiner points out that in his opinion the processes of
(1) killing, and (2) fixing and mounting, have not been kept sufficiently
distinct. The killing of the protoplasm should be as rapid as possible, so
as to avoid active plasmolysis. He suggests (1) hot glacial acetic acid,
owing to its power of rapid penetration ; (2) superheated steam ; (3) strong
alcohol. If a rapidly acting substance cannot be used, a poisonous solu-
tion, possessing as nearly as possible the same osmotie equivalent as the
cell-sap, should be employed. After the tissues have been killed they may
be preserved in any suitable liquids, e.g. 70 per cent. spirit, or solution of
formic aldehyde.
Professor Farmer has made a number of experiments with formic
aldehyde. He agrees with Mr. Gardiner as to the advisability of a
preliminary and rapid killing, and finds that green parts of plants im-
mersed in strong alcohol for a short time, then transferred to strong
solutions of copper acetate, and finally preserved in formic aldehyde, gave
better results than when the preliminary killing in spirit was omitted.
For most plants experimented on, he finds that strong solutions (15-30 per
cent. of the commercial ‘ formaline’) in weak (15-20 per cent.) spirit give
better results than weaker solutions. In all cases the specimens were .
greatly improved by the treatment with copper acetate or sulphate (see
Professor Trail’s report, Appendix II.). Without this, the green colour
had, with but few exceptions, failed after immersion in the formic aldehyde
for four months, although they had in some cases shown no change until
three months had elapsed.
Mr. J. R. Jackson, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, finds that a saturated
solution of salt, boiled to expel air, and carefully stoppered, is useful for
many fleshy fruits, some of which, e.g. apples, retain their colour very
well under this treatment. He finds Goadby’s solution, formerly so much
employed, unsatisfactory, and considers methylated spirit, on the whole,
the best of the liquids in common use. Formic aldehyde has been tried on
a number of plants, with good results in some cases, especially with those
fruits with red or reddish tints and firm flesh,
In drying large specimens of succulent plants or fruits, it is important
that the process should not be hurried, or cracking and warping may
ensue.
eT IOS
ia
ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 685
The following methods, devised by Mr. Tagg, assistant in the museum
at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, are in use there :—
1. For cementing Specimens to Glass, Mica, &c.—Gelatine is necessary
for large specimens, and though becoming opaque in alcohol may be used
when the specimen is sufficiently large to hide the cement. f
Delicate specimens that dry when exposed to air for a very short time
can be fixed to the glass with gelatine while still in alcohol. To do thisa
pipette with hot water jacket is required (see figure).
Pipette.—An ordinary pipette is surrounded by an outer tube forming
a jacket, in which water is put.
Method of using Pipette with Hot-water Jacket.—Gelatine is taken
into the pipette, the outer tube filled with water, and the whole
placed in a beaker of boiling water till the
water in the jacket surrounding the pip-
ette is also boiling. The specimen is laid
in a flat dish in alcohol ; at the bottom is
also the glass to which specimen is to be
cemented. Having decided where specimen
shall be fastened, the pipette with hot water
is put quickly into the spirit, its,orifice is
made to touch the glass, and some of the hot
gelatine is forced out. With the other hand
the specimen is now gently pressed into the
still soft gelatine and held in position for a
second or two. The gelatine soon hardens,
and the specimen is permanently fixed.
2. For making jflat-sided Vessels to hold
Specimens.—Pieces of glass are cut to required Boiling Water
sizes for the sides of the vessel, and are then
fastened together in the following manner :—
1 oz. Nelson’s amber gelatine is soaked in
water for twelve hours. Water not absorbed
is poured off, and the softened gelatine is
melted over hot water. To this are added 0:5
grm. of bichromate of potash and 10 drops of
glycerine. The cement is put on warm.
Professor Errera sent an account of ex-
periments conducted in his museum in Brus-
sels, and his statements are in agreement with
those already set forth. He finally decides
against all liquid preservative media in cases
in which it is desired to retain the original
colour, and substitutes a method of rapid
desiccation in sand. By this means he has hay genbber.pad to make
= Z joint water-tight.
been able to prepare specimens which have ;
remained unaltered as to colour for a considerable number of years. The
method was described by EH. Cornélis in ‘La Belgique horticole,’ August
1880. Professor Errera states that the drying in vacuo, as recommended
by E. Cornélis, is, however, unnecessary. The dried specimens are preserved
in airtight bottles, which contain in their hollowed stoppers some calcium
oxide, in order to absorb any moisture from the air within the bottles.
The reports of Professors Errera and Trail appear of special import-
ance, and are printed in full, forming Appendices I. and IT.
Gelatine
686 REPORT—1896.
APPENDIX I.
The Preservation of Plants for Exhibition: Report on Bxperiments made
at the Institut Botanique de ?Université de Bruxelles. By Professor
ERRERA.
Les quelques notes qui vont suivre n’ont en aucune maniére la préten-
tion de répondre aux nombreuses et intéressantes questions soulevées par
le Comité de la British Association. Elles sont simplement destinées &
résumer, suivant le désir de mon ami, le Dr. Scott, le peu d’expérience
que nous avons pu acquérir a l'Institut Botanique de Université de
Bruxelles.
J’ai préféré les rédiger en francais plutot qu’en anglais, afin d’étre
pius str de formuler exactement ma pensée,
I.—LiquipEs CONSERVATEURS.
Alcool.—L’emploi de l’alcool fort est bien connu. I] durcit les tissus
végétaux, ce qui, suivant les cas, peut étre un avantage ou un inconvénient
Dans les Musées, c’est généralement un avantage, puisque les objets conser
vent ainsi, une fois pour toutes, une attitude donnée.
On peut surtout reprocher a l’alcool de modifier la couleur des spéci-
mens et—notamment en Belgique—de cotter fort cher. En revanche, il
a le mérite, précieux dans nos climats, d’étre pratiquement incongelable.
Divers objets brunissent dans l’alcool, par suite de l’oxydation d’un
chromogéne incolore. Hugo de Vries a indiqué, on le sait, un procédé
fondé sur l’emploi de l’alcool acidulé d’acide chlorhydrique ! qui empéche,
dans la grande majorité des cas, ce brunissement.
Liquides aqueux.—Les liquides conservateurs aqueux: que nous avons
jusqu ici employés a l'Institut Botanique sont: le ‘liquide au sublimé,’ la
solution saturée de sel marin, et les solutions de formol (=aldéhyde
formique).
Notre liquide au sublimé a la composition suivante :
Eau de pluie . < = > : + 1,000 ¢.c.
HgeCP. : . : 5 5 . 2.5 grammes
NaCl . : ; : - : ; 2.5 rs
HCl concentré . - ° = 5 3 5¢.c.
L’addition de sel et d’acide chlorhydrique a pour but de faciliter la
dissolution du sublimé corrosif et d’empécher qu'il ne se réduise sous
Vinfluence de la lumiére, ce qui troublerait la solution.
Ces liquides ne cofitent presque rien—détail important si les collections
sont considérables et les budgets modiques. Mais ils ont le grand défaut
d’étre congelables. Afin d’avoir a cet égard des données précises, j’ai
engagé, il y a un an environ, mon assistant, M. Clautriau, a Jéterminer le
point de congélation de notre liquide au sublimé, pur et mélangé d’alcool
ou de glycérine. Voici ses chiffres :
Liquide au sublimé . : . : : : : —0°.3 Centigr.
Liquide au sublimé +10 pour cent de glycérine. : . —3°.5
Liquide au sublimé +20 pour cent de glycérine. ue Se
Liquide au sublimé +10 pour cent d’alcool 4 92° Gay-Lussac —5°
Liquide au sublimé + 20 pour cent d’alcool a 92° Gay-Lussac— 9°
1 H. de Vries, Maandblad voor Natuurwe/enschappen, 1886, No. 1. Id., Berichte
der bot. Gesclisch., 1889, No. 7.
ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 687
On voit done qu'il faut ajouter 4 ce liquide des quantités assez grandes
de glycérine ou dalcool si l’on veut abaisser son point de congélation de
quelques degrés seulement. I] doit en étre de méme pour les solutions de
formol. Quant a la solution saturée de sel marin, elle ne se congéle, il est
vrai, qu’a — 21°, suivant Riidorff ;* mais déja & une température beaucoup
moindre (—5° d’aprés Noelle ; —10° suivant d’autres) ? elle dépose des
cristaux de chlorure de sodium hydraté.
Dans tous ces liquides aqueux, les spécimens deviennent flasques -
cest la un défaut, lorsqu’il s’agit de les exposer d’une maniere définitive.
Essais antérieurs avec les Liquides Aqueux.
Liquide au sublimé.—Nos essais avec ce liquide datent de 1893.
En voici le résultat : Les feuilles vertes sont soit décolorées (Lathyrus,
Dioscorea), soit plus ou moins brunies (Quercus, Humulus). Les racines
sont bien conservées (Lathyrus). Les feuilles rouges (Quercus) et les
fleurs rouges (Mreycinetia) sont brunies.
La coloration jaune du plasmode et la coloration brune des spores
ad Athalium septicum se sont bien conservées.
Les Champignons (Amanita, Clavaria, Saprolegnia) ont pris une teinte
grise, mais sont bien conservés, surtout le dernier.
Solutions de jormol (=aldéhyde formique).—Nos essais avec ce liquide
datent de 1894. II n’est pas invraisemblable que l’aldéhyde formique
puisse se décomposer en présence des matiéres organiques, de sorte que la
concentration des solutions baisse sans doute progressivement.
Dans le formol 4 1 pour mille, les parties végétales charnues dépassant
le niveau du liquide ont généralement moisi, et le liquide lui-méme s’est
couvert d’une couche épaisse de mycélium. Un mycélium analogue se
développe parfois a la surface du formol a 1 pour mille, méme
lorsque aucun tissu végétal ne vient émerger.
Pour les objets qui sont depuis le printemps de 1894 dans le formol a
1 pour mille, on remarque que :
Les feuilles sont devenues vert-sale (Lamium, Arwm) ou sont com-
plétement décolorées (Sznapis).
Les tissus incolores le sont restés (racines de Sinapis, racines d’Lvony-
mus) ou ont bruni (fleurs de Veburnwi).
Les corolles bleuatres (/ritillaria persica) sont décolorées.
Les corolles rouges (Antirrhinum majus) ont conservé une certaine
coloration ; les rouge-brunatres (Primula variabilis) également.
La coloration du spadice d@Arwm maculatum reste bien marquée ;
seulement, du violet foncé elle a passé a une teinte bleudtre intense,
La coloration jaune et brune d’ Hthalium septicum (plasmode et spores)
s’est bien conservée.
Solution satuwrée de sel marin.—Pendant plusieurs années, les Aleues
marines rouges, vertes et brunes se sont bien conservées dans ce milieu,
A la longue, de la moisissure s’est développée.
‘ Essais récents.
Pour pouvoir présenter au Comité de la British Association un
avis mieux motivé, il m’a paru désirable de soumettre un certain nombre
Vobjets végétaux, méthodiquement choisis, 4 une épreuve comparative
au moyen de divers liquides conservateurs.
.) Wiirtz, Diet. de Chimie, t. ii. p. 1516. 2 Thid.
688
a>
BHA SHOR
2
REPORT—1896.
Lessai a été commencé il y a un mois seulement et il serait prématuré
de vouloir conclure dés a présent. Cependant, ‘il peut étre opportun d’in-
diquer ici en quoi il consiste et quel en est le résultat provisoire.
Les liquides essayés sont au nombre de quatorze :
Liquide au sublimé (composition indiquée plus haut).
Sublimé glycériné (Liquide A+15 pour cent de glycérine).
Solution de formol a 1 pour mille.
(1 pour mille aldéhyde formique dans I’eau de la ville de Bruxelles.')
7
. Solution de formol 4 2 pour mille.
” a 5 ”
1 pour cent.
20 ,, (alcool 20, eau 80).
” x 30 ”
” a 40 ”
%9 a50 ,,
” a 60 ”
a 70
” ” ”
Alcool acidulé (alcool éthylique 50, eau 50, acide chlorhydrique con-
centré 2).
Alcool aluminié (alcool éthylique 50, eau 50, chlorure d’aluminium,
ACIS, 2).
Ce dernier essai était destiné a voir si le sel d’aluminium constituerait
peut-étre avec la chlorophylle une laque insoluble.
Des spécimens des objets suivants ont été mis le 26 décembre 1895
dans chacun de ces 14 liquides et conservés dans des flacons en verre,
bouchés avec des bouchons en liége et placés au fond de mon laboratoire,
c’est-a-dire & un endroit modérément éclairé :
1. Feuille de Begonia Rex (feuille verte argentée).
Is
10.
Oplismenus imbecillis, fol. variegatis (feuille verte panachée).
Pandanus javanicus, fol. varieg. (feuille verte panachée,
trés coriace).
Selaginella Martensii (feuille uniformément verte).
Maranta Mackoyana (feuille 4 plusieurs nuances).
Abutilon tessellatum (feuille tachetée de vert, de vert pale
et de blanc).
Tradescantia xebrina, fol. varieg. (feuille verte en dessus,
rouge en dessous).
Coleus sp. (feuille nuancée de vert, de blanc et de rouge
intense).
Pilea callitrichoides (petites feuilles charnues).
Genista Spachiana (folioles caduques).
il. Rameau d’Asparagus plumosus (tissus verts trés jeunes)
12. Feuille d’Asplenium diversifolium (feuille sporangifere).
13. Fleur de Goldfussia anisophylla (fleur 4 suc violet).
14,
15.
16.
”
”
oP)
Coronilla glauca (fleur a plastides jaunes).
Centradenia rosea (fleur a suc rose).
Lamprococeus miniatus (Broméliacées) (ovaire rouge: minium,
pétales bleus).
17. Feuille de Myriophyllum proserpinacoides (feuille glauque).
’ Le titre vrai de la solution commerciale de formol 4 40 pour cent environ em-
ployée pour ces essais avait été vérifié.
ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION, 689
Dans tous les liquides aqueux (A-F), les tissus sont déja devenus
flasques ; les matitres colorantes rouges, roses, bleues, solubles dans l’eau,
ont disparu ; le jaune insoluble (Coronzlla) s’est bien conservé ; la chloro-
phylle commence a brunir dans la plupart des feuilles, sauf Selaginella,
Pandanus et Oplismenus, qui se sont, jusqu’ici, parfaitement conservés,
avec leur teinte verte et leur panachure blanche.
Dans les alcools faibles (G-J) les tissus sont devenus flasques ; dans
Valcool & 60 pour cent (K) et surtout dans celui 4 70 pour cent (L), ils le
sont devenus beaucoup moins. Les tissus rouges, roses et bleus sont
décolorés comme dans les liquides aqueux ; le jaune s’est moins bien con-
servé ; les tissus verts se décolorent ou brunissent.
Dans Valcool acidulé (M) beaucoup de tissus ont bruni, mais ils sont
en train de se décolorer ensuite. Les tissus rouges, roses et bleus ont
perdu leur matiére colorante ; la fleur jaune a pris une teinte sale.
L’alcool avec chlorure d’aluminium (N) n’a présenté aucun avantage
réel,
Conclusion.—Des divers liquides essayés, aucun ne conserve d’une
maniére satisfaisante et durable la couleur des objets verts. Pour certains
objets colorés (fleurs jaunes, spadices d’Arwm, fleurs rouges d’Antirrhinum,
Primula, etc.), les liquides aqueux (liquide au sublimé, ou formol 4 1 pour
cent) conviennent assez bien.
En somme, dans les Musées, les objets conservés dans les liquides ne
_seront agréables a l’ceil qu’a la condition d’étre uniformément décolorés,
blanchis, par le procédé de de Vries. H. de Vries conserve les objets
ainsi décolorés dans l’alcool ordinaire. On pourrait aussi, je pense, une
fois qu’ils sont tout a fait décolorés, les conserver dans le liquide au
sublimé (plus stable que le liquide au formol, plus économique que l’alcool),
mais additionné d’alcool ou de glycérine de maniére a abaisser autant qu’il
est nécessaire son point de congélation.
Bien plus que les liquides, je recommanderai pour les Musées la con-
servation a sec.
TI.—ConsERVATION A SEc,
On sait que les tissus végétaux se conservent fort bien quand on les
desstche dans du sable chaud.
Ce procédé a été appliqué avec un succes remarquable par un pharma-
cien belge bien connu, feu Louis Cornélis de Diest (Belgique).
J’ai examiné récemment des fleurs conservées 4 la lumiére par ce
procédé depuis plus de seize ans et je puis déclarer qu’il n’est guére pos-
sible de souhaiter miewx. Les fleurs ont si admirablement gardé leur
forme et, presque toutes, aussi leur couleur, qu’on les dirait cueillies
depuis un instant. Les teintes blanches, roses (Glowinia), rouges (Hya-
cinthus, Pentstemon), violettes (Hyacinthus, Franciscea), bleu-pale (Scilla),
jaunes (Linaria vulgaris) sont parfaites. Certains rouges sont devenus
plus foncés qu’a l'état frais (Digitalis purpurea).
Parmi les sépales verts, datant de plus de 16 ans, quelques-uns ont
assez bien conservé leur teinte; d’autres ont bruni ou ont pali. Le
_neveu et successeur de Louis Cornélis, M. Joseph Cornélis, pharmacien a
Ciney (Belgique), m’assure que les feuilles, bourgeons et racines se con-
servent aussi bien que les fleurs ;: mais ce point mériterait d’étre bien fixé
par de nouveaux essais,
Le procédé employé a été publié par son auteur dans la Belgique horti-
cole (aoit 1880). Il est d’application facile. M. Clautriau, que j’avais
1896. YY
690 REPORT—-1896.
prié d’en faire l’essai, a obtenu un succés complet, comme pourront le con-
stater mes honorables collegues de la Commission : je viens, en effet, de
leur adresser par l’interméddiaire de M. le professeur J. B. Farmer un
flacon avec les fleurs et les feuilles que M. Clautriau a ainsi desséchées.
Ce sont’ les spécimens suivants :
Feuilles de : | Fleurs de :
Begonia Rew. Goldfussia anisophylla.
Oplismenus imbecillis, fol. var. Coronilla glauca.
Genista Spachiana. Centradenia floribunda.
Asplenium diversifolium. Lamprococcus miniatus.
Adiantum Capillus-Veneris. Monochetum ensiferum.
Rameau de: Camellia japonica, fol. var.
Asparagus plumosus. Azalea amena.
Kennedys sp.
Gesnera sp.
Voici la marche a suivre :
Le spécimen a conserver est piqué dans un pot a fleurs ou dans un
cornet en papier, 4 moitié remplis de sable sec et propre. Puis, on verse
doucement une nouvelle quantité de sable, de fagon 4 recouvrir compléte-
ment l’objet. I] est laissé en cet état, soit en présence d’acide sulfurique
sous une cloche ou l’on fait le vide et que l’on peut placer ensuite dans un
endroit chaud, soit simplement dans une étuve portée 4 35°-40° OC. A ce
point de vue, les chambres thermostatiques ou les armoires chauffantes,
comme il en existe maintenant dans la plupart de nos Instituts, con-
viennent fort bien. Aprés quelques jours (8—10 au plus), le spécimen doit
étre retiré du sable—avec beaucoup de précaution, 4 cause de sa grande
fragilité. On le dépouille du sable qui y adhére souvent, au moyen d’un
pinceau fin ou en laissant tomber sur lui du sable grossier d’une certaine
hauteur. I] suffit maintenant de conserver l’objet dans un milieu bien
sec. Le mieux est de le placer dans un flacon a large goulot,' fermé 4
V’émeri par un bouchon de verre creux dont la cavité est aux deux tiers
remplie de fragments de chaux vive, retenus par un morceau de peau. Si
le flacon n’est. pas souvent ouvert, la chaux vive n’a pas besoin d’étre
renouvelée.
Comme les objets sont extrémement cassants, il peut étre utile de
les immobiliser en les collant, par une goutte de gomme arabique.
D’aprés Cornélis, la dessiccation réussit d’autant mieux qu'elle a été
‘plus rapide : c’est pour cette raison qu’il a employé le vide ; mais cela n’est
-nullement nécessaire.
Au sujet des changements de teintes que les fleurs ainsi traitées peu-
-vent présenter, je crois bien faire en transcrivant les quelques renseigne-
ments publiés par Cornélis (Joc. cit.) :
‘Un certain nombre de fleurs changent de couleur par le fait de la
dessiccation seule ; par rie la Mauve qui est rose devient bleue ;
@autres foncent en couleur ; : la Passiflore, la Digitale pourprée, le
Colchique, la Fumeterre, etic.
‘L’action de la lumiére sur les couleurs des fleurs est trés-variable et
il n’est jamais possible de dire & priori quel en sera le résultat. Certaines
fleurs résistent parfaitement 4 la lumiére, méme & la lumiére directe du
1 Ces flacons dessiccateurs, connus ici sous le nom de flacons i peptone Cornélis,’
se trouvent, par exemple, chez Vanderborght-Minne, rue du Berger, a Bruxelles.
ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 691
soleil ; d’autres sont déja influencées par la lumiétre diffuse ; enfin il y en
a qui sont méme décolorées dans une demi-obscurité. Parmi les fleurs, les
jaunes sont les plus sensibles 4 l’action de la lumiére ; plus de la moitié
de celles expérimentées sont complétement décolorées. Trois plantes,
VAbutilon Sellowi, le Fritillaria imperialis et le Vanda suavis, présentent
un phénoméne toutefois inattendu : par la dessiccation ces fleurs prennent
une couleur d’un brun roux et lorsqu’on les expose au soleil elles repren-
nent une couleur qui se rapproche assez de la primitive, excepté pour le
Fritillaria, qui devient. violet.
‘Tl est assez curieux de voir des fleurs reprendre leur couleur au soleil,
alors que Ja plupart des autres la perdent.’
Conclusion.—En résumé, la dessiccation au sable, suivant le mode
appliqué par J. Cornélis, donne des résultats excellents pour un grand
nombre de spécimens végétaux intéressants a exhiber au public.
Au dire de l’auteur, c’est pour les fleurs jaunes qu'il convient le moins
bien. Mais peut-étre suffit-il de les soustraire 4 la lumiére trop vive.
On a vu, du reste, que, dans nos quelques essais, les couleurs jaunes se
maintiennent justement trés bien dans le liquide au sublimé ou dans celui
au formol.
Algues marines.—J’ajouterai que lon peut garder & sec les grandes
Algues marines (/ucus, Laminaria, etc.) en leur conservant leur souplesse,
si on les plonge d’abord, pendant 2-3 jours, dans l’eau de mer additionnée
de !/,9 de glycérine, et qu’on les laisse ensuite sécher a Jair.
ILJ.—PREPARATION DES SPECIMENS.
De Vries.—Il- a déja été question du procédé de de Vries pour la
décoloration des tissus végétaux.
Vert de Méthyle.—D’un autre cdté, j'ai obtenu de bons résultats dans
quelques essais déja anciens, en recolorant au moyen de vert de méthyle
des tissus décolorés par l’alcool. Les feuilles destinées 4 étre montrées
aux éléves et conservées dans la glycérine aqueuse, ont ainsi repris, en
apparence, leur teinte verte naturelle.
Lode.—Pour l'étude de la formation et de la disparition del’ amidon dans
les feuilles, on obtient des spécimens trés instructifs par la méthode succes-
sivement employée par Bohm, Hanstein et Sachs, et généralement connue
sous le nom de ‘Sachs’ Jodprobe.’ Ces objets seront conservés dans de
Palcool iodé étendu de deux volumes d’eau, en flacons bien bouchés.
Une méthode similaire m’a donné des préparations tout aussi
démonstratives pour l’accumulation et lYemploi du glycogéne chez les
Champignons. Les pédicelles de Phallus impudicus conviennent tout
spécialement.
ITV.—MontTaGE DES SPECIMENS.
_Photoxyline.—Pour mettre sous les yeux des visiteurs une série de
spécimens dans alcool représentant, par exemple, les étapes du développe-
ment d’un Gastromycéte, ou diverses périodes de la germination, ou les
états successifs d’une fleur protérandrique, ou les stades de la digestion
d’un insecte par une feuille de Drosera, etc., ou bien encore pour main-
tenir les objets dans une position immuable, il est souvent nécessaire de
les fixer sur une lame de verre. Le meilleur procédé est l’emploi de la
_ photoxyline.
Les objets frais ou sortis de l’alcool sont collés sur le verre au moyen
‘dune goutte d’une solution sirupeuse de photoxyline de Griibler, dans
692 REPORT—1896.
un mélange de parties égales d’éther et d’alcool absolu. On plonge
ensuite la lame de verre avec l’objet, pendant 5 minutes, dans l’alcool a
70 pour cent. On retire et on conserve de préférence dans alcool fort, a
92 pour cent. La photoxyline est ainsi transparente et invisible.
L’alcool absolu dissoudrait la photoxyline ; l’alcool trop faible la
rendrait trouble. L’alcool acidulé par HCl détache les objets.
Dans les liquides au formol, il y a également moyen d’attacher les
objets avec de la photoxyline ; mais les détails du procédé ne me sont
pas encore connus.
Lames de Verre blew.—Quant aux spécimens rendus absolument blancs
par le procédé de de Vries, je les ai vu fixer (a l'Université de Gand, si
je ne me trompe) sur une lame de verre, non pas blanc, mais bleu-foncé.
Cela est souvent d’un joli effet.
V.—REcIPIENTS ET FERMETURE.
Je n’ai rien de particulier &-dire 4 ce sujet. Les flacons a faces
paralléles sont, dans bien de cas, préférables aux flacons cylindriques ;
mais ils sont d’un prix élevé.
J’ai parlé plus haut des ‘flacons dessiccateurs Cornélis,’ et de leur
emploi.
La fermeture des récipients au moyen de bouchons en verre ou de
lames de verre est plus élégante qu’au moyen de bouchons en liége.
Rien 4 en dire. Si l’on veut obtenir un bouchage hermétique au moyen
d’un bouchon en liége, il faut le plonger d’abord dans de la parafiine trés-
chaude, pour qu'il s’en imprégne. Puis, aprés l’avoir appliqué sur le flacon,
ou recouvre d’une nouvelle couche de paraftine le bord du flacon et le
bouchon lui-méme.
VI.—Eriquerace.
Etiquettes.—Inutile de dire que l’étiquette doit étre aussi claire que
possible, indiquant au public non seulement le nom de l’objet et son
origine, mais attirant encore l’attention sur les détails les plus
intéressants. A ce point de vue, comme a tant d’autres, les collections
du Natural History Musewm,.Cromwell Road, sont du reste des modéles,
et c'est aux Continentaux a y prendre des lecons.
Encre.—A défaut d'une étiquette imprimée, il faut naturellement
qu’on se serve d’une encre indélébile. Les encres dites a l’aniline sont
& rejeter. Mon regretté collégue, M. le professeur Bommer, assurait
que les encres Stephens’ ‘Blue Black’ sont les meilleures pour l’étiquetage
des collections, Je n’ai point a ce sujet d’expérience personnelle étendue.
Si le Comité le juge utile, je pourrai lui communiquer ultérieurement
quelques détails complémentaires, ainsi qu’un certain nombre de renseigne-
ments bibliographiques.
APPENDIX II.
Report on the Preservation of Vegetable Specimens for Museums.
By Professor J. W. H. Trait, JC.A., FBS.
KILLING.
All plants or parts intended for museum specimens should be killed
as rapidly as possible, to prevent changes in the preservative fluids or
while being dried. This may be effected by dipping them for a few
minutes into boiling water, or (better) into strong alcohol, cold or hot.
ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 693
PRESERVATIVE MEDIA.
Spirit—I have used this medium for a number of years, usually
diluted with 30 to 50 per cent. of water. I still employ it, but to a
much less amount, and seldom as the only medium. It serves excellently
after treatment with cupric acetate in suitable cases. Specimens treated
in this way seldom discolour spirit sufficiently to require it to be changed.
I have employed the acid spirit to decolourise specimens that would
otherwise become dark in spirit ; but I seldom now attempt or wish to
obtain bleached preparations. The retention of the more or less natural
colours renders specimens both more pleasing and more instructive.
Formic Aldehyde (Formol).—I have used this for over two years
with varying results, employing solutions of from 0-5 to. 5 per cent.
in water. Even the weakest solutions have in some cases proved
sufficient when the object is small relatively to the amount of the fluid ;
but in many cases there appeared a fungus after a few weeks in the weak
solutions. I now employ habitually a 2 per cent. solution, except for
fleshy specimens or where there is relatively little space for the fluid in
the jar owing to the size of the specimen. Under these precautions I
have not found the fungi appear. The colour of the specimens is not
always well preserved, but they are usually superior to specimens treated
with spirit alone in my experience. The 2 per cent. solution has in my
experience retained the colours best.
Cupric Acetate and Acetic Acid.—I have experimented with the object
of retaining the green colour in preparations in fluids by forming the
compounds of chlorophyll and copper. The results have been very satis-
factory in some cases, notably so in Lycopodiwm and Selaginella, and
good, though with a bluish tinge in the green, in most plants that are
free from tannin. Where tannin is present it combines with the copper
and discolours the specimen ; hence this method does not succeed where it
occurs. The method is as follows : Acetic acid has cupric acetate dis-
solved in it to saturation, and 1 part of the solution is added to 4 of
water, which should have been distilled if not naturally soft. Or 1 part
of acetic acid may be added to 4 of water, and this solution may be
saturated with cupric acetate. In some cases it is sufficient to employ
1 part of acid in 10 or even more of water. Sometimes one, sometimes
another of these solutions has given the best results, according to the
material to be treated. In each case the treatment is the same. The
specimen, after having been washed clean, is submerged in the solution,
and remains in it for at least a month ; it suffers no harm even if left a
good deal longer. When it is to be transferred to the permanent pre-
servative fluid it is washed in water, to remove any particles of acetate
from the surface, and is then at once put into its jar in spirit or in what-
ever other fluid is used. Specimens successfully treated in this way may
be exposed to sunlight with impunity. Specimens are apt to become soft
under this treatment.
The cupric acetate solution may be used again and again, but acetate
should be added occasionally to keep a sufficiently strong solution.
Brine, Alum Solution, Wickersheimer’s Solution, Glycerine (10 to 50
per cent. in water), Barff’s Boroglyceride (1 in from 20 to 50 of water),
and Boracie Acid (1 per cent. in water) have all given good results in
some cases. The solutions of the salts are apt to become turbid and to
allow the growth of fungi, especially if any part of the specimens is
uncovered. It is better to wash both the specimens and the vessel,
694: REPORT—1896,
with an alcoholic solution of mercuric chloride before mounting the speci-
mens for permanent preservation.
Potassium Acetate, used with the same precaution as to disinfection,
makes a useful medium in some cases in a saturated solution in water.
Acetic Acid diluted with from 1 to 4 parts water has been used by me
with fair success as a preservative solution for some things.
[Mercurie Chloride, 4 ounce to one gallon of distilled or soft water,
renewed every year or two, preserves fruits. Glycerine may be added to
bring the fluid to the proper density.
Salicylic Acid, about 1 ounce to 5 gallons of water, with glycerine added
in proportion to juiciness of fruits, usually from 8 to 15 per cent.
Salicylic Acid.—1 ounce is dissolved in 8 ounces of alcohol, which
is added to 2 gallons of soft or distilled water. Recommended for dark
fruits.
Zine Chloride, 2 per cent. dissolved in water and filtered. Recom-
mended for light-coloured and for yellow fruits.
Sulphurous Acid, 2 ounces of concentrated solution in 1 gallon of soft
or distilled water. Said to be useful, but bleaches some and overcolours
other fruits.
Sodium Bisulphite, } ounce, spirit 4 ounces, water 1 gallon. Dissolve
the salt in half a pint of the water, add the rest of the water and the
spirit, and filter.
Kerosene when pure is said to be good for fruits of Rubus.
I have not tried the methods within the brackets, owing to want of
facilities while extension of buildings is going on. |
Dry PREPARATION.
For Herbarium.—For over twenty years I have employed wire frames,
obtaining the requisite pressure by use of rug-straps or of old and pliant
rope secured over the ends as well as the sides of the bundle. Pressure
sufficient only to prevent shrinkage gives the best results. The wire
frames permit of the easy application of artificial heat, and the results as
to colour of all parts and as to retention of shape have been excellent,
with a minimum of labour in changing papers. Plants that require
specially careful handling and dissections are, of course, treated in thin
sheets of paper, in which they lie till dry, the thin sheets being trans-
ferred unopened to the new sheets in changing the papers.
For ‘ Habit’ and as Museum Specimens.—-The specimens are exposed
to dry air without special precautions, or are sometimes secured to prevent
warping, or hung up in the position most likely to preserve the forms,
a weight sometimes being suspended from each to prevent distortions in
drying.
Some can be treated most satisfactorily by placing them in a box
prepared with a sliding bottom and a wire partition near it to lay the
plants on or to support them in it. Fine clean silver sand is then run
around and between all parts of the specimen, and. the box is placed for
some days in a dry warm place until the plant is dried.
PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS.
Boiling has proved effective in preserving the natural arrangements of
protoplasm, &c., in Spirogyra and other microscopic plants; and it has
also been resorted to by me with advantage to prevent blackening of the
tissues in some of the species notoriously apt to become black, both as
herbarium specimens and in fluid.
ON PRESERVATION OF PLANTS FOR EXHIBITION. 695
I have also resorted to it with advantage in preparing succulent plants
that are difficult to kill and to free of moisture, and also in lessening the
tendency to the fall of the leaves in certain plants, such as Hrica.
(Exposure to Vapour of Chloroform, Ether, or other poisonous gases till
the plants are dead serves the same ends.)
Colouring or Staining.—I have employed this to bring into greater
clearness the course of the bundles, but not to any great extent. Red or
purplish-red flowers will retain their colour, or more often be coloured
more brightly than natural, if dipped, before they are pressed, into a
mixture of one part hydrochloric acid in four of spirit.
Drying Fungi.—I have tried the method devised by Mr. English ; but
my results have not been satisfactory, though the form has in a good
many been fairly well preserved. Hard fungi dry easily and well if exposed
to air in a dry place.
Movuntine PREPARATIONS.
Dry Preparations, including Herbarium Specimens.
Fixing to paper is done with fish-glue. The simplest and quickest
method I find to be as follows :—A sheet of plate glass slightly larger
than the herbarium sheet has a thin layer of glue smeared uniformly over
it. The plant is then laid on this, and is pressed gently. Thus each part
that will touch the paper has received a little of the glue, and on the
specimen being laid on the paper it adheres wherever it should do so, and
no other part is smeared. Of course this method is not suited for weak
plants that could not be lifted without injury. The specimens after
having been glued are placed under pressure for some hours.
Special dissections, seeds, and other small portions I place in a special
envelope on the sheet, or under a piece of mica or of the gelatine used in
Christmas crackers.
Preparations in Boxes are also fixed with fish-glue usually, unless the
surface of attachment is very small, in which case they are secured by
threads or wires to the bottom of the box.
Preparations in Fluids.—Photoxylin has been found to give sufficiently
good results with many small objects, the slight opacity that is apt to
“ae not being a serious objection to its use. Gelatine is used for larger
objects.
Silk Thread has also proved very useful for some kinds of objects,
allowing them to be easily fixed to mica or glass tablets, or to strips of
hard paraffin, which do well sometimes. To the paraffin the specimens
can sometimes be fixed conveniently by the use of a hot rod or wire to
melt it at the point of contact. Ihave recently used xylonite for supports,
but have scarcely had sufficient experience of it to warrant a definite
conclusion. It appears to do best in solutions of formalin. Black xylonite
loses its colour in spirit.
Poisoninc Dry PREPARATIONS.
Mercuric Chloride is the substance of which I make most use for
poisoning herbarium specimens, and also for disinfecting specimens and
jars for fluid preparations. The herbarium specimens are most con-
veniently treated by dipping them into the solution, of the usual strength,
in a shallow earthenware dish, handling them with wooden forceps, and
placing them till quite dry under pressure between sheets of paper.
696 REPORT—1896.
Carbon Disulphide is also most useful for fumigating bundles occasionally,
the whole bundle being placed for a day or two in a large trough rendered
air-tight by the usual method, the atmosphere in it being saturated with
the vapour.
EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS.
Morphological Preparations and Dissections to illustrate Systematic
Characters, if mounted like herbarium specimens on stiff paper, and also
ordinary herbarium specimens, can be well exhibited on any available
wall-space by a method that I have used for some time, and that permits
the rapid change of the specimens when desired, they being kept when
not exhibited in the ordinary herbarium cases or in boxes. The sheets to
be exhibited are placed in frames each consisting of a stiff back of card-
board and front of glass, the two being separated by strips of wood, which
in some are 2 in. and in others only 4%; in. thick. The fourth side (top) is
left open, and through it the sheet is dropped into the space, I use
different sizes of frames, the largest being 174 in. by 11 in. in surface.
To support the frames strips of wood are fixed against the wall, each
strip being grooved so as to hold the frames both above and below itself,
as shown in the sketches in the margin. The specimens are quite
protected from injury and dust, and are very easily and rapidly inserted
and removed at will.
VESSELS FOR SPECIMENS.
Fluid Preparations.—For these, after having tried all the various
forms of jars and bottles that I could procure, I prefer the jar in most
cases, and, where the expense is not an insurmountable obstacle, the
rectangular jar with polished front. This is, of course, if the preparation
is to be mounted for permanent preservation. For small objects I
sometimes prefer bottles, either round or flat, as the narrower neck is
more easily secured.
Dry Preparations T usually place in glass-topped boxes if it is desirable
to protect them specially.
METHODS OF SEALING.
Hermetical Sealing.—I have employed this method with success for
small objects that can be preserved in fluid or dry in tubes, e.g. some
galls ; but it is suited to only a limited number,
Corks for Bottles and Jars.—A coat of paraffin or of collodion helps
a good deal to retard evaporation through corks, while not preventing
their removal when wished.
Glass Tops.—I use these for the jars, the cover and the mouth of the
jar both being ground. A convenient cement is isinglass dissolved in
acetic acid, heated slightly to render it fit for use. This permits of the
top being readily removed when necessary. It is rendered more secure
by two coats of collodion painted over it when firm.
It is convenient to provide for the addition of fluid to replace any lost
by evaporation after a time by having a small hole bored through the
glass cover. This hole is closed with a cork, A more elaborate cement,
composed of gum mastic, isinglass, and acetic acid, with a small admixture
of gum galbanum and gum ammoniac, has proved useful and reliable in
my experience.
Labelling.—I employ manuscript, type-written, or printed labels, as
may be determined by the advantages in each case, and by the expense.
RO
-OVD,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
ZZ
TRANSACTIONS OF ‘THE SECTIONS.»
“Section A.-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE
“PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Prorsssor J. J. THoMson, M.A., D.Sc, FOR.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The Prestent delivered the following Address :—
‘THERE is a melancholy reminiscence connected with this meeting pf our Section,
for when the British Association last met in Liverpool the chair in Section A
was occupied by Clerk-Maxwell. In the quarter of a century which has elapsed
since that meeting, one of the most important advances made. in our science has
-been the researches which, inspired by Maxwell’s view of electrical action, con-
firmed that view, and revolutionised our conception of the processes occurring in
the electro-magnetic field. _When the Association last met in Liverpool Maxwell’s
‘view was almost without supporters; to-day its opponents are fewer than its sup-
porters then. Maxwell’s theory, which is the development and extension of
Paraday’s, has not only affected our way of regarding the older phenomena of
electricity, it has, in the hands of Hertz and others, led to the discovery of whole
_ regions of phenomena previously undreamt of. It is sad to think that his prema-
_ ture death prevented him from reaping the harvest he had sown. His writings
are, however, with us, and are a storehouse to which we continually turn, and
never, I think, without finding something valuable and suggestive.
‘Thus ye teach us day by day,
Wisdom, though now far away.’
The past year has been rich in matters of interest to physicists. In it has
oceurred the jubilee of Lord Kelvin’s tenure of the Professorship of Natural Philo-
‘sophy at the University of Glasgow. Some of us were privileged to see this year
at Glasgow an event unprecedented in the history of. physical science in England,
when congratulations to Lord Kelvin on the jubilee of his professorship were
offered by people of every condition and country. Every scientific society and
every scientific man is Lord Kelvin’s debtor; but no society and no body of
Men owe him a greater debt than Section .\ of the British Association ; .he has
ne more for this Section than any one else, he has.rarely missed its meetings, he
has contributed to the Section papers which will make its proceedings imperishable,
and by his enthusiasm he has year by year inspired the workers in this Section to
mew with increased vigour their struggles to penetrate the secrets of Nature.
song may we continue to receive from him the encouragement and assistance
which have been so freely given for the past half-century.
By tke death of Sir W. R. Grove, the inventor of Grove’s cell, we have lost a
physicist whose name is a familiar one in every laboratory in the world. Besides
the Grove cell, we owe to him the discovery of the gas battery, and a series of re-
searches on the electrical behaviour of gases, whose importance is only now beginning
ZZ2
700 REPORT—1896.
to be appreciated. His essay on the correlation of the physical forces had great
influence in promoting that belief in the unity of the various branches of physics
which is one of the characteristic features of modern natural philosophy.
In the late Professor Stoletow, of Moscow, we have lost the author of a series
of most interesting researches on the electrical properties of gases illuminated by
ultra-violet light, researches which, from theirplace of publication, are, I am afraid,
not so well known in this country as they deserve to be.
As one who unfortunately of late years has had only too many opportunities of
judging of the teaching of science in our public and secondary schools, I should
like te bear testimony to the great improvement which has taken place in the
teaching of physics in these schools during the past ten years. The standard at-
tained in physics by the pupils of these schools is increasing year by year, and
ereat credit is due to those by whose labours this improvement has been accom-
plished. I hope I may not be considered ungrateful if I express the opinion that
in the zeal and energy which is now spent in the teaching of physics in schools,
there may lurk a temptation to make the pupils cover too much ground, You
may by careful organisation and arrangement ensure that boys shall be taken over
many branches of physics in the course of a short time; it is indeed not uncommon
to find boys of 17 or 18 who have compassed almost the whole range of physical
subjects, But although you may increase the rate at which information is ac-
quired, you cannot increase in anything like the same proportion the rate at which
the subject is assimilated, so as to become a means of strengthening the mind and
a permanent mental endowment when the facts have long been forgotten.
Physics can be taught so as to be a subject of the greatest possible educational
value, but when it is so it is not so much because the student acquires a knowledge
of a number of interesting and important facts, as by the mental training the study
affords in, as Maxwell said, ‘bringing our theoretical knowledge to bear on the
objects and the objects on our theoretical knowledge.’ I think this training can be
got better by going very slowly through such a subject as mechanics, making the
students try innumerable experiments of the simplest and, what is a matter of im-
portance in school teaching, of the most inexpensive kind, but always endeavouring
to arrive at numerical results, rather than by attempting to cover the whole range
of mechanics, light, heat, sound, electricity, and magnetism. I confess I regret the
presence in examinations intended for school boys of many of these subjects.
I think, too, that in the teaching of physics at our universities there is perhaps
a tendency to make the course too complex and too complete. I refer especially
to the training of those students who intend to become physicists. I think that
after a student has been trained to take accurate observations, to be alive to those
pitfalls and errors to which all experiments are liable, mischief may in some cases
be done if, with the view of learning a knowledge of methods, he is kept perform-
ing elaborate experiments, the results of which are well known. It is not given to
many to wear a load of learning lightly as a flower. With many students a load
of learning, especially if it takes a long time to acquire, is apt to crush enthusiasm.
Now, there is, I think, hardly any quality more essential to success in physical
investigations than enthusiasm. Any investigation ia experimental physics
requires a large expenditure of both time and patience; the apparatus seldom,
if ever, begins by behaving as it ought; there are times when all the forces of
nature, all the properties of matter, seem to be fighting against us: the instruments
behave in the most capricious way, and we appreciate Coutts Trotter’s saying, that
the doctrine of the constancy of nature could never have been discovered in a labora-
tory. These difficulties have to be overcome, but it may take weeks or months to do
so, and, unless the student is enthusiastic, he is apt to retire disheartened from the
contest. Ithink, therefore, that the preservation of youthful enthusiasm is one of
the most important points forconsideration in the training of physicists. In my
opinion this can best be done by allowing the student, even before he is supposed
to be acquainted with the whole of physics, to begin some original research of a
simple kind under the guidance of a teacher who will encourage him and assist in
the removal of difficulties. If the student once tastes the delights of the successful
completion of an investigation, he 1s not likely to go back, and will be better
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 701,
equipped for investigating the secrets of nature than if, like the White Knight of
‘Alice in Wonderland,’ he commences his career knowing how. to, measure
or weigh every physical quantity under the sun, but with little desire or
enthusiasm to have anything to do with any of them. Even for those students
who intend to devote themselves to other pursuits than physical investigation, the
benefits derived from original investigation as a means of general education can
hardly be over-estimated ; the necessity it entails of independent thought, perseve-
yance in overcoming difficulties, and the weighing of evidence gives it an educational
value which can hardly be rivalled. We have to congratulate ourselves that
through the munificence of Mr. Ludwig Mond, in providing and endowing a labora-
tory for research, the opportunities for pursuing original investigations in this country
have been greatly increased.
The discovery at the end of last year by Professor Réntgen of a new kind of
radiation from a highly exhausted tube through which an electric discharge is
passing has aroused an amount of interest unprecedented in the history of physical
science. The effects produced inside such a tube by the cathode rays, the
bright phosphorescence of the glass, the shadows thrown by opaque objects, the
deflection of the rays by a magnet, have, thanks to the researches of Crookes and
Goldstein, long been familiar to us, but it is only recently that the remarkable
effects which occur outside such a tube have been discovered. In 1893 Lenard,
using a tube provided with a window made of a very thin plate of aluminium,
found that a screen impregnated with a solution of a phosphorescent. substance
became luminous if placed outside the tube in the prolongation of the line from the
cathode through the aluminium window. He also found that photographic plates
laced outside the tube in this line were affected, and electrified bodies were discharged ;
e also obtained by these rays photographs through plates of aluminium or quartz.
He found that the rays were affected by a magnet, and regarded them as the pro-
longations of the cathode rays. This discovery was at the end of last year followed
by that of Rontgen, who found that the region round the discharge tube is traversed
by rays which affect a photographic plate after passing through substances
such as aluminium or cardboard, which are opaque to ordinary light; which pase
from one substance to another, without any refraction, and with but little regular
reflection ; and which are not affected by a magnet. We may, I think, for the
purposes of discussion, conveniently divide the rays occurring in or near a vacuum
tube traversed by an electric current into three classes, without thereby implying
that they are necessarily distinctly different in physical character. We have (1)
the cathode rays inside the tube, which are deflected by a magnet ; (2) the Lenard
rays outside the tube, which are also deflected by a magnet; and (3) the Réntgen
rays, which are not, as far as is known, deflected by a magnet. Two views are held
as to the nature of the cathode rays; one view is, that they are particles of gas
carrying charges of negative electricity, and moving with great velocities which
they have acquired as they travelled through the intense electric field which exists
in the neighbourhood of the negative electrode. ‘The phosphorescence of the glass
is on this view produced by the impact of these rapidly moving charged particles,
though whether it is produced by the mechanical violence of the impact, or whether
it is due to an electro-magnetic impulse produced by the sudden reversal of the
velocity of the negatively charged particle—whether, in fact, it is due to mechanical
or electrical causes, is an open question. This view of the constitution of the
cathode rays explains in a simple way the deflection of those rays in a magnetic
field, and it has lately received strong confirmation from the results of an experiment
made by Perrin. Perrin placed inside the exhausted tube a cylindrical metal
vessel with a small hole in it, and connected this cylinder with the leaves of a gold-
leaf electroscope. The cathode rays could, by means of a magnet, be guided so as
either to pass into the cylinder through the aperture, or turned quite away from it.
Perrin found that when the cathode rays passed into the cylinder the gold leaf of
the electroscope diverged, and had a negative charge, showing that the bundle of
eathode rays enclosed by the cylinder had a charge of negative electricity. Crookes
had many years ago exposed a disc connected with a gold-leaf electroscope to -the
- bombardment of the cathode rays, and found that the disc received a slight. positive
702 - REPORT— 1896.
charge; with-this arrangement, however, the charged particles had to give up their
charges to'the' disc if the gold leaves of the electroscope were to be affected, and we’
know that it is'extremely difficult, if not impossible, to get electricity out of a:
charged gas mérély by bringing the gas in contact with a metal. Lord Kelvin’s
electric strainers are an example of this. It is a feature of Perrin’s experiment
that since it acts by induction the indications of the electroscope are independent
of the communication of the charges of electricity from the gas to the cylinder, and:
since the cathode rays fall on the inside of the cylinder the electroscope would
not be affected, even if there were such an effect as is produced when ultra-violet
light falls upon the surface of an electro-negative metal when the metal acquires a
positive charge. Since any such process cannot affect the total amount of electricity
inside the cylinder, it will not affect the gold leaves of the electroscope ; in fact,
Perrin’s experiments prove that thecathode rayscarry a charge of negativeelectricity.
The other view held as to the constitution of the cathode rays is that they are
waves in the ether. It would seem difficult to account for the result of Perrin’s
experiment.on this view, and also I think very difficult to account for the magnetic
deflection of the rays. Let us take the case of a uniform magnetic field: the
experiments ‘which have been made on the magnetic deflection of these rays seem:
to make it clear that in a magnetic field which is sensibly uniform, the path of
these rays is curved ; now if these rays were due to ether waves, the curvature of
the path would-show thatthe velocity of propagation of these waves varied from
point to point of the path. That is, the velocity of propagation of these waves is
not only affected by the magnetic field, it is affected differently at different parts
of the field.. But in a uniform field what is there to differentiate one part
from another; ‘so as to account for the variability of the velocity of wave
propagation in such a field? The curvature of the path in a uniform field
could not be accounted for by supposing that the velocity of this wave motion
depended: on the strength of the magnetic field, or that the magnetic field,
by distorting ‘the shape of the boundary of the negative dark space, changed
the direction of ‘the wave front, and so produced a deflection of the rays. The
chief reason for Supposing that the cathode rays are a species of wave motion is
afforded‘ by Lenard’s discovery, that when the cathode rays in a vacuum tube fall
on a thin aluminium window in the tube, rays having similar properties are
observed on the side of the window outside the tube ; this is readily explained on
the hypothesis that the rays are a species of wave motion to which the window is
partially transparent, while it is not very likely that particles of the gas in the
tube could fdrce their way through a piece of metal. This discovery of Lenard’s
does not, howéver, seem to me incompatible with the view that the cathode rays are
due to negatively charged particles moving with high velocities. The space outside
Lenard’s: tube ‘must have heen traversed by Réntgen rays: these would put the
surrounding gas in a state in which a current would be readily started in the gas if
any electromotive force acted upon it. Now, though the metal window in Lenard’s
experiments ‘was connected with the earth, and would, therefore, screen off from the
outside of the tube any effect arising from slow electrostatic changes in the tube, it
does not follow that it would be able to screen off the electrostatic effect of charged
particles moving to and from the tube with very great rapidity. For in order to
screen off electrostatic effects, there must be a definite distribution of electrification
over the screen: changes in this distribution, however, take a finite time, which
depends upon the dimensions of the screen and the electrical conductivity of the
material of which it is made. If the electrical changes in the tube take place at
above a certain rate, the distribution of electricity on the screen will not have time
to adjust itself, and the screen will cease to shield off all electrostatic effects. Thus
the very rapid electrical changes which would take place if rapidly moving charged
bodies were striking against the window might give rise to electromotive forces
in the region outside the window, and produce convection currents in the gas
which has been made a conductor by the Réntgen rays. The Lenard rays would
thus be analogous in character to the cathode rays, both being convective currents
of electricity. Though there are some points in the behaviour of these Lenard rays
which do not admit of a very ready explanation from this point of view, yet the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 703°
difficulties in its way seem to me considerably less than that of supposing that\a
wave in the ether can change its velocity when moving from point to point in a
uniform magnetic field. tts
I now pass on to the consideration of the Rontgen rays. We are not yet
acquainted with any crucial experiment which shows unmistakably that these rays
are waves of transverse vibration in the ether, or that they are waves of normal
vibration, or indeed that they are vibrations at all. Asa working hypothesis, how-
ever, it may be worth while considering the question whether there is any property
known to be possessed by these rays which is not possessed by some form or other
of light. The many forms of light have in the last few months received a note-
worthy addition by the discovery of M. Becquerel of an invisible radiation, possess-
ing many of the properties of the Réntgen rays, which is emitted by many fluores-
cent substances, and to an especially marked extent by the uranium salts. By
means of this radiation, which, since it can be polarised, is unquestionably light,
photographs through opaque substances similar to, though not so beautiful as, those
obtained by means of Réntgen rays can be taken, and, like the Rontgen rays, they
cause an electrified body on which they shine to lose its charge, whether this be
positive or negative.
- The two respects in which the Réntgen rays differ from light is in the
absence of refraction and perhaps of polarisation. Let us consider the absence
of refraction first. "We know cases in which special rays of the spectrum pass:
from one substance to another without refraction; for example, Kundt showed
that'gold, silver, copper, allow some rays to pass through them without bending,
while other rays are bent in the wrong direction. Pfliiger has lately found that»
the same is true for some of the aniline dyes when in a solid form. In addition to
this, the theory of dispersion of light shows that there will be no bending when the
frequency of the vibration is very great. 1 have here a curve, taken from a paper
by Helmholtz, which shows the relation between the refractive index and the
frequency of vibration for a substance whose molecules have a natural period of
vibration, and one only ; the frequency of this vibration is represented by OK in the
diagram. ‘The refractive index increases with the frequency of the light until the
latter is equal to the frequency of the natural vibration of the substance; the
refractive index then diminishes, becomes less than unity, and finally approaches
unity, and is practically equal to it when the frequency of the light greatly exceeds
that of the natural vibration of the molecule. Helmholtz’s results are obtained on
the supposition that a molecule of the refracting substance consists of a pair of
oppositely electrified atoms, and that the specific inductive capacity of the medium.
consists of two parts, one due to the ether, the other to the setting of the molecules
along the lines of electric force.
Starting from this supposition we can easily see without mathematical analysis:
that the relation between the refractive index and the frequency must be of the
kind indicated by the curve. Let us suppose that an electromotive force of given
amplitude acts on this mixture of molecules and ether, and let us start with the fre-
quency of the external electromotive force less than that of the free vibrations of the:
molecules : as the period of the force approaches that of the molecules, the effect of
the force in pulling the molecules into line will increase ; thus the specific inductive
capacity, and therefore the refractive index, increases with the frequency of the
external force ; the effect of the force on the orientation of the molecules will be:
greatest when the period of the force coincides with that of the molecules. As
long as the frequency of the force is less than that of the molecules, the external
field tends to make the molecules set so as to increase the specific inductive capacity
of the mixture; as soon, however, as the frequency of the force exceeds that of the
molecules, the molecules, if there are no viscous forces, will all topple over and
point so as to make the part of the specific inductive capacity due to the molecules
of opposite sign to that due to the ether. Thus, for frequencies greater than that,
of the molecules, the specific inductive capacity will be less than unity. When the
frequency of the force only slightly exceeds that of the molecules, the effect of the
external field on the molecules is very great, so that if there are a considerable
number of molecules, the negative part of the specific inductive capacity due to the.
704, REPORT— 1896,
molecules may be greater than the positive part due to the ether, so that the
specific inductive capacity of the mixture of molecules and ether would be negative ;
no waves of this period could then travel through the medium—they would he.
totally reflected from the surface.
As the frequency of the force gets greater and greater, its effect in making the
molecules set will get less and less, but the waves will continue to be totally re-
flected until the negative part of the specific inductive capacity due to the mole-
cules is just equal to the positive part due to the ether, Here the refractive
index of the mixture is zero. As the frequency of the force increases, its effect on
the molecules gets less and less, so that the specific inductive capacity continually
approaches that due to the ether alone, and practically coincides with it as soon as
the frequency of the force is a considerable multiple of that of the molecules. In
this case both the specific inductive capacity and the refractive index of the medium
are the same as that of the ether, and there is consequently no refraction, Thus
the absence of refraction, instead of being in contradiction to the Réntgen rays,
being a kind of light, is exactly what we should expect if the wave-length of the
light were exceedingly small.
The other objection to these rays being a kind of light is, that there is no very
conclusive evidence of the existence of polarisation. Numerous experiments have
been made on the difference between the absorption of these rays by a pair of
tourmaline plates when their axes are crossed or parallel. Many observers have
failed to observe any difference at all between the absorption in the two cases.
Prince Galitzine and M. de Karnojitsky, by a kind of cumulative method, have
obtained photographs which seem to show that there is a slightly greater absorption
when the axes are crossed than there is when the axes are parallel. There can,
however, be no question that the effect, if it exists at all, is exceedingly small
compared with the corresponding effect for visible light. Analogy, however, leads
us to expect that to get polarisation effects we must use, in the case of short
waves, polarisers of a much finer structure than would be necessary for long ones.
Thus a wire bird-cage will polarise long electrical waves, but will have no effect
on visible light. Rubens and Du Bois made an instrument which would polarise
the infra red rays by winding very fine wires very close together on a framework ;
this arrangement, however, was too coarse to polarise visible light. Thus, though
the structure of the tourmaline is fine enough to polarise the visible rays, it may
be much too coarse to polarise the Réntgen rays if these have exceedingly small
wave-lengths. As far as our knowledge of these rays extends, I think we may
say that though there is no direct evidence that they are a kind of light, there are
no properties of the rays which are not possessed by some variety of light.
It is clear that if the Réntgen rays are light rays, their wave-lengths are of an
entirely different order from those of visible light. It is perhaps worth notice that
on the electro-magnetic theory of light we might expect two different types of
vibration if we suppose that the atoms in the molecule of the vibrating substance
carried electrical charges. One set of vibrations would be due to the oscillations
of the bodies carrying the charges, the other set to the oscillation of the charges
on these bodies. The wave-length of the second set of vibrations would be com-
mensurate with molecular dimensions; can these vibrations be the Rontgen rays?
If so, we should expect them to be damped with such rapidity as to resemble
electrical impulses rather than sustained vibrations.
If we turn from the rays themselves to the effects they produce, we find that
the rays alter the properties of the substances through which they are passing.
This change is most apparent in the effects produced on the electrical properties
of the substances. A gas, for example, while transmitting these rays is a con-
ductor of electricity. It retains its conducting properties for some little time
after the rays have ceased to pass through it; but Mr. Rutherford and I have
lately found that the conductivity is destroyed if a current of electricity is sent
through the Rontgenised gas. The gas in this state behaves in this respect like
a very dilute solution of an electrolyte. Such a solution would cease to conduct
after enough electricity had been sent through it to electrolyse all the molecules
of the electrolyte. When a current is passing through a gas exposed to the rays,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 705,
the current destroys and the rays produce the structure which gives conductivity
to the gas; when things have reached a steady state the rate of destruction by the
current must equal the rate of production by the rays. The current can thus not
exceed a definite value, otherwise more of the conducting gas would be destroyed
than is produced.
This explains the very characteristic feature that in the passage of electricity
through gases exposed to Réntgen rays the current, though at first proportional
to the electromotive force, soon reaches a value where it is almost constant and
independent of the electromotive force, and we get to a state when a tenfold
increase in the electromotive force only increases the current by a few per cent.
The conductivity under the Réntgen rays varies greatly from one gas to another,
the halogens and their gaseous compounds, the compounds of sulphur, and mercury
vapour, are among the best conductors. It is worthy of note that those gases
which are the best conductors when exposed to the rays are either elements, or
compounds of elements, which have in comparison with their valency very high
refractive indices.
The conductivity conferred by the rays on a gas is not destroyed by a con-
siderable rise in temperature; it is, for example, not destroyed if it be sucked
through metal tubing raised to a red heat. The conductivity is, however, de-
stroyed if the gas is made to bubble through water ; it is also destroyed if the gas
is forced through a plug of glass wool. This last effect seems to indicate that the
structure which confers conductivity on the gas is of a very coarse kind, and we
get confirmation of this from the fact that a very thin layer of gas exposed to the
Rontgen rays does not conduct nearly so well as a thicker one. I think we have
evidence from other sources that electrical conduction is a process that requires
a considerable space—a space large enough to inclose a very large number of
molecules.
Thus Koller found that the specific resistances of petroleum, turpentine,
and distilled water, when determined from experiments made with very thin
layers of these substances, were very much larger than when determined from ex-
periments with thicker layers. Even in the case of metals there is evidence that
the metal has to be of appreciable size if it is to conduct electricity. The theory
of the scattering of light by small particles shows that, if we assume the truth
of the electro-magnetic theory of light, the effects should be different according
as the small particles are insulators or conductors. When the small particles are
non-conductors, theory and experiment concur in showing that the direction of
complete polarisation for the scattered light is at right angles to the direction of
the incident light, while if the small particles are conductors, theory indicates
that the direction of complete polarisation makes an angle of 60° with the
incident light. This result is not, however, confirmed by the experiments made
by Professor Threlfall on the scattering of light by very small particles of gold.
He found that the gold scattered the light in just the same way as a non-
conductor, giving complete polarisation at right angles to the incident light.
This would seem to indicate that those very finely divided metallic particles no
longer acted as conductors. Thus there seems evidence that in the case of con-
duction through gases, through badly conducting liquids, and through metals,
_ electric conduction is a process which requires a very considerable space and
aggregations of large numbers of molecules. I have not been able to find any
direct experimental evidence as to whether the same is true for electrolytes.
Experiments on the resistance of thin layers of electrolytes would be of con-
_ siderable interest, as according to one widely accepted view of electrolysis con-
duction through electrolytes, so far from being effected by aggregations of
molecules, takes place by means of the ion, a structure simpler than that of
the molecule, so that if this represents the process of electrolytic conduction,
there would not seem room for the occurrence of an effect which occurs with every
other kind of conduction.
Tn this building it is only fitting that some reference should be made to the
question of the movement of the ether. You are all doubtless acquainted with the
heroic attempts made by Professor Lodge to set the ether in motion, and how suc-
706. REPORT—1896.
cessfully the ether resisted them. It seems to be conclusively proved that a solid
body in motion does not set in motion the ether at an appreciable distance outside
it; so that if the ether is disturbed at all in such a case, the disturbance is not com-
parable with that produced by a solid moving through an incompressible fluid, but
must be more analogous to that which would be produced by the motion through:
the liquid of a body of very open structure, such as a piece of wire netting, where
the motion of the’ fluid only extends to a distance comparable with the diameter of
the wire, and not with that of the piece of netting. There is another class of
phenomena relating to the movement of the ether which is, I think, deserving of
consideration, and that is the effect of a varying electro-magnetic field in setting
the ether in motion. I do not remember to have seen it pointed out that the
electro-magnetic theory of light implicitly assumes that the ether is not set in
motion even when acted on by mechanical forces. On the electro-magnetic theory
of light such forces do exist, and the equations used are only applicable when the
ether is at rest. Consider, for example, the case of a plane electric wave travelling.
through the ether. We have parallel to the wave front a varying electric polari-
sation, which on the theory is equivalent to a current; at right angles to this, and
also in the wave-front, we have a magnetic force. Now, when a current flows
through a medium in a magnetic field there is a force acting on the medium at
right angles to the plane, which is parallel both to the current and to the magnetic
force; there will thus be a mechanical force acting on each unit volume of the
ether when transmitting an electric wave, and since this force is at right angles to
the current and to the magnetic force, it will be in the direction in which the
wave is propagated. In the electro-magnetic theory of light, however, we assume
that this force does not set the ether in motion, as unless we made this assumption
we should have to modify our equations, as the electro-magnetic equations are not
the same in a moving field as in a field at rest. In fact, a complete discussion of
the transmission of electro-magnetic disturbances requires a knowledge of the con-
stitution of the ether, which we do not possess. We now assume that the ether is
not set in motion by an electro-magnetic wave. If wedo not make this assump-
tion we must introduce into our equation quantities representing the components
of the velocity of the ether, and unless we know the constitution of the ether, so:
as to be able to deduce these velocities from the forces acting on it, there will be-
in the equations of the electro-magnetic field more unknown quantities than we,
have equations to determine. It is, therefore, a very essential point in electro-
magnetic theory to investigate whether or not there is any motion of the ether in
a varying electro-magnetic field. We have at the Cavendish Laboratory, using
Professor Lodge’s arrangement of interference fringes, made some experiments to
see if we could detect any movement of the ether in the neighbourhood of an
electric vibrator, using the spark which starts the vibrations as the source of light.
The movement of the ether, if it exists, will be oscillatory, and with an undamped
vibrator the average velocity would be zero; we used, therefore, a heavily damped
vibrator, with which the average velocity might be expected to be finite. The
experiments are not complete, but so far the results are entirely negative. We also
tried by the same method to see if we could detect any movement of the ether in
the neighbourhood of a vacuum-tube emitting Réntgen rays, but could not find any
trace of such a movement. Professor Threlfall, who independently tried the same
experiment, has, I believe, arrived at the same conclusion.
Unless the ether is immovable under the mechanical forces in a varying electro-
magnetic field, there are a multitude of phenomena awaiting discovery. If the
ether does move, then the velocity of transmission of electrical vibrations, and
therefore of light, will be affected by a steady magnetic field. Such a field, even if
containing nothing but ether, will behave towards light like a crystal, and the
velocity of propagation will depend upon the direction of the rays. A similar
result would also hold in a steady electric field. We may hope that experiments
on these and similar points may throw some light on the properties of that medium
which is universal, which plays so large.a part in our explanation of physical
phenomena, and of which we know so little.
TRANSAGTIONS OF SECTION A. 707 —
“The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory.
a. «See Reports, p. 82.
4. On the Evolution of Stellar Systems. By Isaac Roserts, D.Sc., LBS.
The evidence of stellar evolution which it is now proposed to submit may be
presented in either of two forms :—(1) By tracing back from the visually finished
stars to the material of which: they may have been built up; this we may term
the analytical method. (2) By tracing their development from an amorphous
material to the visually finished stars ; this would be the synthetical method. The
first of these will now be considered.
Tt should be noted that the evidence has been obtained by processes which are
not subject to the disturbing influence of human or personal imperfections.
A series of photographs, untouched by handwork, were shown, and the objects
as they undoubtedly exist in the sky were thus submitted to judgment.
A small selection of characteristic photographs were exhibited by lantern
projections on a screen. ;
The first was a photograph: of the sky in the constellation Auriga, which was
taken with an exposure of the plate during 90 minutes, and attention was drawn
to the remarkable groups, curves, and lines of stars which were clearly shown
upon it. Some of them are constituted of bright stars of nearly equal magnitude ;
some are of faint stars, also of nearly equal magnitude ; some are of both bright
and faint stars, and there is much regularity in the spacing distance between the
stars in the several groups. These appearances are persistently found upon all
photographs, taken with a long exposure, in any part of the sky where the stars
are numerous.
In order to emphasise these statements, two photographs of stars in the con-
stellation Argo and one in Cassiopeia were shown on the screen, and upon them
also was seen the appearances referred to; and hundreds of photographs of other
regions of the sky could be shown in further confirmation of these features.
The explanation offered to account for the grouping of the stars, that they were
so placed from the beginning, is not the only one. Photographs were then shown
which suggest, if they do not demonstrate, stellar evolution.
The spiral nebula in Pisces clearly shows that the spirals consist of nebulous
matter with faint stars immersed in it, and of bright stars apparently in their
completed forms. The curvatures and the general arrangements of these stars,
both bright and faint, can be readily matched with similar curves seen on the
photographs already shown; but the taint stars which are immersed in the nebu-
losity are not yet in the completed form, and will not arrive at that stage until
the whole of the nebulosity has been absorbed, when they will stand out clearly
separated like the other stars.
The spiral nebula in the constellation Ursa Major, like the last, has spirals
formed of nebulous matter, with numerous starlike condensations in it; and six
well-defined stars are involved at irregular intervals. The nebulous condensations
are not so regular in their outlines as are those on the first photograph, and are
suggestive of a more recent period in their development.
The spiral nebula in Ursa Major, like the two others, consists of faint starlike
condensations immersed in the convolutions. [here are also five well-formed
stars involved, but the stellar condensations are less fully developed in this nebula.
The fourth photograph was of the spiral nebula in Canes Venatici, and it was
observed that the conyolutions are more strongly shown in this than in the other
nebule ; also that they consist of several well-formed stars, whilst the star-like
condensations show various degrees of development, from the likeness of a nebulous
star to that of diffused nebulosity.
The fifth photograph, the spiral nebula in 7’rzangulum, shows the spirals to be
crowded with stars and star-like condensations in the midst of diffused nebulosity.
708, -REPORT—1896, -
The convolutions are less symmetrical in their outlines than are those of the other
spirals exhibited.
The evidence, part of which had been laid before the Section, is reasonably
conclusive that some, if not many,.of the stars which we see in curves and in
groups strewn over the sky have been formed in the manner pointed out. There
are, besides this, other methods of stellar evolution, shown in other photographs,
such as condensations into stars of nebulze which have not at present symmetrical
structures and outlines—of globular nebulz and of annular nebule ; but these
were not described.
If it be true that stars are evolved from spiral and other forms of nebulosity,
it may be asked, Whence came the nebulous matter ? We can answer with conti-
dence that it exists in very large quantities over extensive areas, and in many parts
of the sky; and that it exists there in the form of gas, or, more probably, as
Professor Norman Lockyer urges, in his ‘ Meteoritic Hypothesis,’ of meteors or
meteoric dust.
There is also evidence that collisions between bodies in space take place—
perhaps large bodies may collide, with the result that their component materials
would again be converted into gas, meteoric dust, and meteoric stones. What-
ever the sources of the nebular material may be, we know that collisions in space
would supply the energy requisite for the formation of the spiral nebule, of the
existence and the forms of which now we have ample proof.
3. On Periodic Orbits. By G. H. Darwin, FBS.
If a planet, say Jove, of unit mass, moves in a circular orbit round the sun, of
mass (n*—1)?, at unit distance, the equations of motion of an infinitesimal third
body, referred to heliocentric origin, with x axis passing through Jove, are
dt? dt dx
dy on dv da
dt dt dy’
where C is a constant. The function Q is given by
9
20 = (nr? - 1 (72+2)+ Gi + =)
UP p:
where 7, p are the heliocentric and jovicentric radii vectores.
The curves defined by 20 = C give a partition of space into regions where the
velocity is real, and those where it is imaginary.
From these curves are obtained an inferior limit to the heliocentric distance of
a superior planet, and superior limits to the heliocentric and jovicentrie distances
of an inferior planet and of a satellite.
There are four critical cases, corresponding to the four exact solutions of the
problem, in which the three bodies move round without relative motion.
Solutions of these equations, which are represented by closed curves, are called
periodic, orbits, and if they are re-entrant after a single circuit, they are called
simply periodic orbits,
The object in view is to obtain a complete synopsis of simply periodic orbits,
and of their stabilities, for all values of C. This can only be done in a concrete
case, and the sun’s mass is taken as ten times that of Jove, and the orbits are
determined by the method of quadratures. is
The field to be covered is so large that up to the present time it has been
found necessary to pass over the retrograde orbits and the superior planets; and
only.a portion of the cases of inferior planets and satellites haye been as yet
considered, A number of figures were shown, amongst which may be mentioned
and the Jacobian integral is
————————————— —————— —“‘“‘“‘:SC
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. ‘709
some exhibiting orbits of oscillating satellites, and orbits with cusps and loops.
Perhaps the most curious cases are those representing the orbits of satellites, which
present three new moons in a month, and another with five full moons in a month.
The consideration of the stability of the orbits shows that there are stable
satellites close to Jove, or at some distance from Jove; but that there is a tract
between these two in which no stable motion can take place. This conclusion
appears to throw some light on Bode’s empirical law as to the distribution of
planets and satellites.
A paper containing an account of this investigation will appear in the Acta
Mathematica of Stockholm. Se en
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Cathode Rays and their probable connection with Réintgen Rays.
By Professor Puiriep Lenarp, Aachen.
Until a few years ago it was impossible to make experiments on cathode rays
under modified conditions, because it was impossible to vary their surroundings
without at the same time altering the circumstances under which they were pro-
duced. Hertz’s discovery that thin sheets of metals were transparent to the
cathode rays has enlarged the field of experiment. By making a small aluminium
window in one end of the discharge-tube the rays can now be allowed to go out
from the space where they were generated ; they can thus be investigated without
altering the conditions of generation, and therewith the properties of the rays
themselves. The cathode rays emerge into air at ordinary pressure, but they are
very rapidly absorbed by it, so that at a distance of from 6 to 8 centimetres no
trace of them is visible on a screen capable of phosphorescence. The free atmo-
sphere proves, moreover, to be a turbid medium to these rays, their propagation
behind shadow-casting objects being similar to the propagation of light in milk.
Other gases of equal density behave in the same way. But as the density of a gas
is diminished by lowering its pressure, it becomes more transparent and less
turbid. In the highest vacuum that can be produced there is no limit to the
transmission of the rays, and behind a diaphragm they are quite as sharp as rays
of light are under the same circumstances. From the fact that the rays are not
stopped by a space containing only minute traces of matter it is concluded that
they are processes going on in the ether.
The absorption of the rays in various substances can also be investigated. It
is found to be in every case approximately proportional to the density of the
medium, whether this be solid or gaseous, and whatever be its chemical nature.
The rays are deflected by a magnet, and it was found that in this respect there
were different kinds of cathode rays, those which are produced when the dis-
charge-tube was more exhausted being less deflectible than those produced when
it was less exhausted. The deflectibility of the rays depends also in other respects
on the circumstances of their production ; it is, however, quite unalterable by any
change in the observing-space. Whatever the nature or the pressure of the gas in
this space was, the deflectibility of the rays remained the same whenever it could
be tested—z.e. whenever the density of the gas was such as allowed rays of some
sharpness to be obtained. This was the case, for instance, in common air below
about one tenth of an atmosphere, and in hydrogen of ordinary or any smaller
pressure. The deflectibility of the rays was also found to be the same before and
after traversing an air-tight sheet of aluminium set up in the observing-space.
The deflectibility of a cathode ray once produced being thus quite unalterable,
its magnitude may serve as a characteristic to denote any particular kind of cathode
tay. Rays of smaller deflectibility were found to be less easily absorbed and
‘710 -., REPORT——1896,
diffused by all substances than rays of greater deflectibility. 1t might therefore
be expected that there exists an extreme form of cathode rays which is not per-
ceptibly. deflected by a magnet, and which is accordingly very slightly absorbed
and diffused by all substances, but which would have the same property of being
absorbed by all substances approximately in proportion. to their density. The rays
discovered by Réntgen agree in these respects with such cathode rays; they agree
with them also in other respects, and, in fact, no observation yet made contradicts
the hypothesis that the Rontgen rays are of the same nature as the cathode rays,
being an extreme form of cathode ray with zero deflectibility. \
2. On the Laws of Conduction of Electricity through Gases exposed to
the Réntgen Rays. By Professor J. J. Tuomson, F.RS., and
E. RUTHERFORD.
[Published in the Phil. Mag., Nov. 1896, pp. 392-417.]
3. On the Transparency of Glass and Porcelain to the Réntgen Rays.
By A. W. Ricker, F.R.S., and W. Watson, B.Sc.
‘The transparency to the X-rays of a number of different pieces of the same
kind of glass up to a total thickness of 5'1 mm. was determined by the photometric
method.
The results can be expressed very approximately by the formula
I =I, {0-2 + 0°8 x 0:35794,3,
where I, is the intensity of the phosphorescent light when no absorbing medium is
interposed, and I the intensity when the X-rays have passed through ¢ mm, of the
glass used. This suggests that the rays emitted. by the tube consist of two great
groups, to one of which the glass is very transparent, while the remainder are
absorbed according to the ordinary law. - *
Observations were then made on the ratio between the transparency of different
kinds of porcelain to that of glass of the same thickness. The specimens were in
part lent by the authorities of the South Kensington Museum, and were in part
selected from a small collection belonging to one of the authors.
The mean results were as follows :—
Bow opaque.
Phosphatic Soft Paste . : ri ery BE aeons ; : 4
Crown Derby .:: °a... =~ O27
Soft Paste ‘ ; - r . . Worcester . - ates . 036
_ Hard Paste ‘ 3 z : .__ Bristol Cottage Ware : . 0:56
Soft, but glass-like Paste. ; | poe Loam Beaphts . Aes
; Ny Po Gecio . Soee
Hard Paste - » . = Bionenpar eet “ut i 0-93
4, Measurement of Electric Currents through. Air at different Densities down
to one Five-millionth of the Density of Ordinary Air. By Lord
- Ketvin, J. T. Borromney, and Macnus Maciean.
The apparatus used in these experiments consisted of (1) a cylindrical tube
13 ems. long and 13 cm. diameter, with two aluminium wires as terminals ground
to points 15 cm. apart; (2) a large Wimshurst electrostatic machine of
24 plates; (8) a high-resistance mirror galvanometer to measure the current
between the aluminium-point terminals inside the tube; (4) an electrostatic volt-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 711
meter to measure the difference of potential between the terminals of the tube ;
(5) a five-fall Sprengel pump, by means of which the density of the air inside the
tube could be reduced to any desired extent. The galvanometer was placed on a
block of paraffin between one terminal of the electric machine and one terminal of
the glass tube. Its deflections were read by a telescope’ and its sensibility was
arranged by external magnets, so that one division of ‘deflection corresponded to
0:3 mikroampere. Our method of experimenting was to keep the ‘density of the
air constant while we varied the difference of potential between the terminals of
the tube, and taking simultaneous readings on the voltmeter and‘ on the galvano-
meter. The electric potential was varied either by varying ‘the speed of rotation
of the machine or by varying the distance between the needle-point terminals of
the machine, or by a combination of both. ol
“We found that at ordinary atmospheric density it’ requires a difference of
‘potential of between 2,000 and 3,000 volts at the terminals of the tube before the
galvanometer indicates any current. As the difference of potential is now increased,
the current through the galvanometer increases at a greater ratio, so that if a curve
be drawn with differences of potential as absciss and galvanometer readings or
currents as ordinates, the curve is always concave towards’ the axis of current.
Through this particular tube the currents at 3,000, 5,000; and 8,000 volts difference
of potential were 7:2, 17-6, and 63:2 mikroamperes respectively. As the density of
the air was diminished, the difference of potential necessary to start a current, as
‘indicated by the galvanometer, gradually diminished also, till, at'a density of about
zoo Of the ordinary density, a few score volts were suflicient to start a current.
For the same difference of potential the current increased as the density of the air
diminished ; or, otherwise, the same current was obtained by smaller differences of
potential as the density of the air was reduced. Thus a current of about 56
mikroamperes was obtained by differences of potential of 7,400, 1,090, 700, 370,
‘405, 570 volts, when the densities of the air were 1 (ordinary density), 0-058,
0:0095, 0:0007, 0:00006, 0:000024 respectively; or, otherwise, when the air
‘pressures were 750, 44, 7, 4, 35, =; millimetres of mercury respectively.
As the air density was still further reduced, the difference of potential necessary
to start a current increased, and the current for the same difference of potential
diminished. Thus, when the density of the air was reduced to one five-millionth
of the density of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure and temperature, differences
of potential of 3,000, 5,000, and 8,000 volts gave currents of 1:3, 4:4, and 14:6
mikroamperes respectively.
\. If a curve be drawn for a constant difference of potential, with air densities as
abscissze and currents as ordinates, we find the curve rising as the air density is
diminished to about z,/55 Or zs'q_Of ordinary density; then falling again as the
density is still further reduced to about a five-millionth of ordinary density. This
is the lowest density we have experimented with, but we have no reason to doubt
that at very much lower densities we would still be able to get measurable currents
through the tube.
_ We are now experimenting with a tube 15 cms. long and 1} em. diameter,
having ball terminals of } cm. diameter and about 2 mm. apart. The investigation
is not complete enough for publishing any results.
5. The Duration of X-Radiation at each Spark.
By Frep. T. Trouton, IA., D.Se.
The object of these experiments was to ascertain how long a Crookes’ tube
continued at each spark to give out Roéntgen radiation.
The method adopted was to rotate a metallic-toothed wheel (cut out of sheet
zinc) interposed between a tube and a sensitive photographic plate. Only one spark
is allowed to pass by making one brake of the primary of the inductive coil used.
The departure from sharpness of outline of the image of the moving teeth on
712 REPORT—1896,
development is observed and measured in terms of the width of a tooth. If the
speed of rotation is known, the length of time the effective radiation persists can
be at once deduced.
A mercury brake worked simply by hand was generally used. The tube was
distant from the plate about eight centimetres.
When the wheel is rotated sufficiently fast, a drawing out of the image is
always observed ; but the amount of this drawing out in each case is found to vary
in an important way with circumstances, and is probably but a measure of the
length of time the E.M.F. remains above the value necessary for discharge, and
thus ultimately depends upon the arrangements used—the coil, Ke.
If a spark gap in parallel with the tube be provided, the drawing out is cut
short by the passage of a spark at the gap. How early this occurs depends on the
distance between the sparking points. In this way comparatively sharp-looking
images are obtainable without otherwise altering the arrangements.
The time the radiation lasted, as measured from the photographs obtained in
this way, varied from, roughly, the g$>5 to the zo5$95 of a second. In the first
case the points were too far apart for a spark to pass; in the latter the points were
as near as possible consistent with getting any photographic effect.
Experiments can also be made by using a phosphorescent screen, but the
measurements are not capable of being made with the same certainty ; however,
it is a more convenient way to demonstrate the existence of the early cut-off in the
duration of the radiation caused by a parallel spark.
When the brake of the primary is made by hand by means of the usual hammer
arrangements, the results sometimes are difficult to explain. Often three images
appear as if three sparks occurred, each image being drawn out. This might be
merely due to something oscillatory in the circuits, but for the fact that the character
of the drawing out is peculiar, the half shadow region shading the wrong way.
That is to say, instead of passing uniformly in shade from the longer exposed parts
to the parts always covered while the radiation lasted, there is a fluctuation in
intensity, so that a tooth is bounded first by a dark line or band, while the region
longer exposed outside this is not so black.
6. On the Relations between Kathode Rays, Réntgen Rays, and Becquerel
Rays. By Professor Sirvanus P. Toompson, /.2.S.
The author described experiments, made with vacuum tubes of several shapes,
to test several points in the relations between the various kinds of rays. It was
found that when kathode rays were caused to fall on an oblique platinum piece in
the interior of the tube, true kathodic shadows could be obtained in the rays
reflected from the platinum surface, from metallic and other objects interposed
between this target and the walls of the tube. These shadows were deflected
by magnets, and were affected in size by electrifying the interposed objects, At
the same time, and when the tube was sufficiently highly exhausted, Rontgen-ray
shadows were obtained on a luminescent screen outside; but these shadows, unlike
the shadows of the reflected kathodic rays within the tube, were not deflected by
either magnetic or electrostatic influences. Experiments on filtermg the kathodic
rays, direct and reflected, through screens of aluminium of various thicknesses
showed that the more deflectable rays were more easily stopped by screens than the
less deflectable ; and that the power of producing luminescence in different bodies
differed for rays of different deflectability. Uranium, as a target, appeared to be
more active than platinum in evoking emission of Réntgen rays,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 713
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The Section was divided into two Departments.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
DeEpaRTMENT I.—Puysics.
1. Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Standards.
See Reports, p. 87.
2. Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations.
See Reports, p. 231.
3. Adjourned Discussion on Professor 8. P. THompson’s Paper on the
Relation between Kathode Rays, Réntgen Rays, and Becquerel’s Rays.
4. On Hyperphosphorescence.
By Professor Strvanus P. Tuompson, D.Se., FAS. .
This phenomenon, discovered by the author independently at the same time
with M. Henri Becquerel, consists in the persistent emission by certain substances,
notably by metallic uranium and its salts, of invisible rays which closely resemble
Réntgen rays in their photographic action, and in their power of penetrating
aluminium, and of producing diselectrification.
The author finds the order of transparency of substances to be different for
these rays from that which exists for Réntgen’s rays. He has also observed
photographic action through opaque screens of paper by light emitted from phos-
phorus slowly oxidising in air. The hyperphosphorescence of uranium in the
metallic state is about equal in darkness and when exposed to light, but with
‘aranium nitrate the continued stimulation of light promotes the emission of these
xays. No similar rays exist either in are light or in sunlight as observed in
London.
5. Observations on the X-Rays. By H. H. F. Hyypmay.
6. On the Component Fields of the Earth's Permanent Magnetism.
By Dr. L. A. Bauer.
7. On a One-Volt Standard Cell with Small Temperature Coefficient.
By W. Hispert.
The author and Mr. Sewell have worked for two years dt improving a cell first
made by Helmholtz. The elements are zinc and mercury, in a solution of chloride
of zinc. To get a potential difference of one volt the solution must be pure, and
have a density of about 1:380,
1896.
3A
714 REPORT—1896.
The temperature coefficient is only one ten-thousandth of a volt for 1° Centi-
rade.
The cell has many other advantages. Its resistance remains constant, and is
lower than in most other cells used as standards. Notwithstanding this, the cell
protects itself against a charging current from other sources, as well as from dis-
turbing tendency due to short circuit.
The reason for this immunity from permanent disturbance is not yet clear, and
the authors are engaged in investigating it.
8. On Reostene, a new Resistance Alloy.
By J. A. Harxer, D.Sc., and A. Davipson.
This communication is a descripiion of the physical properties of a new alloy
for electric resistance coils, which has the extremely high specific resistance of forty-
five as compared with copper. Its temperature coeflicient is comparatively small,
0-0011 per ohm per degree Centigrade, and from a large number of tests with heavy
currents, under varying conditions, it was found to alter only very slightly with
time. The paper was illustrated with a model and several samples, and the appa-
ratus by which the specimens were maintained{at a known temperature during the
measurements of resistance was also shown.
DEPARTMENT II.—MATHEMATICS. :
1, Report on the G (r, v) Integrals,—See Reports, p. 70.
2. Report on Bessel Functions and ozher Mathematicai Tables.
See Reports, p. 98.
3. Results connected with the Theory of Differential Resolvents.
By the Rev. Ropert Hartey, J/.A., F.R.S.
The linear differential equations whose forms are recorded in this paper stand
in a very close and important relation to the trinomial forms of algebraic equations.
For, on the one hand, the complete integration of the differential equations deter-
mines the form of the roots of the algebraic equations, and, on the other, the general
solution of the algebraic equations determines the complete integrals of the several
differential equations; so that the relation is reciprocal. In fact, the algebraic
equations and their corresponding differential equations are eo-resolvents.
In a paper printed in the British Association Report for 1878, at pp. 466-8, it
is shown that if y be a function of x, and a, b, ¢ arbitraries independent of a: and y,
any root y of the algebraic equation
ay™ + by" +ex=0... (@)
will satisfy the linear differential equation
Ld . ; ” We ro En ni
poy | 2 "y= ee 1 ay GA)
m=—-7 b"c" Lm—r m—r
or, when 7 is greater than m,
poy | |" (—) ee | Yam. (AD
r—m = 27
and any rcot of
ay” + bry"+e=0..... (0)
tate meee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 745
will satisfy
pyry= (=| 2D estas moty. 2s = 1} ange -. (B)
or (r>m)
ope [2s 2 eas) Fe a 21 faye)
in which D=2 fy and the usual factorial notation, viz. :
te
[O\*=6 (@—1) (0-2)... (@-a+1)
is adopted.
By the process employed in the above cited paper we are also led to the follow-
ing results :—
Any root of
ary™ + by"+c=0.... (©)
will satisfy
D Yr m—r n eee nm — gees) m1] ter Me ee
pr [*"p+"] y (—) Ser r TF ay
or (r>m) ners
T qrom oul
Dl'y"=(— ae & aM ‘lt [""p- 2-1] ar sh te C’
Pit = (=) pearl -Dacat ; = ayn « » (CD
And any root of
ay +bay"+cxr=0.., (a)
will satisfy
Pees] Roufse-ta ero
or (7 >m)
[™p- faa sk Ber -) PD 1 eyn -.. (D)
) em
The complete integral of each of the above differential equations is of the form
CY s" + CQYo™ 2 os FCmYm'y
or CY" $CoYo” 2 ow +O Ys
according as m or 7 is the greater, and ;, Yo,» + © Yin OF Yr are the m or r roots of
the connected algebraic equation.
The same results may be obtained by suitable substitutions, or interchanges,
and reduction by known theorems. Thus (a), (A), (A’) may be changed into (0),
(B), (B’) respectively by the substitution
(“ 6,0, m7 )
c, a, b, —r, m—r
or into (¢), (C), (C’) respectively by the substitution
2, Overman, “4 )
b,c, a, r—m, —m
or into (d), (D), (D’) respectively by the substitution
(% Cow a7ity Ns En :)
Cc, a, —M, T—M, L-
Or (4), (B), (B’) may be changed into (ec), (C), (C’) respectively by means of the
interchanges
(22).
3A 2
716 REPORT—1896.
And (c), (C), (C’) into (2), (D), (D’) respectively by writing 2-1 for x. In this
way the accuracy of the results has been sufficiently confirmed,
4. Connexion of Quadratic Forms.
By Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN Cunnincua, R.F., Fellow of King’s Coll. Lond.
Two quadratic partitions of the same integer (N) are said to be conformal,
when derivable from one another by mere multiplication by a unit factor, e.g.,
mr? + nv? =1; when not so interchangeable they are said to be 2on-conformal.
Let N be an integer expressed in two non-conformal quadratic forms.
N = 60? + mw* = 627 + ny*; (6, m, n integers ; m # n).
Tien N20, Ary — (yr)
mw — ny”
It is shown that a third non-conformal partition may be hence directly com-
puted by the known processes of conformal multiplication and conformal division
combined, when 6 is of suitable form, &c.
i, O= 41; ii. 00,2? +mw,? = +1= 62,7 + ny,?;
iii, + 00% =mr?—nv*; iv. + 00° =7? —mnv’*.
Also, in Cases i., ii., iii, any one of the three forms is derivable by the same pro-
cedure from the other two.
Ev. N =a? +b? =v? 4+ mw? =2—my’, forms such a Triad that each form is
directly derivable from the other two as above.
This is a very useful process for directly effecting a quadratic partition of a
very large number from two given non-conformal partitions.
5. On the Plotting out of Great Circle Routes on a Chart.
By H. M. Taytor, JLA., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
It is proposed that on the charts used by ocean-going vessels a series of curves
should be engraved, each curve representing accurately a great Circle.
It is shown how such a series of curves may, without the use of mathematical
calculations, be made use of to plot out on the chart, with much accuracy, the
Great Circle route between any two points.
6. On the Stationary Motion of a System of Equal Elastic Spheres in a
Field of no Forces when their Aggregate Volume is Not Infinitely Small
compared with the Space in which they Move. By 8. H. Bursury,
1 FO
The object of this paper is to prove that the velocities of spheres near to one
another are correlated.
1. Consider first the system in which the molecules are material points, between
which there are no collisions, with their velocities distributed according to Max-
well’s law. The chance that any molecules shall have component velocities
Uy Vy + + + Wy is then
Ae Tew di, G0; - » . AWp,
and this motion is stationary.
Let p be the number of molecules per unit volume.
Let R be a radius at present arbitrary. Definition. Let & ¢ at any point
P, and at any instant, be the component velocities of the centre of inertia of all
the molecules which at that instant are contained within a sphere of radius R
described about P.
2, If an equal sphere be described about a neighbouring point P’, and P P’ = 3s,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 717
the volume common to the two spheres is = 7R®—7ROs, or = 7R (1 - a
So the value of € for the new sphere is g- + = wv, where x is a vector for
which positive and negative values are equally probable, and for which on
ye d 3 3 : :
average 22=£. So we find = (vx—&)= ~ gp OD average if € be given,
2 EX
In the same way we find the mean value of ) to be = that is, proportional
to &,
3. Now consider the function
h 9 ° ¥o dé
M= iit andyde| [fe Kong 05? + 183") dw,dwydwww, © j
C7
in which w, w, w are the component velocities of a molecule, and the iategration
includes all space and ali values of w, w, w.. If we follow individual molecules,
W, Wy w: Yemain unchanged in the absence of collisions. But if we regard w, wy wz
as belonging to those molecules which are for the time being within a fixed space,
W, W, w vary with the time by the passage of molecules into or out of the space.
dM
Now in stationary:motion M is constant, and at 0, that is
{V Boel edw, dw dw x { swat, = + 2 = (yz) =0, in which
W= U2 +0, +0, , : : . : : ; 5 c : ce a ley)
‘We have now to express . ; (w,,W:).
Suppose, near a certain point P, ES
~
in
is positive.
Form the integral I for a small cylindrical space AB, containing P, whose ends
are unit area of two planes A and B, respectively parallel to ay. Then we find
dé d Qhwt 3 &
that — on (w,w-) has throughout AB the mean value — —— - is
iz
Bye)
And therefore
2 0 |{faxayae| | soe A(w," + wy? +w “dwydw, dre,
i dd& 2w*t 3 &
eW,— —— ——— _-« — e . . Il,
Ciera Sao Te un)
Transition to Finite Spheres.
4, We now pass to the case in which our molecules, instead of being material
points, are finite spheres, each of unit mass and diameterc. The first effect of
this alteration is to increase the quantity of momentum transferred across any
plane per unit of area and time in the ratio 1: 1+, where k=2zc*p. But this
increases both the terms of I or II in the same ratio, and therefore ae so far as
this is concerned, remains zero.
___ 6, But collisions alter the term 7 (wa), because at each collision the direc-
tion of motion changes for each of the colliding spheres. The state of the medium
near P being as assumed in Art. 3, viz. & positive, consider two planes, one the
718 REPORT—1896.
plane of wy, and the other z= vc, \ » v being direction cosines of a diameter ec. For
our present purpose we may take €=0 on plane of «y, and the value of € on the second
plane is ues Consider two spheres, one on the plane of ay, the other on the
da
second plane, and suppose their relative velocity to be V, and its direction cosines |
X pv. If the number per unit of volume of pairs of molecules having relative
velocity V... V+dV be Ae~4” V2dV, the number having near P X p » for
direction cosines of V is in excess of the normal by — Ac va vnvehv 2
Let @ be the angle between V and the line of centres at collision. If we form
the integral value of AvV* for all collisions taking place per unit of volume and
time near P under the circumstances assumed, it is
ae 7 pert
—AvAe 3 Vd Viren VavchV! = | cos? 8 sin 646;
. oO
pee yt Ce Eee
that is — Wer AL 2 VedVh &
di
6. Again, let X’ p’ v’ be the values of Ap vy after collision. Then we find
easily j
v= — vcos 26+ /1—r’* sin 26 cos d,
NV = —A cos 26 ~— Ay _ sin 26 cos d,
a‘ l—y
$ being the angle between the plane containing \ » v and 2, and the plane con-
taining A » v and the point of contact. Whence we find the integral value of
’y’ for all collisions per unit of volume and time to bergreater than
> q Pak sa Av :
{2 sin 6 cos ofa —vcos26 + 4/1 —v*sin 26 cos ){ —Ac0s26 — ier sin26 cos),
0 0
44) 40 ’ nies Oo ed so ee AE
which is zero, Let \V=V,,vV = V*. Hence if \’y’ =0, a (VeNe) = sais VvAV =
3
rep 1 yyaé
5 dz
79? because on average \?y? = rae
3. 6°
So>
and changing the variable, we obtain
Therefore, if 2 relate to the change due to collisions only,
; [Jfox dy ae{|| e« A(wa? + Wy? + w,") dw, dwy dw; = = (w,w:)
= 2 2 2 3 a
= all dy All| € (wa? + wy" + wz") dw, dw, dw . = = « ha* ne by Art. 2.
7. Wesee then that if . denote the whole time variation, the expression
(w,W:);
which was zero on average, has now, as the result of collisions, acquired a positive
3 hw 3 &
Inne
ieee, oes oy 4. Re
If we stop there a # O, and the motion is not stationary. The way to make
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 719
it stationary in the medium of finite spheres is to write &+ & for &, n +n’ for n,
¢+¢' for ¢, where &’ n’ ¢’ are three vectors for which positive and negative values
are equally probable and for which &” n’ ¢ are very small compared with & &c.
Further they are chosen at haphazard independently of & ny ¢,.so that ££ =nn’
=¢¢’=0 on average. The object is to find the ratio &” : &.
The introduction of £ 7 ¢ does not directly affect w,w.on average, but it
affects Sw. w-) as foundin Art. 3. In lieu of € in that article we must now
write (€+ é’)’, that is, since £’=0 on average, €°+&”. Our equation II. now
becomes
dM —h(w,? + w,? +w.)
dH ~2|| | drdydz| || dw, dwy dw:
x {w w dak 2 hur eg
Oe ba B25 ER?
hw* chp ee SL
+h
pe wp ll
Se ete
The first line is zero by II. The second line is zero if &” =e Pe + &?) =
ED 2 2 i = iy
(B42), where k= Peclp. Or e?=* £_2 hs ie m2, 18, Be, but not k, bo
negligible. Evidently ? +n? +¢?: &+7?+(::& : &; and as this ratio is inde-
pendent of R and 2, it gives the solution for all values of R and x.
8. When the chance that molecules within a sphere of radius R shall have
velocities uw, ... u,+du, &. wy, .. w,+dw, is proportional to ——r++w,
du, . . . dw, we know that the mean value of the energy of the motion of their
common centre of gravity, or > (E47? +), is es
If, therefore, the energy of this motion be “@ +n t+) + : (&2% +77 +0),
as in the medium of finite spheres we now see it must be, that is iu
4h
+E +7 +), it is impossible that the above chance can any longer be
represented by
LECT he ed AW.
The term containing ww’ + vv’ + ww’ necessarily appears in the index.
The case is the same as if, the molecules being in motion according to the ordi-
nary law, we gave to each of the spheres the additional component velocities
€ 7’ (’, at. the same time maintaining / constant. It can then be proved that the
above chance is proportional under those circumstances to e~"@du, . . . dwn, and
Q = $3 (w+? +") — He +1? + (°)33 (uu! + vv’ + ww’).
_ But we have seen that for small values of & in stationary motion &%+7n”"+¢?
= Le +7 +0)= oe where » is the number of molecules within the R sphere,
_and therefore the coefficient of (wu’+vv’+ww’) in Q is ~*.
9. If now we write h,=h (147 — 1% , AQ becomes
y n
hy{(ad(w? + v7 + w?) + b SS (wu + vo’ + ww’)}
with
Qa-147—%
7
720; REPORT—1895.
he sad |
n
And we can now describe the motion of the medium of finite spheres as follows :
If it be given that there are 7 spheres within a spherical space 8, but nothing is
known of their positions within §, the chance that they shall have. velocities
U, .. Uj tdu,... Wy. . + Wr+dw, is proportional to e~%@du, ... dwn, and
Q = a3(u? + v* + w) + bE3(uw’ + vv’ + ww’), and
Cae cama?
n
and
be = provided & be small.
10. If T be the whole kinetic energy of the 2 molecules, T, the kinetic
energy of their motion relative to their common centre of inertia,
Q="+KT.,
and Q is that which is constant in a vertical column under the action of gravity.
11. The function M which we have used, if we add to it the corresponding
dé d
terms in dy 29 &c., can be shown to be the rate of time variation of
ly ‘
dx
ie k= NG +n? + C)dadydz.
The investigation shows that H increases or diminishes with the time according as
ates +7? +?) is below or above the limit =
2 o
12. Dr. Ladislas Natanson, in his ‘ Sur |’Interprétation cinétique de la Fonction.
de Dissipation,’ defines as follows:—Let & 7 ¢ be the component velocities of the
centre of inertia of the molecules in ‘un élément de volume contenant n.dvdydz
molécules,’ while x v w are the velocities of a molecule relative to that centre of
inertia. (I have interchanged Dr. Natanson’s letters.) ‘Then he takes
H= NG ++ C)dadydz,
E= {Joe +0 + w*)dadydz
throughout the space filled by molecules. And he shows that in nature H tends
to diminish, its energy being converted into the energy, E, of molecular motion.
_ Dr. Natanson’s definition (though I am not contesting its suffici ney for his
own purpose) is inapplicable to molecules of finite dimensions, because _a system
of such molecules ‘ un élément de volume contenant .dvdydz molécules’ does not
exist. But the function which in this case corresponds to Natauson’s function
H is
NG +2 + (?)dxdydz,
which does, as we have seen, tend to a limit, though not to the limit zero.
13. The theorem of Arts. 5 and 6, and therefore the whole of this investiga—
tion, would apply to the case where the molecules, instead of being conventional
: ; d ..- am
elastic spheres, are centres of repulsive force, only the exact value of a (V2V.) will
not be the same. It would still be of the same sign as dg which is the essential
dz
characteristic.
bo
—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 7
7. On some Difficulties connected with the Kinetic Theory of Gases.
By G. H. Bryan, Se.D.
The recent attacks of M. Bertrand on Maxwell’s investigations emphasise the
view that all proofs of the Boltzmann-Maxwell distribution involve some as-
sumption or other, and that such assumptions are only justifiable in attenuated
assemblages of molecules such as constitute an ideal gas. But if the thermal
properties of gases are really due to molecular motions, as the kinetic theory sup-
poses, the same must be true of the corresponding properties of matter in its other
states; so that a kinetic theory of solids and liquids also must exist even though the
complete investigation of that theory may present insuperable difficulties to the
mathematician. Now, the most important physical property for which the kinetic
theory has to account is that of temperature, and the existence of such a quantity
depends on the fact that if a body A be in thermal equilibrium with B, and also
with ©, then B will be in thermal equilibrium with C; in other words, the condi-
tion of thermal equilibrium between A and B must be expressible in the form
F(A) =f,(B) - - : ‘ . : (1)
where the left-hand side involves no variables depending on the state of B, and
the right-hand side involves no variables depending on the state of A.
On the assumption that the temperature of a body is proportional to the mean
kinetic energy of translation of its molecules, the condition of equal temperature
requires that if the mean translational energies of two sets of molecules A and
B are equal, no energy will be transferred from A to B. Now if we take
only two molecules M and m, moving in the same straight line, the con-
dition for no transference of energy between them is ot that their kinetic
energies shall be equal. Indeed, Prof. Tait has shown that this condition holds
good if the molecules of A and B are distributed according to the Boltzmann-
Maxwell distribution, but not in general.
The author is at present investigating what restrictions are imposed on the law
of distribution of molecular velocity in order that the condition of thermal equi-
librium may be expressible in the form (1), in other words, in order that tempera-
ture may exist. The analysis is somewhat complicated, but it may be safely
concluded, even at the present stage, that the existence of temperature cannot be
inferred from dynamical considerations alone, independently of the law of dis-
tribution. It will be necessary for us to regard the laws of thermodynamics as
the fundamental assumptions of a general kinetic theory of matter rather than as
the results to be proved, and we must therefore deduce from those laws the nature
of the molecular motion which we call heat.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On the Communication of Electricity from Electrified Steam to Air. By
Lord Ketvin, /.2.S., Dr. Magnus Maciean, and ALEXANDER GALT.
2. On the Molecular Dynamics of Hydrogen Gas, Oxygen Gas, Ozone,
Peroxide of Hydrogen, Vapour of Water, Liquid Water, Ice, and
Quartz Crystal. By the Right Hon. Lord Ketviy, G.C.V.0., P.B.S.
In a communication, ‘ On the Different Crystalline Configurations possible with
the same Law of Force according to Boscovich, to the last meeting (July 20) of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh ‘a purely mathematical problem of fundamental
importance for the physical theory of crystals—the equilibrium of any number of
ints acting on one another with forces in the lines joining them—was considered
in the simplest case of Boscovichian statics; that in which the mutual force
between every pair of atoms is the same for the same distance between any two
722 REPORT-—1896.
atoms of the whole assemblage. The next simplest case is that in which there are
two kinds of atom, /, 0, with the distinction that the force between two /’s and
the force between two o's and the force between an / and an o are generally
different at the same distance. The mutual force between two h’s is, of course,
always the same at the same distance. So also is the mutual force between two
o’s and between an / and an o,
The object of the present communication is to find how much of the known
properties of the substances named in the title can be explained with no further
assumption except the conferring of inertia upon a Boscovich atom.
The known chemical and physical properties to be provided for are:
1, That in each of the gases named the molecule is divisible into two; which
is the meaning of the symbols H,, O,, used to denote them in chemistry.
2. That Ozone (Q,) is a possible, though not a very stable, gaseous molecule,
consisting of a group of Oxygen atoms of which the constituents readily pass into
the configuration (O,) of Oxygen gas.
3. That Peroxide of Hydrogen (H,O,, or perhaps HO) is a possible, but not a
very stable, combination, which, for all we know, may exist asa liquid ora dry gas,
but which is only generally known as a solution in water (of density 1:45 in the
highest concentration hitherto reached), readily absorbing Hydrogen or parting
with Oxygen so as to form H,O.
4, That water (H,O) is an exceedingly stable compound in the gaseous, liquid,
or crystalline form, according to circumstances of temperature and pressure,
5. That dry mixtures of Hydrogen and Oxygen gases, and also mixtures of
these gases with water in the same inclosure, have been kept by many experi-
menters for weeks or months, and perhaps for years, inclosed in glass vessels,
without any combination of the two gases having been detected.
6. That Ice contracts by about 8 per cent. in melting, and that ice-cold water,
when warmed, contracts till it reaches a maximum density at about 4°C., and
expands on further elevation of temperature.
7. For Quartz crystal—
(a) The difference between neighbouring corners of the hexagonal prism.
(0) The similarity between each face and its neighbour on either side turned
upside down (the axis of the prism supposed vertical).
(c) The right-handed and left-handed chiralities of different crystals in nature
with, so far as known, an equal chance of one chirality or the other in any crystal
that may be found.
In the present communication it is shown that all the properties stated in this
schedule can be conceivably explained by making H consist of two Boscovich atoms
(h, h), and O of two others (0, 0). This essentially makes H, consist of four /’s at
the corners of an equilateral tetrahedron, and O, a similar configuration of four o’s.
It naturally shows Ozone as six o’s at the corners of a regular octahedron. It makes
H1,0 (the gaseous molecule of water) consist of two o’s with two /’s attached to
one of them and two other /’s attached to the other; the /’s of each o getting as
near to the other o as the mutual repulsion of the A’s allows. This configuration
and the modification it experiences in the formation of crystals of ice are illus-
trated by models which accompany the communication.
To understand what is probably the true configuration of ice-crystal, we are
helped by first considering a double cubic assemblage of point-atoms, such that
each point-atom isin the centre of a cube having eight point-atoms for its corners.
This double cubic assemblage may be imagined as consisting of two simple cubic
assemblages, so placed that one atom of each assemblage is in the centre of a
cube of atoms of the other. The annexed diagram shows, in the centres of the
circles which it contains, atoms of a double cubic assemblage, which lie in the
plane of a pair of remote parallel edges, A D, B C, of one set of constituent cubes.
It shows all the atoms in the lines of this plane which it contains except certain
omissions in the lines aD, Dc, made specially on account of the present applica-
tion of the diagram. The circles of simple shading and of shading interrupted
by two small concentric circles constitute one of the simple cubic assemblages ;
the unshaded and the circles with shading interrupted by one concentric circle
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 723
constitute the other cubic assemblage. A C,B Dare parallel to body diagonals,
A B,D C are parallel to face diagonals, of the cubes. Annul now all the atoms at
Uy
UY
ly
the centres of the blank circles! Lastly, stretch the diagram perpendicularly
to A c in the same definite ratio of perhaps about 3 to 1. It then represents what
we may believe to be probably the true molecular structure of ice-crystal: the
circles with simple shading and with shading interrupted by two concentric
circles denoting hydrogen atoms, and the circles with shading interrupted by
single concentric circles the oxygen atoms.
The named properties of Quartz are explained by supposing the crystalline
- molecule to consist of three of the chemical molecules (OSiO) to be placed together
jn a manner readily imagined according to a suggestion which I communicated to
1 The assemblage thus constituted is precisely that described in Section 24, and
in footnote on Section 69 of ‘ Molecular Constitution of Matter,” Proc. R.S.L., July
1889, reprinted as Art. xcvii. of Vol. III. of ‘Mathematical and Physical Papers.’
I was led to it in the course of my investigation of a Boscovichian elastic solid,
_ havine’ two independent moduluses} of resistance to compression and of rigidity.
(Elasticity of a Crystal according to Boscovich,’ Proc. R.S., June 1893).
724 REPORT—1896.
the British Association at its Southport meeting in 1883. Models showing right-
handed and left-handed specimens of these crystalline molecules and the configura-
tion in which they must be placed to form a rock crystal ending in its well-known
six-sided pyramid are before the meeting to illustrate the present communication.
In a communication which I hope to make to the Royal Society of Edinburgh
at an early meeting essential details of the configurations now suggested, and of
the mutual forces between the atoms required by the conditions to be fulfilled, will
be considered,
3. A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves.
By E. RutHEerRForD, JA.
It has long been known that a steel needle placed in a spiral round which an
ordinary Leyden jar discharge is passed is magnetised. The magnetism of the
needle is generally confined to the surface, and the way in which the magnetisation
varies from the surface inwards may be directly determined by dissolving the
needle slowly in acid before a magnetometer.
If a magnetised piece of steel wire be subjected to the discharge, the magnetic
moment is always reduced, whatever the direction of the discharge. The screening
action of thin cylinders of metal for the discharge may be immediately shown by
placing tnem between the solenoid and detector needle. With a thin copper
P leria the needle remained unafiected, while a few turns of tinfoil gave a small
effect.
A short steel wire magnetised to saturation also has the remarkable property of
being able to distinguish between the two first half oscillations of the discharge. If
the needle is saturated, in one direction the first half oscillation can produce no effect
on the magnetism of the needle, since it is already saturated, while in the opposite
direction it produces its full effect. From the comparisons of the fall of magnetic
moment of the needle in the two cases, the damping of the discharge may be
deduced. By an application of this method also the apparent resistance of air
breaks of different lengths to the discharge was deduced, and the resistance of iron
wires for currents of high frequency of alternation obtained. Instead of a single
wire a compound needle of short thin steel wires insulated from each other by
paraffin was used. This was a sensitive means of detecting and comparing oscil-
lation of small intensity. Ifa circle of wire 30 cm. in diameter be taken, and the
discharge passed round only a small portion of its arc, there is quite a large effect
on the detector needle at the centre.
If a discharge is sent /ongitudinally through a short magnetised steel wire, the
magnetic moment is always reduced, due to the circular magnetisation of the
surface layers of the wire. Using a thin wire in series with the circuit, oscillations
of very small frequency may thus be detected.
A compound detector needle of fine wire placed in a solenoid of two or three
turns is a very simple and conyenient means of investigating waves along wires
and determining nodes and antinodes.
A compound detector needle was also found to be a sensitive means of detecting
Hertzian waves in free space at large distances from the vibrator.
A collection of twenty or thirty fine steel wires, each about 1 cm. long,
was taken and formed into a compound detector needle, each wire being insulated
from the other to prevent eddy currents. A fine wire solenoid of several hundred
turns was wound over it. When the small solenoid was placed in series with
receiving wires, a wave falling on the receiver set up oscillations in that circuit,
and the needle is more or less demagnetised according to the intensity of the wave.
Using large vibrators effects were obtained at a distance of over half a mile between
the vibrator and receiver.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 725
4, On a Complete Apparatus for the Study of the Properties of Electric Waves.
By Professor JaAGADIs CHuNDER Boss, I.A., D.Sc.
A complete electro-magnetic radiation apparatus was exhibited with which the
following determinations may be made :—
A. Verification of the laws of reflection.
1. Plane mirrors.
2. Curved mirrors.
B. Phenomena of refraction.
]. Prisms.
2. Total reflection.
3. Opacity caused by multiple refraction and reflection.
4, Determination of the indices of refraction.
C. Selective absorption.
1, Electrically coloured media.
D. Phenomena of interference.
E. Double refraction and polarisation.
1. Polarising gratings,
2. on crystals.
3. Double refraction produced by crystals.
4. A y other substances.
5. a " strain.
Ms Need aioe eas 4 Experiments still in progress.
8. Electro-polariscope and polarimeter.
The complete apparatus consists of (1) A radiating apparatus emitting electric
waves of short length ; (2) A receiver used as a detector of electric radiation ; and
(8) Various accessories for the study of the different phenomena.
Arrangement of the Apparatus.—The radiating apparatus and the receiver are
mounted on stands sliding in an optical bench. Experiments are carried out with
divergent or parallel beam of electric radiation. To obtain a parallel beam, a
cylindrical lens of sulphur or ebonite is mounted in a square tube. This lens tube
fits on the radiator tube, and is stopped by a guide when the oscillatory spark is
at the principal focal line of the lens. The radiator tube is further provided with
a series of diaphragms by which the amount of radiation may be varied.
For experiments requiring angular measurement, a spectrometer circle is
mounted on one of the sliding stands. The spectrometer carries a circular platform
on which the various reflectors, refractors, &c., are placed. The platform carries
an index, and can rotate independently of the circle on which it is mounted. The
receiver is carried on a radial arm (provided with an index) and points to the
centre of the circle. An observing telescope may also be used with an objective
made of ebonite with a linear receiver at the focal plane. But an ordinary receiver
provided with a funnel is all that is necessary for ordinary experiments.
5. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.
See Reports, p. 166.
6. Report on Solar Radiation.—See Reports, p. 241.
7. Report on Seismological Observations.—See Reports, p. 180.
8. Report on Meteorological Photographs.—See Reports, p. 172.
726 REPORT—1896.
9. The Effect of Atmospheric Retraction on the Apparent Diurnal Move-
ment of Stars, and a Method of allowing for i in Astronomical
Photography. By Professor A. A. Rampaut, J/.4., Se.D,
The variation in the degree of refraction which the light of a star undergoes in
passing through the earth’s atmosphere, apart from irregularities which arise from
local disturbances in the strata of air, affects the apparent movement of a star, so
that the angular motion depends upon its position in the sky.
When approaching its upper culmination the hour angle of a star is diminished
by refraction, but to a continually diminishing extent, and consequently the motion
of a star at this part of its course appears slower than it actually is. After
culmination the result is similar, the refraction in this case throwing the apparent,
more and more to the following side of the true, image as the distance from the
meridian increases.
When the observer's object is merely to obtain pictures of star groups the work
can be so arranged that each group is photographed when it arrives at or near the
meridian. It is different, however, when it is intended to utilise the plates for the
detection of stellar parallax. In connection with this research, it is desirable that
a large proportion of the photographs should be taken when the stars are near the
apses of their parallactic ellipses, and this condition often necessitates the photo-
graphing of stars at very large hour angles.
If the apparent western hour angle of a star at any moment be denoted by /,
the effect of refraction in hour angle by Af, the right ascension by a, and the
sidereal time by 6; then
h=6-—a+Ah
NSS PAIN
and 7+ Gee
Hence the expression = measures the rate at which the apparent movement
dé
gains on sidereal time.
If @ denotes the latitude and 6 the declination, and if we assume m, n, p, v,
such that
tan m=cot ¢ cos h, cot »=tan ¢ cos hk,
cot n=sin m tan h, cot v=cos p» tan h,
then we may write
dh _1_8 cos ¢ sin y sin (1 +4) i : \ P (a)
in which 8 is the refraction constant.
If the telescope were required to follow the star with absolute precision it
would be necessary to construct a clockwork system which would drive the
instrument at a rate varying continually with the hour angle according to the law
expressed by thisformula. In practice, however, it is sufficient to alter the rate at
intervals, the length of which will depend upon the rapidity of the refraction
changes, provided always that the error thus introduced does not exceed a certain
definite limit.
A description of the method of making this alteration, a full account of how
formula (a) is deduced, and diagrams showing the appropriate rate for any given
hour angle and declination, and the length of exposure for which a uniform rate
is permissible, will be found in the ‘ Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical
Society.
10. On the Sailing Flight of Birds. By G. H. Bryan, Se.D., LRS.
That birds are capable, under certain circumstances, of supporting themselves
indefinitely in the air without expending energy by flapping their wings is a matter
of common observation. To account for this apparent realisation of ‘perpetual -
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 120
motion’ various theories have been proposed, and amongst these the most important
are the three which suppose the seat of available energy to lie in—
(1) Upwerd air-currents (Mr. Maxim).
(2) Variations of the wind-velocity at different heights above the ground (Lord
Rayleigh).
(8) Variations of the wind-velocity from one instant to another, the wind
habitually blowing in gusts separated by lulls (Dr. 8. P. Langley and others).
Before proceeding further, another source of energy may be mentioned, namely,
the presence of vortices, z.e., miniature whirlwinds or cyclones, in the atmosphere.
Even on a perfectly calm day one of these little vortices may sometimes be seen
travelling across a road, carrying up a funnel-shaped cloud of dust. According to
mathematical theory, a vortex always consists of the same particles of fluid; and,
even under the modified conditions which occur in nature, our experience of
cyclones tells us that such vortices are remarkable for their persistency, and their
motions are so regular that it would be easy for birds to take advantage of them,
This would account for the fact that birds so often congregate in a certain spot
when in sailing flight.
Against the third hypothesis it has been objected—
(i.) That to take advantage of every puff of wind in such a way as to be lifted
up by it would be an extremely difficult feat of aérial gymnastics, whereas birds
appear to circle in the air without requiring to exercise any particular alertness or
agility.
i (u.) That the variations in wind-velocity are not sufficient to sustain the weight
of a bird in the air.
In answer to the first objection, it is to be observed that if the bird’s centre of
mass is slightly below the wing-surface—especially if the wings are slightly curved
upwards—the action will be purely automatic. We may illustrate this point perhaps
better by considering the parallel effect in the seeds of many composite plants
(such as the common ‘ dandelion’), which are supported in the air by a parachute
placed at some distance above them. Ifa sudden gust of wind blows upon such a
seed, the parachute is set in motion more rapidly than the seed, causing the structure
to heel over so as to receive the wind on the under surface of the parachute, and
this lifts the seed. When the wind subsides, the greater inertia of the seed carries
it on in front of the parachute, causing the latter to again present its under side to
the air, which again lifts the seed. The more the seed is blown about, the more it
rises in the air.
This action would take place automatically in the same way in any body whose
supporting parachute, aéroplane, or wing surface was slightly above its centre of
mass. The height of the supporting surface should not be too great, otherwise
the body would heel over too much, and would make so great an angle with the
horizon that the lift would be considerably reduced.
The effect evidently depends on the znertia of the body, and the lift could
therefore be increased by increasing the body’s mass. But this would also increase
the weight of the body in the same proportion, so that no advantage would be
gained,
The difficulty is overcome in the case of the sailing bird by the increased
buoyancy which it is able to obtain from the air in consequence of the horizontal
speed at which it travels, and herein, to my mind, lies the answer to the second
objection. Dr. S. P. Langley! has found (1) that a horizontal plane under the
action of gravity falls to the ground more slowly if it is travelling through the air
_ with horizontal velocity than it would do if allowed to fall vertically, ard (2) that
the horse-power required to support a body in horizontal flight by means of an
aéroplane is less for high than for low speeds. Hence it readily follows that the
bird’s forward motion causes it to fall through a smaller height between successive
gusts of wind than it would do if it were at rest, and that when a side wind strikes
the bird (7.e. a wind at right angles to the bird’s course), the lift is considerably
increased in consequence of the bird’s forward velocity.
1 Experiments on 4érodynamics.
728 REPORT—1896.
According to this theory, the sailing bird derives its energy from fluctuations
in the resolved part of the wind-velocity, at right angles to the bird’s course.
Such side winds would, in particular, be brought into action first on one side and
then on the other whenever the bird passed through the centre of an atmospheric
vortex. The exact part played by variations of wind-velocity 7” the direction of
the bird's course is more difficult to understand, but it seems improbable that such
variations alone could account for the phenomena. If the bird were moving
slowly enough to receive the wind sometimes in front and sometimes from behind,
it would at intermediate instants be at rest relative to the wind, and would then
obtain the minimum degree of support. Ifit were moving rapidly through the
air, the latter would always strike the bird in front, so that its horizontal ‘motion
would be constantly retarded.
Anyone watching a flock of birds will observe that they often actually are
carried up by a sudden side-gust of wind in the manner here described, showing
that if this is not the only cause of the phenomena presented by the sailing bird,
it is at any rate one of the causes. So much has been written on the subject that
it is impossible to say how far these remarks may have been anticipated ‘by other
writers; but I think they may help to clear up some of the difficulties which have
been experienced in accounting for the sailing flight of birds.
11. On the Stanhope Arithmetical Machine of 1780.
By the Rev. R. Haruey, W/.A., FBS.
12. The Exploration of the Upper Air by means of Kites,
By A. LAvURENCE Rotcu.
This is a preliminary account of experiments being conducted at the Blue Hill
Meteorological Observatory, Roadville, Massachusetts. The author, after referring
to previous instances of the use of kites for meteorological purposes, gives details of
the apparatus and methods employed at Blue Hill in kite observations, which were
commenced in 1891, and are still being carried on. The kites are, some of
trapezoidal, and some of Hargreaves’ cellular, form, and are controlled by pianoforte
wire of 300 lb. tensile strength. The pull on the wire is not allowed to exceed
125 lb. Two self-recording aluminium instruments are used, one recording, on a
single cylinder, barometric pressure, temperature, and humidity. The other records
temperature, humidity, and wind-velocity.
Each is suspended between two kites to diminish oscillation.
As an illustration of the importance of the use of kites in weather prediction
may be mentioned the fact, which has been demonstrated at Blue Hill, that in the
United States, at least, warm and cold waves commence in the upper regions before
they are felt at the ground. The conditions at mountain stations only approximate
to those prevailing in the free air. Kites are superior to captive balloons, as being
both cheaper and capable of flying through a greater range of wind velocity, and to
greater altitudes.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22,
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Interim Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chem try.’
See Reports, p. 230.
2. Report of the Electrical Standards Committee—See Reports, p. 150.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 729
3. The Total Heat of Water.—By W. N. Suaw, I.A., F.R.S.
Appendix III. of Report on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p- 162,
4. Note on the Measurement of Electrical Resistance.
By HE. H. Grirrirus, ILA., F.R.S.
5. Researches in Absolute Mercurial Thermometry.
By 8, A. Sworn, IA. (Oxon.), F.C.S., Assoc. R.CO.Se.I.
This work practically consists of the life-history of the instruments. It is
therein shown, as the result of observations carried on for four years, that the zero
point of a mercurial thermometer (when fully corrected for the above constants)
is 2 complicated function of time and temperature environment. It will be proved
experimentally that the so-called ‘ depression of the freezing point’ is not a constant,
but that the magnitude of the depression is a function depending upon the previous
environment and the duration of the cause of the depression.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
The Section was divided into two Departments.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
DEPARTMENT I,
1, Measurement by means of the Spectroscope of the Velocity of Rotation of
the Planets. By James E. Kerter, Sc.D., Allegheny Observatory.
The method of determining the velocity of rotation of a planet by means of the
spectroscope was suggested at a comparatively early date, but it is only quite
recently that accurate measures have been made. Such measures, in which the
spectrum is photographed, instead of being observed directly, have been made by
Deslandres, Bélopolsky, Campbell, and by the author. The slit of the spectroscope
is always made to coincide as nearly as possible with the equator of the image of
the planet, so that the inclination of the planetary lines on the photographed spec-
trum may be as great as possible, and measurement of this angle gives, when the
linear dispersion and size of the image of the planet are known, the equatorial
velocity of rotation.
In the Astrophysical Journal for May, 1895, the author gives a convenient
formula for reducing the observations when the planet is in opposition. It is
vy —pDLtand
2 cosB *
If the planet is not nearly in opposition, so that the earth and sun as seen from it
are separated by the angular distance a, we must write 1 + cosa in the denominator
instead of 2. (Deslandres, C.R, 120, 417; Poincaré, C.R. 120,420.) The formula
then becomes =
4 va sPDL tang |
A(1 + cos a)cos p’
and this is the formula which has been employed in reducing the observations
which follow.
1896, 3B
730 REPORT— 1896.
From a considerable number of photographs of Jupiter, four of the best, taken
on the following dates, were selected for measurement:—
1895, February 24, region &’—D, orthochromatic plate.
1895, March 21, ,,° O—D, rr
1896, April 22, ,, G—F, ordinary plate.
1896, May Go, 1G= 5; + on
The following table contains the data, taken in part from Marth’s ephemeris,
which are required for the reduction of the photographs :—
3?
| Date of Photograph a B Eq. Diam. p |
| DH ° ' ’ 5 ie ' w" m.
1895, Febrnary 24 8 TO 22 2 05 41-09 0°654
| 4, March ~ 21 82 11 05 2 01 37°91 0-263
1896; April 228. .| 10 53. 0 34 38-00 0:4286
» May GiBi ce es kn 40:4 $88 0 32 36-48 0-4114
mm.
Focal length of telescope for )= 4640.
” ” rr Hy= 4653.
L=velocity oflightin kilometres = 299860).
ReEsvLts.
Photograph of February 24, 1895. Photograph of April 22, 1896.
A D tang Vkm. A D tan p V km.
5230 23°65 0326 10°37 4352 11°30 ‘O744 12°53
5270 24:75 “0470 15 54 4415 12°35 0644 11°68
5328 26°20 “0404 14°11 A427 12°70 0626 11°64
5372 27:25 “0434 15°50 4476 13°80 “0614 12°28
5430 28°75 0434 LN SEA U7) 4495 14:40 0660 13°42
5456 19:40 0296 11:22 4529 14°75 0490 1035
Mean 13°82 Mean 11:98
Photograph of March 21, 1895. Photograph of May 6, 1896,
5230 23°65 "0656 19°14 4315 10°60 0816 12°47
5270 24°75 0464 14:06 4370 11°65 0846 14:03
5328 26°20 0484 15°50 4427 12:70 ‘0774 13°81
5372 27:25 0390 12°77 4476 13°80 0590 11°32
5430 28°75 0460 15:72 4495 14:10 “0594 11:59
5456 29°40 .0390 13°56 4529 14°75 0544 11:02
Mean 15:12 Mean 12°37
Giving double weight to the last two photographs, for which the dispersion is
about twice that of the first two, the result of all the measures is
km. km.
V=12-94 +027.
Deslandres found V =12°5, 11:9, 12°1, 11:7. Bélopolsky found V = 11°42.
The computed value is 12:1 to 12°8, according to the value of the equatorial
diameter of Jupiter which is assumed.
Bélopolsky has pointed out that his spectroscopic observations of both Jupiter
and Saturn give a smaller velocity than that deduced from observations of spots,
and he suggests, in explanation of this fact, that Jupiter may be a body like that
considered in Schmidt’s theory of the sun, so that rays apparently proceeding
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 731
from the limb really come from a considerable depth, where the velocity of
rotation is less. The observations above given do not support this view, since the
velocity deduced from them is a little too great, It is altogether probable that
the discrepancies noted by Bélopolsky are due to errors of observation. If, how-
ever, the slit were not properly placed, a velocity slightly too small would be
obtained, since the angular velocity of the surface diminishes with increasing
' latitude, and falls off quite rapidly in the region near the equator.
In 1895 the author succeeded in showing, by an extension of the same method,
that the velocity at any point on the ring of Saturn is that of a particle moving
in obedience to Kepler’s third law, and hence that the ring is not a solid body.
Attempts to determine the rotation of Venus have so far been unsuccessful,
2. On the Photo-electric Sensitisation of Salts by Cathodic Rays.
By Professor J. Exster and Professor GEITEL, Wolfenbiittel, Germany.
The results of the investigation made by the authors may be summed up as
follows :—
Cathodic rays falling upon the chlorides of czesium, rubidium, potassium, sodium,
lithium, clear fluorspar, and even powdered glass, convert these salts into
substances which are incapable of retaining a negative charge of electricity when
exposed to light belonging to the visible part of the spectrum.
All circumstances capable of abolishing the colours produced by cathodic
radiation also destroy the photo-electric sensitiveness.
A complete account of the investigation will shortly be published in Wiede-
mann’s ‘ Annalen.’
3. On Certain Photographic Effects. By Professor P. pe HrEn.
4, Some Experiments on Absorption and Fluorescence.
By Joun Burke, B.A.
Fluorescent bodies are generally more or less transparent to the rays they emit.
The experiments were with a view to detecting whether any difference exists
between the absorption when a body is fluorescing and when not. The comparisons
were made with a form of double slit photometer in which photography was
employed, described at length in the paper. Allowing for the various sources of
error which may possibly arise, there still remains a marked difference between the
iutensity of the light transmitted in the two cases, amounting in some instances
to a difference of 40 per cent. in the absorptive power. Thus a substance such as
uranium glass would appear to be less transparent to the yellow rays from a candle
in daylight than in the dark. The latter part of the paper deals with the influence
of dissociation on fluorescence and with the theory of fluorescence itself.
5. On Homogeneous Structures and the Symmetrical Partitioning of them,
with application to Crystals.! By WittiaM Bartow.
This paper 1s the outcome of several years’ study of the geometrical possibilities
of symmetrical space relations, the importance of which in regard to crystals has
long been recognised, and whose value in relation to the fundamental concepts of
matter generally is of late becoming more and more appreciated. The inquiry is
a purely geometrical one, and is therefore independent of any particular concept as
to the ultimate nature of matter. ;
The basis of the investigation is a definition of homogeneity of structure which
runs as follows :—
A homogeneous structure is one every point within which, if we regard the
! Published in full in the Mineralogical Magazine, vol. xi. p. 119; and also in
Groth’s Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographic, vol. xxvii. p. 449.
3B 2
732 REPORT—1896,
structure as without boundaries, has corresponding to it an infinitude of other points
whose situations in the structure are precisely similar, so that all of the infinite
number of geometrical point-systems respectively obtained by taking all similarly
situated points are regular infinite point-systems defined by Sohncke as systems of
points such that the arrangement about any one of these points of the rest of the
points of the system is the same as it is.about any other of them,’ !
This definition is not limited in its application to point-systems or assemblages
of particles; it may be obeyed by any kind of structure, whether material or merely
ceometrical, whether filling space or continuously ramifying through it, or distributed
through it in discrete patehes. Itmay, too, be obeyed by structures whose parts are
in motion, provided the similarity extends to the movements of similar parts; but
the similar movements need not be simultaneous; they may, for example, resemble
the rhythmically related movements of combined figure skating.
The models employed to show the nature of the repetition in space which cha-
racterises different types of homogeneous structure consist of symmetrically arranced
dolls’ hands, the reason for employing these objects being that they are familiar and
and at the same time of so exceptional a shape as to avoid any suggestion that a
particular form is essential for the ultimate parts of a structure.
Primarily the structures are to be regarded as not partitioned into parts, the
type of homogeneity being expressed in a more general manner when there is no
partitioning.
The number of different types of symmetrical arrangement presented by all
unpartitioned homogeneous structures is 230,
As to the symmetrical partitioning of homogeneous structures the author points
out that many different types of partitioning into molecular units are possible for
each type of structure, and appends a fragment of a table of the types of partitioning
which pertain to the different types of structure belonging to the cubic system.
DEPARTMENT IT.
1. Report on the Sizes of Pages of Periodicals.
See Reports, p. 86.
2. On Disturbance in Submarine Cables. By W. H. Prerce,
C.Biy Holts
This paper deals with the several problems connected with the difficulties in
working sub-marine cables, and especially when used for telephonic purposes. It
is fully reported in the ‘ Electrician’ for September 27, 1896.
3. On Carbon Megohms for High Voltages. By W.M. Morpry.
4, On an Instrument for measuring Magnetic Permeability:
By W. M. Morpry.
5. A Direct-reading Wheatstone Bridge. By A. P. Trorrer, B.A.
The author describes a Wheatstone slide bridge which is made direct-reading
upon a scale of equal parts. This is accomplished by making the ratio-arms of a
1 Sohneke’s Entrichelung coner Theorie der Krystallstruktur, p. 28.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 7390
second slide-wire of equal resistance to the slide-wire on which the galvanometer
contact works, the zero for the galvanometer slide-wire being taken at a point
so far along the wire that the piece between this point and the end shall be equal
to the length of the other slide-wire between the end and the other contact of the
galvanometer circuit. Nickel steel wire is used for the slides.
6. The Division of an Alternating Current in Parallel Circuits with
Mutual Induction. By FREDERICK BEDELL.
A divided circuit with mutual induction between the two branches is the same
as a transformer with the primary and secondary circuits connected in parallel.
The problem may be treated in the same manner as that of the transformer. The
electromotive force equations for the two circuits are similar, the internal electro-
motive forces in each being equal to the same impressed electromotive force. The
electromotive force of mutual induction will be positive or negative according to
the sense or direction in which the coils are connected. If the coils are connected
so that the ampere turns of the two coils assist each other, the electromotive force
of self and mutual induction will be of the same sign, and the coefficient of mutual
induction will be positive. If the coils are connected so that the two oppose each
other, the electromotive force of mutual induction will be opposed in sign to that
of self-induction. The coefficient of mutual induction may accordingly be plus M
or minus M. Writing the electromotive force as a function of the time, the
electromotive force equations for the two circuits are:
e=f(t)=R,z, + L, De, + MDz, ;
e=f(t)=R,2, + L,Di, + MDz, ;
where e and 7 represent current and electromotive force, R and L represent resis‘-
ance and self-induction, and D stands for the operator & . The solution of these
equations gives us the values for the currents in the two circuits, and their phase
relations. Where the coils are opposed and nearly similar, the angle of phase
ene between the currents depends largely upon the amount of magnetic
eakage.
The graphical treatment of the problem shows this relation more clearly. The
electromotive force to overcome the resistance of each circuit is represented by a
vector in the direction cf the current. The electromotive forces of self and mutual
induction are at right angles to the currents in their respective circuits. This
gives us three vectors for the electromotive forces in either circuit, and the sum of
these three vectors in either circuit is equal to the electromotive force impressed
upon the two circuits. The direction of the vector representing the electromotive
force of mutual induction depends upon the sense in which the coils are
connected.
The equivalent resistance and self-induction of the two coils together, whether
they are additive or opposed, may be found by resolving the electromotive force
into two components, one in the direction of the main current, and the other at
right angles to it. The resultant of these components may be obtained graphically
and from them the values of the equivalent resistance R1, and the equivalent self-
induction L'. The equivalent resistance and self-induction of their branches may
be obtained in the same manner.
Particular cases may be discussed by assuming definite values for the constants
of the circuits or definite relations between them.
734 REPORT—1896.
Section B.—CHEMISTRY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Dr. Lupwie Monp, F.R.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.
The President delivered the following Address :—
Iy endeavouring to fix upon a suitable theme for the address I knew you
would to-day expect from me, I have felt that I ought to give due consideration
to the interests which tie this magnificent city of Liverpool, whose hospitality we
enjoy this week, to Section B of the British Association.
I have therefore chosen to give you a brief history of the manufacture of
chlorine, with the progress of which this city and its neighbourhood have been
very conspicuously and very honourably connected, not only as regards quantity—
I believe this neighbourhood produces to-day nearly as much chlorine as the rest
of this world together—but more particularly by having originated, worked out,
and carried into practice several of the most important improvements ever intro-
duced into this manufacture. I was confirmed in my choice by the fact that this
manufacture has been influenced and perfected in an extraordinary degree by the
rapid assimilation and application of the results of purely scientific investigations
and of new scientific theories, and offers a very remarkable example of the
incalculable value to our commercial interests of the progress of pure science.
The early history of chlorine is particularly interesting, as it played a most
important rdle in the development of chemical theories. There can be no doubt
that the Arabian alchemist Geber, who lived eleven hundred years ago, must have
known that ‘Aqua Regia,’ which he prepared by distilling a mixture of salt,
nitre, and vitriol, gave off on heating very corrosive, evil-smelling, greenish-
yellow fumes, and all his followers throughout a thousand years must have been
more or less molested by these fumes whenever they used Aqua Regia, the one
solvent of the gold they attempted so persistently to produce.
But it was not until 1774 that the great Swedish chemist Scheele succeeded
in establishing the character of these fumes. He discovered that on heating
manganese with muriatic acid he obtained fumes very similar to those given off
by ‘Aqua Regia, and found that these fumes constituted a permanent gas of
yellowish-green colour, very pungent odour, very corrosive, very irritating to the
respiratory organs, and which had the power of destroying organic colouring
matters.
According to the views prevalent at the time, Scheele considered that the
manganese had removed phlogiston from the muriatic acid, and he consequently
called the gas dephlogisticated muriatic acid.
When during the next decade Lavoisier successfully attacked, and after a
memorable struggle completely upset, the phlogiston theory and laid the founda-
tions of our modern chemistry, Berthollet, the eminent ‘father’ of physical
a
TRANSACTLONS OF SECTION B. 739
chemistry—the science of to-day—endeavoured to determine the place of Scheele’s
gas in the new theory. Lavoisier was of opinion that all acids, including muriatic
acid, contain oxygen. SBerthollet found that a solution of Scheele’s gas in
water, when exposed to the sunlight, gives off oxygen and leaves behind muriatic
acid, He considered this as proof that this gas consists of muriatic acid and
oxygen, and called it oxygenated muriatic acid.
In the year 1785 Berthollet conceived the idea of utilising the colour-
destroying powers of this gas for bleaching purposes. He prepared the gas by
heating a mixture of salt, manganese, and vitriol. He used a solution of the gas
in water for bleaching, and subsequently discovered that the product obtained by
absorbing the gas in a solution of caustic potash possessed great advantages in
practice.
This solution was prepared as early as 1789, at the chemical works on the
Quai de Javelle, in Paris, and is still made and used there under the name of
é Kau de Javelle,’
James Watt, whose great mind was not entirely taken up with that greatest
of all inventions—his steam-engine—by which he has benefited the human race
more than any other man, but who also did excellent work in chemistry—became
acquainted in Paris with Berthollet’s process, and brought it to Scotland. Here
it was taken up with that energy characteristic of the Scotch, and a great stride
forward was made when, in 1798, Charles Tennant, the founder of the great firm,
which has only recently lapsed into the United Alkali Company, began to use
milk of lime, in place of the more costly caustic potash, in making a bleaching
liquid; and a still greater advance was made when, in the following year,
Tennant proposed to absorb the chlorine by hydrate of lime, and thus to produce
a dry substance, since known under the name of bleaching powder, which allowed
the bleaching powers of chlorine to be transported to any distance.
In order to give you a conception of the theoretical ideas prevalent at this
time, I will read to you a passage from an interesting treatise on the art of
bleaching published in 1799 by Higgins. In his chapter ‘On bleaching with the
oxygenated muriatic acid, and on the methods of preparing it’ he explains the
theory of the process as follows :—
‘ Manganese is an oxyd,a metal saturated with oxygen gas. Common salt is
composed of muriatic acid and an alkaline salt called soda, the same which barilla
affords. Manganese has greater affinity to sulphuric acid than to its oxygen, and
the soda of the salt greater affinity to sulphuric acid than to the muriatic acid
gas; hence it necessarily follows that these two gases (or rather their gravitating
matter) must be liberated from their former union in immediate contact with each
other ; and although they have but a weak affinity to one another, they unite in
their nascent state, that is to say, before they individually unite to caloric, and
separately assume the gaseous state; for oxygen gas and muriatic acid gas already
formed will not unite when mixed, in consequence principally of the distance at
which their respective atmospheres of caloric keep their gravitating particles
asunder. The compound resulting from these two gases still retains the property
of assuming the gaseous state, and is the oxygenated muriatic gas,’
Interesting as these views may appear, considering the time they were pub-
lished, you will notice that the réle played by the manganese in the process and
the chemical nature of this substance were not at all understood. ‘The Jaw of
multiple proportions had not yet been propounded by John Dalton, and the
vesearches of Berzelius on the oxides of manganese were only published thirteen
years later, in 1812. The green gas we are considering was still looked upon as
-muriatic acid, to which oxygen had been added, in contradistinction to Scheele’s
_ view, who considered it as muriatic acid, from which something, viz., phlogiston,
had been abstracted.
It was Humphry Davy who had, by a series of brilliant investigations carried
out in the Laboratory ot the Royal Institution between 1808 and 1810, accumu-
lated fact upon fact to prove that the gas hitherto called oxygenated muriatic acid
did not contain oxygen. He announced in an historic paper, which he read before
the Royal Society on July 12, 1810, his conclusion that this gas was an elementary
736 REPORT—1896.
body, which in muriatic acid was combined with hydrogen, and for which he
proposed the name ‘chlorine,’ derived from the Greek yAwpos, signifying ‘ green,’
the colour by which the gas is distinguished.
The numerous communications which Humphry Davy made to the Royal
Society on this subject form one of the brightest and most interesting chapters in
the history of chemistry. They have recently been reprinted by the Alembic
Society, and I cannot too highly recommend their study to the young students of
our science.
I need not remind those who have followed the history of chemistry how hotly
and persistently Davy’s views were combated by a number of the most eminent
chemists of his time, led by Berzelius himself; how long the chlorine controversy
divided the chemical world ; how triumphantly Davy emerged from it; how com-
pletely his views were recognised; and how very instrumental they have been in
advancing theoretical chemistry.
The hope, however, which Davy expressed in that same historic paper, ‘that
these new views would perhaps facilitate one of the greatest problems in economi-
cal chemistry, the decomposition of the muriates of soda and potash,’ was not to
be realised so soon. Although it had changed its name, chlorine was still for
many years manufactured by heating a mixture of salt, manganese, and sulphuric
acid in leaden stills, as before.
This process leaves a residue consisting of sulphate of soda and sulphate of
manganese, and for some time attempts were made to recover the sulphate of soda
from these residues, and to use it for the manufacture of carbonate of soda by the
Le Blanc process. On the other hand, the Le Blane process, which had been dis-
covered and put into practice almost simultaneously with Berthollet’s chlorine
process, decomposed salt by sulphuric acid, and sent the muriatic acid evolved
into the atmosphere, causing a great nuisance to the neighbourhood.
Naturally, therefore, when Mr. William Gossage had succeeded in devising
plant for condensing this muriatic acid, the manufacturers of chlorine reverted to
the original process of Scheele, and heated manganese with the muriatic acid thus
obtained. Since then the manufacture of chlorine had become a by-product of
the manufacture of soda by the Le Blanc process, and remained so till very
recently.
For a great many years the muriatic acid was allowed to act upon native ores
of manganese in closed vessels of earthenware or stone, to which heat could be
applied, either externally or internally. These native manganese ores, containing
only a certain amount of peroxide, converted only a certain percentage of the
muriatic acid employed into free chlorine, the rest combining with the manganese
and iron contained in the ore, and forming a brown and very acid solution, which
it was a great difficulty for the manufacturer to get rid of. Consequently, many
attempts were made to regenerate peroxide of manganese from these waste liquors,
so as to use it over again in the production of chlorine.
These, however, for a long time remained unsuccessful, because the exact
conditions for super-oxidising the protoxide of manganese by means of atmospheric
air were not yet known.
Meantime, viz., in 1845, Mr. Dunlop introduced into the works created by his
grandfather, Mr. Charles Tennant, at St. Rollox, a new and very interesting
method for producing chlorine, which was in a certain measure a return to the
process used by the alchemists.
Indeed, the first part of this process consisted in decomposing a mixture of
salt and nitre with oil of vitriol—a reaction that had been made use of for so many
centuries! The chlorine so obtained is, however, not pure, but a mixture of
chlorine with oxides of nitrogen and hydrochloric acid, which Mr. Dunlop had to
find means to eliminate.
For separating the nitrous oxides, Mr. Dunlop adopted the method introduced
twenty years before by the great Gay-Lussac in connection with vitriol-making,
viz., absorption by sulphuric acid, and the nitro-sulphuric acid thus formed he also
utilised in the same way’as that obtained from the towers which still bear Gay-
Lussac’s illustrious name, viz., by using it in the vitriol procesg in lieu of nitric
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 737
acid. He then freed his chlorine gas from hydrochloric acid by washing with
water, and so obtained it pure. This process possessed two distinct advantages :—
(1) it yielded a very much larger amount of chlorine from the same amount of
salt; and (2) the nitric acid, which was used for oxidising the hydrogen in the
hydrochloric acid, was not lost, because the oxides of nitrogen to which it was
reduced answered the purpose for which the acid itself had previously been
employed. But this process was very limited in its application, as it could only
be worked to the extent to which nitric acid was used in vitriol-making.
The process has been at work at St. Rollox for over fifty years, and, as far as I
know, is still in operation there; but I am not aware that it has ever been taken
up elsewhere.
Within the last few years, however, several serious attempts have been made
to give to this process a wider scope by regenerating nitric acid from the nitro-
sulphuric acid and employing it over and over again to produce chlorine from hydro-
chloric acid. Quite a number of patents have been taken out for this purpose, all
employing atmospheric air for reconverting the nitrous oxides into nitric acid, and
differing mainly in details of apparatus and methods of work, and several of these
have been put to practical test on a fairly large scale in this neighbourhood, and
also in Glasgow, Middlesbrough, and elsewhere. As I do not want to keep you
here the whole afternoon, I bave to draw the line somewhere as to what | shall
include in this brief history of the manufacture of chlorine, and have had to decide
to restrict myself to those methods which have actually attained the rank of
manufacturing processes on a large scale. As none of the processes just referred
to have attained that position, you will excuse me for not entering into further
details respecting them.
Mr. Dunlop’s process only produced a very small portion of the chlorine
manufactured at that time at St. Rollox, the remainder being made, as before,
from native manganese and muriatic acid, leaving behind the very offensive waste
liquors I have mentioned before, which increased from year to year, and became
more and more difficult to get rid of. The problem of recovering from these liquors
the manganese in the form of peroxide Mr. Dunlop succeeded in solving in 1655.
He neutralised the free acid and precipitated the iron present by treating these
liquors with ground chalk in the cold and settling out, and in later years filter-
pressing the precipitate, which left him a solution of chloride of manganese, mixed
only with chloride of calcium. This was treated with a fresh quantity of milk of
chalk, but this time under pressure in closed vessels provided with agitators and
heated by steam, under which conditions all the manganese was precipitated as
carbonate of manganese. This precipitate was filtered off and well drained, and
was then passed on iron trays mounted on carriages through long chambers, in
which it was exposed to hot air at a temperature of 300° C., the process being
practically made continuous, one tray at the one end being taken out of these
chambers, and a fresh tray being put in at the other end. One passage through
these chambers sufficed to convert. the carbonate of manganese into peroxide,
which was used in place of, and in the same way as, the native manganese.
The whole of the residual liquors made at the large works at St. Rollox have
been treated by this process with signal success for a long number of years, For
a short time the process was discontinued in favour of the Weldon process (of
which I have to speak next); but after two years Dunlop’s process was taken up
again, and, to the best of my knowledge, it is still in operation to this day. It
has, however, just like Mr. Dunlop’s first chlorine process, never left the place of its
birth (St. Rollox), although it was for a period of over ten years without a rival.
In 1866 Mr. Walter Weldon patented.a modification of a process proposed
by Mr. William Gossage in 1837 for recovering the manganese that had been
used in the manufacture of chlorine. Mr. Gossage had proposed to treat the
residual liquors of this manufacture by lime, and to oxidise the resulting protoxide
of manganese by bringing it into frequent and intimate contact with atmospheric
air. This process—and several modifications thereof subsequently patented—had
been tried in various places without success. Mr. Weldon, however, did succeed
‘in obtaining a very satisfactory result, possibly—even probably—because, not
738 REPORT—1896.
being a chemist, he did not add the equivalent quantity of lime to his liquor to
precipitate the manganese, but used an excess. However, Mr. Weldon, if he was
not a chemist at that time, was a man of genius and of great perseverance. He
soon made himself a chemist, and having once got a satisfactory result, he studied
every small detail of the reaction with the utmost tenacity until he had thoroughly
established how this satisfactory result could be obtained on the largest scale with
the greatest regularity and certainty.
He even went further, and added considerably to our theoretical knowledge of
the character of manganese peroxide and similar peroxides by putting forward the
view that these compounds possess the character of weak acids. He explained in
this way the necessity for the presence of an excess of lime or other base if the
oxidaticn of the precipitated protoxide of manganese by means of atmospheric air
was to proceed at a sufficiently rapid rate. He pointed out that the product had
to be considered as a manganite of calcium, a view which has since been
thoroughly proved by the investigations of Geergen and others; and it is only fair
to state that Weldon’s process is not only a process for recovering the peroxide of
manganese originally used, but that he introduced a new substance, viz., manga-
nite of calcium, to be continuously used over and over again in the manufacture of
chlorine.
Mr. Weldon had the good fortune that his ideas were taken up with fervency
by Colonel Gamble of St, Helens, aud that Colonel Gamble’s manager, Mr. F.
Bramwell, placed all his experience as a consummate technical chemist and
engineer at Mr. Weldon’s disposal, and assisted him in carrying his ideas into
practice. The result was that a process which many able men had tried in vain
to realise for thirty years became in the hands of Mr. Weldon and his coadjutors
within a few years one of the greatest successes achieved in manufacturing
chemistry.
The Weldon process commences by treating the residual liquor with ground
chalk or limestone, thus neutralising the free acid and precipitating any sulphuric
acid and oxide of iron present. The clarified liquor is run into a tall cylindrical
vessel, and milk of lime is added in sufficient quantity to precipitate all the
manganese in the form of protoxide. An additional quantity of milk of lime, from
one-fifth to one-third of the quantity previously used, is then introduced, and air
passed through the vessel by means of an air-compressor. After a few hours all
the manganese is converted into peroxide ; the contents of the vessel are then run
off; the mud, now everywhere known as ‘ Weldon mud,’ is settled, and the clear
liquor run to waste. The mud is then pumped into large closed stone stills, where
it meets with muriatic acid, chlorine is given off, and the residual liquor treated
as before,
You note that this process works without any manipulation, merely by the
circulation of liquids and thick magmas which are moved by pumping machinery.
As compared to older processes it also has the great advantage that it requires
very little time for completing the cycle of operations, so that large quantities of
chlorine can be produced by a very simple and inexpensive plant. These advan-
tages secured for this process the quite unprecedented success that within a few
years it was adopted, with a few isolated exceptions, by every large manufacturer
of chlorine in the world; yet it possessed a distinct drawback, viz., that it pro-
duced considerably less chlorine from a given quantity of muriatic acid than either
native manganese of good quality or Mr. Dunlop’s recovered manganese. At that
time, however, muriatic acid was produced as a by-product of the Le Blane pro-
cess so largely in excess of what could be utilised that it was generally looked
upon as a waste product of no value. Mr. Weldon himself was one of the very
few who foresaw that this state of things could not always continue. The am-
monia soda process was casting its shadow before it. Patented in 1838 by Messrs,
Dyar and Hemming it was only after the lapse of thirty years (during which a
number of manufacturing chemists of the highest standing had in vain endeavoured
to carry it into practice) that this process was raised to the rank of a manufactur-
ing process through the indomitable perseverance of Mr. Ernest Solvay, of Brussels,
and his clear perception of its practical and theoretical intricacies. A few years
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 739
later, in 1872, Mr. Weldon already gave his attention to the problem of obtaining
the chlorine of the salt used in this process in the form of muriatic acid. He pro-
posed to recover the ammonia from the ammonium chloride obtained in this
manufacture by magnesia instead of lime, thus obtaining magnesium chloride
instead of calcium chloride, and to produce muriatic acid from this magnesium
chloride by a process patented by Clemm in 1863, viz., by evaporating the solution,
aed residue in the presence of steam, and condensing the acid vapours
iven off,
‘ Strange to say, this same method had been patented by Mr. Ernest Solvay
within twenty-four hours before Mr. Weldon lodged his specification. It has
been frequently tried with many modifications, but has never been found practic-
able. Soon afterwards Mr. Weldon, with the object of reducing the muriatic acid
required by his first process, proposed to replace the lime in this process by mag-
nesia, and so to produce a manganite of magnesia. After treating this with
muriatic acid and liberating chlorine he proceeded to evaporate the residual
liquors to dryness, during which operation all the chlorine they contain would be
disengaged as hydrochloric acid and collected in condensers, while the dry residue,
after being heated to dull redness in the presence of air, would be reconverted
into manganite of magnesia.
This process was made the subject of long and extensive experiments at the
works of Messrs. Gamble at St. Helens, but did not realise Mr. Weldon’s expecta-
tions. It, however, led to some further interesting deyelopments, to which I shall
refer later on.
Those of you who were present at the last meeting of the British Association
in this city will remember that this Section had the advantage of listening to a
paper by Mr. Weldon on his chlorine process, and also to another highly interest-
ing paper by Mr. Henry Deacon of Widnes ‘on a new chlorine process without
manganese,’ And those of you who came with the then President of the Section
(Professor Roscoe) to Widnes to visit the works of Messrs. Gaskell, Deacon, and Co.
will well remember that at these works they saw side by side Weldon’s process
and Deacon’s process in operation, and no one present will have forgotten the
thoughtful, flashing eyes and impressive face of Mr. Deacon when he explained to
his visitors the theoretical views he had formed as regards his process.
Mr. Deacon had made a careful study of thermo-chemistry, which had been
greatly developed during the preceding decade by the painstaking, accurate, and
comprehensive experiments of Julius Thomsen and of Berthelot, and had led the
latter to generalisations which, although not fully accepted by scientific men,
have been of immense service to manufacturing chemistry.
Mr. Deacon came to the conclusion that, if a mixture of hydrochloric acid with
atmospheric air was heated in the presence of a suitable substance capable of
initiating the interaction of these two gases by its affinity to both, it would to a
very great extent be converted into chlorine with the simultaneous formation of
steam, because the formation of steam from oxygen and hydrogen gives rise to the
evolution of a considerably larger quantity of heat than the combination of
hydrogen and chlorine. Mr. Deacon found that the salts of copper were a very
suitable substance for this purpose, and took out a patent for this process in 1868.
He entrusted the study of the theoretical and practical problems connected with
this process to Dr, Ferdinand Hurter, who carried them out in a manner which
will always remain memorable, and will never be surpassed, as an example of the
application of scientific methods to manufacturing problems, and which soon
placed this beautiful and simple process on a sound basis as a manufacturing
operation.
In the ordinary course of manufacture the major part—about two-thirds—of
the hydrochloric acid is obtained mixed with air and a certain amount of steam, but
otherwise very little contaminated. Instead of condensing the muriatic acid from
this mixture of gases by bringing it into contact with water, Mr. Deacon passed it
through a long series of cooling pipes to condense the steam, which of course
absorbed hydrochioric acid, and formed a certain quantity of strong muriatic
acid, The mixture of gases was then passed through an iron superheater to raise
74.0 REPORT—1896.
it to the required temperature, and thence through a mass of broken bricks im-
pregnated with sulphate or chloride of copper contained in a chamber or cylinder
called a decomposer, which was protected from loss of heat by being placed in a
brick furnace kept sufficiently hot. In this apparatus from 50 to 60 per cent. of
the hydrochloric acid in the mixture of gases was burnt to steam and chlorine. In
order to separate this chlorine from the steam and the remaining hydrochloric
acid the gases were washed with water, and subsequently with sulphuric acid.
The mixture now consisted of nitrogen and oxygen, containing about 10-per cent.
of chlorine gas, which could be utilised without any difficulty in the manufacture
of bleach liquors and chlorate of potash, and which Mr. Deacon also succeeded
in using for the manufacture of bleaching powder, by bringing it into contact
in specially constructed chambers with large surfaces of hydrate of lime.
Within recent years this latter object has been attained in a more expeditious and
perfect manner by continuous mechanical apparatus (of which those constructed
by Mr. Robert Hasenclever and Dr. Carl Langer have been the most successful),
in which the hydrate of lime is transported in a continuous stream by single or
double conveyors in an opposite direction to the current of dilute chlorine, and the
bleaching powder formed delivered direct into casks, thereby avoiding the intensely
disagreeable work of packing this offensive substance by hand.
Mr. Deacon's beautiful and scientific process thus involves still less movement
of materials than the very simple process of Mr. Weldon, because in lieu of large
volumes of liquids he only moves a current of gas through his apparatus, which
requires a minimum of energy. The only raw material used for converting hydro-
chloric acid into chlorine is atmospheric air, the cheapest of all at our command.
The hydrochloric acid which has not been converted into chlorine by the process is
all obtained, dissolved in water, as muriatic acid, and is not lost, as in previous
processes, but is still available to be converted into chlorine by other methods, or
to be used for other purposes.
In spite of these distinct advantages, this process took a long time before
it became adopted as widely as it undoubtedly deserved. This was mainly due to
the fact that the economy in the use of muriatic acid which it effected was at
the time when the process was brought out, and for many years afterwards, no
object to the majority of chlorine manufacturers, who were still producing more
of this commodity than they could use. Moreover, there were other reasons, The
plant required for this process, although so simple in principle, is very bulky
in proportion to the quantity of chlorine produced, and, as I have pointed out, the
process only succeeded in converting about one-third of the hydrochloric acid
produced into chlorine, the remainder being obtained as muriatic acid, which had in
most instances to be converted into chlorine by the Weldon process; so that the
Deacon process did not constitute an entirely self-contained method for this
manufacture. This defect, of small moment as long as muriatic acid was produced
in excessive quantities, was only remedied by an invention of Mr. Robert
Hasenclever a short number of years ago; when by the rapid development of the
ammonia soda process the previously existing state of things had been completely
changed, and when, at least on the Continent, muriatic acid was no longer an
abundant and valueless by-product, but, on the contrary, the alkali produced
by the Le Blane process had become a by-product of the manufacture of cblorine.
Mr. Hasenclever, in order to make the whole of the muriatic acid he produces avail-
able for conversion into chlorine by the Deacon process, introduces the liquid
wuriatic acid in a continuous stream into hot sulphuric acid contained in a series
of stone vessels, through which he passes a current of air. He thus obtains
a mixture of hydrochloric acid and air, well adapted for the Deacon process,
the water of the muriatic acid remaining with the sulphuric acid, from which it
is subsequently eliminated by evaporation. In this way the chlorine in the
hydrochloric acid can be almost entirely obtained in its free state by the simplest
imaginable means, and with the intervention of no other chemical agent than
atmospheric air. Since their introduction the Deacon process has supplanted the
Weldon process in nearly all the largest chlorine works in France and Germany,
and is now also making very rapid progress in this country.
<
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 741
Mr. Weldon, when he decided to give up his manganite of magnesia process,
by no means relaxed his efforts to work out a chlorine process which should
utilise the whole of the muriatic acid. While working with manganite of
magnesia he found that magnesia alone would answer the purpose without the
presence of the peroxide of manganese. He obtained the assistance of M. Pechiney,
of Salindres, and in conjunction with him worked out what has become known as
the ‘ Weldon-Pechiney ’ process, which was first patented in 1884.
This process consists in neutralising muriatic acid by magnesia, concentrating
the solution to a point at which it does not yet give off any hydrochloric acid, and
then mixing into it a fresh quantity of magnesia so as to obtain a solid oxychloride
of magnesium. This is broken up into small pieces, which are heated up rapidly to a
high temperature without contact with the heating medium, while a current of
air is passing through them. The oxychloride of magnesium containing a large
quantity of water, this treatment yields a mixture of chlorine and hydrochloric
acid with air and steam, the same as the Deacon process, and this is treated in a
very similar way to eliminate the steam and the acid from the chlorine. The acid
condensed is, of course, treated with a fresh quantity of magnesia, so that the
whole of the chlorine which it contains is gradually obtained in the free state.
The rapid heating to a high temperature of the oxychloride of magnesium with-
out contact with the heating medium wasan extremely difficult practical problem,
which has been solved by M. Pechiney and his able assistant, M. Boulouvard, in a
very ingenious and entirely novel way.
They lined a large wrought-iron box with fire-bricks, and built inside of this
vertical fire-brick walls with small empty spaces between them, thus forming a
number of very narrow chambers, so arranged that they could all be filled from
the top ofthe box, and emptied from the bottom. These chambers they heated to
a very high temperature by passing a gas flame through them, thus storing up in
the brick walls enough heat to carry out and complete the decomposition of tke
magnesium oxychloride, with which the chamber was filled when hot enough.
Mr. Weldon himself called this apparatus a ‘baker's oven, in which trade
certainly the same principle has been employed from time immemorial; but to my
knowledge it had never before been used in any chemical industry. This process
has been at work at M. Pechiney’s large alkali works at Salindres, and is now at
work in this country at the chlorate of potash works of Messrs. Allbright and
Wilson at Oldbury, a manufacture for which it offers special advantages. Mr.
Weldon and M. Pechiney had expected that this process would become specially
useful in connection with the ammonia soda process by preparing in the way pro-
posed by Mr. Solvay and Mr. Weldon in 1872 a solution of magnesium chloride
as a by-product of this manufacture, but instead of obtaining muriatic acid from
this solution by Clemm’s process, to treat it by the new process, so as to obtain the
bulk of the chlorine at once in the free state. But M. Pechiney did no more suc-
ceed than his predecessors in recovering the ammonia by means of magnesia in a
satisfactory way.
Quite recently, however, it has been applied to obtain chlorine in connection
with the ammonia soda process by Dr. Pick, of Czakowa, in Austria, He recovers
the ammonia, as usual, by means of lime, and converts the solution of chloride of
calcium, obtained by a process patented by Mr. Weldon in 1869, viz., by treatment
with magnesia and carbonic acid under pressure, into chloride of magnesium with
the formation of carbonate of lime. The magnesium chloride solution is then con-
centrated and treated by the Weldon-Pechiney process.
I have repeatedly referred during this brief history to the great change which
has been brought about in the position of chlorine manufacture by the develop-
ment of the ammonia soda process, and have pointed out that the muriatic acid
which for a long time was the by-product of the Le Blanc process, without value,
thereby became gradually its main and most valuable product, while the alkali
became its by-product.
I have told you how, very early in the history of this process, Mr. Solvay and
_ Mr. Weldon proposed means to provide for this contingency, and how Mr. Weldon
continued to improve these means until the time of his death, Mr. Solvay, on his
742 REPORT—1896.
part, also followed up the subject with that tenacity and sincerity of purpose
which distinguish him, his endeavours being mainly directed to producing
chlorine direct from the chloride of calcium running away from his works by mix-
ing it with clay and passing air through the mixture at very high temperatures,
thus producing chlorine and a silicate of calcium, which could be utilised in cement-
making. The very high temperatures required prevented, however, this process
from becoming a practical success.
I have already told you what a complicated series of operations Dr. Pick has
lately resorted to in order to obtain the chlorine from this chloride of calcium.
Yet the problem of obtaining chlorine as a by-product of the ammonia soda process
presents itself as a very simple one.
This process produces a precipitate of bicarbonate of soda and a solution of
chloride of ammonium by treating natural brine or an artificially made solution of
salt, in which a certain amount of ammonia has been dissolved, with carbonic acid.
In their original patent of 1838 Messrs. Dyar and Hemming proposed to evaporate
this solution of ammonium chloride and to distil the resulting dry product with
lime to recover the ammonia. Now all that seemed to be necessary to obtain the
chlorine from this ammonium chloride was to substitute another oxide for lime in
the distillation process, which would liberate the ammonia and form a chloride
which on treatment with atmospheric air would give off its chlorine and reproduce
the original oxide. The whole of the reactions for producing carbonate of soda
and bleaching powder from salt would thus be reduced to their simplest possible
form; the solution of salt, as we obtain it in the form of brine direct from the soil,
would be treated with ammonia and carbonic acid to produce bicarbonate and
subsequently monocarbonate of soda ; the limestone used for producing the carbonic
acid would yield the lime required for absorbing the chlorine, and produce bleaching
powder instead of being run into the rivers in combination with chlorine in the
useless form of chloride of calcium ; and both the ammonia used as an intermediary
in the production of soda and the metallic oxide used as an intermediary in the
production of chlorine would be continuously recovered.
The realisation of this fascinating problem has occupied me for a great many
years. In the laboratory I obtained soon almost theoretical results. A very large
number of oxides and even of salts of weak acids were found to decompose
ammonium chloride in the desired way ; but the best results (as was to be clearly
anticipated from thermo-chemical data) were given by oxide of nickel.
When, however, I came to carry this process out on a large scale, I met with
the most formidable difficulties, which it took many years to overcome successfully.
The very fact that ammonium chloride vapour forms so readily metallic chlo-
rides when brought in contact at an elevated temperature with metals or oxides,
or even silicates, led to the greatest difficulty, viz., that of constructing apparatus
which would not be readily destroyed by it.
Amongst the metals we found that platinum and gold were the only ones not
attacked at all. Antimony was but little attacked, and nickel resisted very well if
not exposed to too high a temperature, so that it could be, and is being, used for
such parts of the plant as are not directly exposed to heat. The other parts of the
apparatus coming in contact with the ammonium chloride vapour I ultimately
succeeded in constructing of cast and wrought iron, lined with fire-bricks or
Doulton tiles, the joints between these being made by means of a cement consisting
of sulphate of baryta and waterglass.
After means had been devised for preventing the breaking of the joints
through the unequal expansion of the iron and the earthenware, the plant so
constructed has lasted very well.
Oxide of nickel, which had proved the most suitable material for the process. in
the laboratory, gave equally good chemical results on the large scale, but occasion-
ally a small quantity of nickel chloride was volatilised through local over-heating,
which, however, was sufficient to gradually make up the chlorine conduits. We
therefore looked out for an active material free from this objection. Theoretical
considerations indicated magnesia as the next best substance, but it was found that
the magnesium chloride formed was not anhydrous, but retained a certain amount
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 743
of the steam formed by the reaction, which gave rise to the formation of a con-
siderable quantity of hydrochloric acid on treatment with hot air. In conjunction
with Dr. Eschellman (who carried out the experiments for me), I succeeded in
reducing the quantity of this hydrochloric acid to a negligible amount by adding
to the magnesia a certain amount of chloride of potassium, which probably has the
effect of forming an anhydrous double chloride.
This mixture of magnesia and potassium chloride is, after the addition of a
certain quantity of china clay, made into small pills in order to give a free and
regular passage throughout their entire mass to the hot air and other gases with
which they have to be treated. In order to avoid as far as possible the handling
and consequent breaking of these pills, I vapourise the ammonium chloride in a
special apparatus, and take the vapours through these pills and subsequently pass
hot air through. and then again ammonium chloride vapour, and so on, without
the pills changing their place.
The vapourisation of the ammonium chloride is carried out in long cast-iron
retorts lined with thin Doulton tiles, and placed almost vertically in a furnace
which is kept by producer gas at a very steady and regular temperature. These
retorts are kept nearly full with ammonium chloride, so as to have as much active
heating surface as possible. From time to time a charge of ammonium chloride is
introduced through a hopper at the top of these retorts, which is closed by a nicke}
plug. The ammonium chloride used is very pure, being crystallised out from its
solution as produced in the ammonia soda manufacture by a process patented by
Mr. Gustav Jarmay, which consists in lowering the temperature of these solutions
considerably below 0° C. by means of refrigerating machinery. The retorts will
therefore evaporate a very large amount of ammonium chloride before it becomes
necessary to take out through a door at their bottom the non-volatile impurities which
accumulate in them. The ammonium chloride vapour is taken from these retorts
by cast-iron pipes lined with tiles and placed in a brick channel, in which they are kept
hot, to prevent the solidification of the vapour, to large upright wrought-iron cylin-
ders which are lined with a considerable thickness of fire-bricks, and are filled with
the magnesia pills, which are, from the previous operations, left at a temperature
of about 800°C, On its passage through the pills the chlorine in the vapours is
completely retained by them, the ammonia and water vapour formed pass on and
are taken to a suitable condensing apparatus, The reaction of the ammonium
chloride vapour upon magnesia being exo-thermic, the temperature of the pills
rises during this operation, and no addition of heat is necessary to complete it.
The temperature, however, does not rise sufficiently to satisfactorily complete the
second operation, viz., the liberation of the chlorine and the re-conversion of the
magnesium chloride into magnesium oxide by means of air. This reaction is.
slightly endo-thermic, and thus absorbs a small amount of heat, which has to be
provided in one way or another. I effect this by heating the pills to a somewhat
higher temperature than is required for the action of the air upon them, viz., to
600° C., by passing through them a current of a dry inert gas free from oxygen
heated by a Siemens-Cowper stove to the required temperature. I use for this
purpose the gas leaving the carbonating plant of the ammonia soda process.
This current of gas also carries out of the apparatus the small amount of
ammonia which was left in between the pills. It is washed to absorb this
ammonia, and after washing this same gas is passed again through the Siemens-
Cowper stove, and thus constantly circulated through the apparatus, taking up the
heat from the stove and transferring it to the pills. When these have attained the:
required temperature, the hot inert gas is stopped and a current of hot air passed
through, which has also been heated to 600° C. in a similar stove. The air acts:
rapidly upon the magnesium chloride, and leaves the apparatus charged with 18 to:
20 per cent. of chlorine and a small amount of hydrochloric acid. The chlorine
comes gradually down, and when it has reached about 3 per cent. the temperature:
_ of the air entering the apparatus is lowered to 350° C. by the admixture of cold
air to the hot air from the stove; and the weak chlorine leaving the apparatus is
passed through a second stove, in which its temperature is raised again to 600° C.,
and passed into another cylinder full of pills which are just ready to receive the
744 REPORT— 1896.
hot-air current. <A series of four cylinders is required to procure the necessary
continuity for the process.
The chlorine gas is washed with a strong solution of chloride of calcium,
which completely retains all the hydrochloric acid, and is then absorbed in an
apparatus invented by Dr. Carl Langer, by hydrate of lime, which is made to pass
by a series of interlocked transporting twin-screws in an opposite direction to the
current of gas, and produces very good and strong bleaching powder, in spite of
the varying strength of the chlorine gas. The hydrochloric acid absorbed by the
solution of calcium chloride can by heating this solution be readily driven out and
collected.
This process has now been in operation on a considerable scale at our works at
Winnington for several years, with constantly improving results, notably with
regard to the loss of ammonia, which has gradually been reduced to a small
amount. The process has fully attained my object, viz., to enable the ammonia
soda process to compete, not only in the production of carbonate of soda, but also
in the production of bleaching powder, with the Le Blanc process.
Nevertheless, I have hesitated to extend this process as rapidly as I should
otherwise have done, because very shortly after I had overcome all its difficulties,
entirely different methods from those hitherto employed for the manufacture of
chlorine were actively pushed forward in different parts of the globe, for which
great advantages were claimed, but the real importance and capabilities of which
were and are up to this date very difficult to judge. I refer to the processes for
producing chlorine by electrolysis.
During the first decade of this century, Humphry Davy had by innumerable
experiments established all the leading facts concerning the decomposing action of
an electric current upon chemical compounds. Amongst these he was the first to
discover that solutions of alkaline chlorides, when submitted to the action of a
current, yield chlorine. His successor at the Royal Institution, Michael Faraday,
worked out and proved the fundamental law of electrolysis, known to everybody
as ‘Faraday’s Law,’ which has enabled us to calculate exactly the amount of
current required to produce by electrolysis any detinite quantity of chlorine.
Naturally, since these two eminent men had so clearly shown the way, numerous
inventors have endeavoured to work out processes based on these principles for the
production of chlorine on a manufacturing scale, but only during the last few years
have these met with any measure of success.
It has taken all this time for the classical work of Faraday on electro-mag-
netism to develop into the modern magneto-electric machine, capable of producing
electricity in sufficient quantity to make it available for chemical operations on a
large scale; for you must keep in mind that an electric installation sufficient to
light a large town will only produce a very moderate quantity of chemicals,
In applying electricity to the production of chlorine various ways have been
followed, both as to the raw materials and as to the apparatusemployed. While
most inventors have proposed to electrolyse a solution of chloride of sodium, and
to produce thereby chlorine and caustic soda, I am not aware that up to this day
any quantity of caustic soda made by electrolysis has been put on to the market.
Only two electrolytic works producing chlorine on a really large scale are in
operation to-day. Both electrolyse chloride of potassium, producing as a by-
product caustic potash, which is of very much higher value than caustic soda, and
of which a larger quantity is obtained for the same amount of current expended.
These works are situated in the neighbourhood of Stassfurt, the important centre
of the chloride of potassium manufacture. The details of the plant they employ
are kept secret, but it is known that they use cells with porous diaphragms of
special construction, for which great durability is claimed. There are at this
moment a considerable number of smaller works in existence, or in course of
erection in various countries, intended to carry into practice the production of
chlorine by electrolysis by numerous methods, differing mainly in the details of
the cells to be used ; but some of them also involying what may be called new prin-
ciples. The most interesting of these are the processes in which mercury is used
alternately as cathode and anode, and salt as electrolyte. They aim at obtaining
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 745
in the first instance chlorine and an amalgam of sodium, and subsequently con-
verting the latter into caustic soda by contact with water, which certainly has
the advantage of producinga very pure solution of caustic soda. Mr. Hamilton
Castner has carried out this idea most successfully by a very beautiful decomposing
cell, which is divided into various compartments, and so arranged that by slightly
rocking the cell the mercury charged with sodium in one compartment passes into
another, where it gives up the sodium to water, and then returns to the first com-
partment, to be recharged with sodium. His process has been at work on a
small scale for some time at Oldbury, near Birmingham, and works for carrying
it out on a large scale are now being erected on the banks of the Mersey, and also
in Germany and America.
Entirely different from the foregoing, but still belonging to our subject, are
methods which propose to electrolyse the chlorides of heavy metals (zinc, lead,
copper, &c.) obtained in metallurgical operations or specially prepared for the pur-
pose, among which the processes of Dr. Carl Hoepfner deserve special. attention.
They eliminate from the electrolyte immediately both the products of electrolysis,
chlorine on one side and zine and copper on the other, and thus avoid all secondary
reactions, which have been the great difficulty in the electrolysis of alkaline
chlorides.
All these processes have, however, still to stand the test of time before a final
opinion can be arrived at as to the effect they will nave upon the manufacture of
chlorine, the history of which we have been following, and this must be my excuse
for not going into further details. I have endeavoured to give you a briet history
of the past of the manufacture of chlorine, but I will to-day not attempt to deal
with its future. Yet I cannot leave my subject without stating the remarkable
fact that every one of these processes which I have described to you is still at work
to this day, even those of Scheele and Berthollet, all finding a sphere of usefulness
under the widely varying conditions under which the manufacture of chlorine is
carried on in different parts of the world.
Let me express a hope that a hundred years hence the same will be said of the
processes now emerging and the processes still to spring out of the inventor’s mind.
Rapid and varied as has been the development of this manufacture, I cannot sup-
pose that its progress is near its end, and that Nature has revealed to us all her
secrets as to how to procure chlorine with the least expenditure of trouble and
energy. I do not believe that industrial chemistry will in future be diverted from
this Section and have to wander to Section A under the egis of applied electricity.
I do not believe that the easiest way of effecting chemical changes will ultimately
be found in transforming heat and chemical affinity into electricity, tearing up
chemical compounds by this powerful medium, and then to recombine their con-
stituents in such form as we may‘require them. I am sure there is plenty of scope
for the manufacturing chemist to solve the problems before him by purely chemi-
_ cal means, of some of which we may as little dream to-day as a few years ago it
could have been imagined that nickel would be extracted from its ores by means
of carbon monoxide.
At a meeting of this Association which brings before us an entirely new form
of energy, the Réntgen rays, which have enabled us to see through doors and walls
and to look inside the human body ; which brings before us a new form of matter,
represented by Argon and Helium, which, as their discoverers, Lord Rayleich and
Professor Ramsay, have now abundantly proved, are certainly elementary bodies,
inasmuch as they cannot be split up further, but are not chemical elements, as they
possess no chemical affinity and do not enter into combinations—at a meeting at
which such astounding and unexpected secrets of nature are revealed to us, who
would call in dcubt that, notwithstanding the immense progress pure and applied
_ sciences have made during this century, new and greater and farther-reaching
_ discoveries are still in store for ages to come ?
1896. 3c
746 REPORT—1896.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On Reflected Waves in the Explosion of Gases.
By Professor H. B. Dixon, E. H. Strance, and E, Granam.
The authors exhibited some photographs which show the return sound-wave
produced by the explosion-wave in gases when it reaches the end of the tube. The
gases were fired in a thick glass tube closed by a steel plug. The flash was photo-
graphed on a very rapidly moving film. By measuring the velocity of these
sound-waves the authors estimate the maximum temperature of the gases immedi-
ately in the wake of the explosion-wave. The maximum temperatures lie between
3,000° and 4,000°C. They are thus of the same order as those given by Bunsen, by
Berthetot,and by Mallard and Le Chatelier for the temperature of the explosion itself.
2. The Action of Metals and their Salts on Ordinary and on Réntgen
Rays: a Contrast. By Dr. J. H. Guapstone and W. H1ssert.
This paper is an extension of previous work on the special properties of metals
and salts, and may be considered as an application of Réntgen rays to chemical
research.
In regard to the rays of ordinary light solid metals absorb them completely,
and are therefore opaque. If, however, the metals combine with an electro-
negative radicle, they lose their power of absorbing light, except a few which show
the phenomena of selective absorption. Solutions of salts resemble the crystallised
solid in their action on light.
With regard to Réntgen rays, on the contrary, metals exhibit every degree of
opacity or transparency, from lithium—which is practically non-absorptive—to
such metals as gold and platinum, which are practically opaque. The salts of
these metals are not transparent, but the metal in them seems to have the same
effect on the Réntgen rays as in the uncombined condition. This seems to be
equally true when the salts are dissolved in water.
The order of absorption follows that of atomic weight, as found by Barrett and
others, not that of density or combining proportion. The absorption of the
Rontgen rays by a salt solution appears to be that of both constituents of the salt
added together plus that of the solvent.
The work was principally carried on in the laboratory of the Polytechnic,
Regent Street, London. Photographs were exhibited.
3. Limiting Explosive Proportions of Acetylene and Detection and Measure-
ment of the Gas in the Air. By Professor Frank Crowes, D.Sc.
(Lond.)
The value of acetylene as an illuminant and the discovery of its ready pro-
duction from calcium carbide have led to the manufacture of this gas in some
quantity, and acetylene will probably be dealt with in still larger volume in the
near future. It becomes, therefore, important to devise methods of detecting its
presence in the air, arising from leakage and escape, and to measure the percentage
of the gas present at any place. It is also important to ascertain what proportions
of the gas, when present in mixture with air, will lead to explosion if the mixture
should be kindled.
The Detection of Small Proportions of the Gas will not be readily effected by
its smell when it is prepared in a state of purity; at present the smell is made
much more pronounced by the impurities which the commercial gas contains.
Further, the smell will not in any case furnish a means of measuring the pro-
portion present in the air. The method. applied by the writer to the detection
and measurement of five-damp and coal-gas in the air, however, serves for
detecting and measuring acetylene as well. A small hydrogen flame jet to
———
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 747
either 5 or 10 mil‘imetres in height, as may be necessary, shows a pale but well-
defined ‘cap’ in air containing any proportion of acetylene less than the lowest
explosive proportion. When the hydrogen flame is exposed to the air to be tested
for acetylene in a darkened space, it is at once tinged yellowish-green. The
bluish pale cap has the following heights with varying proportions of acetylene,
-when the hydrogen flame is 10 millimetres in height :—
0°25 per cent. gives 17 mm. cap.
05 ” ” 19 ” ”
10 ” ” 28 ” ”
2-0 ” ” 48 ” ”
When the hydrogen flame is reduced to 5 millimetres :—
2:5 per cent. gives 56 mm. cap.
2°75 ” ” 7 ” ”
A convenient portable form of apparatus was shown by the writer, which
enabled air to be passed readily over the standard hydrogen flame in a darkened
vessel, and which quickly furnished the reading of the height of the cap.
In Determining the Limits of Explosibility, when acetylene is mixed in
gradually increasing proportion with air and kindled, the writer adopted a simple
method referred to at the last meeting of the Association. It was found that air
must contain at least 3 per cent. of acetylene before it can be kindled by a flame
and the mixture caused to burn throughout. As the proportion of acetylene is
increased, the explosive character is augmented. When 22 per cent. of acetylene
is present, carbon begins to separate during the burning. The amount of carbon
which separates increases until the explosive character of the mixture disappears ;
this point is reached when 82 per cent. of acetylene is present in the air.
The limiting percentages in air which are explosible are accordingly as follows,
and may be compared with those already determined by the writer for other
combustible gases :-—
Acetylene . . ° ‘ » 8to $2
Hydrogen . 5 c . Aa gyal es
Carbon monoxide . : 3 ae elihaege
Ethylene - F - é ape. 29
Methane : ‘ 4 ; sa Oli Les
It will be seen that acetylene gives a wider range of explosive proportions
than any other of these gases does. Probably this is due to its endothermic
nature, which leads to the gas being able to generate heat by its own decom-
position: heat thus generated would undoubtedly aid in causing explosion, and
would thus extend the limits of explosive mixtures,
4. The Accurate Determination of Oxygen by Absorption with Alkaline
Pyrogallol Solution. By Professor Frank Ciowss, D.Se. (Lond.)
It was found repeatedly in my laboratory that during the absorption of
oxygen from the Brin gas a considerable volume of carbon monoxide was evolved,
although this did not occur in absorbing oxygen from air. If the evolution of the
gas was known to take place, and the carbon monoxide was subsequently absorbed
by cuprous chloride solution before reading off the residual nitrogen, the estima-
tion of the volume of oxygen was correct; if this precaution was not taken the
estimation was open to serious error. Repeated trials with varying proportions
of eae and potassium hydrate showed that the evolution of carbon monoxide
might be entirely prevented by using a sufliciently large excess of potassium
hydrate. With the following proportions no fear of this source of error need be
felt, even when pure oxygen is being absorbed :—160 grams of potassium hydrate
and 10 grams of pyrogallol in 200 cubic centimetres of solution.
3c2
748 REPORT—1896.
5. On the Amides of the Alkali Metals and some of their Derivatives
By A, W. Trruertey, Jf.Sc., Ph.D.
Ammonia, by the substitution of one atom of hydrogen by the alkali metals,
gives rise to a series of amides of interesting properties. The following were
prepared: sodamide, NaNH,; potassamide, KNH, ; lithamide, LiNH,; and rubid-
amide, RbNH,. The metals, on heating in ammonia, rapidly decompose it, form-
ing the respective amides, especially lithium, whose action is very energetic.
The amides are white crystalline substances, easily decomposed by water. On
heating they distil or sublime without decomposition, except at high temperatures,
when they split partially into their elements. No nitrides result, although these
were stated by Davy to be formed by heating the impure sodamide and potass-
amide he obtained—his results having been vitiated by the glass vessels employed.
The melting-points of the amides are very different, and bear no connection
apparently with the atomic weights of the metals. Several substitution deri-
vatives were exhibited, obtained by replacing the H atom of the NH, group by
alkyl and other groups. :
6. Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
See Reports, p. 243.
7. Report on the Action of Light on Dyed Colowrs.—See Reports, p. 347.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Carbohydrates of Barley Straw.—See Reports, p. 262.
2. The Retardation of Chemical Reaction from Diminution of Space.
Sy Professor Oscar LIEBREICH.
This subject may be regarded from the point of view either of Chemistry or of
Physics, as it occupies a position on the borderland between those sciences.
We know that some of the phenomena of motion in capillary tubes differ from
those in larger vessels filled with liquid. The melting-point is higher, the freezing-
point is lower, the boiling-point is retarded. Of the phenomena of motion which
go by the name of chemical reaction we know as yet nothing, for the condensa-
tion of gases in finely pulverised substances also belongs to purely physical
phenomena.
This investigation arose out of a previous examination of chloral hydrate,
the decomposition of which into chloroform takes place according to a well-known
formula.
Under certain conditions this. substance undergoes a molecular change. If the
melted crystals—in appearance a matted mass of needles—are placed in benzene,
isolated glassy-hard needles are obtained. The most varied experiments, made
for the purpose of discovering whether a different chemical substance had been
formed, proved unavailing ; but there wascertainly a change as far as physical quali-
ties were concerned. The matted needle-mass dissolved in water without increase
of volume; while in the case of the isolated needles an increase of volume was
proved. No chemical difference being observed, the author endeavoured to find
out whether both substances were alike in the velocity of reaction.
When soda solutions are mixed with solutions of chloral hydrate, the chloro-
form dogs not separate out in oily drops, but forms a nebula of chloroform in the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 749
liquid. The microscope, too, shows only a mass of minute spots. If the liquid is
sufficiently diluted, the nebula does not form till after some minutes. The shape
of this nebula induced the author to study that part in the fluid, where chemical
reaction is considerably retarded, which he calls the ‘dead space.’
If the solution be poured into a test tube, a space below the surface remains
clear and transparent. The first thought cannot fail to be, that this phenomenon
is caused either by sedimentation of the nebula, or by evaporation of the chloro-
form, or indeed by both. But the shape of the nebula reveals to the observer that
these cannot be the true causes. If sedimentation were the cause, the nebuia
would be lowest in the middle ; in evaporation, on the other hand, the same quan-
tity of vapour would rise from every part of the surface, and thus the shape would
be different from the one actually seen. For in reality the nebula shows the shape
of an arch conyex to the surface.
In order to observe this phenomenon more closely, a glass prism with an acute
angle was used. Here the appearance was remarkable. Under the surface there
was a clear space deflected in the direction of the acute angle and corresponding
to the depth of the meniscus downwards, a space which even inside the angle was
perfectly clear.
The ‘dead space’ can be seen in the synthesis of indigo from orthonitrobenz-
aldehyde, but the reaction is a very rapid one, and for this reason the experiments
were made with iodic acid and sulphurous acid; 25 grammes iodic acid per litre
and 0:88 gramme sulphurous acid per litre—the latter being tke solution used by
Landolt for his time-reactions. A starch-solution demonstrates the presence of free
iodine. Both in the test tube and in the prism the same phenomena of ‘dead
space’ can be observed as in the case of the chloral-hydrate reaction. This
mixture is suited to vessels of the most varied shapes, as shown by experiments of
a decisive nature. For instance, a tumbler is filled with the reacting mixture, and
some of the liquid aspirated into a glass tube. The reaction first commences in
the tumbler, and afterwards in the glass tube, and in its central line only. The
column of coloured fluid reaches below the meniscus. As in this case the space
free from reaction cannot be explained either by evaporation or by sedimentation,
it follows that the glass wall and the surface of the fluid may cause the ‘dead
space.’ The experiments may be modified by using a tube composed of hollow
glass bulbs connected by capillary tubes. The reaction is then visible in the
centre of the bulbs, while the liquid in the connecting capillary tubes remains per-
fectly clear. The following experiment was made to prove the retardation of
reaction in capillary tubes. A tumbler and a capillary tube were filled with
colourless reacting-fluid, and the latter was introduced into the tumbler-fluid.
After the blue reaction had taken place in the tumbler the capillary tube was
taken out. Its contents were found to have remained colourless. But when a
similar capillary tube was filled with the blue fluid, the blue colour could be dis-
tinctly seen. Tubes which had been blown into bulbs were also filled with the
‘aad fluid, and it was observed that the reaction began in the centre of the
ulb.
An instructive demonstration of the ‘dead space’ and its formation is made by
fixing a drop of the reacting fluid between the convex faces of two watch-glasses.
If the reaction be then watched from above, there is nothing extraordinary in the
fact that the blue colour grows fainter as it approaches the centre, until at last it
disappears entirely. But if, by means of an apparatus similar to those attached to
microscope tables, one of the watch-glasses be raised, a sharply defined, colourless,
and transparent patch is visible in the centre. Moreover, there is a dead space,
not only in the centre of the drop, but also at its circumference, along the stretched
surface of the fluid.
These experiments were variously modified in order to leave no doubt that the
phenomena were not produced either by evaporation, by sedimentation, or by the
alkalinity of the glass.
4 An experiment was then devised in which these three factors were completely
eliminated by means of the reaction occurring in the reduction of sesquichloride of
gold with formate of soda. The formate of soda, again, was formed by decom-
750 REPORT—1896.
position of chloral hydrate with a solution of carbonate of soda. These solutions
were used in the following proportions :—
50 c.cm. 5 solution of chloral hydrate were mixed with
4 c.cm, 5 solution of carbonate of soda,
and three drops of a solution of sesquichloride of gold (1°5 per cent.) added. Ata
temperature of about 22° the reaction takes place, the so-called liquid gold sepa-
rates out in the form of a violet solution. With this solution, and with the appa-
ratus described, it is not difficult to find reactions which form the ‘dead space.
Care must be taken, however, to exclude direct solar rays. }
The ‘dead space’ is probably caused by internal resistance of the fluid. Ina
liquid, inclosed by a hard wall, the motion of the liquid will be the more hindered
by the friction produced by this motion itself the smaller the vessel is. Not that,
of course, any change is assumed in.the coefficient, but the conclusion seems
inevitable that the smaller the space inclosing a fluid, the more nearly the fluid
resembles a solid as regards its internal resistance.
The same must hold good in the case of an inclosed fluid, where the upper wall
is bounded by the surface-tension of the fluid, and also in the case of a fluid
bounded only by its own stretched circumference—i.e., the case of the drop.
This view of the change in the physical qualities of fluids is illustrated by some
friction-experiments,
If a small disk-shaped float, having the smallest possible upward pressure, be
allowed to rise in a glass vessel, it will be seen to come to an apparent standstill
half a millimetre below the surface, and then to rise to the surface with greatly
diminished velocity ; a proof that there is friction on the fluid side of the stretched
surface,
The second experiment consists in allowing a concentrated coloured glycerine-
solution to rise in a colourless glycerine-solution of slightly greater density. Ifa
glass tube, fitted at its upper part with a prism filled with the heavier solution, be
used, the current of the liquid shows the direction taken by the ‘dead space,’ and
thus indicates the places at which the fluid-resistance is at its maximum, J
Thus we are brought to the conclusion that liquid friction is of influence in
the phenomenon of chemical reaction, and that in small inclosed spaces—spaces in
which the fluid is, as it were, solidified—the reaction is retarded.
It is worthy of consideration whether these observations have not an important
bearing also in relation to biological processes. : ! j
Attention has long since been directed by the chemist and physiologist alike
to the question whether there are not modes of reaction in the limited spaces of
organisms differing from those observed hitherto in the larger vessels of the chemica}
laboratory. t
The results given tend to show that the small space of the cells is not
accidental, but that it has a function either to moderate or to stimulate
chemical reactions, or even to determine their direction otherwise than in larger
vessels,
Chemical reaction, thus modified, may well play an important réle in cells, and
it is hoped that not only in pure chemistry, but also in the chemistry of vital
phenomena, further investigations on the lines suggested may lead to important
results,
3. Excrescent Resins. By Professor M. BaMBERGER.
4. Report on the Proximate Chemical Constituents of the various kinds
of Coal.—See Reports, p. 340.
—————
TRANSACYIONS OF SECTION B. 751
5. On the Velocity of Reaction before Perfect Equilibrium takes place.
By MEYER WILDERMANN,
As we know, there are two kinds of equilibrium: perfect and imperfect.
Gibbs gives us the rule for distinguishing the two kinds: when kinds of mole-
cules constitute n+ 1 phases or parts of a system, the equilibrium is a perfect one;
and when z kinds of molecules constitute a system of less than x +1 phases, the
equilibrium is an imperfect one. To perfect equilibrium belong first the so-called
‘physical’ reactions, where one and the same substance is in different states of
aggregation, thus forming different parts or phases of the heterogeneous system—
e.g., where solid and liquid or gas, liquid and solid or gas, &c., are in equilibrium.
To perfect equilibrium belongs also the great range of ‘chemical’ reactions, which
have the common feature with the physical, that to a given temperature only a
certain pressure corresponds at which the system can be in equilibrium, and the
one may change in their mass but not in their constitution—e.g., the system
aCQO, and CaO, CO,, &c. The velocity of reaction before imperfect equilibrium
takes place (in homogeneous systems) was thoroughly investigated by Wilhelmy,
Harcourt and Esson, Gouldberg and Waage, van ’t Hoff, and others. But as the
velocity of reaction before perfect equilibrium takes place has remained to the
present time a large and scarcely known field, and the few investigations which have
been carried out have not led to any simple results or quantitative conclusion, the
author has been induced to make the following investigation.
1. Velocity of solidification of liquids and solutions (phenol and solutions of
water in phenol). The author has investigated the velocity of solidification of
phenol and of solutions of water in phenol in a U-tube, one part of which was
replaced by a narrow tube of very thin platinum; the U-tube was immersed in
baths of different temperatures below the melting-point. By good arrangement
for stirring, the temperature of the bath was kept constant within the limits of
0°05 C. The time was observed to a } second. A fine, very sensitive thermo-
meter was placed in the platinum tube to measure the rise of temperature of the
liquid while the reaction takes place (the rise equals more than 40 per cent. of the
total value of overcooling to—¢,,). If abscisse represent the amount of overcool-
ing below the melting-point, and ordinates, the velocities of reaction, or -the time
required for the passage of the solidified mass from one end of the platinum tube
to the other, we obtain straight lines, cutting the melting-point (instead of the
irregular curves of Gernez or Moore, which cut the abscisse considerably below
the melting-point)—7.c., the equation - =c(t,—t), (1.), where = is the time, ¢ is
dz
the temperature of equilibrium, holds good. The surface of the solid in contact
with the liquid remaining the same, the velocity of reaction is directly proportional
to the remoteness from the melting-point.
2. Velocity of reaction before equilibrium between liquid and solid solutions
takes place (solidification of phenol and meta-cresol). It was found that phenol
and m-cresol form solid solutions. The m-cresol is partly dissolved in the liquid
phenol, partly in the separated solid phenol, following the laws of van ’t Hoff.
The velocities in a U-tube have been investigated, and the author finds that the
equation (1.) holds good.
3, Velocity of crystallisation of overcooled liquids and solutions (the solid
solvent is in equilibrium with the liquid solvent or solution). In the case of
crystallisation only a part of the liquid becomes solid as far as necessary to bring
it to the freezing temperature. The method used is based on the principle that
the heat freed during the reaction is as completely as possible absorbed by the
liquid. Good arrangements for stirring are required. The cooling of the liquid
stirred by the surrounding medium must be so small that it may be neglected or
only a small correction required (1,250 c.c. liquid is used, t,-¢ is kept small). A
very sensitive 1/100° thermometer is of first importance (with a long thin bulb as
thin as possible). The time was observed to 4 second. From the results obtained
the equation, lgn(t, — toy) — lgn(t, — toc) + lgn(to —t,) — I(t — t,) = C(Z,—Z,)(to — tov)
Tad REPORT—1896. .
\
holds good; therefore the equation om e(t— tov) (to—t), (2.), where ¢,, is the tem-
perature to which the liquid was overcooled, ¢, is the freezing-point, holds good,
z,e,, the velocity of reaction is directly proportional to the surface of the solid in
contact with the liquid, and to the remoteness from the freezing temperature. The
condition is t—t,,>0, z.¢., the solid solvent is present in the liquid, and the system
is heterogeneous.
4,. Velocity of melting of solid solvents in liquid solvents or solutions (¢.g., of
ice in water or aqueous solutions), The velocity of ice melting cannot be
measured with the same accuracy as the velocity of ice separation. The author
has carried out experimental verification of the equation = =c(t,—t), where c is
directly proportional to the surface of the solid in contact with the liquid, by using
cubes of ice, whuse surface could be directly measured at the beginning and at the
end of the reaction, and during the reaction it could be calculated from the fall of
temperature of the investigated liquid.
5. Velocity of crystallisation of oversaturated solution (equilibrium between
separated salt and salt solution), The equation (2.) holds good—z.e., the velocity
of reaction is directly proportional to the surface of the salt in contact with the liquid
and to the amount of oversaturation (not to the total quantity of the salt dissolved).
This very remarkable fact throws light on the meaning of the velocity of reaction
before perfect equilibrium, Let us assume that the total quantity of the salt dissolved
takes place in the reaction, then our equation will be = =c(t,—t)A, where ¢t,—¢
as
is directly proportional to the surface of the separated crystals, A is the concen-
tration of the liquid part of the time z. This equation can be written in the form
eels —t) (A’+a), where A’ is the concentration at equilibrium and a is the
amount of oversaturation at the time z. Now c(t, —t)A’=0 independently of the
value ¢, —¢, since the concentration A’ is in equilibrium with any quantity of the
salt present in the liquid. The only equation for the reaction is therefore
= =e(¢,—t)a—ve., the equation given above.
Since in the case of perfect equilibrium one of the parts of the heterogeneous
system can completely disappear (with the change of the temperature or of the
pressure of equilibrium), it follows that above or below the point of equilibrium
4 ; : dt ie!
no opposite reaction occurs, and because of this when 5 becomes zero, the equili-
brium is a static one (and not a dynamic one, as assumed).
‘We thus find that one and the same equation represents the relations of all
investigated reactions before perfect equilibrium. The equation is therefore
general, and must be put at the basis of all other reactions of more complicated
form (which will form the subject of further investigation).
Static equilibrium because of the interference of other factors is never in reality
reached in nature. The equilibrium is never real or perfect, but only apparent.
A detailed investigation of this in the case of equilibrium between ice and water
or solution is given in the author’s paper ‘On the real and apparent freezing-point
and the freezing-point methods.’ This gives us the possibility of explaining some of
the most important phenomena in nature, &c., as the formation of glaciers, icebergs,
snow, the melting processes, &c. All these phenomena never completely reach
the dead-point of perfect equilibrium, but a continuous change or reaction takes
place in nature,
6. The Behaviour of Litmus in Amphoteric Solutions.
By Tuomas. R. Brapsnaw, B.A., ILD.
Solutions which redden blue litmus, and at the same time turn red litmus blue,
are said to have an amphoteric (dug@o répas) reaction. This reaction is always
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 753
given by human urine when its acidity is low, and is in this case due to the exist-
ence together of the dihydric and monohydric phosphates, MH, PO, and M, HPO,,
of which the former acts as an acid and the latter as an alkali towards litmus.
The actual colour resulting is violet. No satisfactory explanation has been offered
of the nature of the change in the litmus when the violet is produced. Heintz?
supposed that litmus was of the nature of a diabasic acid, the red pigment con-
taining two atoms of displaceable hydrogen, which in the blue litmus were replaced
by a metal. He supposed that the monohydric and dihydric phosphates displaced
only one atom of hydrogen or of metal, forming a body analogous to an acid salt—
the violet litmus. He seems to have overlooked the fact that the violet litmus is
only produced when both phosphates act together—alone they produce red and
blue litmus.
The object of the present communication is to show that the violet litmus is a
mechanical mixture of the red and the blue. It can be shown on theoretical
erounds that when both phosphates are present in nearly equal proportions they
must each affect the litmus in their own special way, the exact amount of blue and
red produced being determined by the mass action of the phosphates. If red
litmus is provisionally represented by the formula LH the reactions may be repre-
sented as follows :—
nM,H PO, +” M H, PO, +2L=(n—1) M,HPO,+(n+1) MH,PO,+LH+LM.
n M,H PO, +nMH, PO, +2 LM=(n+1) M,HPO, + (x—1) MH, PO,+LM+ LH.
The violet litmus is shown to be a mixture of the red and the blue by observing
the light transmitted through its solution by the eye and by the spectroscope.
This light is, in all respects identical with that transmitted through the red and
the blue successively. Cochineal behaves in an analogous manner.
It can be shown that acetic acid behaves in a manner analogous to litmus in
presence of the two phosphates. A small quantity of sodium acetate is added to
a strong solution of NaH, PO, and Na,H PO,. On distilling the solution free
acetic acid comes over. The solution is then taken to dryness, the residue dis-
solved in water and acidulated with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid. On
distilling a further quantity of acetic acid comes over. Thus it appears that
sodium acetate behaves in a manner analogous to blue litmus in the amphoteric
solutions. To sum up :—
1. There is no evidence to show that any special modification of litmus is pro-
duced by amphoteric solutions,
2. The violet litmus is a mixture of the red and the blue.
3. The amount of the two forms of litmus in the amphoteric solution is deter-
mined by the mass action of the two kinds of phosphate.
7. Constitution of Sun Yellow or Curcumine, and Allied Colowring
Matters. By Artuur G. GREEN and ANDRE WAHL.
When caustic soda or caustic potash is added to a hot concentrated solution of
paranitrotoluene-ortho-sulphonate of soda the liyuid becomes at first bluish red,
then changes to orange and deposits a thick orange-yellow precipitate (Walter,
* Bull. Soc. Mulhouse,’ 1887, 99), The yellow colouring-matter thus formed, which
is known in commerce as curcumine, sun yellow, &c., and dyes unmordanted
cotton orange-yellow shades of considerable fastness to light and other agents,
appears to consist for the most part of a body to which the constitution of an
azoxy-stilbenedisulphonic acid
Sk : CH
N z
Ren: > OuHa(80,Na)
OK
0)
ms, Heintz, Wirzburger med. Zeitschr., 2, 230, 1861; Journ. fiir prakt. Chem., 85, 24,
C,H,(SO,Na)
Tod REPORT—1896.
has been ascribed by Bender and Schultz (‘ Ber., 19, 3234; 28, 422), and that ofa .
dinitrososostilbene disulphonic acid
OH : CH
CoH,(SO.NaYC ou eS ONA)
by Fischer and Hepp (‘ Ber.,’ 26, 2231 ; 28, 2281). It had long been known that
by the action of caustic alkalies upon an alcoholic solution of paranitrotoluene a
sparingly soluble red condensation product was formed, to which no satisfactory
formula could be assigned (Klinger, ‘ Ber.,’ 15, 866; 16,941). It was shown by
Bender and Schultz that this condensation product on reduction gave diamido-
stilbene whilst curcumine on reduction gave diamidostilbenedisulphonic acid, and
that hence both products are probably stilbene derivatives.
In 1888 it was discovered by Bender that by condensing paranitrotoluene sul-
phonic acid with caustic soda in presence of weak reducing agents such as alcohol,
glycerol, glucose, &c., colouring-matters were obtained possessing similar properties
to curcumine, but dyeing redder shades of orange and dissolving in concentrated
sulphuric acid with a violet or blue colour instead of a red (Eng. Pat. 2664 of 1888).
It was subsequently found that these colouring-matters (so-called Mikado oranges)
were also formed by the action of mild reducing agents, such as ferrous hydrate
upon the primary condensation product (curcumine).
Neither of the two formule which have been proposed for curcumine gives 2
satisfactory explanation of its properties and reactions. They afford, for instance,
no explanation of the dye-stuff character, the great stability towards oxidising
agents, or of the difficulty of reduction to diamido-stilbene disulphonic acid. Both
formule are based upon determinations of the quantity of hydrogen required to
reduce the colour to its leuco compound, to which an hydrazo constitution
EX: CH.
EOE ax yy Ca {80,Na)
is attributed. According to Bender 4 atoms of hydrogen are required, whilst
Fischer and Hepp find 6 atoms. In order to clear up this discrepancy Bender's
experiments were repeated exactly according to his directions, but using the free
acid of,curcumine instead of the sodium salt. In agreement with Bender 4 atoms
of hydrogen were found to be required. Since, however, the properties of the
substance in no way correspond with those of an azoxy compound, and the equation
2C,H,(CH,)(NO,)(SO,Na) = C,,H,N,0(SO,Na), + 3H,0
would indicate the formation of a body having 2 atoms of hydrogen less than
Bender’s formula, we have been led to seek another formula more in accordance
with the facts.
It may be supposed that the first action of caustic soda upon paranitrotoluene
sulphonic acid consists in an intramolecular oxidation giving rise to dinitrosostilbene
disulphonic acid. The two nitrogen atoms may now enter the opposite rings,
forming an unstable compound—
N(OH)
C,H,(S0,Na~ ‘6, H,(80,Na)
| SN NCO
|
nL,
which, by loss of water, would give rise to curcumine—
O
N
CHSONIE > C.HS0Na)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 799
According to this formula curcumine should require 4H for reduction to its leuco
compound and 2H for conversion to the azine—
N
CoH(SONAK > CH80.Na)
This latter formula would therefore represent the constitution of the pure Mikado
orange, which dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a blue colour; and, in
agreement with this view, it has been found that 2H are required by this colour
for reduction to the leuco compound.
The progressive reduction is accordingly shown by the following formule :—
O
is pete + ee =N=
—_—-
+ +
| | | |
CH sas CH CH——_———-CH
Curcumine Mikado orang:
“Ae NH,
+ = if NH,
—p es ea
5 jace “8 ar
| i: | |
Leuco compound Diamidostilbenedisulphonic acid
(readily reoxidised in air) ; (stable in air)
[N.B.—The crosses indicate the position of the HSO, groups.]
The above formulz would explain the difficulty found in reducing curcumine to
diamidostilbene disulphonic acid, also the extreme oxidisability of the leuco com-
pound in air, a property characteristic of all azines, oxazines, thiazines, &c.; and,
moreover, by representing these compounds as derivatives of an ortho-quinone,
would account for their dye-stuff properties.
It is probable that a similar constitution must be assigned to chloramine orange,
which is formed by oxidation of diamidostilbene disulphonic acid with sodium
hypochlorite, and to Chicago orange obtained by caustic soda condensation of
paranitrotoluene sulphonic acid with benzidine.
An analogous constitution is also suggested in the case of another class of
colours—namely, the yellow, direct-dyeing, cottcn-colouring matters which are
obtained by the oxidation of amidothiazols such as primuline and dehydrothioto-
juidine sulphonic acid. These colouring-matters, known in commerce as oxyphenine,
chloramine yellow, chlorophenine, &c., present great analogy with the curcumine
colours .in their fastness to light, acids, and alkalies and in their chemical properties.
In order to determine the amount of oxygen required for their formation pure
dehydrothiotoluidine sulphonic acid was oxidised with a known quantity of sodium
hypochlorite both in the cold and at 80° C. The excess of hypochlorite was deter-
756 REPORT—1896.,
mined after filtering off the colouring-matter, by titration with arsenious acid.
For 2 molecules of dehydrothiotoluidine sulphonic acid there were required—
In the cold —3 atoms of oxygen
Hot —4 atoms of oxygen
which corresponds to the following formule for the products : —
+
Ze. s)
Ne WA Ss
| 7s
s |
CHACHA 0 —=N—
+
First Product.
a
= S$
ay... KX. ee
yy
S
eager cl) _y_
+
Final Product.
8. Abnormalities in the Behaviour of Ortho-derivatives of o-Amido and
Nitro-benzylamine. By Dr. F. E. Francis.
9. Nitrates: Their Occurrence and Manufacture. By Wit114m Newron.
The world’s chief supply of nitrate is that of the northern provinces of Chili.
The nitrate here occurs in a narrow band, following the eastern foot of the coast-
line of hills at an elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet, and at a distance in a direct
line from the sea varying from fifteen to thirty-five miles, extending from Pisagua
in the north, to Antofagasta in the south, about 250 miles.
Owing to its rainless condition, this plain is almost absolutely devoid of growing
vegetation. Previous vegetation there has been in abundance, as shown by the
remains of forests, a few inches below the surface, in addition to which large
quantities of organic matter are carried down by mountain floods. The decom-
position of this organic matter forms nitrate in the ordinary way, but the nitrate
has no growing vegetation to absorb it, and is therefore carried in solution by the
drainage waters of the west side of the Andes, which are always percolating under
the surface of the plain, and, at periods of about eight or nine years, even com-
pletely flood it. These waters collect at the lower side of the plain against the
coast-hills, and there evaporate under the hot, dry atmosphere.
The crude nitrate is found under a layer of a few inches of blown dust. The
first layer of nitrate-bearing strata is extremely hard rock, containing from 10 to
20 per cent. of nitrates; this rock varies from a few inches in thickness to 16 and
18 teet, and is bored through to reach the richer material called caliche, which
contains sometimes as much as 70 to 80 per cent. of nitrate. This layer also
varies in thickness up to 7 feet. In the extraction the boring is continued through
this, and the whole mass is upheaved by blasting powder made on the spot.
The rock nitrate is neglected, and the caliche carted away to the crushers,
thence to large iron boiling-tanks, a favourite shape of which is 32 feet by 6 feet
broad, and 9 feet deep. In these are five coils of steam pipes, and the boiling is
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. Tae
done by steam at about 50 lb. pressure. The boiling tanks are connected in
series of six, so as to allow of proper lixiviation, The liquor of the tanks is run
off at 112°Tw. It then contains about 80 lb. of nitrate to the cubic foot, of
which it deposits 40 lb. at 25°C. The mother liquor, containing sometimes over
2 grammes of iodine to the litre,is pumped up to the iodine house, where it is
treated with bisulphate of soda, and, after the deposition of the iodine, is, of
course, used over again in the solution of the nitrate.
The total production of nitrate from June 1885 to June 1886 in Chili was
1,218,000 tons.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On Helium. By Professor W. Ramsay, /.R.S.
2. On the Discovery of Argon in the Water of an Austrian Well.
By Professor Max BAMBERGER.
In the year 1853 Ragsky examined the gas of a spring in Peschtoldsdorf, near
Vienna, and obtained the following results :—
Volume per cent.
Oxygen . . . : . . ° : 30
Carbonic acid . ' E : : : A . La
Marsh gas 2 - A E = 6 5 > 15
Nitrogen . c . : = 5 < > - 93:8
100-0
Last year the author made a new analysis of this gas, which showed figures
but little deviating from the above-mentioned analysis.
After argon had been discovered by Rayleigh and Ramsay, it was probable
that this gas, consisting almost entirely of nitrogen, also contained argon,
To determine this, a larger quantity of the gas (about 12 litres) was collected
and, for further examination, was dried by sulphuric acid and chloride of calcium.
The gas was passed through a glowing tube, which was half filled with copper
netting, half with oxide of copper.
Leaving this tube, the gas had to pass through two soda lime and two calcium
chloride conductors, in order to absorb the water formed, and was afterwards
passed over quicksilver into a gasometer of Ehrenberg.
In order to remove the nitrogen, glowing magnesium was used in an apparatus,
which in principle is similar to that of Schlésing fils.
It was found of considerable advantage to use three glowing tubes with mag-
nesium. Under these circumstances an experiment which was carried out with
about two litres of the gas took seven hours before the whole of the nitrogen was
absorbed, and for a long time a high pressure on the manometer was to be
observed. Consequently the gas in the apparatus was led off into an eudiometer.
Now the gas containing the supposed argon, with traces of nitrogen and hydrogen,
was freed from these gases by known methods.
After an experiment, it was found that the gas thus obtained was mixed with
a large quanity of hydrogen. The original gas having been absolutely dry, the
hydrogen could have had its origin in the magnesium only, as this material was
cleaned by distillation in a stream of hydrogen, at which operation considerable
quantities of this gas are absorbed (after Dumas).
In another experiment a dry tube filled with pentoxide of phosphorus was
introduced into the hot conductor, to remove the hydrogen formed in the mag-
nesium tube by oxidising it with copper oxide and absorbing the water formed.
738 REPORT—1896.
In these two experiments the following figures were found for the quantity of
gas not absorbed by magnesium : —
I It
c.c. c.c.
Volume of the nitrogen before the absorption by
1172 1918
magnesium . $ 4 : = : : :
Volume of the collected gas (hydrogen, traces of
nitrogen and argon) 5 : c ; 95°6 28°2
Volume of the dry cleaned gas (argon) . : 13°0 23°9
Volume per cent. of gas not absorbed compared with
the original quantity of nitrogen ‘ . ; iki 1:24
Volume per cent. compared with the original volume
of gas . : : ; 1-04 1:16
The gas thus cleaned was put into Pliicker’s tubes at the glass technical Insti-
tute of Menes Goetze in Leipzig.
The examination of the gas by spectral analysis was made by Professors Eder
and Valenta with their concave grating.
The result of this examination was.an absolute conformity of the spectrum of
the gas isolated by the author with Lord Rayleigh’s normal spectrum of argon
determined by Eder.
The author concluded by expressing the great pleasure he had in making this
communication upon argon in the land of its birth, and in the presence of one of its
distinguished discoverers.
3. The Manufacture of Chlorine by means of Nitric Acid.
By Dr. F. Hurter.
4, Low Temperature Research. By Professor J. Dewar, F.R.S.
5. Report on Electrolytic Analysis.—See Reports, p. 244.
6. A Modified Form of Schrotter’s Apparatus for the Determination of
Carbonic Anhydride. By Cuartes A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc.
Of the many forms of apparatus for the estimation of carbonic anhydride by
loss, that devised by Schrétter is probably most widely in use. Compared with
other forms, it is certainly more handy than Bunsen’s apparatus, although the
latter is more accurate, since it contains an absorption tube charged with dehy-
drated copper sulphate on pumice in addition to calcium chloride. In a modified
Bunsen apparatus described by A. Christomanos (‘ Ber.,’ 1894, 27, 2748), the drying
tube is replaced by a small wash bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid ;
the advantages of the latter over calcium chloride as a drying agent are pointed
out. But this modified form suffers from the same disadvantage as the ordinary
Schrétter apparatus in not making any special provision for the absorption of
hydrochloric acid gas which is evolved whenever hydrochloric acid is employed in
the decomposition of a carbonate. This is a well-recognised source of error, and it
is customary to attach a tube charged with dehydrated copper sulphate on pumice
to the sulphuric acid bulb of the ordinary Schrétter apparatus in order to effect
the complete absorption of the hydrochloric acid gas. With this addition, very
reliable results can be obtained, but the method of attachment of the additional
tube is always more or less clumsy. The object of the present modification is to
overcome this, and the new form has two additional advantages. The apparatus
is more stable, and the copper sulphate tube can be easily turned through any
angle, so as to attach the indiarubber tubing for drawing air through the
apparatus, after heating to drive out the carbonic anhydride and allowing to cool.
The pumice containing the dehydrated copper sulphate is held in place by a plug
of glass wool, and the ground glass stopper below it keeps well in its place if
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 759
properly greased. If necessary it can be made perfectly secure by means of
platinum wire. The total weight of the apparatus when fully charged is 58 to
60 grms.
Mr. J. Towers, of Widnes, has undertaken to supply the apparatus.
7. A new Form of Aspirator.
By Cuartes A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc., and T. Lewis Barney, Ph.D.
The aspirator consists of a reversed gas meter worked by a small electric motor,
and is specially adapted for aspirating large quantities of gas, such as are required
for the determination of sulphur dioxide in air. A series of three cog-wheels are
fixed to the axle of the drum of a wet gas meter, to which a ‘ Porter’ motor is
attached, which is run by a single secondary cell with a capacity of 25 ampere
hours. The drum revolves twice per minute, the gearing being so arranged that
about 15 cubic feet of air or other gas can be drawn through the absorbing tower
or other apparatus per hour. The advantage of this form of aspirator is its even-
ness and continuity. The single cell is sufficient to run the meter for thirty hours.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Detection and Estimation of Carbon Monowide in Air.
By Dr. J. HAupane.
This method for the determination of small percentages of carbonic oxide in
air depends on the following facts :—
Hemoglobin, the colouring matter of blood, readily combines to form similar
compounds with both oxygen and carbonic oxide. Both compounds are disso-
ciated in a vacuum, but the carbonic oxide compound (6r carboxyhemoglobin)
is much more stable than the oxygen compound (or oxyhemoglobin), In presence
of a gas mixture containing both oxygen and carbonic oxide a mixture of carboxy-
hemoglobin and oxyhzemoglobin is formed; and the proportions in which the
hemoglobin divides itself between the oxygen and carbonic oxide depends on the
ratios of the percentage of oxygen to that of carbonic oxide multiplied by a
constant. Hence if the percentage of oxygen in the gas mixture be known, as in
the case of ordinary air, the percentage of carbonic oxide can be inferred if the
proportions be known in which hzemoglobin brought into contact with the mixture
divides itself between the two gases. Now, it is extremely easy to determine these
proportions colorimetrically by taking advantage of the fact that in dilute solution
carboxyhmoglobin has a pink colour, while oxyhemoglobinis yellow. By adding
a certain amount of dilute carmine solution to oxyhzmoglobin solution, the tint
of carboxyhemoglobin solution can be exactly reproduced. In the case of a
mixture of oxyhemoglobin and carboxyhemoglobin, the less the proportion of the
latter present the less will be the amount of carmine required; and from the
amount of carmine needed the proportion of carboxyhzmoglobin can easily be
estimated.
The author then described the process in its simplest form. A solution of blood
is first prepared of such strength as to show the difference of tint between oxy-
hemoglobin and carboxyhsemoglobin ; a suitable dilution can easily be guessed from
the depth of colour, About 1 in 100 is very good. A solution of carmine of a
corresponding or slightly greater depth of colour (about ‘01 per cent.) is also pre-
pared. The carmine is dissolved in a minimum of ammonia, and then diluted down.
_ The sample. of air to be examined should be collected in a small, dry, and
clean bottle of 100 or 200 c.c. capacity, and closed with a cork soaked in paraffin
wax. This bottle is opened under the blood solution in a basin, and about 5 c.c.
of air allowed to bubble out, so as to introduce a corresponding quantity of
760 REPORT—1896.
hemoglobin solution into the bottle. The bottle is then recorked, removed from
the basin, and shaken for ten minutes, so that a maximum saturation with carbonic
oxide may be attained. During the shaking the bottle must be covered, as bright
daylight alters the result very markedly. The blood solution in the bottle is then
poured out into one of three narrow test-tubes of equal diameter. Into another
of these test-tubes 5 c.c. of the original solution of blood are measured out with a
pipette. The third is filled with the same blood solution after the hemoglobin has
been completely converted into carboxyhsemoglobin by shaking for about a minute
with coal gas.
Carmine is now added from a burette to the 5 c.c. of oxyhemoglobin until
first the tint of the solution from the bottle of air, and afterwards the tint of the
solution saturated with coal gas attained. Water may also be added if the car-
mine solution alters the depth of colour of the liquid. From the readings of the
burette the proportion of carboxyhiemoglobin to oxyhsmoglobin may easily be
calculated. In practice the estimation may be 2 per cent. too low or too high,
but this is about the limit of error.
When 0:09 per cent. of carbonic oxide is present in the air the hemoglobin is
shared equally between the oxygen and carbonic oxide. The affinity of carbonic
oxide for hemoglobin is thus about 230 times as great as that of oxygen when
twice 0:09 or 0:18 per cent. of carbonic oxide is present ; two-thirds of the heemo-
globin go to the carbon oxide and one-third to the oxygen, and so on. Roughly
speaking, the percentage of carbonic oxide in the air can be calculated by multi-
plying the number of parts of carboxyhemoglobin to one part of oxyhzmoglobin
by 0:09. Thus, if the hemoglobin were found to be 10 per cent. saturated with
carbonic oxide, then, as there would be to each part of oxyhzemoglobin one-ninth
of carboxyhemoglobin, one-ninth of 0:09 or 0:01 per cent. of carbonic oxide would
be present in the air.
It is evident that the method cannot be used directly when high percentages
of carbonic oxide are present. The sample in such a case must be diluted. Coal
gas, for instance, requires dilution to about ;45th with air when this method is
employed. When the oxygen percentage in the air is much diminished the sample
must also be largely diluted with air, or a correction made in calculating the result.
Blood solution was originally suggested by Vogel as a qualitative test for CO in
air. He used the spectroscopic test, and found he could detect 0:2 per cent. of the gas.
2. The Detection and Estimation of Carbon Monoxide in the Air by the
Flame-cap Test. By Professor Frank Crowes, D.Sc.
The detection of carbon monoxide in the air is mainly of importance on account
of its poisonous nature when inhaled. It would rarely happen that serious ex-
plosions arise from its being fired in admixture with air, since a carbon monoxide
explosion is of a comparatively mild character, and further air only commences to
be feebly explosive when the carbon monoxide is present in the proportion of at
least 13 per cent, ; this is an amount which would render the air rapidly fatal to life.
The introduction of carbon monoxide into the air may arise from leakage of
many forms of gaseous fuel, such as coal-gas, producer-gas, Dowson-gas, water-gas,
and flue-gas from smelting works, whether the metal is smelted by the old reducing
methods, or by the newer method more recently applied by Mr. Mond to the
smelting of nickel ores. This gas is also produced by the detonation of the nitro-
cotton explosives, and by the imperfect combustion of any ordinary fuel which may
occur either slowly or explosively. Hence cases of poisoning by this gas have
mainly arisen from the ‘gas’ taken from the iron blast-furnace, from water-gas
either used alone or in the enrichment of coal-gas, from coal-gas leakage, and from
the ‘after-damp’ of the colliery explosion or ‘ gob-fire.’ It will be seen that this
insidious poison is, therefore, of not infrequent occurrence in the air. The author
finds that 0-25 per cent. of the gas can be detected in the air by a ‘cap’ 0°5 inch
in height over the standard hydrogen flame. ‘This test is, therefore, sufficiently
sensitive for practical application, and furnishes the most rapid means of detecting
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 761
the gas. It further serves to measure the percentage of carbon monoxide present
in the air, since the height of the cap regularly increases as the amount of gas
increases. It is applied either by carrying an ordinary miner's safety-lamp provided
with a hydrogen flame into the atmosphere to be tested ; or, since this would
probably be attended with danger from carbon monoxide, the atmosphere can be
made to pass over the flame by means of a pump. This test, however, fails to
distinguish carbonic oxide from other combustible gases, and therefore recourse
must be had to the ordinary. process of absorption with cuprous chloride solution
when the distinction, as well as the estimation of this gas, is necessary. The
euprous chloride method does not readily measure less than 05 per. cent. of the
gas in the air, and this is a seriously poisonous proportion.
Dr. Haldane’s method of detection and estimation, by means of suitably diluted
blood, possesses the advantage of being delicate and distinctive, but requires good
daylight, and cannot be carried out so rapidly as the flame-cap test can, It is,
however, undoubtedly the most satisfactory method yet known of detecting and
estimating minute proportions of carbon monoxide in the air, and should take its
place amongst acknowledged methods in the chemical laboratory,
3. Chemical Education in England and Germany.
By Sir H. E. Roscoz, F.R.S.
4. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 268.
5. The Teaching of Science in Girls’ Schools.
By L. Epna Watter, B.Sc., A.C.G.1.
The object of teaching girls science at all is not to make them botanists,
doctors, chemists, or engineers—at least below the age of fifteen—but to train
their intelligence. There are two reasons why most schools fail so lamentably in
the results achieved by what is intended to be science training; the first is that
only the faculty of observation is as a rule cultivated, the second that the work is
not commenced low enough down in the school. Botany, though so generally
adopted, has a very limited educative value ; physiology, though called 2 science,
is acarcely ever taught as a science at all; and domestic economy is quite
pernicious. Physical geography has an educative function of its own, but, though
of immense value, its strength does not lie in the direction of scientific training.
‘What is wanted to obtain this pre-eminently important effect is a gently graduated
scientific course beginning with the simplest experiments for quite young
children, and gradually increasing in complexity till the girls reach the age of
about sixteen. It should be recognised that from beginning to end the course
should be practical in character and quantitative as far as possible. Such a course
as this can be followed if practical arithmetic be made the starting-point, This
Jeads naturally to elementary physics, chiefly hydrostatics, and finally to a course
of elementary chemistry. For this latter no finer scheme could be suggested than
that outlined in Dr. Armstrong’s contribution to the Report of the British
‘Association Committee (Newcastle-on-Tyne meeting, 1889), which is of inesti-
mable value to all who are interested in the teaching of chemistry. It is an
important feature of the course I suggest that the children should use no text-
‘books; their own notes written in their own words should form their books of
reference. In this way their literary powers are also cultivated; but, above all,
the children learn to rely on themselves. The aim of science training is to teach
the girls to think for themselves, rely on themselves, and work for themselves.
‘They must learn to do something, and this will never happen while science work
is confined to mere lesson learning,
:
’
1896.
ee
9
762 REPORT—1896.
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—J.-E. Marr, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Sec. G.S,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The President delivered the following Address :—
TueE feelings of one who, being but little versed in the economic applications of
his science, is called upon to address a meeting of the Association held in a large in-
dustrial centre might, under ordinary circumstances, be of no very pleasant character;
but I take courage when I remember that those connected with my native county,
in which we are now gathered, have taken prominent part in advancing
branches of our science which are not directly concerned with industrial affairs,
I am reminded, for instance, that one amongst you, himself a busy professional
man, has in his book on ‘The Origin of Mountain Ranges’ given to the world a
theoretical work of the highest value; that, on the opposite side of the county,
those who are responsible for the formation and management of that excellent
educational institution, the Ancoats Museum, have wisely recognised the value of
some knowledge of geology as a means of quickening our appreciation of the
beauties of Nature ; and that one who has done solid service to geology by his
teachings, who has kept before us the relationship of our science to that which is
beautiful—l refer to the distinguished author of ‘Modern Painters’—has chosen
the northern part of the county for his home, and has illustrated his teaching
afresh by reference to the rocks of the lovely district around him, Noy can I help
referring to one who has recently passed away—the late Sir Joseph Prestwich—
the last link between the pioneers of our science and the geologists of the present
day, who, though born in London, was of Lancashire family, and whom we may
surely therefore claim as one of Lancashire’s worthies. With these evidences of
the catholicity of taste on the part of geologists connected with the county, I feel
free to choose my own subject for this address, and, my time being occupied to a
large extent with academic work, I may be pardoned for treating that subject in
academic fashion. As I have paid considerable attention to the branch of the
science which bears the somewhat uncouth designation of stratigraphical geology,
I propose to take the present state of our knowledge of this branch as my theme.
Of the four great divisions of geology, petrology may be claimed as being
largely of German origin, the great impetus to its study having been given by
Werner and his teachings, Paleontclogy may be as justly claimed by the French
nation, Cuvier having been to so great an extent responsible for placing it upon
a scientific basis. Physical geology we may partly regard as our own, the principles
laid down by Hutton and supported by Playfair having received illustration from
a host of British writers, amongst whom may be mentioned Jukes, Ramsay, and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 763
the brothers Geikie; but the grand principles of physical geology have been so
largely illustrated by the magnificent and simple features displayed on the other
side of the Atlantic that we may well refer to our American brethren as leaders in
this branch of study. The fourth branch, stratigraphical geology, is essentially
British as regards origin, and, as everyone is aware, its scientific principles were
established by William Smith, who was not only the father of English geology,
but of stratigraphical geology in general.
Few will deny that stratigraphical geology is the highest branch of the science,
for, as has been well said, it ‘gathers up the sum of all that is made known by the
other departments of the science, and makes it subservient to the interpretation of
the geological history of the earth.’ The object of the stratigraphical geologist is
to obtain information concerning all physical, climatic, and biological events which
have occurred during each period of the past, and to arrange them in chronological
order, so as to write a connected history of the earth. If all of this information
were at our disposal, we could write a complete earth-history, and the task of the
geologist would be ended. As it is, we have barely crossed the threshold of
discovery, and the ‘imperfection of the geological record,’ like the ‘glorious un-
certainty ’ of our national game, gives geology one of its great charms. Before
passing on to consider more particularly the present state of the subject of our
study, a few remarks upon this imperfection of the geological record may not be
out of place, seeing that the term has been used by so many modern writers, and
its exact signification occasionally misunderstood. The imperfection of the
paleontological record is usually understood by the term when used, and it will be
considered here as an illustration of the incompleteness of our knowledge of earth-
history ; but it must be remembered that the imperfection of the physical record is
equally striking, as will be insisted on more fully in the sequel.
Specially prominent amongst the points upon which we are ignorant stands the
nature of the Precambrian faunas. The extraordinary complexity of the earliest
known Cambrian fauna has long been a matter for surprise, and the recent dis-
coveries in connection with the Olened/us fauna do not diminish the feeling.?
After commenting upon the varied nature of the earliest known fauna, the late
Professor Huxley, in his Address to the Geological Society in 1862, stated that
‘any admissible hypothesis of progressive moditication must be compatible with
peeeience without progression, through indefinite periods. . . . Should such an
ypothesis eventually be proved to be trus,.. . the conclusion will inevitably
present itself, that the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic faune and flor, taken
together, bear somewhat the same proportion to the whole series of living beings
which have occupied this globe, as the existing fauna and flora do to them.’
Whether or not this estimate is correct, all geologists will agree that a vast period
of time must have elapsed before the Cambrian period, and yet our ignorance of
faunas existing prior to the time when the Olened/us fauna occupied the Cambrian
seas is almost complete. True, many pre-Cambrian fossils have been described at
various times, but, in the opinion of many competent judges, the organic nature of
each. one of these requires confirmation. I need not, however, enlarge upon this
matter, for 1 am glad to say we have amongst us a geologist who will at a later
stage read a paper before this Section upon the subject of pre-Cambrian fossils, and
there is no one better able, owing to his intimate acquaintance with the actual
relics, to present fairly and impartially the arguments which have been advanced
in favour of the organic origin of the objects which have been appealed to as
evidences of organisms of pre-Cambrian age than our revered co-worker from
Canada, Sir J. William Dawson. We may look forward with confidence to the
future discovery of many faunas older than those of which we now possess certain
1 Dr. C. D. Walcott, in his monograph on ‘The Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or
Olenellus Zone ’ (Washington, 1890), records the following great groups as represented,
in the Olenellus beds of America:—Spongie, Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, Echinodérmata,
Annelida, ? (trails, burrows, and tracks), Brachiopoda, Lamellibranchiata, Gasteropoda,
- Pteropoda, Crustacea, and Trilobita. Others are known as occurring in.beds of the
same age in the Old World. i ee
3D2
764 REPORT—1896.
knowledge, but until these are discovered the palzontological record must be
admitted to be in a remarkably incomplete condition. In the meantime a study
of the recent advance of our knowledge of early life is significant of the mode in
which still earlier faunas will probably be brought to light. In 1845 Dr. E.
Emmons described a fossil, now known to be an Olenellus, though at that time the
earliest fauna was supposed to be one containing a much later group of organisms,
and it was not until Nathorst and Brégger established the position of the Olenedlus
zone that the existence of a fauna earlier than that of which Paradoxides was a
member was admitted ; and, indeed, the Paradovides fauna itself was proved to be
earlier than that containing Olenws, long after these two genera had been made
familiar to paleontologists, the Swedish paleontologist, Augelin, having referred
the Paradoatdes fauna to a period earlier than that of the one with Olenus. It is
quite possible, therefore, that fossils are actually preserved in our museums at the
present moment which have been extracted from rocks deposited before the period
of formation of the Olenel/us heds, though their age has not been determined. The
Olenellus horizon now furnishes us with a datum-line from which we can work
backwards, and it is quite possible that the Meobolus beds of the Salt Range,"
which underlie beds holding Olenel/us, really do contain, as has been maintained, a
fauna of date anterior to the formation of the Olenel/us beds; and the same may
be the case with the beds containing the Proto/envs fauna in Canada, for this
fauna is very different from any known in the Olenellus beds, or at a higher
horizon, though Mr. G. F. Matthew, to whom geologists owe a great debt for his
admirable descriptions of the early fossils of the Canadian rocks, speaks very
cautiously of the age of the beds containing Protolenus and its associates, Note
withstanding our ignorance of pre-Cambrian faunas, valuable work has recently
been done in proving the existence of important groups of stratified rocks deposited
previously to the formation of the beds containing the earliest known Cambrian
fossils; I may refer especially to the proofs of the pre-Cambrian age of the
Torridon sandstone of North-west Scotland, lately furnished by the officers of the
Geological Survey, and their discovery that the maximum thickness of these
strata is over 10,000 feet.s Amongst the sediments of this important system,
more than one fauna may be discovered, even if most of the strata were accu-
mulated with rapidity, and all geologists must hope that the officers of the Survey—
who, following Nicol, Lapworth, and others, have done so much to elucidate the
geological structure of the Scottish Highlands—may obtain the legitimate reward
of their labours, and definitely provethe occurrence of rich faunas of pre-Cambrian
age in the rocks of that region,
But, although we may look forward hopefully to the time when we may lessen
the imperfection of the records of early life upon the globe, even the most hopeful
cannot expect that record to be rendered perfect, or that it will make any near
approach to perfection. The posterior segments of the remarkable trilobite
Mesonacis vermontana are of a much more delicate character than the anterior
ones, and the resemblance of the spine on the fifteenth ‘body-segment’ of this
species to the terminal spine of Olenelius proper suggests that in the latter sub-
genus posterior segments of a purely membranous character may have existed,
devoid of hard parts. If this be so, the entire outer covering of the trilobites, at a
period not very remote from the end of pre-Cambrian times, may have been mem-
branous, and the same thing may have occurred with the structures analogous to
the hard parts of organisms of other groups. Indeed, with our present views as
to development, we can scarcely suppose that organisms acquired hard parts at a
very early period of their existence, and fauna after fauna may have occupied the
globe, and disappeared, leaving no trace of its existence, in which case we are not
likely ever to obtain definite knowledge of the characters of our earliest faunas,
1 See I. Noetling, ‘On the Cambrian Formation of the Eastern Salt Range,’
Records Geol. Survey India, vol. xxvii. p. 71.
2G. F. Matthew, ‘The Protolenus Fauna,’ Trans. New York Acad. of Science,
vol. xiv. 1895, p. 101.
3 Sir A. Geikie, ‘Annual Report of the Geological Survey [United Kingdom] .. «
for the year ending December 31, 1893.’ London, 1894,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 765
and the biologist must not look to the geologist for direct information concerning
the dawn of life upon the earth. ;
Proceeding now to a consideration of the faunas of the rocks formed after
pre-Cambrian times, a rough test of the imperfection of the record may,be made by
examining the gaps which occur in the vertical distribution of forms of life. If
our knowledge of ancient faunas were very incomplete, we ought to meet with
many cases of recurrence of forms after their apparent disappearance from inter-
vening strata of considerable thickness, and many such cases have actually been
described by that eminent paleontologist, M. Barrande, amongst the Paleozoic
rocks of Bohemia, though even these are gradually being reduced in number owing
to recent discoveries ; indeed, in the case of the marine faunas, marked cases of
recurrence are comparatively rare, and the occurrence of each form is generally
fairly unbroken from its first appearance to its final extinction, thus showing that
the imperfection of the record is by no means so marked as might be supposed.
Freshwater and terrestrial forms naturally furnish a large percentage of cases of
recurrence, owing to the comparative rarity with which deposits containing such
organisms are preserved amongst the strata.
A brief consideration of the main reasons for the present imperfection of our
knowledge of the faunas of rocks formed subsequently to pre-Cambrian times may
be useful, and suggestive of lines along which future work may be carried out.
That detailed work in tracts of country which are yet unexplored, or have been but
imperfectly examined by the geologist, will add largely to our stock of information
needs only to be mentioned ; the probable importance of work of this kind in the
future may be inferred from a consideration of the great increase of our know-
ledge of the Permo-Carboniferous faunas, as the result of recent labours in remote
regions. It is specially desirable that the ancient faunas and floras of tropical re-
gions should be more fully made known, as a study of these will probably throw
considerable light upon the influence of climate upon the geographical distribution
of organisms in past times. The old floras and faunas of Arctic regions are
becoming fairly well known, thanks to the zeal with which the Arctic regions have
been explored. But, confining our attention to the geology of our own country,
much remains to be done even here, and local observers especially have opportuni-
ties of adding largely to our stock of knowledge, a task they have performed so
well in the past. To give examples of the value of such work, our knowledge of
the fauna ot the Cambrian rocks of Britain is largely due to the present President
of the Geological Society, when resident at St. David’s; whilst the magnificent
fauna of the Wenlock limestone would have been far less perfectly known than
it is, if it were not for the collections of men like the late Colonel Fletcher and
the late Dr. Grindrod. Again, the existence of the rich fauna of the Cambridge
Greensand would have been unsuspected, had not the bed known by that name
been worked for the phosphatic nodules which it contains.
It is very desirable that large collections of varieties of species should be made,
for in this matter the record is very imperfect. There has been, and, I fear, is still,
a tendency to reject specimens when their characters do not conform with those given
in specific descriptions, and thus much valuable material is lost. Local observers
should be specially careful to search for varieties, which may be very abundant in
places where the conditions were favourable for their production, though rare or
unknown elsewhere, Thus, I find the late Mr. W. Keeping remarking that ‘ it is
noteworthy that at Upware, and indeed all other places known to me, the species
of Brachiopoda [of the Neocomian beds] maintain much more distinctness and
isolation from one another than at Brickhill.’!_ The latter place appears to be one
where conditions were exceptionally favourable in Neocoméan times for the pro-
duction of intermediate forms,
A mere knowledge of varieties is, however, of no great use to the collector
without a general acquaintance with the morphology of the organisms whose
_Yemains he extracts from the earth’s strata, and one who has this can do signal
___} W. Keeping, Sedgwick Essay: The Fossils and Paleontological Affinities of the
Neocomian Deposits of Upware and Brickhill. Cambridge, 1883.
766 REPORT—1896.
service to the science. It is specially important that local observers should be
willing to devote themselves to the study of particular groups of organisms, and
to collect large suites of specimens of the group they have chosen for study. With
a group like the graptolites, for instance, the specimens which are apparently best
preserved are often of little value from a morphological point of view, and frag-
ments frequently furnish more information than more complete specimens. These
fragments seldom find their way to our museums, and accordingly we may examine
a large suite of graptolites in those museums without finding any examples showing
particular structures of importance, such as the sac-like bodies carried by many of
these creatures. As an illustration of the value of work done by one who has
made a special study of a particular group of organisms, I may refer to the
remarkable success achieved by the late Mr. Norman Glass in developing the
calcareous supports of the brachial processes of Brachiopods. Work of this cha-
racter will greatly reduce the imperfection of the record trom the biologist’s point
of view.
The importance of detailed work leads one to comment upon the general
methods of research which have been largely adopted in the ease of the stratified
rocks, The principle that strata are identifiable by their included organisms is the
basis of modern work, as it was of that which was achieved by the father of
English Geology, and the identification of strata in this manner has of recent
years been carried out in very great detail, notwithstanding the attempt on the
part of some well-known writers to show that correlation of strata in great detail
is impossible. The objection to this detailed work is mainly founded upon the
fact that it must take time for an organism or group of organisms to migrate from
one area to another, and therefore it was stated that they cannot have lived con-
temporaneously in two remote areas. But the force of this objection is practically
done away with if it can be shown that the time taken for migration is exceedingly
short as compared with the time of duration of an organism or group of organisms
upon the earth, and this has been shown in the only possible way—namely, by
accumulating a very great amount of evidence as the result of observation. The
eminent writers referred to above, who were not trained geologists, never properly
grasped the vast periods of time which must have elapsed during the occurrence of
the events which it is the geologist’s province to study. An historian would speak
of events which began at noon on a certain day and ended at midnight at the
close of that day as contemporaneous with events which commenced and ended
five minutes later, and this is quite on a par with what the geologist does when
correlating strata. Nevertheless, there are many people who still view the
task of correlating minute subdivisions of stratified systems with one another
with a certain amount of suspicion, if not with positive antipathy; but the
work must be done for all that. Brilliant generalisations are attractive as
well as valuable, but the steady accumulation of facts is as necessary for the
advancement of the science as it was in the days when the Geological Society
was founded, and its members applied themselves ‘to multiply and record
observations, and patiently to await the result at some future period.’ I have
already suggested a resemblance between geology and cricket, and I may be per-
mitted to point out that just as in the game the free-hitter wins the applause,
though the patient ‘ stone-waller’ often wins the match, so, in the science, the man
apt at brilliant generalisations gains the approval of the general public, but the
patient recorder of apparently insignificant details adds matter of permanent value
to the stores of our knowledge. In the case of stratigraphical geology, if we
were contpelled to be content with correlation of systems only, and were unable to
ascertain which of the smaller series and stages were contemporaneous, but could
only speak of these as ‘ homotaxial,’ we should be in much the same position as
the would-be antiquary who was content to consider objects fashioned by the
Romans as contemporaneous with those of medieval times. Under such circum-
stances geology would indeed be an uncertain science, and we should labour in the
field, knowing that a satisfactory earth-history would never be written: Let us
hope that a brighter future is in store for us, and let me urge my countrymen to
continue to study the minute subdivisions of the strata, lest they be left behind by
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 767
the geologists of other countries, to whom the necessity for this kind of study is
apparent, and who are carrying it on with great success. ,
_ The value of detailed work on the part of the stratigraphical geologist is best
grasped if we consider the recent advance that has been made in our science owing
to the more or less exhaustive survey of the strata of various areas, and the appli-
cation of the results obtained to the elucidation of earth’s history. A review of
this nature will enable us not only to see what has been done, but also to detect
lines of inquiry which it will be useful to pursue in the future; but it is obvious
that the subject is so wide that little more can be attempted than to touch lightly
upon some of the more prominent questions. A work might well be written
treating of the matters which I propose to notice. We have all read our ‘ Prin-
ciples of Geology,’ or ‘The Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants
considered as illustrative of Geology,’ to quote the alternative title; some day we
may have a book written about the ancient changes of the earth and its inhabitants
considered as illustrative of geography.
Commencing with a glance at the light thrown on inorganic changes by a
detailed examination of the strata, | may briefly allude to advances which have
recently been made in the study of denudation. The minor faults, which can only
be detected when the small subdivisions of rock-groups are followed out carefully
on the ground, have been shown to be of great importance in defining the direction
in which the agents of denudation have operated, as demonstrated by Professor
W. C. Broégger, for instance, in the case of the Christiania Fjord ;' and I have
recently endeavoured to prove that certain valleys in the English Lake District
have been determined by shattered belts of country, the existence of which is
shown by following thin bands of strata along their outcrop. The importance of
the study of the strata in connection with the genesis and subsequent changes of
river-systems is admirably brought out in Professor W. M. Davis’s paper on ‘The
Development of certain English Rivers,” a paper which should be read by all
physical geologists; it is, indeed, a starting-point for kindred work which remains
especially for local observers to accomplish. Study of this kind not only adds to
our knowledge of the work of geological agencies, but helps to diminish the im-
perfection of the record, for the nature of river-systems, when rightly understood,
enables us to detect the former presence of deposits over areas from which they
have long since been removed by denudation.
An intimate acquaintance with the lithological characters of the strata of a
district affords valuable information in connection with the subject of glacial
denudation, The direction of glacial transport over the British Isles has been
largely inferred from a study of the distribution of boulders of igneous rock, whilst
those of sedimentary rock have been less carefully observed. The importance of
the latter is well shown by the work which has been done in Northern Europe in
tracing the Scandinavian boulders to their sources, a task which could not have
been performed successfully if the Scandinavian strata had not been studied in
eat detail. I shall presently have more to say with regard to work connected
with the lithological characters of the sediments. Whilst mentioning glacial
denudation, let me allude to a piece of work which should be done in great detail,
though it is not, strictly speaking, connected with stratigraphy, namely, the
mapping of the rocks around asserted ‘rock-basins.’ I can find no actual proof
of the occurrence of such basins in Britain, and it is very desirable that the solid
rocks and the drift should he carefully inserted on large-scale maps, not only all
‘around the shores of several Jakes, but also between the lakes and tbe sea, in order
to ascertain whether the lakes are really held in rock-basins, Until this work
1 W. C. Brogger, Nyt. Mag. for Naturvidensk, vol. xxx. 1886, p. 79.
2 W. M. Davis, Geograph. Journ., vol. vy. 1895, p. 127.
5 It is desirable that the boulders of sedimentary rock imbedded in the drifts of
East Anglia should be carefully examined and fossils collected from them. The
calcareous strata associated with the Alum Shales of Scandinavia and the strata of
au Saher mt emp y ee of that region may be expected to be represented amongst
e boulders,
768 REPORT—1896.
is done, however probable the occurrence of rock-basins in Britain may be cons
sidered to be, their actual existence cannot be accepted as proved.
When referring to the subject of denudation, mention was made a moment ago
of the study of the lithological character of the sediments. Admirable work in
this direction was carried out years ago by one who may be said to have largely
changed the direction of advance of geology in this country owing to his researches
‘On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals, indicating the Origin of Minerals and.
Rocks.” I refer, of course, to Dr. H.C. Sorby. But since our attention has been
so largely directed to petrology, the study of the igneous and metamorphic rocks
has been most zealously pursued, whilst that of the sediments has been singularly
little heeded, with few exceptions, prominent amongst which is the work of
Mr. Maynard Hutchings, the results of which have been recently published in tho
‘Geological Magazine,’ though we must all hope that the details which havo
hitherto been supplied to us, valuable as they are, are only a foretaste of what is
to follow from the pen of this able observer. Descriptions of the lithological
changes which occur in a vertical series of sediments, as well as of those which are
observed when any particular band is traced laterally, will no doubt throw lighs
upon a number of interesting questions.
Careful work amongst the ancient sediments, especially those which are of
organic origin, has strikingly illustrated the general identity of characters, and
therefore of methods of formation, of deposits laid down on the sea-floors of past
times and those which are at present in course of construction. Globigerine-oozes
have been detected at various horizons and in many countries. Professor H:
Alleyne Nicholson ! has described a pteropod-ooze of Devonian age in the Hamilton
Limestone of Canada, which is largely composed of the tests of Styliola; and to
Dr. G. J. Hinde we owe the discovery of a large number of radiolarian cherts of
Paleozoic and Neozoic ages in various parts of the ylobe. The extreme thinness
of many argillaceous deposits, which are represented elsewhere by hundreds of feet
of strata, suggests that some of them, at any rate, may be analogous to the deep-
sea clays of modern oceans, though in the case of deposits of this nature we must
depend to a large extent upon negative evidence. The uniformity of character of
thin marine deposits over wide areas is in itself evidence of their formation at
some distance from the land; but although the proofs of origin of ancient sedi-
ments far from coast-lines may be looked upon as permanently established, the
evidence for their deposition at great depths below the ocean's surface might be
advantageously increased in the cuse of many of them. The fairly modern sedi-
ments, containing genera which are still in existence, are more likely to furnish
satisfactory proofs of a deep-sea origin than are more ancient deposits. Thus the
existence of Archeopneustes and Cystechinus in the oceanic series of Barbadoes, as
described by Dr. J. G. Gregory, furnishes strong proofs of the deep-sea character
of the deposits, whilst the only actual argument in favour of the deep-sea character
of certain Palaeozoic sediments has been put forward by Professor Suess, who notes
the similarity of certain structures of creatures in ancient rocks to those possessed
by modern deep-sea crustacea, especially the co-existence of trilobites which are
blind with those which have enormously developed eyes.
A question which bas been very prominently brought to the fore in recent
years is that of the mode of formation of certain coral-reefs, The theory of
Charles Darwin, lately so widely accepted as an explanation of the mode of
formation of barrier-reefs and atolls, has been, as is well known, criticised by
Dr. Murray, with the result that a large number of valuable observations have
been recently made on modern reefs, especially by biologists, as a contribution to
the study of reef formation. Nor have geologists been inactive. Dr. E. Mojsisovics
and Professor Dupont, to mention two prominent observers, have described knoll-
like masses of limestone more or less analogous, as regards structure, to modern
coral-reefs. They consider that these have been formed by corals, and indeed
Dupont maintains that the atoll-shape is still recognisable in ancient Devonian
1 Nicholson and Lydekker, Manuai of Palaontology, chap. ii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 769
coral-reefs in Belgium.! I would observe that all cases of ‘ knoll-reefs’ of this
character have been described in districts which furnish proofs of having been
subjected to considerable orogenic disturbance, subsequent to the formation of the
rocks composing the knoll-shaped masses, whilst in areas which have not been
affected by violent earth-foldings, the reef-building corals, so far as I have been
able to ascertain, give rise to sheet-like masses, such as should be produced accord-
ing to Dr. Murray’s theory. I would mention especially the reefs of the Corallian
Rocks of England, and also some admirable examples seen amongst the Carbo-
niferous Limestone strata of the great western escarpment of the Pennine Chain
which faces the Eden Valley in the neighbourhood of Melmerby in Cumberland.
Considering the number of dissected coral-reefs which exist amongst the strata of
the earth’s crust, and the striking way in which their structure is often displayed,
it is rather remarkable that comparatively little attention has been paid to them
by geologists in general, when the subject has been so prominently brought before
the scientific world, for we must surely admit that we are much more likely to gain
important information, shedding light upon the methods of reef-formation, by a
study of such dissected reefs, than by making a few bore-holes on some special
coral island. I would specially recommend geologists to make a detailed study of
the British coral-reefs of Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Jurassic ages.
Turning now to organic deposits of vegetable origin, we must, as the result of
detailed work, be prepared to admit the inapplicability of any one theory of the
formation of coal seams. The ‘ growth-in-place’ theory may be considered fairly
well established for some coals, such as the spore-coals, whilst the ‘drift’ theory
furnishes an equally satisfactory explanation of the formation of cannel-coal.
It is now clear that the application of the general term coal to a number of
materials of diverse nature, and probably of diverse origin, was largely responsible
for the dragging-out of a controversy, in which the champions of either side
endeavoured to explain the origin of all coal in one particular way.
The stratigraphical geologist, attempting to restore the physical geography of
former periods, naturally pays much attention to the positions of ancient coast-
lines ; indeed, all teachers find it impossible to give an intelligible account of the
stratified rocks without some reference to the distribution of land and sea at the
time of their formation. The general position of land-masses at various times has
been ascertained in several parts of the world, but much more information must be
gathered together before our restorations of ancient sea-margins approximate to
the truth. The Carboniferous rocks of Britain have been specially studied with
reference to the distribution of land and water during the period of their accumu-
lation, and yet we find that owing to the erroneous identification of certain rocks
of Devonshire as grits or sandstones, which Dr. Hinde has shown to be radiolarian
cherts, land was supposed to lie at no great distance south of this region in Lower
Carboniferous times, whereas the probabilities are in favour of the existence of an
open ocean at a considerable distance from any Jand in that direction. This case
nr us with an excellent warning against generalisation upon insuflicient
ata.
As _a result of detailed study of the strata, the effects of earth-movements
have been largely made known to us, especially of those comparatively
local disturbances spoken of as orogenic, which are mainly connected with
mountain-building, whilst informaticn concerning the more widely spread
epeirogenic movements is also furnished by a study of the stratified rocks, The
structure of the Alps, of the North-West Highlands of Scotland, and of the
uplifted tracts of North America is now familiar to geologists, whilst the study
of comparatively recent sediments has proved the existence of widespread and
extensive movements in times which are geologically modern; for instance, the
deep-water deposits of late Tertiary age found in the West Indies indicate
the occurrence of considerable uplilt in that region. But a great amount of
_.' Similar knoll-like masses have been described in this country by Mr. R. H.
Tiddeman as occurring in the Craven district of Yorkshire, but he does not attribute
their formation to coral-growth to any great extent.
770 REPORT—1896.
‘work yet remains to be done in this connection, especially concerning horizontal
distortion of masses of the earth’s crust, owing to more rapid horizontal advance
of one portion than of another, during periods of movement. Not until we gather
together a large amount of information derived from actual inspection of the rocks
shall we be able to frame satisfactory theories of earth-movement, and in
the meantime we are largely dependent upon the speculations of the physicist,
often founded upon very imperfect data, on which is built an imposing super-
structure of mathematical reasoning. We have been told that our continents and
ocean-basins have been to a great extent permanent as regards position through
long geological ages; we now reply by pointing to deep-sea sediments of nearly
all geological periods, which have been uplifted from the ocean-abysses to form
portions of our continents ; and as the result of study of the distribution of fossil
organisms, we can point almost as confidently to the sites of old continents now
sunk down into the ocean depths. It seems clear that our knowledge of the causes
of earth-movements is still in its infancy, and that we must be content to wait
awhile, until we have further information at our disposal.
Recent work has proved the intimate connection betwixt earth-movement and
the emission and intrusion of igneous rocks, and the study of igneous rocks has
advanced beyond the petrographical stage ; the rocks are now made to contribute
their share towards the history of ditlerent geological periods. The part which
volcanic action has played in the actual formation of the earth’s crust is well
exemplified in Sir Archibald Geikie’s Presidential Addresses to the Geological
Society, wherein he treats of the former volcanic history of the British Isles.‘ The
way in which extruded material contributes to the formation of sedimentary
masses has, perhaps, not been fully grasped by many writers, who frequently seem
to assume that deposition is a measure of denudation, and vice versd, whereas
deposition is only a measure of denudation, and of the material which has been
ejected in a fragmental condition from the earth’s interior, which in some places
forms a very considerable percentage of the total amount of sediment.
The intruded rocks also throw much light on past earth-history, and I cannot
give a better illustration of the valuable information which they may furnish to
the stratigraphical geologist, when rightly studied, than by referring to the
excellent and suggestive work by my colleague, Mr. Alfred Harker, on the Bala
Voleanie Rocks of Carnarvonshire.”
Perhaps the most striking instance of the effect which detailed stratigraphical
work has produced on geological thought is supplied by the study of the crystal-
line schists. Our knowledge of the great bulk of the rocks which enter into the
formation of a schistose complex is not very great, but the mode of production of
many of them is now well known, and the crude speculations of some of the early
geologists are now making way for theories founded on careful and minute obser-
vations in the field as well as in the laboratory. Recent work amongst the erystal-
line schists shows, furthermore, how careful we should be not to assume that
because we have got at the truth, we have therefore ascertained the whole truth.
We all remember how potent a factor dynamic metamorphism was supposed to be,
owing to discoveries made in the greatly disturbed rocks of Scotland and Switzer-
land; and the action of heat was almost ignored by some writers, except as a
minor factor, in the production of metamorphic change. The latest studies amongst
the foliated rocks tend to show that heat does play a most important part in the
manufacture of schists. The detailed work of Mr. George Barrow, in North-east
‘Forfarshire,’ has already thrown a flood of light upon the origin of certain schists,
and their connection with igneous rocks, and geologists will look forward with
eagerness to further studies of the puzzling Highland rocks by this keen observer.
The subject of former climatic conditions is one in which the geologist has
very largely depended upon followers of other branches of science for light, and
yet it is one peculiarly within the domain of the stratigraphical geologist; and
) Sir A. Geikie, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vols. xlvii. and xlviii.
2 Alf. Harker, Sedgwick Essay for 1888 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1889).
3 G. Barrow, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix. 1893, p. 330.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 771
‘information which has already been furnished concerning former climatic condi-
tions, as the result of careful study of the strata, is probably only an earnest of
what is to follow when the specialist in climatology pays attention to the records
of the rocks, and avoids the theories elaborated in the student’s sanctum. The
recognition of an Ice Age in Pleistocene times at once proved the fallacy of the
supposition that there has been a gradual fall in temperature throughout geological
ages without any subsequent rise, and accordingly most theories which have been
put forward to account for former climatic change have been advanced with special
reference to the Glacial period or periods, although there are many other interest-
ing matters connected with climate with which the geologist has to deal. Never-
theless, the occurrence of glacial periods is a matter of very great interest, and
one which has deservedly received much attention, though the extremely plausible
hypothesis of Croll, and the clear manner in which it has been presented to general
readers, tended to throw other views into the shade, until quite recently, when
this hypothesis has been controverted from the point of view of the physicist. In
the meantime considerable advance has been made in our actual knowledge, and
this year, probably for the first time, and as the result of the masterly réswmé of
Professor Edgworth David,! the bulk of British geologists are prepared to admit
that there has been more than one glacial period, and that the evidence of glacial
conditions in the southern hemisphere in Permo-Carboniferous times is esta-
blished. Croll’s hypothesis of course requires the recurrence of glacial periods, but
leaving out of account arguments not of a geological character, which have been
advanced against this hypothesis, the objection raised by Messrs. Gray and
Kendall,” that in the case of the Pleistocene Ice Age ‘the cold conditions
came on with extreme slowness, the refrigerations being progressive from the
Eocene period to the climax,’ seems to me to be a fatal one. At the same time,
rather than asking with the above writers ‘the aid of astronomers and physicists
in the solution of’ this problem, I would direct the attention of stratigraphical
geologists to it, believing that, by steady accumulation of facts, they are more
likely than any one else to furnishjthe true clue to the solution of the glacial
problem.
I have elsewhere called attention to marked changes in the faunas of the
sedimentary rocks when passing from lower to higher levels, without the evidence
of any apparent physical break, or any apparent change in the physical conditions,
-so far as can be judged from the lithological characters of the strata, and have
suggested that such sudden faunistic variations may be due to climate. I refer to
the matter as one which may well occupy the attention of local observers.
One of the most interesting points connected with climatic conditions is
that of the former general lateral distribution of organisms, and its dependence
upon the distribution of climatic zones. The well-known work of the late
Dr. Neumayr® has, in the opinion of many geologists, established the existence of
climatic zones whose boundaries ran practically parallel with the equator in
Jurassic and Cretaceous times, and the possible existence of similar climatic zones
in Palxozoic times has been elsewhere suggested; but it is very desirable that
much more work should be done upon this subject, and it can only be carried out
_by paying close attention to the vertical and lateral distribution of organisms in
the stratified rocks.
So far we have chiefly considered the importance of stratigraphical geology
in connection with the inorganic side of nature. We now come to the bearing of
detailed stratigraphical work upon questions concerning the life of the globe, and
here the evidence furnished by the geologist particularly appeals to the general
educated public as well as to students of other sciences,
1T. W. E. David, ‘Evidences of Glacial Action in Australia in Permo-
Carboniferous Time,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lii. p. 289.
* J. W. Gray and P. F, Kendall, ‘The Cause of an Ice Age, Brit. Assoc. Rep.
(1892), p. 708.
* M. Neumayr, ‘ Ueber klimatische Zonen wihrend der Jura- und Kreidezeit,’
Denkschr. der math.-naturwissen. Classe der h. hk. Ahad. der Wissenschaften, vol. xlvii.
‘Vienna, 1883.
772 REPORT—1896.
Attention has just been directed to the probable importance of former
climatic changes in determining the distribution of organisms, but the whole
subject of the geographical distribution of organisms during former geological
periods, though it has already received a considerable amount of attention, will
doubtless have much further light thrown upon it as the result of careful observations
carried out amongst the stratified rocks.
So long ago as 1855, Pictet laid it down as a paleontological law that ‘the
geographical distribution of species found in the strata was more extended than
the range of species of existing faunas.’ One would naturally expect that at a
time when the diversity of animal organisation was not so great as it now is,
the species, having fewer enemies with which to cope, and on the whole not too
complex organisations to be affected by outward circumstances, would spread
further laterally than they now do; but as we know that in earliest Cambrian
times the diversity of organisation was very considerable, it is doubtful whether
any appreciable difference would be exerted upon lateral distribution then and
now, owing to this cause. At the time at which Pictet wrote, the rich fauna of
the deeper parts of the oceans, with its many widely distributed forms of life,
was unknown, and the range in space of early organisms must have then struck
every one who thought upon the subject as being greater than that of the shallow-
water organisms of existing seas, which were alone known. It is by no means:
clear, however, with our present knowledce, that Pictet’s supposed law holds
good, and it will require a considerable amount of work before it can be
shown to be even apparently true. Our lists of the fossils of different
areas are not sufficiently complete to allow us to generalise with safety, but
a comparison of the faunas of Australia and Britain indicates a larger
percentage of forms common to the two areas, as we examine higher groups of
the geological column. If this indication be fully borne out by further work, it
will not prove the actual truth of the law, for the apparent wider distribution of
ancient forms of life might be due to the greater probability of elevation of
ancient deep-sea sediments than of more modern ones which have not been sub-
jected to so many elevatory movements. Still, if the law be apparently true, it is
a matter of some importance to geologists; and I have touched upon the matter
here in order once again to emphasise the possibility of correlating comparatively
small thicknesses of strata in distant regions by their included organisms.
Mention of Pictet’s laws, one of which states that fossil animals were con-
structed upon the same plan as existing ones, leads me to remark upon the
frequent assumption that certain fossils are closely related to living groups, when
the resemblances between the hard parts of the living and extinct forms are only
of the most general character. There is a natural tendency to compare a fossil
with its nearest living ally, but the comparison has probably been often pushed
too far, with the result that biologists have frequently been led to look for the
ancestors of one living group exclusively amongst forms of life which are closely
related to those of another living group. The result of detailed work is to bring
out more and more prominently the very important differences between some
ancient forms and any living creature, and to throw doubts on certain compari-
sons; thus I find several of the well-known fossils of the Old Red Sandstone,
formerly referred without hesitation to the fishes, are now doubtfully placed in
that class.
The importance of detailed observation in the field is becoming every day more
apparent, and the specialist who remains in his museum examining the collections
amassed by the labours of others, and never notes the mode of occurrence of
fossils in the strata, will perhaps soon be extinct, himself an illustration of the
principle of the survival of the fittest. In the first place such a worker can
never grasp the true significance of the changes wrought on fossil relics after they
have become entombed in the strata, especially amongst those rocks which have
been subjected to profound earth-movements; and it is to be feared that many
.‘ species’ are still retained in our fossil lists, whose supposed sperific characters
are due to distortion by pressure. But a point of greater importance is, that one
who confines his attention to museums cannot, unless the information supplied to
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 773
him be very full, distinguish the differences between fossils which are variations
from a contemporaneous dominant form, such as ‘sports,’ and those which have
been termed ‘ mutations,’ which existed at a later period than the forms which
they resemble. The value of the latter to those who are attempting to work out
phylogenies is obvious, and their nature can only be determined as the result of
very laborious and accurate field-work ; but such labour in such a cause is well
worth performing. The student of phylogeny has had sufficient warning of the
dangers which beset his path from an inspection of the various phylogenetic trees,
constructed mainly after study of existing beings only, so
‘, . . like the borealis race,
That flit ere you can point their place ;’
but recent researches amongst various groups of fossil organisms have further
illustrated the danger of theorising upon insufficient data, especially suggestive
being the discovery of closely similar forms which were formerly considered to be
much more nearly related than now proves to be the case; thus Dr. Mojsisovics!
has shown that Ammonites once referred to the same species are specifically dis-
tinct, though their hard parts have acquired similar structures, sometimes con-
temporaneously, sometimes at different times, and Mr. S. S. Buckman? has observed
the same thing, which he speaks of as ‘heterogenetic homceomorphy’ in the case
of certain brachiopods, whilst Prof. H. A. Nicholson and I* have given reasons for
supposing that such heterogenetic homceomorphy, in the ease of the graptolites,
has sometimes caused the inclusion in one genus of forms which have arisen from
two distinct genera. As the result of careful work, dangers of the nature here
Suggested will be avoided, and our chances of indicating lines of descent correctly
will be much increased. It must be remembered that, however plausible the lines
of descent indicated by students of recent forms may be, the actual links in the
chains can only be discovered by examination of the rocks; and it is greatly to be
desired that more of our geologists who have had a thorough training in the field
should receive in addition one as thorough in the zoological laboratory. Shall I
be forgiven if I venture on the opinion that a certain suspicion which some of my
zoological fellow countrymen have of geological methods is due to their compara-
tive ignorance of paleontology, and that it is as important for them to obtain
some knowledge of the principles of geology as it is for the stratigraphical
paleontologist to study the soft parts of creatures whose relatives he finds in the
stratified rocks ?
The main lines along which the organisms of some of the larger groups have
been developed have already been indicated by several paleontologists, and
detailed work has been carried out in several cases. As examples, let me allude
to the trilobites, of which a satisfactory natural classification was outlined by the
great Barrande in those volumes of his monumental work which deal with the
fossils of this order, whilst further indication of their natural inter-relationships
has been furnished by Messrs. C. D, Walcott, G. F, Matthew, and others; to the
graptolites, whose relationships have been largely worked out by Professor C.
Lapworth, facile princeps amongst students of the Graptolitoidea, to whom we
look for a full account of the phylogeny of the group; to the brachiopods, which
have been so ably treated by Dr. C. EK. Beecher,* largely from a study of recent
forms, but also after careful study of those preserved in the fossil state ; and to the
echinids and lamellibranchs, whose history is being extensively elucidated by
Dr. R, T. Jackson * by methods somewhat similar to those pursued by Dr. Beecher.
1 E. Mojsisovics, Abhandl. der hk. k. geol. Reichsanst., vol. vi. 1893.
? §. 8. Buckman, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li. 1895, p. 456.
*° H. A, Nicholson and J. E. Marr, Geol. Mag., Dec. 4, vol. ii, 1895, p. 531.
- 4C, E. Beecher, ‘Development of the Brachiopoda,’ Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. iii.
vol. xli. 1891, p. 343, and vol. xliv. 1892, p. 133.
5 R. T. Jackson, ‘ Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda,’ Mem. Boston Soc. Nat: Hiist.,
vol. iv. 1890, p. 277; and ‘Studies of Palvechinoidea,’ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
vol, vii. 1896, p. 171.
774 REPORT—1896.
I might give other instances," but have chosen some striking ones, four of
which especially illustrate the great advances which are being made in the study
of the paleontology of the invertebrates by our American brethren.
I have occupied the main part of my address with reasons for the need of con-
ducting stratigraphical work with minute accuracy. Many of you may suppose
that the necessity for working in this way is so obvious that itisa work of
supererogation to insist upon it at great length; but experience has taught me
that many geologists consider that close attention to details is apt to deter
workers from arriving at important generalisations in the present state of our
science, A review of the past history of the science shows that William
Smith, and those who followed after him, obtained their most important
results by steady application to details, and subsequent generalisation, whilst
the work of those who theorise on insufficient data is apt to be of little
avail, though often demanding attention on account of its very daring, and
because of the power of some writers to place erroneous views in an attractive
light, just as ;
*, . . the sun can fling
Colours as bright on exhalations bred
By weedy pool or pestilential swamp,
As on the rivulet, sparkling where it runs,
Or the pellucid lake.’
Nor is there any reason to suppose that it will be otherwise in the future; and I
am not one of those who consider that the brilliant discoveries were the exclusive
reward of the pioneers in our science, and that labourers of the present day must
be contented with the gleanings of their harvest; on the contrary, the discoveries
which await the geologist will probably be as striking as are those which he has
made in the past. The onward march of science is a rhythmic movement, with
now a period of steady labour, anon a more rapid advance in our knowledge. It
would perhaps be going too far to say that, so far as our science is concerned, we
are living in a period rather of the former than of the latter character, though no
great geological discovery has recently affected human thought in the way in
which it was affected by the proofs of the antiquity of man, and by the publication
of ‘The Origin of Species.’ If, however, we are to some extent gathering materials,
rather than drawing far-reaching conclusions from them, I believe this is largely
due to the great expansion which our science has undergone in recent years. It
has been said that geology is ‘not so much one science, as the application of all
the physical sciences to the examination and description of the structure of the
earth, the investigation of the agencies concerned in the production of that struc-
ture, and the history of their action’; and the application of other sciences to the
elucidation of the history of our globe has been so greatly extended of recent years
that we are apt to lose sight of the fact that geology is in itself a science, and that
it is the special province of the geologist to get his facts at first hand from exami-
nation of the earth. The spectroscope and the telescope tell the geologist much ;
but his proper instrument is the hammer, and the motto of every geologist should
be that which has been adopted for the Geological Congress, ‘ Mente et malleo.’
At the risk of being compared to a child playing with edged tools, I cannot
help referring to the bearing of modern stratigraphical research on the suggested
replacement of a school of uniformitarianism by one of evolution. The distin-
guished advocate of evolutionism, who addressed the Geological Society in 1869
upon the modern schools of geological thought, spoke of the school of evolution as
though it were midway between those of uniformitarianism and catastrophism, as
1 #g., the following papers treating of the Cephalopoda :—A. Hyatt, ‘ Genesis
of the Arietide,’ Smithsonian Contributions, vol. xxvi. 1889; M. Neumayr, Jura-
Studien L, ‘ Ueber Phylloceraten,’ Jahrb.' der hk. k. Geol. Reichsanst., vol. xxi. 1871,
p- 297; L. Wiirtenberger, ‘Studien iiber die Stammesgeschichte der Ammoniten,’
Leipzig, 1880; S. S. Buckman, ‘A Monograph of the Inferior Qolite Ammonites of
the British Islands,’ 1887 (Monogr. Paleontographical Soc.). ;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 775
indeed it is logically, though, considering the tenets of the upholders of catastro-
phism, as opposed to those of uniformitarianism, at the time of that address, there
is no doubt that evolutionism was rather a modification of the uniformitarianism
of the period than intermediate between it and catastrophism, which was then
practically extinct, at any rate in Britain. One of my predecessors in this chair,
speaking upon this subject, says that ‘the good old British ship ‘‘ Uniformity,”
built by Hutton and refitted by Lyell, has won so many glorious victories in the
past, and appears still to be in such excellent fiehting trim, that I see no reason
why she should haul down her colours, either to ‘‘ Catastrophe ” or “Evolution.” ”
It may be so; but I doubt the expediency of nailing those colours to the mast.
That Lyell, in his great work, proved that the agents now in operation, working
with the same activity as that which they exhibit at the present day, might pro-
duce the phenomena exhibited by the stratified rocks seems to be generally
admitted, but that is not the same thing as proving that they did so produce them.
Such proof can only be acquired by that detailed examination of the strata which
I have advocated in this address, and at the time that the last edition of the
‘Principles’ appeared, our knowledge of the strata was far less complete than it
has subsequently become. It appears to me that we should keep our eyes open to
the possibility of many phenomena presented by rocks, even newer than the
Archean rocks, having been produced under different conditions from those now
prevalent. The depths and salinity of the oceans, the heights and extent of con-
tinents, the conditions of volcanic action, and many other things may have been
markedly different from what they are at present, and it is surely unphilosophical to
assume conditions to have been generally similar to those of the present day on
the slender data at our disposal. Lastly, uniformitarianism, in its strictest sense,
is opposed to rhythmic recurrence of events. ‘Rhythm is the rule with nature;
she abhors uniformity more than she does a vacuum,’ wrote Professor Tyndall,
many years ago, and the remark is worth noting by geologists. Why have we no
undoubted signs of glacial epochs amongst the strata from early Cambrian times to
the Great Ice Period, except in Permo-Carboniferous times? Is there not an apparent
if not a real absence of manifestation of volcanic activity over wide areas of the
earth in Mesozoic times? Were not Devonian, Permo-Triassic, and Miocene times
periods of mountain-building over exceptionally wide areas, whilst the intervening
periods were rather marked by quiet depression and sedimentation? A study of
the evidence available in connection with questions like these suggests rhythmic
recurrence. Without any desire to advocate hasty departure from our present
methods of research, I think it should be clearly recognised that evolution may
have been an important factor in changing the conditions even of those times of
which the geologist has more direct knowledge. In this, as in many other ques-
tions, it is best to preserve an open mind ; indeed, I think that geologists will do well
to rest satisfied without an explanation to many problems, amongst them the one
just referred to; and that working hypotheses, though useful, are better retained in
the manuscript notebooks of the workers than published in the ‘Transactions of
learned societies, whence they filter out into popular works, to the great delight
of a sceptical public should they happen to be overthrown.
May I trespass upon your patience for one moment longer? As a teacher
of geology, with many years’ experience in and out of a large university, I have
come to the conclusion that geology is becoming more generally recognised as a
valuable instrument of education. The memory, the reasoning faculties, and the
powers of observation are alike quickened. The work in the open air, which is
inseparable from a right understanding of the science, keeps the body in healthy
condition, But over and above these benefits, the communing with Nature, often
in her most impressive moods, and the insignificance of events in a man’s lifetime,
as compared with the ceaseless changes through the long eons which have gone
before, so influence man’s moral nature that they drive out his meaner thoughts
and make him ‘live in charity with all men.’
776 REPORT—1896.
~* ‘The following Papers were read :—
On the Geology of the Isle of Man.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, J/.4., F.R.S.
The geology of the Isle of Man presents many points worthy of the attention
ef the Geological Section. The following notes are based on my survey, during
the last ten years, on the 6-inch scale, and on borings carried out under my advice
through the thick covering of drift in the north of the island.
The Ordovician Massif.
The massif of the island consists of Ordovician clay-slates, phyllites, and
quartzites, locally much folded and contorted, traversed by numerous volcanic
dykes, and penetrated at Foxdale, the Dhoon, and Santon by three bosses of
granite. They are for the most part unfossiliferous, the only three fossils as yet
found being Palcochorda, Dictyonema, and a trilobite,’ sufficiently perfect to be
identified with one or other of the Ordovician genera. They are probably the
south-western prolongation of the Skiddaw slates of the Lake Country beneath
the Irish Sea. They are of unknown thickness, and have a general dip seawards,
from an axis running from N.E. to 8.W., the slates and shales forming the
central nucleus of hills—Snaefel, North and South Barule, Cronk-na-Trelay, &¢.-—
and the quartzites for the most part occurring in the littoral areas, and more
particularly along the south-eastern seaboard, from Ramsey to Langness. These
rocks have been locally very much altered by the heat caused by crushing. Where
the slates, for example, have been traversed by white quartz veins, the friction,
caused by the smashing of the quartz into the softer slates, has caused the
development of mica-schist at the point of contact, and more rarely also of
hornblende.
The crush-conglomerates (of Ballanayre and Sulby Glen), mainly occurring in
the north of the Massif, formed by the smashing of thinly bedded quartzites and
harder slates, and their being driven into the softer slates, testify to the enormous
subterranean forces-which have been at work, as Mr. Lamplugh has conclusively
shown.? The result is a conglomerate, composed of blocks great and small, mostly
rounded, and some scored like those from the glacial drift, each being covered by
a thin film of sericite.
The Carboniferous Limestone of the South.
The Carboniferous Limestone series is seen in the south of the island, in the
area of Castletown, Langness, and Ballasalla, to rest on a sea-worn floor of the
highly contorted Ordovician rocks. At the base is the Red Conglomerate, some
15 feet thick, out of which the arches at Langness have been cut by the sea.
It is formed of pebbles, red and white vein-quartz and red quartzite, derived
from the break-up of the strata below, the grey Ordovician quartzite, with iron
pyrites, having been oxidised into the red quartzite of the pebble. On this rest
the thinly bedded limestones and shales of Castletown Bay and Derbyhaven. The
beds of limestone increase in thickness to the west of Castletown Bay and at Port .
St. Mary. To the upper portion of this series belong the black and white lime-
stones and black Poseidonia shales of Pool Vaish, and the interbedded volcanic
agglomerate, between that place and Scarlet Point. The latter is proved to have
been the site of the eruption by the Augite Porphyrite of the Stack.
The dykes of Olivine-dolerite * which riddle the limestone on the shore between
this point and Castletown and Kentraugh are post-Carboniferous, and are referred
by Horne and A. Geikie to the Early Tertiary age. The most important of these
is the Strandhall dyke, which cuts the lode in the Ballacorkish lead-mine, the fore-
1 Bolton, Geological Magazine, Dec. iii. vol. x. p. 29.
2 Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li. 1895, p. 565.
2 Hobson, Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii. p. 432.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 7
shore at Strandhall, and then runs across the peninsula of Scarlet, appearing again
on the foreshore at Knock-Rushen. It is probably continued through the Bay of
Castletown, and is represented by the network of dykes on the foreshore close to
the Langness copper-mine, and crossing the peninsula of Langness.
The Carboniferous Limestone is highly faulted and folded, has a westerly dip,
and has been faulted down into the Ordovician strata by the Port St. Mary fault,
extending from the sea near that place, across Bay ny Carrickey to Ballashimmin,
the throw being to the east. In consequence of this the upper strata of the Car-
boniferous Limestone are unrepresented in the south of the island.
The Permian Strata of the North of the Island,
The series of Red Sandstones and Conglomerates, to the east of Peel, con-
sidered by some geologists to belong to the Old Red Sandstone, and by others to
the basement beds of the Carboniferous, are of Permian age. They extend
along the shore-line from the Cregmalin to Willstrand, being faulted at both these
points against the Ordovician slates. Inland their boundary is concealed by the
thick covering of drift. It probably does not extend further than about one hun-
dred yards to the south of the main road from Peel to Kirk Michael, a boring at
Ballagar having proved the slate. It consists of, A, the Peel Sandstones, and
irregular conglomerates, red, and reddish-grey and buff, 913 feet in thickness,
plunging seawards at an angle from 4U°.to 45°; and, B, the Stack conglomerates
and breccias, mare or less calcareous, red, sandy, and grey, 455 feet thick.! The
true base of these strata is concealed by the glacial drift, unless it be represented by
the Red Conglomerates of the small and obscure patches faulted into the shales near
Glenfaba. ‘The Peel Sandstones are the equivalent of the Rot-todt-liegende of the
fae and the Lower Permian Sandstones of St. Bees Head and the Vale of
iden.
The Stack conglomerates and breccias represent the base of the Magnesian
Limestone of the Upper Permian, of the North of England, described so well by
Sedgwick and Binney. They are identical in physical characters with ‘the brock-
ram’ of the Cumbrian area, and are proved to be post-Carboniferous by the pre-
sence of pebbles of Carboniferous Limestone.
The Strata underneath Drift-covered Northern Plain,
The glacial drift occupies by far the greater portion of the island, and forms
a thick mantle over the plain, extending from the abrupt Ordovician escarpment,
sweeping westwards from Ramsey towards Kirk Michael. The contrast between
this plain and the hilly region to its south rendered it probable that the strata
underneath the drift are not Ordovician; and the nigh northern dip of all the
rocks, Ordovician and Permian, rendered it probable that Carboniferous Rocks,
and possibly Coal Measures, occurred below. Under these circumstances four
borings were put down in 1891-96 by Messrs. Craine, Mr. Todd being the engineer
in charge, with the following results.
The boring at Lhen Moar? proved the existence of the Carboniferous Lime-
stone underneath the sands, clays, and gravels of the Drift at a depth of 167
feet 6 inches from the surface. The limestone dips at an angle of 40°, and is
massive. It was penetrated to a depth of 66 feet.
The next borehole at Ballawhane, near Blue Point, about 4,050 feet to the
north-east of that at Lhen Moar, gave a most interesting section.
Feet Inches
Boulder Drift sands, gravels, and clays : : : cee LT 0
Triassic Sandstone, red and grey . : : : 373 2
Permian Marls and Sandstones of the Stack series. . 136 2
Carboniferous Limestone, grey and red, with crinoids He 3aT 10
! For details see Manchester Geol. Soc., 1894, vol. xxii.; Dawkins, on the Geology
_of the Isle of Man, Part I.
. # For details see Dawkins, Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., vols, xxii. and xxiii. ;
Oo eaG of the Isle of Man, Parts I. and II. 3
. E
778 REPORT—1896.
In this section the Triassic Sandstone cores prove a dip of 10°, while the
Stack series below have a dip of from 30° to 40°. The absence of the Peel Sand-
stones proves that the Permians are faulted against the Carboniferous Limestone.
The Triassic Sandstone probably belongs to the Lower or Bunter series.
A third boring at Knock-y-Dooney, near Rue Point, at a distance of 1,670 yards
to the north-east of Ballawhane, recently completed, has added another group of
rocks to Manx geology. ‘The section is as follows :—
Feet Inches
Glacial drift “a 5 i F . a : ‘ TS 0
Triassic Sandstone A “ . é Hl 5 ; - 463 4
Permian rocks of the Stack series ; y - 7, we 28 3
Yoredale’sandstones and shales . 3 ; 2 ‘ A te 0
Carboniferous Limestone . . : F 3 ; » Jhe 4
961 11
This, the deepest boring in the island, proves the existence of the Yoredales,
dipping at an angle of 50°, and passing into the Carboniferous Limestone, here,
as before, full of crinoids.' :
The fourth boring, close to the Lighthouse at the Point of Ayre, has completed
the catalogue of the Manx rocks. Here the roclis are as follows :—
Feet
Boulder drift . 4 e ; 5 : : ; . . - 298
Marls, red, brown, and grey, with gypsum and rock salt a . 392
—_
690
The salt sets in at 500 feet below the surface, and the total thickness of the
rock salt is 88 feet 6 inches, the two thickest beds being 20 feet and 9 feet. 6 inches.
Besides these a brine run, 2 feet 6 inches in depth, occurs at a depth of 615 feet
5 inches from the surface. The depth of the salt-field remains unproved.
The discovery of this salt-field is of considerable value, because it links on the
salt-field at Carrickfergus with those of Barrow and of Cheshire, and shows that
the Irish Sea is a basin in which the salt-bearing Triassic Marls were deposited.
They have since been broken up and denuded, and it remains to be proved how
far they are continuous under the sea, eastwards to Barrow and to the north-west
in the direction of Carrickfergus.
General Conclusions as to Solid Geology.
It remains now to sum up the general results of the study of the Manx
Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata. The Ordovician Massif is practically identical
with the Skiddaw series of the Lake Country, the volcanic ash being left out. In
Man and in the Lake Country there is the same relation between the Ordovician
Massif and the Carboniferous Limestone, the Yoredale and the Permian strata,
and the same unconformity between the Paleozoic strata below and the Triassic
strata above. The Triassic Sandstone is probably the same as that of Aldingham
and Barrow, which is sandwiched in between the Magnesian Limestone (Sheet 91,
N.W. Geological Survey) and the Saliferous Marls of Barrow. We may also
conclude, from this identity of structure between the districts of Barrow and
Black Combe in the Lake district and of the rocks of the north of Man, that there
is little hope of the south-western extension of the Whitehaven coalfield, so gal-
lantly sought for by Messrs. Craine in their borings. The discovery of a salt-field
is a most valuable addition to the mineral wealth of the island.
“ Broken rings of Permian and Triassic rocks similar to those encircling the
Jumbrian Massif probably surround that of Man, being mostly covered by the
sea or by thick masses of drift. In the north of the island they probably dip
northwards, and occupy a position approximately represented by the map on the
wall, in which the uncoloured part of the northern plain is a terra incognita, only
to be explored by further borings.
' 1 For details of this section see report of Mr. Todd, published in the Journal of
the Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society, vol. iii. p. 65.
el
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 779
The Boulder-drift of the North,
‘The Boulder-drift of the northern plain is deposited on a floor of solid rocks,
which sinks rapidly from 160 feet on the south-west at Ballawhane to 298 feet
below high-water mark on the north-east at the Point of Ayre. It is no less than
450 feet in thickness, when the cliffs and hills of the plain are taken into account.
It contains the usual marine shells. Inland the drift occurs to a height of more
than 600 feet above the sea. The distribution of the Foxdale granite boulders
proves that the glaciation was from north to south.
The Prehistoric Strata,
With regard to the prehistoric river terraces, and alluvia, and the peat-beds
which are considerable in the north, I will only add that the discovery of the
great Irish Elk in the peat near St. John’s, and in the forest on the shore-line near
Strandhall, proves that the island was united to Ireland or Britain in the pre-
historic age,
2. Observations on some of the Footprints from the Trias in the
Neighbourhood of Liverpool. By H, C, Brastey,
The footprints generally known as those of the Cheirotherium or Cheirosaurus
have been the subject of much speculation and some study for a long time past,
but unfortunately without any very certain result; their general character is,
however, so well known that I hardly need refer to them. Besides this large and
rather singular form we have a great number and variety of smaller footprints.
A number of quite distinct forms may be traced, indicating that the fauna was
rich both in individuals and in species. A slab in University College, on which
about ninety-five footprints are shown ou an area of about three square feet,
illustrates this. The footprints are generally found in relief as natural casts in
sandstone of prints made in the underlying marl or clay where the wet mud
has taken the impression and afterwards been covered with sand, They occur
most plentifully along certain beds, but this is because only at those places were
the conditions favourable for their presentation. The author particularly draws
attention to the fact that the prints indicate animals of terrestrial and not marine
habits; for, although in older accounts webbed feet are described and figured, his
own observations point to these being of very rare occurrence. This would
necessitate the existence of dry land in the neighbourhood, and must be taken
into account in any attempt to understand the formation of the Keuper. They
are found at intervals from just above the conglomerates at the base to the lower part
of the Keuper marls, the highest beds of the Keuper exposed. They have not been
found in the Bunter in this district. The Liverpool Free Museum has lately acquired
a slab from Storeton which shows some interesting forms; one, the largest about
two inches long, is possibly of a chelonian, In the less perfect examples it is
represented by an oval pad and four projecting points slightly removed from it on
one side, but in more perfect examples it is seen that these are connected by toes
with the pad, and that the projecting points are portions of strong curved claws.
On the slab it is difficult to trace a regular series, but from measurements taken at
the quarry from portions of the same bed the author found that the feet had a
stride of about nine inches, whilst the width of the track—that is, between the
line of impressions of the right foot and those of the left—was eight inches,
indicating a broad-bodied animal. Another footprint well shown on the slab is
much smaller, being about three-quarters of an inch long, and consists of three
toes of nearly equal length—the middle one being the longest—and a very small
toe on one side projecting from what appears to be the palmar portion of the foot.
The three longer toes lie very closely together, and quite parallel, and often the
rint shows no division between them, and each terminates in a short sharp claw.
this is the form described to the Geological Section by Mr. O, W. Jeffs at the
Oxford.méeting.! They are, perhaps, better shown on a slab from the same bed of
1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1894, p. 658.
; 3E2
780 ; REPORT—1896,
rock in the museum of University College. The slab also has a profusion of the
prints attributed to the Rhynchosaurus. ‘The author has lately been endeavouring
to classify under certain types the more common forms for the sake of facilitating
reference ; the results are given in his paper lately published.t_ Any one interested
in the subject can see numerous examples in Liverpool Museum or at University
College. But perhaps the most interesting collection is that at the Bootle Free
Museum, where what are probably the type specimens described some sixty years
ago are carefully preserved and well exhibited.
3. Recent Borings in the Red Marl, near Liverpool.
By G. H. Morron, /.GS.
Boring in the Red Marl near Altcar, North of Liverpool.
During the years 1890-92 an important boring was made in the Red Marl,
rather under a mile N.N.E, of Altcar, and nearly two miles east from Formby
Station. Previous to 1890 the formation was supposed not to exceed 400 feet in
thickness, the amount proved at Birkdale many years ago. The following is a
section of the strata passed through, condensed from details for which I am
indebted to Mr. E. Fidler, who was connected with the undertaking.
Feet Inches
Peat : : : : : e 2 . : a : 5 0
Loam and sand F é é - 3 5 . y 1268 6
Boulder clay . : : : 5 ; : > - - 16 0
Sand and marl 4 4 é ; : - : 3 Z 8 6
Red Marl : = 4 : é * : : : iD 0
Keuper Sandstone . : : : : : - . 2 «62 0
1,091 0O
The diamond boring machine was used, and the diameter of the bore-hole was
13 inches near the surface, 7 and 6 inches through most of the Red Marl, ang
5 inches in the Keuper Sandstone. The dip of the strata was supposed to be &
few degrees to the north-east, as determined by the cores brought up. The marl
separated with thin laminz, and the surfaces were often covered with pseudo-
morphic crystals of chloride of sodium from an eighth to an inch across, and they
were most numerous in the middle and lowest beds, There were many seams of
gypsum, which varied in thickness from a quarter of an inch to 3 or 4 inches, and
a few diagonal cracks filled with the same mineral traversed the beds, and often
contained fragments of marl and presented a brecciated appearance, The surfaces
of the cores of gypsum exhibited pseudomorphs like those on the marl. Most of
the marl was red, but sometimes a greenish grey, and the lower beds contained
the tracks of annelids, which have been found on the same horizon in several
other places in Lancashire and Cheshire. The Keuper Sandstone below the Red
Marl was red and grey in colour, and there was an abrupt change from one
formation to the other without any transitional strata between.
The object of the boring was to find brine or rock-salt, but it was unsuc-
cessful, and the attempt was made in consequence of a tradition that prevails in
the neighbourhood that salt water occurs below the surface. Mr. J. Dickinson,
F.G.S., in his Parliamentary Report on ‘The Salt Districts,’ refers to a brine
spring mentioned by Dr. Browning, and Baines, in his ‘ History of Lancashire,’
states that it ‘contained as much sait as that at Northwich.’ Mr, Fidler in-
formed me that, though salt water has been frequently found near the surface
in various places in the district, fresh water was found on penetrating to a
greater depth.
I am inclined to think that the salt water found about the surface of the
country is in consequence of frequent floods from the sea in former years and
the deposit of spray during storms. The wind carries the fine spray for many
' Troc, Liv. Geol. Soc., 1896.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 78L
miles inland, and a film of salt has been found coating windows at a distance of
twenty or thirty miles from the sea after storms, so that it is certain to impart a
saltness to the soil over the land along the coast.
Boring in the Red Marl at Ford, on the West of Bidston Hill.
Another boring in the Red Marl has been in progress during the last two
years on the east bank of the Fender, a brook running from south to north into
the Birkett and finally into Wallasey Pool. The object of the boring was to
obtain an additional supply of water for Birkenhead, and I am indebted to
Mr. W. A. Richardson, C.E., for the following section of the strata passed.
through.
Feet
Surface soil . : ; : 3 . . . . : i
Boulder clay . : : : : 5 F : : e4S
Sand and gravel - 3 3 ; : , : : . 16
Red Marl. : 5 : ‘ , : 3 ; : . 454
Keuper Sandstone . ‘ : 2 ‘ é : : . 244
Fault rock ; : ; 3 : ‘ ; C : ’ 7
Upper Soft Sandstone of the Bunter. : - J ‘lon
900
he boring was made with a revolving iron disc with steel chisels, two feet
in diameter, suspended by a flat rope; but the cores brought up were only 4 inches
across, most of the rock having been broken into fragments, sand and clay. The
cores showed that the strata were horizontal. The Red Marl was found to be
much harder than usual, and principally composed of tough argillaceous sand-
stones and shales, nearly all of a red colour. Very little gypsum was found, and
the entire absence of pseudomorphic crystals remarkable. It seems probable
that the deposit was formed in deeper water than the Red Marl at Altcar.
At Greasby, a village two miles west of the boring, there are some beds, about
two inches thick, containing small ramifying tube-like cavities from 4, to 4 inch
in diameter. They have been supposed to be at the base of the Red Marl, but
were found at several horizons in the boring, and evidently do not indicate the
base, so that the beds at Greasby may be considerably above it. The Red Marl
ended at the depth of 516 feet below the surface, so that deducting 62 feet for the
superficial deposits the thickness is 454 feet, being about double the amount it
was expected to be. There was an abrupt change from the Red Marl into the
underlying IKeuper Sandstone, which was penetrated to the depth of 244 feet,
when a fault was crossed and the Upper Soft Sandstone of the Bunter proved to
the depth of 135 feet.
The Geological Survey Map of the district (Sheet 79, N.E.) distinguishes the
Red Marl from the ‘ Waterstones’ at the base over the centre of Wirral, but it
does not seem possible to have made such a distinction in South-west Lancashire,
where both are included in the Red Marl. At Ford most of the marl is of an
‘arenaceous character, while on the east of Liverpool the beds are softer and includ
more shale andclay. It seems, however, that the Keuper Sandstone in Wirral is
of less thickness than it is under Liverpool, and that the upper beds there are
represented by the ‘ Waterstones.’
4. Erosion of the Sea Coast of Wirral. By G. H. Morton, F.G.S.
The oldest maps of the coast of Wirral, the north-western extremity of Cheshire,
afford very little information on the exact outline of the coast in former years. It
was not until the publication of the 6-inch map of the Ordnance Survey in 1880
that it became possible to make exact observations on the erosion of the coast.
The late Sir James Picton, F.S.A., in 1846, was the first to direct attention to the
waste of the land, but he had not made any personal investigation, and more
recent writers on the subject have confined themselves to showing the incorrect-
ness of some of his statements, rather than making original observations. The
782 REPORT —1896.
object of this paper is to record the result of close attention given to the subject
for many years.
Half a mile south-west of the Leasowe Embankment, and about 100 yards from
Seabank Cottages, there is an old weather-beaten brick and stone house, known as
the ‘ Warren,’ and evidently the oldest in the neighbourhood. According to the
G-inch Ordnance Map, the distance between the house and the sea was about 150
yards, when the country was surveyed in 1871, but I found it to be 70 yards in
1890, 55 yards in March 1894, and only 45 yards in May 1896, and the residents
have ts me the position of several high sand-hills that once formed part of the
lost land.
In an affidavit, filed in a recent case concerning the extension of the Embank-
ment, George Banks states that he had been born and had lived in the house ever
since. It was only 60 yards from high-water mark aft spring tides in 1892,
‘whereas when he first remembered it the house stood at least 350 yards from
high-water mark at spring tides, and the land washed away included some sand-
hills 80 and 40 feet, and one 50 or 60 feet in height.’
The greatest erosion by the sea along the coast has taken place at Dove Point,
about 350 yards to the south-west of the house. In 1862 there were two ‘ perches’
constructed of timber, one being 10 yards from the edge of the sand-hills, which
were then about 12 feet high, and the other 150 yards behind, near the boundary
of the inclosed land. The seaward Perch is shown in the frontispiece of the
‘Geology around Liverpool.’ On January 20, 1863, this Perch had become close
to the edge of the cliff and fell down on the shore, its original position being indi-
cated by several masses of masonry and large stones which had formed the foun-
dation of the structure. The Perch was re-erected on the sand-hills, and is shown
on the 6-inch map, but it was afterwards removed, with the one behind, to the
north-east of the ‘ Warren,’ so that neither of them is now in the place shown on
the map. The foundation stones still lie on the shore in their original position.
In consequence of the continual erosion by the sea the stones have gradually
become further from the coast line, and in September 1894 the distance was 144
yards, showing the erosion of the coast from 1863 to 1894 to have been between
4 and 5 yards per annum. In May 1896 the distance had been increased to 152
yards, proving an erosion of 8 yards in 20 months, but as they included two
winters the loss would be 4 yards per annum.
South of Dove Point the erosion gradually decreases, but 50 yards of the sand-
hills have been washed away on the north-east of Sandhey, though not in recent,
years, as there is now a fringe of grass growing in the denuded bay for about 100
yards, when it gradually dies away. The grounds along the sea-front at Sandhey
are protected by an embankment and groins, which arrest the encroachment of the
sea. Beyond, in front of Hoylake, there is no erosion, and the Red Stones at
Hilbre Point protect the land from the sea.
5, Oscillations in the Level of the Land as shown by the Buried kiver
Valleys and later Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Liverpool. By
T. Metiarp Reapg, F£.G.S.
The author, after describing the extensive post-Glacial deposits on the coasts of
Lancashire and Cheshire, consisting of blown sand resting upon a peat- and forest-
bed, which again rests upon scrobicularian clays and silts—the tree remains, con-
sisting of stools of oak, Scotch fir, and birch rooted into the estuarine deposits—
shows that the whole series rest upon an eroded surface of the low-level marine
Boulder-clays and Sands, which again repose upon the Triassic rocks. The surface
of the Trias, whether Bunter or Keuper, is worn into a system of hills and valleys
which are largely obscured and filled up with Boulder-clay.
After a discussion of these facts the author concludes that they point to the
existence of three land surfaces—the first in time being pre-Glacial or at least
pre-Boulder-clay ; the second, post-Glacial, represented by the buried eroded surface
——s
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C., 783
of the Boulder-clay, and the third by the peat- and forest-beds which run down to
below low-water mark.
All these land surfaces represent periods when the land was higher relatively
to the sea-level than at present, the deposits resting severally upon them represent-
ing each a period of depression when the land was relatively lower, as respects the
sea, than at present.
It was pointed out that these indubitable earth-movements could not be
accounted for on the principle of isostasy, or loading and unloading, nor could they
be explained away by alterations of the sea-level, nor by subterranean denudation,
and that we must therefore look for their explanation, not to external causes, but to
forces acting over large areas and hidden deep down in the interior of the earth,
6.. Tertiary Deposits in North Manzland. By AtFrep Bett.
After suggesting that local agencies were sufficient to account for the glacial
phenomena in the centre and south of the island, the writer proceeds to give
reasons in support of his proposition that the deposits in the north, instead of
being, as usually supposed, of glacial origin, are really pre-Glacial, as he finds that
there are no traces of till or a ground moraine, and that the clays throughout are
to a large extent free from stony matter, except such as may have been due to
floating ice, brought in after the shingle beach with Pliocene shells had been
formed.
The shells he does not consider ‘ remanie,’ but contemporaneous with the beach
they occur in, and to belong to the same series of pre-Glacial deposits containing
similar shells at Wexford, Aberdeen, and Iceland, of Weybourn Crag age, possibly
an unopened chapter in Pliocene geology.
Not finding any shingle in the cliffs, he concludes that the rolled stones on the
beach are far travelled, having no connection with the island deposits.
The list of shells is the first localised one of any of the deposits in the island,
and is supplemented by notices of such species as were not personally collected by
him at Shellag. :
7. On the Occurrence of Sillimanite Gineisses in Central Anglesey.
By Epwarp GRrEENLY, 2.GS.
The author records the occurrence of the mineral Sillimanite in certain gneisses
and schists of Central Anglesey, which are traversed by great numbers of sills and
thin bands of growth, often injected ‘lit par lit.’ There is an absence of chilled
edges, the granite being quite coarse at the points of contact which have been
observed. The whole series closely resembles that recently described in eastern
Sutherland by Mr. J. Horne and the author, but it is also associated with the
Erenendic gneisses, whose Hebridean or Lewisian aspect has been noted by Sir
A. Geile,
8. On Quartzite Lenticles in the Schists of South-eastern Anglesey,
By Epwarp GREENLY, /.GS.
The author describes the occurrence of numerous lenticles of quartzite in the
chloritic schists of Beaumaris. They are generally from quarter of an inch to a
foot in length, but four large masses also occur, of which the largest, the quartz-
rock of Pen-y-pare, is a lenticle some 700 feet in length, These quartzite lenticles
are ascribed to a cataclastic origin, the structures resembling on a large scale
(except that the matrix is crystalline) those of the mylonites of the N.W. Highlands
of Scotland. The author also compares them to the ‘ crush-conglomerates’ of the
Isle of Man, The whole series is probably due to the breaking down of a group
784: REPORT—1896.
of alternating shales and thin grits, containing also a few thick beds of quartzite.
Their present condition furnishes evidence of the intensity of the earth-movements
which have affected the schistose rocks of Anglesey.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. Pre-Cambrian Fossils. By Sir Witt1AmM Dawson, LL.D., FRS.
The author stated that it was his object merely to introduce the specimens he
proposed to exhibit by a few remarks rendered necessary by the present confusion
in the classification of pre-Cambrian rocks. He would take those of Canada and
Newfoundland as at present best known, and locally connected with the specimens
in question.
He referred first to the ‘ Olenellus Zone,’ and its equivalent in New Brunswick,
the ‘Protolenus Fauna’ of Matthew, as at present constituting the base of the
Cambrian and terminating downward in barren sandstone. This Lower Cambrian
had in North America, according to Walcott, afforded 165 species, including all
the leading types of the marine invertebrates.
Below the Olenellus Zone, Matthew had found in New Brunswick a thick
series of red ard greenish slates, with conglomerate at the base. It has afforded
no Trilobites, but contains a few fossils referable with some doubts to Worms,
Mollusks, Ostracods, Brachiopods, Cytideans, and Protozoa. It is regarded as
equivalent to the Signal Hill and Random Sound Series of Murray and Howley in
Newfoundland, and to the Keweniar, and the Chuar and Colorado Canon Series
of Walcott in the west. The latter contains laminated forms apparently similar
to Cryptozoon of the Cambrian and Archiozoon of the Upper Laurentian.
The Etcheminian rests unconformably on the IIuronian, a system for the most
part of coarse clastic rocks with some igneous beds, but including slates, iron
ores, and limestones, which contain worm-burrows, sponge-spicules, and laminated
forms comparable with Cryptozoon and Eozoon. The Huronian, first defined by
Logan and Murray in the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, has been recognised in
many other localities, both in the west and east of Canada and the United States;
but has been designated by many other local names, and bas been by some writers
included, with the Etcheminian and sometimes with part of the Laurentian, in the
scarcely defined ‘ Algonkian ’ group of the United States Geological Survey.
Below the Huronian is the Upper Laurentian or Grenville system, consisting of
gneisses and schists (some of which, as Adams has shown, have the chemical com-
position of Paleozoic slates), along with iron ore, graphite, and apatite, and great
bands of limestone, the whole evidently representing a long period of marine
deposition, in an ocean whose bed was broken up and in part elevated before the
production of the littoral clastics of the Huronian age. It is in one of the lime-
stones of this system that, along with other possible fossils, the forms known as
Eozoon Canadense have been found. The author did not propose to describe these
remains, but merely to exhibit some microphotographs and slices iliustrating their
structure, referring to previous publications for details as to their characters and
mode of occurrence.
Below the Grenvillian is the great thickness of Orthoclase gneiss of various
textures, and alternating with bands of hornblende schist, constituting the Ottawa
gneiss or Lower Laurentian of the Geological Survey. No limestones or indica-
tions of fossil remains have yet been found in this fundamental gneiss, which may
be a truly primitive rock produced by aqueo-igneous or ‘crenitic’ action, before
the commencement of regular sedimentation.
The author proposed, with Matthew, to regard the Etcheminian series and its
equivalents as pre-Cambrian, but still Palsozoic; and, as suggested by himself
many years ago, to classify the Huronian and Grenvillian as Eozoic, leaving the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 785
term Archean to be applied to the Lower Laurentian gneiss, until it also shall
have afforded some indications of the presence of life.
He insisted on the duty of paleontologists to give more attention to the pre-
Cambrian rocks, in the hope of discovering connecting links with the Cambrian,
and of finding the oceanic members of the Huronian, and less metamorphosed equi-
valents of the Upper Laurentian, and so of reaching backward to the actual
beginning of life on our planet, should this prove to be attainable.
2. Some Features of the Early Cambrian Faunas. By G. ¥. Matruew,
D.Sc, F.RS.C.
Trilobites.
The larval features of the early Cambrian Trilobites are chiefly referred to in
this paper because in them we may look for points of structure which will appear
in the adult condition of their predecessors.
The early Cambrian Brachiopoda and Ostrocoda are also briefly considered.
Except in Olenellus and its allies the larval forms of the earliest trilobites are
little known; but in those of the Paradoxides beds a number of them belonging to
different genera are known, so that in these we have fuller data for comparison.
The abundance and variety of trilobites in the Cambrian rocks are truly
yemarkable; and the flexibility of the type is indicated by the numerous genera
that appeared successively in that early age. They thus become valuable in
marking the divisions of these rocks, as the vertebrates do those of the Tertiary ;
and their remains enable us to recognise different parts of the Cambrian system
with ease and certainty in all the regions around the Atlantic ocean.
This being the case, it may be profitable to examine the forms of the earliest
Cambrian trilobites, and note how they compare with the larve of the trilobites of
the Paradoxides beds. The law of development would lead us to expect that in
the pre-Paradoxides faunas of the Cambrian certain features of the larval forms of
the trilobites of the Paradoxides beds should appear as permanent adult features
in their predecessors. And such is the case.
In 1892 Dr. J. Bergeron summed up the evidence on this point, derivable
from the trilobites of the Paradoxides and Olenellus faunas, in his article, “ Is the
fauna called primordial the most ancient fauna’ ”! He utilised the studies of
Barrande, Walcott, Ford, and others for this purpose, and his conclusion was that
there must have been a more ancient fauna.
Discoveries of other faunas beside that of Olenellus, older than the Paradoxides
beds, have been made since Bergeron wrote upon this subject, and we may now
place his theory against some additional facts which bear upon it.
To make the application clearer, the author briefly presented some of the
characteristics of the earliest larval stages of the trilobites of the Paradoxides
beds, as shown in the young of Paradoxides, Ptychoparia, Conccoryphe, Microdiscus,
and Agnostus. Among them are the following :—
1. Predominance of the cephalic over the caudal shield.
2, A long narrow giabella, with nearly parallel sides. In these early moults
the posterior lobes of the axial rachis (which includes the glabella) are short and
weak,.as compared with the anterior, and especially the first.”
3. The eyes are absent; when they first appear they are near the lateral
margin, and in several genera are elongated.
4, There are no movable cheeks; when these first appear they are narrow and
marginal.
5. There is no thorax; this region begins with one segment, and in some
genera never exceeds the number of 2 to 4. The pleure at first are short.
6. The pygidium at first is quite short and of one segment.
1 Revue générale des Sciences, Paris, 1892.
; * Paradoxides is apparently an exception to this rule, but we do not know“its
earliest stages. y
786 REPORT—1896.
Three local faunas, all older than Paradoxides, have been made known since
Bergeron’s paper was written. They all show more or less the increasing
prevalence of larval features in the trilobites as we go back in time. J. C. Moberg
has described a number of species from Sweden, including two species of Olenellus,
in which some of the above larval characters are shown.
J. F. Pompeckj has just described a pre-Paradoxides fauna from Bohemia in
which are a few trilobites that possess larval characters. Thus his Ptychoparia is
referred to sub-genus Conocephalites, probably because it has a long eyelobe.! It
is a primitive form with short pleure, if we may judge from the short posterior
extension of the dorsal suture. His Solenopleura also differs from that genus in
its long eyelobe and long glabella, but these also are larval features. Another
species of Solenopleura, however, cited by Pompeckj, has shorter eyelobes.
It is the Protolenus fauna of the St. John group (Cambrian), however, which
shows most decidedly larval traits in its adult trilobites.
Among these trilobites all (so far as their remains show it) have prolonged
eyelobes, a peculiarity which marks the early Olenide. Many of them have long
cylindrical glabellas, also a larval character. Many have a short posterior extension
of the dorsal suture, indicating the primitive feature of short pleure. Many have
small and weak pygidia ; this is inferred from the rarity of this part of the organism
in the collections preserved.
Protolenus (typical), which has a general resemblance to Paradoxides, differs
from it in the absence of a clavate glabella, and the small anterior lobe of this part
of the head-shield; but these are characters found in the larval stages of
Paradoxides.
A genus of this fauna, although not as common as Protolenus, is Ellipsocephalus :
this genus also abounds with Protaspian peculiarities.
Lastly, one may refer to the genus Micmacca, which has the following larval
features, long cylindrical glabella, long eyelobes, short posterior extension of the
dorsal suture. If Zacanthoides, of the middle Cambrian, were shorn of its long
posterior extension of this suture and its long pleure, it would not differ greatly
trom Micmacca.
In the Olenellus fauna, also, are genera such as Olenellus, Protypus, Avalonia,
and Olenelloides, which retain marked larval characters.
Brachiopoda,
If we turn our attention to the Brachiopoda, we note that they show a special
development in the early Cambrian, different from that of the Paradoxides beds,
and the later members of the Cambrian system.
The most notable feature is the large percentage of Obolide (including
Siphonotretine). The older Cambrian holds in common with the Paradoxides
beds, the small shells of Acrothele, Acrotreta, and Linnarssonia; but it also has a
series of larger forms peculiar to it: such are Obolus, Botsfordia, 'rematobolus and
Siphonotreta of the Protolenus fauna, and Schizambon and Michwitzia of the
Olenellus fauna. This great development of oboloid shells is not repeated until
Ordovician time,
Not only are these old Cambrian faunas remarkable for the peculiar types of
Brachiopods which they possess, but they are also notable for those they lack. A
true Lingula has not been found, though Lingulella is a common genus.
The larval growths of Ordovician and Silurian Lingule carry us back to a form
which is Oboloid. Thus in Z. guadrata, L. Howleyi, &e., the cell is first circular
as in Obolus, then oval as in LZ. Quebecensis, &c., and finally takes on the sub-
quadrate form of the adult shell. But there is a more elementary form of the
Brachiopod shell than the circular shell of Obolus: this is seen in Paterina and the
young shell of Botsfordia, which is nearly semicircular. Both these shells come
from beds that are older than Paradoxides,
\ Tn the larval forms of P'tychoparia and Solenopleura of the Paradoxides beds,
however, the eyelobe is short.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 787
Ostracoda.
The Ostracoda also give us definite forms peculiar to the early Cambrian beds.
Such are the types represented in Beyrichona and Hipponicharion; such also are
those with flexible tests represented by Aluta. Other Ostracoda are present in
more varied forms than in the Paradoxides beds.
To sum up these distinctive features of the animals of the earliest Cambrian
faunas, we may say—
1. That the Trilobites retain larval characteristics to an unusual degree.
2. The Brachiopoda have a large percentage of Obolide.
3. The Ostracoda are plentiful and varied, and present some peculiar types.
3. Report on Life Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks.
See Reports, p. 415.
4. The Range of Species in the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales.
By G. H. Morton, £.G.8.
Attention having recently been directed to this subject, I have been induced
to present the results of many years’ collecting in the Carboniferous Limestone of
North Wales. The formation there presents four well-defined subdivisions, each
of them, with the exception of the highest, having distinct lithological characters,
viz.—Lower Brown Limestone, Middle White Limestone, Upper Grey Limestone,
and the Upper Black Limestone. Lists of the fossils have been made, collected
more or less continuously along the country from each subdivision.
In North Wales the occurrence and succession of the species in the subdivisions
vary in different areas, and the Jarger the area examined the more difficult it
becomes to find species peculiar to certain horizons, In order to obtain a definite
result, I have compiled three separate lists of the species vbtained in that number
of distinct areas. There are the Llangollen, the Flintshire, and the Vale of
Clwyd Lists. Each of the lists shows the relative scarcity and abundance, and the
range of the species in the subdivisions; and although future search will doubtless
add to the rare and occasional species, the number and range of the common
and very common must be very nearly correct. Neither the rare nor the occa-
sional species are of much use in defining distinct horizons in consequence of
their rarity, and it is only the common and very common species that can be
expected to indicate a definite horizon or zone. In North Wales a great difficulty
arises from the occurrence of all the common and very common species in the
Upper Grey Limestone, with the exception of Productus comoides, and although
all pass downwards, they become scarce in consequence of the general paucity of
fossils in the inferior subdivisions.
In the Llangollen List there are 69 rare, 28 occasional, 16 common, and 27 very
common species. Deducting Foraminifera, which are not in the other lists, there
are 36 species that are common and very common, and they all occur in the Upper
Grey Limestone, with the exception of Posidonomya Gibsoni from higher strata,
and Productus comoides in the Lower Brown Limestone, all the other species in
the list being rare and occasional forms.
In the Flintshire List there are 92 rare, 35 occasional, 30 common, and 1?
very common species, and of the 41 common and very common, 87 species occur
_ in the Upper Grey Limestone, 4 of the remaining species, Posidonomya Becheri,
Aviculopecten granosus, and A. papyraceus occurring in the Upper Black Lime-
stone, and Productus comoides in the Lower Brown Limestone.
In the Vale of Clwyd List, which includes the Great Orme’s Head, there are
16 rare, 22 occasional, 12 common, and 10 very common species; and of the
22 common and very common, 21 species occur in the Upper Grey Limestone, the
exceptional species being Productus comoides. None of the 21 species are peculiar
788 REPORT—1896.
to the subdivision, for they all occur in the underlying Middle White Limestone.
The number in the list is less than in the others, on account of the Upper Grey
Limestone having been considerably denuded in the Vale of Clwyd.
Nearly the whole of the common and very common fossils occur in each of the
three lists, for there are few that are not found in all the areas.
_ Of the numerous common aud very common species found in the Carboniferous
Limestone of North Wales, it is impossible to find any that are restricted to
horizons of Jess importance than the subdivisions into which the formation is
naturally divided. An examination of the first appearance and continuity of the
species seems to indicate that they were introduced from some pre-existing area,
and that the upper beds cf the formation are more recent than in Derbyshire and
Yorkshire, where the thickness of the Limestone is very much greater.
The sudden appearance of species in restricted areas, like those found in the
Upper Grey Limestone at Axton, in Flintshire, where 20 species occur, and at
Graig-fawr, in the Middle White Limestone, where 6 species occur, not found
elsewhere in North Wales; and the early appearance of 3 species in beds of black
limestone and shale at the base of the Middle White Limestone at the Great
Orme’s Head seem to indicate migration from some other area. The latter species
are Orthis Michelina, Spirifera humerosa, and S. rotundata. Spirifera humerosa had
only been previously found at Llangollen and in Flintshire, while S. rotundate
is rare in North Wales ; but none of the 3 species had been previously found at a
lower horizon than the Upper Grey Limestone. Productus giganteus first appears
in the Lower Brown Limestone, and very large specimens occur within 50 feet
from the base at Moel Hiraddug, a few miles from Rhyl. The species occur all
through the Carboniferous Limestone, and thousands may be seen in the Upper
Grey Limestone.
In this paper the range of the species found is confined to North Wales, but
when the subdivisions of the Carboniferous Limestone in other parts of the
eountry are worked out, and the species from each tabulated, it will be interesting
to compare the result with that obtained in North Wales.
5. On the Source of Lava. By J. LoGaN Losrey, L.G.S., Professor of
Astronomy and Physiography, City of London College.
The object. of this paper, which was illustrated by diagrams, was to show that
small columns of lava cannot pass through thirty miles of earth crust, and that
therefore the source of lava cannot be at that distance from the surface, as is so
often assumed
The reasons adduced were :
First, that from the pressure of overlying rocks there can be no fissures
giving a passage to lava below ten miles from the surface, since this pressure,
much greater than the crushing weight of rocks, would cause lateral extension
where possible.
Secondly, if even a way were open, lava rising from a source thirty miles
deep, would by contact with cooler rock masses lose its fluidity at twenty miles
from the surface. The temperature of lava at i's source cannot be very much
greater than that of the contiguous solid rocks, and lava would lose heat continuously
and increasingly as it ascended the voleanic conduit. The temperature at twenty
miles below the surface is much under rock-fusion temperature, and the lava-
eolumns giving small or even moderate emissions are so insignificant in volume
that they would there be so cooled as to solidify. Estimates of the volume of
lJava-columns were given in illustration; and it was further shown that a column
of lava 300 feet in diameter and thirty miles high would require a dynamic force
ef 820,800,000 tons to sustain it even without ejection.
The author’s conclusion is that lava is not derived from! a central source, but
' Brit, Assoc. Report, 1888, p. 670.
ra)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 789
that, in accordance with his previously stated hypothesis, by combined physicat
and chemical action rocks are fused and lava produced within the outer rind of
the globe of ten miles in thickness.
6. On the Post-Cambrian Shrinkage of the Globe. Ly J. Locan Lostry,
F.GS., Professor of Astronomy and Physiography, City of London
College.
The author, having previously shown that a shrinkage of the globe sufficient to
produce the rock-foldings of post-Cambrian times would require an interior tem-
perature previous to the shrinkage 5,000° F. higher than now,! in the present paper
gave his reasons for concluding that such a temperature of the interior mass of the
globe would give a surface temperature that would render impossible those
geological agencies of erosion and sedimentation which the Cambrian strata show
to have been in full operation when those rocks were formed.
Calculations founded on the British Association rate of increase of underground
temperature, both on the supposition of a solid globe and of’ one with a fused
interior, showed that with an increase of 5,000° F, the surface temperature would be
very much above the critical point of water, the existence of which on the surface
would be thereby rendered impossible.
It was further shown that if the author’s estimate of the increase of internal
temperature required is too high, and only 1,000° F. increase be allowed for the
interior heat in Cambrian times, the surface temperature would even then be quite
incompatible with known Cambrian conditions.
The author’s conclusion is that since Cambrian times there has been no appreci-
able loss of planetary heat, and consequently no appreciable shrinkage of the
globe; and that therefore another explanation must be found for rock-crushing,
rock-folding, elevations, and subsidences of land areas, the uprise and issue of
lava and of seismic phenomena.
A table was appended showing the temperature of isogeotherms for every mile
of thickness of an earth-crust of thirty miles, with a base temperature of 3,700° F,
7. On the Cause of the Bathymetric Limit of Pteropod Ooze.
By Percy F. Kenna, £.G.S,
Preliminary.—Two forms of carbonate of lime are known to the mineralogist,
viz., Aragonite, rhombic, sp. gr. 2°93, H. = 3-5 —4, and Calcite, hexagonal (rhombo-
hedral), sp. gr. 2°72, H.=2'5-3'5, The former can be prepared artificially by
precipitation from a fot solution (90° C.), while the latter is precipitated at all
lower temperatures. Both forms occur in organic structures, and it is found that
Aragonite structures when deprived of animal matter are opaque, while Calcite
structures are translucent. There is no perceptible difference in solubility between
the two mineral species when dealt with in powder or when of inorganic origin ;
but in porous formations of every geological age it is found that Aragonite shells,
of whatever thickness, disappear by solution before thin and delicate Calcite shells
of Foraminifera and Polyzoa are even sensibly affected. It is probable that
Aragonite is penetrated by extremely slender fibrille of organic matter, whose-
removal produces the characteristic opacity.
Solvent action of sea-water,—Sea-water exercises a solyent action upon cal-
careous bodies, especially upon and about coral reefs and in the profound depths.
The solvent is almost certainly carbonic acid disengaged from decomposing organic:
- matter. The ‘Challenger’ observations show that carbonic acid is present in great
A}
abundance in the bottom water at great depths ; it is further known that solution
is rendered much more rapid by the immense pressures prevailing in deep water.
2 Report of the British Assceiation for the Advancement of Science, Oxford
Meeting, 1894, p. 649.
790 REPORT—1896.
Tt follows from this that the calcareous parts of the inhabitants of the ‘denthos”
would be liable to solution during life, unless (a) they were protected by the flesh
of the animal or by epidermis, or (4) they consisted of Calcite.
The deep-sea mollusca are mainly composed of Aragonite, but they generally
have an extremely thick epidermis. The deep-sea calcareous corals are almost
exclusively simple forms, and the lower portion of stony structure is gradually left
bare as the creature grows. All the forms examined by the author, eg., Caryo-
phyllia, Parasmilia, Cyclocyathus, Stephanophyllia,! are of Calcite, whereas nearly
all reef-building Actinozoa produce Aragonite structures.
The effects of solution upon the nature and distribution of deep-sea deposits.—
Deep-sea deposits are mainly derived from two sources: (a) land detritus and vol-
canic ejecta carried seaward by currents; (4) remains of free-swimming pelagic
organisms. Inshore the deposits usually contain a large percentage of detrital
materials, while towards the deep the organic remains tend to preponderate. As
the water deepens another factor, solution, comes into play, and the calcareous
elements of the deposits are progressively removed by solution. The solution is,
according to Murray, Agassiz, and others, effected in part during the slow sinking
of surface organisms, and in part while lying upon the floor of the ocean. Agassiz
assigns the greater importance to solution during descent, but the fact recorded by
him, that ‘the more numerous the shells are in the surface waters, the greater
is the depth at which they will accumulate at the bottom,’ seems to show that
solution at the bottom is very considerable. In the profoundest depths the deposits
consist almost wholly of non-caleareous materials. Two principal calcareous
deposits occur below 500 fathoms, viz., Globigerina ooze, which covers 49} million
square miles of the ocean floor and has a bathymetric range from 400 to 2,925
fathoms, and Pteropod ooze, which is a Globigerina ooze characterised by the
presence of a large number of shells of Pteropods and Heteropods. It occurs only
where the surface waters are warm, and hence is limited to tropical and sub-
tropical regions. It covers an area of 400,000 square miles, and ranges in depth
from 395 fathoms to 1,525 fathoms, below which the Pteropod shells disappear,
leaving a normal Globigerina ooze. It is generally agreed that the limitation in
depth of the Pteropod remains is due to solution, for the living Pteropods swarm
over the surface in prodigious numbers, whatever be the depths below.
Agassiz succinctly states the facts as follows: ‘The Pteropod and Heteropod
shells are the first to disappear from deposits, then the more delicate surface
Foraminifera, and finally the larger and heavier ones.’ The fact that these rela-
tively large shells wholly disappear by solution under conditions that the minute
Foraminifera survive is beyond doubt, and demands explanation. Several explana~
tions have been proposed. Fuchs in 1877 suggested that Globigerina might be
composed of Calcite and the Pteropods of Aragonite, and the author independ-
ently made the same suggestion. Dr. Murray and the Abbé Renard, however,
rejected that hypothesis, and considered that the Globigerina survived by reason
of their greater thickness.
The author, with the assistance of Mr. Albert Jowett, a student in the
Geological Laboratory of the Yorkshire College, has made a number of determina-
tions of the relative thickness of Globigerina and Orbulina, the most characteristic
Foraminifera of the deep-sea oozes and of Styliola and Cavolinia as representing
the Pteropods. He failed to find any such difference of thickness as would account
for the much greater durability of the Foraminifera, the range of thickness of the
two classes being practically identical. It may be represented by the numbers
2-6°5 in each case.
The mineral constitution was also successfully determined. Prof. W. J.
Sollas determined the sp. gr. of Globigerina by an extremely ingenious adaptation
of heavy solutions to be approximately that of Calcite. This has been confirmed
by the author, who has also obtained a uniaxial optical figure from specimens of
Orbulina, showing that the low sp. gr. is due to Calcite constitution, and not to
the presence of animal matter.
1 These are corals of deep-sea types from the Cretaceous rocks,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 791
_ Similar tests were applied to the Pteropods Cavolinia and Stiliola. No com-
pletely satisfactory optical figure could be obtained, though the optical test seemed
to indicate a biaxial substance (Aragonite) ; but the sp. gr. determinations many
times repeated were conclusive that those Pteropod-genera are Aragonite.
Conclusions :—1. The effect of difference of thickness of calcareous shells upon
their rate of solution is quite insignificant in comparison with that of difference of
mineral constitution; thus in the Coralline Crag shells of Voluta and Cyprina
(Aragonite), a third of an inch thick, have been quite removed, while the delicate
Polyzoa (Calcite) which encrusted them are perfectly preserved, together with
remains of Vitreous Foraminifera (Calcite).
2. There is no noteworthy difference in thickness between the Pteropods and
Globigerine.
3. Pteropod-shells consist of Aragonite, while Globigerina and all other
Vitreous Foraminifera examined are composed of Calcite.
4. The disappearance of Pteropods at 1,500 fathoms, while the Globigerine
extend to 2,925 fathoms, is due to the mineral character of the shells, and not to
their thickness.
8. On the Conditions under which the Upper Chalk was deposited.
By Percy F. Kenpatn, 7.G.8,
Attempts to determine the approximate depth of the Chalk sea from the
comparison of the Cretaceous fauna with the Molluscan inhabitants of the existing
seas are unsatisfactory, because there are no grounds for the belief that the low
temperatures at present found in the ocean depths prevailed in Cretaceous times;
hence temperature did not limit distribution to the extent that it does now.
Solution dependent upon the depth of water would, however, act as it does in
existing seas, and the author has applied certain principles stated in another paper
read before the Section to the case of the Upper Chalk.
Calcareous organisms consist in some cases of aragonite, and in others of
calcite. Aragonite in organic structures is so much more soluble than calcite
(though of identical chemical composition) that gigantic aragonite shells may be
‘completely dissolved, while calcite Foraminifera exposed to exactly the same
conditions remain perfectly preserved.
The distribution in depth of the Pteropod Ooze of the tropical seas indicates the
depth at which slender aragonite shells are diesolved. Pteropods swarm in the
surface waters in such numbers that the sea is literally thick with them, yet, being
composed of aragonite, their remains practically disappear from the oozes in depths
exceeding 1,500 fathoms, and only sporadic examples are met with. The remains
of globigerin», which live side by side with the pteropods, survive by virtue of
their calcite composition down to 2,925 fathoms, nearly twice the depth, These
facts seem to show that 1,500 fathoms is the depth at which the more delicate
aragonite shells yield to solution.
Turning to the Upper Chalk, we find that all aragonite structures, large and
small, have been wholly dissolved away, while calcite Foraminifera and Polyzoa
are well preserved and retain their fine markings.
The question arises, When did the solution take place? ‘To this we may answer
with some confidence that it has been effected mainly prior to consolidation, for
chalk is a rock which takes and preserves impressions remarkably well; yet casts
of aragonite shells are extremely rare, and are almost invariably of large and
robust shells. The Cephalopods furnish the best illustrations of these facts; the
phragmoccne of Belemnitella mucronata, an aragonite structure, has never been
found in this country, though the guards (calcite) occur by thousands. If the
solution of the phragmocones had taken place subsequently to deposition, empty
alveoli would be found ; but in no case has the author seen a Belemnitella in this
condition, but always with the alveolus filled with chalk,
Casts of Ammonites (aragonite) are very rare in the Upper Chalk, such as occur
being usually of very large size, but the Aptychi (calcite) of small species are
occasionally found well preserved. Many considerations render it probable that
792 : REPORT—1896.
the consolidation of the chalk took place concurrently with deposition ; for example,
bands of rolled nodules of chalk occur at varions horizons, and the same is probably
the case with the Globigerina ooze of the existing oceans, for the ‘Challenger’
dredged nodules of hardened ooze from a depth of 1,700 fathoms.
The author concludes that the Upper Chalk was probably deposited in a depth
of at least 1,500 fathoms, a conclusion which Dr. Hume and Mr. Jukes Browne
appear to have reached by entirely different methods.
9. The Highwood Mountains of Montana and Magmatic Differentiation.
A Criticism. By H. J. Jounston-Lavis, W.D., #.G8., &e.
The author brings forward a new interpretation of the facts described by
Messrs. W. I. Weed and L. V. Pirrsson (‘ Bull. Geol. Soc.,’ America, vol. vi.
pp. 389-422, pts. 24-26) in their account of the remarkably interesting volcanic
region of the Highwood mountains, with reference, more especially, to Square
Butte. ;
This mountain they show to be a dismantled laccolite intrusion into Cretaceous
sandstones. The peripheral part of this intrusion is composed of a dark basic rock,
that they call shonkinite, containing about 47 per cent. of silica, poor in alumina
and alkalies, but rich in iron, lime, and magnesia. The core is composed of a white
syenite containing about 57 per cent. of silica, is rich in alumina and alkalies, but
poor in iron and alkaline earths. The authors conclude, therefore, that this is a
case of magmatic differentiation in which the bases have concentrated to the sides
by a process of diffusion or liquation.
The author suggests that what really took place at Square Butte was as
follows: In the first stage a conduit containing a paste sensibly approaching the
syenite in composition was injected into the Jurassic and other basic sedimentary
rocks subjacent to the Cretaceous sandstone, which forms a more superficial part of the
original country. Here the upper intratelluric portion of the intrusion underwent
basification by interosmotic action with the conduit walls. In the second stage this,
now shonkinite, paste or magma was pushed on and formed a blister or laccolite
in the sandstone smaller than the complete one of Square Butte. This, having
undergone partial lapidification and becoming highly viscous, was in turn pushed
up and aside by the intrusion of the syenite. This latter paste had probably re-
mained a shorter time in the conduit, the walls of which had already been in part
exhausted in osmotic interchange or diffusion by the earlier batch of paste that
had remained in contact with them, and had been so basified to the composition
of shonkinite. In consequence of this the second batch, which formed the syenite
mass, was less or entirely unchanged in composition.
The peculiar plate-like structure of the peripheral portion, which is erroneously
attributed by the authors to cracking, set up parallel to the isotherms of cooling,
is, in fact, evidence of shearing planes or fluxion structure in a viscous mass the
homogeneity of which was not perfect at the time of its being stretched over the
uprising boss of syenite. The phenomenon is met with in domes of all viscid
magmas, and is beautifully shown in the island of Basiluzzo; the writer suggests
that the cleavage of gneiss, forming mantles to granite intrusions, may have also
so arisen.
The partial fusion together of the shonkinite and syenite shows that the former
was yet very hot, as indicated by the plasticity that must have existed to allow of
the formation of the concentric shear-planes referred to. Ilad the shonkinite not
been to some extent plastic it would have been more fractured, and fragments of it
would have become enveloped in the syenite.
The shonkinite, however, was in that state of which the author first showed
the important bearing in volcanic rocks, and which may conveniently be called
viscous inertia, in which a viscous body responds instantaneously to a shock as if
it were a solid. The shonkinite, although plastic, was at such a critical point that
when it was suddenly stretched out over the back of the new syenite intrusion it
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 793
cracked, and, syenite being injected, the white band described by the authors was
produced in exactly the situation one would have expected to have found it.
The plate structure of this white band being continuous with that of the in-
closing shonkinite is not an objection to its dyke-like nature, for there are several
ways in which such cleavage may be developed.
At any rate the presence of this white band is quite inexplicable on the
‘ segregation’ or ‘liquation’ hypothesis, and is the insurmountable obstacle to
the acceptance of Messrs. Weed’s and Pirrsson’s generalisations as to magmatic
differentiation.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Depths of the Sea in Past Epochs. By E. B, WeTueRen, F.G.S.
The author referred to the teachings of Hutton that the past history of our
planet is to be explained by what we see going on at the present time. ‘Till the
reports of the ‘Challenger’ Expedition were published our knowledge of the
‘depths of the sea’ was very meagre, and the teachings of Hutton could not be
applied for want of this knowledge. After reading thé report on ‘ Deep Sea
Deposits,’ by Mr. Murray, it occurred to the author that it would be of interest to
study in detail the ‘ Depths of the Sea in Past Epochs,’ so far as possible, by a
microscopic examination of limestones which contain what is preserved of the
fauna of the sea in which these rocks were formed, and thus to further test the
teachings of Hutton.
The author has, however, only accomplished a small part of the work indicated,
and in this paper he only gives an outline of his investigations so far done.
Commencing with the Wenlock Limestone of the Silurian system, the author
referred to the leading fossils, and remarked on the very fragmentary condition cf
the calcareous remains which have contributed to the building up of this limestone.
Judging by the high percentage of detrital matter in the rock, in one bed amount-
ing to 30°4 per cent., he thinks that land was not far off, and therefore the shells
and skeletons of marine creatures may have been subjected to the action of waves,
which would account for the fragmeutary condition in which they were finally
deposited on the floor of the sea.
Reference was next made to the work of encrusting organisms which had not
been pointed out prior to the author’s researches. In some beds of the Wenlock
Limestone the majority of the organic calcareous fragments are partially or entirely
inclosed by a crust which was the work of the little-understood genus Girvanella.
This organism consists of a minute calcareous tube, as small as ‘01 of a millim.
in diameter, with well-defined walls. So important has been the work of this
tubular form of life that the crusts produced by the growth and multiplication of
the tubules have in some cases become the chief factor in building up beds of
limestone.
Passing to the Carboniferous period, the author referred to the known fact that
mollusca, corals, crinoids, polyzoa, &c., were very numerous in the sea of this epoch,
and their shells and skeletons have contributed to the calcareous deposits which
accumulated on the floor of the Carboniferous sea, which deposits are now known
as the Carboniferous Limestone. It is, however, an error to suppose that the
remains of these creatures were the chief constituents of the calcareous deposits in
the depths of the Carboniferous sea. If the great central mass of the Carboniferous
Limestone be examined microscopically, it will be found that the tests of micro-
scopic life form the material with which this strata has been built up. Indeed,
microscopic life must have been quite as abundant in Carboniferous waters as it
Was in the sea in which the chalk was formed, and not unlike what we find at the
_ present time. We know that the chalk is largely built up of the remains of
_ Foraminifera, and the calcareous ooze drawn up from the Atlantic has been proved
1896. 3 F
794 REPORT—1896.
to be full of the tests of Foraminifera associated with other organisms. This is
deeply interesting, but it is at least equally so to know that in Palzozoic seas the
condition of things was similar, The chalk has been spoken of as the Cretaceous
equivalent of the calcareous ooze drawn up from the Atlantic of to-day, but the
Carboniferous Limestone is very much older chalk.
Another microscopic form of life which existed in great profusion on the floor
of the Carboniferous sea is the remarkable genus Calcisphera. It consists of a
hollow calcareous sphere averaging in diameter about ‘004 of an inch, and when
cut in section has the appearance of a ring. In such numbers did this spherical
object exist that we could scarcely section a small piece of limestone from the
middle series of the Carboniferous Limestone without finding several specimens or
fragments of Calcisphera.
The author next referred to the encrusting organisms which lived in the Car-
boniferous sen. The work was similar to that described in the Wenlock sea,
and to such an extent had the encrusting been carried on that some beds of
the Carboniferous Limestone are practically built up of the minute sphericles so
produced. As, too, in the case of the Wenlock sea, the encrusting process was
chiefly done by the genus Girvanelia, but there was also another encrusting
organism at this period, namely, the genus Mitcheldeania, which was a more
complicated form of life compared with Girvanella.
Passing to the Oolitic system of the Jurassic period, the author pointed to
the profusion of marine life which existed, but the point of interest to which he
desired to especially refer was the formation of the oolitic granules, of which these
rocks were chiefly constructed.
Up to the time of the author’s investigations these granules were regarded as
chemical concretions, but in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ of 1889 he showed that
the larger types of oolitic granules, known as Pisolite, were not concretions but
the work of organisms. He has since been forced to the conclusion that this
organic origin applies to all oolitic granules, large and small.
The author then referred back to the encrusting processes which took place
on the floor of the Wenlock and Carboniferous seas for the purpose of pointing
out that the granules so formed were really oolitic granules, In the Jurassic
Oolite sea, however, the encrusting organisms had greatly increased, and they
have been the chief builders of the oolitic rocks. The process was briefly this.
As the fragmental remains of calcareous organisms settled on the floor of the
sea they were seized hold of, so to speak, by the encrusting organisms which
gradually inclosed them. At times nearly every fragment was so captured,
and became the nucleus for the encrusting growth; in this way the Jurassic
freestones were constructed.
Further proof of the organic origin of oolitic granules has been produced by
Rathplatz, who has shown that oolitic granules collected on the shores of the
Red Sea and Great Salt Lake are the work of calcareous alge. This again
bears out the truth of Hutton’s statements, that we are to understand the past
by the present,
2. The Rippling of Sand. By Vaucuan Cornisu.
The author distinguishes three principal kinds of rippled sand, viz.—
1, The Ripple Mark of Sea.
2. The Ripple Mark of Streams.
8. The Ripple Mark of Dunes.
In (1) symmetrical, knife-edged ridges are built up, owing, as is well known,
to the complete reversal of the current at short intervals, which results in an
effective co-operation of the direct current with the vortex formed in the lee of
projections of the rough surface of the sand. This mechanism in the vertical
plane raises the ridges, and, in plan, extends them laterally, so that the mottled.
surface of the initial stage is changed into long lines of parallel ridge and furrow.
If the direction of the waves changes another set of ridges is formed, and this
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ‘Cc. 795
produces polygonal figures. These have an even number of sides, and the sides
are arranged in opposing pairs. This serves to discriminate hexagonal forms due
to fossil ripple mark from Hitchcock’s supposed fossil tadpole-nests.
2. The symmetrical, rounded, ripple-mark of the sandy bottom of a stream is
formed by the alternate acceleration and retardation of current which occurs
wherever the surface of the water is corrugated by a train of standing waves.
This form has been called Ripple Drift. The ridges only travel when the whole
train of water-waves travels; when the train of waves arises from a fived obstacle
the sand ridges are stationary ; where, however, there is much sedimentation of
floating sand, the weather slope receives most of the sand shower, and the ridges
travel upstream.
3. The Ripple Mark of Dunes is produced when sand grains roli before the
wind. These ripples are not symmetrical, but they preserve their sectional shape
during their growth, the height and length increasing in the same proportion.
They grow laterally in the same way as (1). They are produced by the steadiest
natural wind, and by a steady artiticial blast even the resistance offered by the
sand grains being sufficient to produce in yielding air a periodic motion such as
must be independently produced in water for the formation of the regular ripple
mark of sea or stream. Flying-sand falling upon the surface of a sand-dune blurs
the pattern of the ripples; but if the shower be not too thick the grains are soon
sorted into position as they roll.
3. Are there Fossil Deserts ?
By Professor Dr, JoHaNNES WALTHER.
If we accept the postulate of Lyell, that the phenomena of former periods must
be explained by the existing phenomena of our earth, we must look around to find
the regions over which transported material is deposited. It is well known that
on the bottom of the seas ana lakes the transporting action comes to an end, and that:
no material is carried out of them. Therefore it is the opinion of most geologists
that the greater part of our sedimentary rocks were deposited from water. The
author has spent much time in travelling, for the sake of studying the areas
occupied by deserts, and finds that, besides the old sea and lake bottoms, there is
a large area of no drainage in the existing deserts.
On our globe there is a harmonious system of climatic zones. The largest of
these is the tropical zone, which forms more than half the surface of the earth.
The smallest area is the polar regions, which contain only one-eighth of the earth’s
surface. Between these are intercalated in each hemisphere a temperate zone,
and a zone of desert, arranged quite symmetrically. By the postulate of Lyell we
must believe that similar deserts must have existed in the past. The investigation
of these ancient wastes is a problem not yet worked out.
4. Notes on the Ancient Rocks of Charnwood Forest.
By W. W. Warts, ILA., F.GS.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]
In the course of the re-survey of sheet 155 for the Geological Survey, the
author was instructed to examine the ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest. The
boundaries dividing these rocks from the Carboniferous, Triassic, and Plutonic
rocks had already been mapped by his colleague Mr. Fox Strangways, who had also
determined with much accuracy the position and general character of all the
exposures of the older rocks, It was merely left to the author to endeavour to
get out the succession and structure of these older rocks.
The ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest appear in isolated spots, sometimes of
considerable size, through the Trias of the Midland Plain. The oldest rock in
_ contact with them is the Carboniferous Limestone of Grace Dieu, which is
dolomitised. Evidence as to their exact age cannot, therefore, be obtained from
superposition.
3F2
796 : REPORT—1896.
They clearly existed as islands in the Triassic and Carboniferous seas, and most
probably stood up as mountains on the land in Old Red Sandstone times. The
Trias runs up into the hollows and valleys of the old rocks, and from the small
amount of débris which extends beyond the margins of the masses it is obvious
that the smaller of these at any rate have been uncovered at a time geologically
very recent. Their features are not those of the present day, but date dack partly
to the subaérial denudation of Old Red Sandstone and probably earlier times, and
partly to the aqueous denudation of Carboniferous and Triassic times. This is the
reason for the peculiar character of the surface features presented by the old rock ;
escarpments are practically absent, hard beds are cut off abruptly, the rocks strike
across the ridges, and the landscape generally is not of the usual subaérial cha-
racter. Present-day denudation, by clearing out the Triassic débris, has done
little more than expose to-day a pre-Triassic landscape.
The ancient rocks themselves may be classified as follows, in descending
order :—
Swithland and Groby slates . |
Conglomerate and Quartzite . . | The Brand series.
Purple and green beds . © . . j
The olive hornstones of Bradgate .
The Woodhouse beds. : : |
Slate Agglomerate of Roecliffe
Hornstones of Beacon Hill
Felsitic Agglomerate : ;
Rocks of Blackbrook . : : The Blackbrook series.
The Maplewell series.
This general succession corresponds with that made out by Messrs. Hill and
Bonney, with whose observations the author is in substantial agreement.
These divisions sweep round the semidome, which is exposed; it is elongated
from N.W. to §.E., and broken by several longitudinal faults in the same direction.
Probably there are some cross faults as well.
The succession is most easily made out in the eastern side of the anticline, but
even here the details are very much complicated, and it is not possible to trace
some of the beds for any considerable distance, although the general succession
seems quite clear. As Messrs. Bonney and Hill pointed out, the two agglomerates
form a most useful index, and one which can be traced for a great part of the way
round the Forest. The same may be said of the Beacon Hill beds and of the Brand
series.
The bulk of the rocks are made of volcanic ingredients, even the fine horn-
stones and slates being made of volcanic dust, interleaved with tuffs and
breccias. When the lower part of the Maplewell series is traced round to the
north-west it becomes coarser, and eventually passes into a mass of very coarse
agglomerates in which the succession is not easy to unravel, while it is much
confused by faulting and the intrusion of igneous rocks, possibly also by the out-
flow of lava.
Bardon Hill presents exceptional difficulties. While the chief rocks are like
those of Grace Dieu, Cademan, and Whitwick, it lies altogether out of the line of
these rocks, and must owe its position to faulting. The agglomerates are also
associated with a mass of porphyroid like that which occurs in a normal position
at Peldar Tor and High Sharpley. At Bardon this rock appears to be intrusive
into the agglomerates, and a similar explanation may have to be adopted for
Sharpley, Peldar, and Ratchet. Many difficulties would still have to be met, not
the least of which is the occurrence of boulders of Peldar rock in some of the
agglomerates. A possible explanation of this is found at High Sharpley, where
porphyroid, which is now acknowledged to be either an intrusion or a lava, is
nodular in structure; it has been subsequently sheared so as to put on the aspect
of an agglomerate.
The porphyroid would appear to have been the first rock intruded before much
movement had taken place in the rocks; it is sheared, cleaved, and crushed along
the N.W. and 8.F. lines.
—o
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 797
Syenite was next intruded, generally along the main movement planes such as
faults, and the junction of the Brand series with the Maplewell series. It has
been somewhat crushed by the movement, and its main divisional planes agree
with the cleavage and faulting directions in the country.
A still later intrusion appears to be the Mount Sorrel granite, which does not
penetrate into the Forest proper while it is in contact with rocks whose relation
to the rest of the Forest has not been ascertained with certainty. It is the only
igneous rock which effects any considerable amount of metamorphism in the clastic
rocks with which it is in contact.
As to the age of the rocks we have little to guide us. They are unlikely to
be later than Cambrian ; they are not at all like the fossiliferous Cambrian rocks
of Nuneaton ; they do not contain Cambrian fossils, nor do the Nuneaton diorites
penetrate them. On the other hand, the movement by which they were affected
came from the direction 8.W. to N.E., whilst Lower Silurian and Cambrian rocks
are generally, except at Nuneaton, affected by forces which acted at right angles
to this.
Professor Lapworth, when with the author in Charnwood, succeeded in finding
a worm burrow in the slates low down in the Brand series, and Mr. Rhodes has
since obtained one or two additional examples: these are the first undoubted
fossils found in Charnwood.
5. The Geology of Skomer Island.
By F. T. Howarp, JZA., F.G.S., and E. W. Smatt, I.A., B.Sc., F.GS.
I. Previous Literature.—De la Beche (in ‘Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ 2nd series, vol. ii.)
mentions the presence of a ‘quartzose and striped cornean,’ of ‘ bedded greenstone,’
and ‘massive compact greenstone.’ Murchison (Silurian system) gives a section
across part of the island, and indicates the occurrence of Upper Cambrian rocks.
Rutley and Teall have described the microscopic characters of some of the rocks,
but none of these authorities gives exact localities, or describes the relationship of
the different beds.
II. General Character and Arrangement of the Sedimentary and Igneous
Rocks.—The general strike of the beds is more or less east and west, with a
southerly dip. A well-marked ridge of felsitic conglomerate running from the
west side of the Wick in an east by north direction to the north of Welsh Way
serves as a convenient base line; beneath it are finer conglomerates, sandstones
rich in felspar, and red shales; above it finer beds occur to the south, faulted
against basalt in the Wick, conformably passing beneath the basalt at High Cliff.
This basalt forms the southern promontory of the island except near the Mewstone,
where quartz grits occur. Beneath the conglomerate, between the Wick and
Tom’s House, a very coarse breccia occurs, resting upon and derived from a highly
siliceous banded and spherulitic felsite, which weathers white and shows spherules
up to several inches in diameter. This appears to be the felsite described by
Rutley, and is probably the striped quartzose cornean of De la Beche. In the cove
west of Tom’s House a basalt appears to pass quite regularly beneath the felsite.
Massive and thinly bedded basalts follow to the north, but in Pigstone Bay thin
felsites, grits, and shales are seen, and a conglomerate of basalt and felsite frag-
ments resting upon an uneven floor of basalt. The section here shows clearly the
interbedded character of the igneous rocks. North of Bull Hole we meet with
felsite again, which occupies the northernmost part of the island, including the
outlying Garland stone. Some bands of ash are seen in the basaltic cliffs between
the north point of the island and North Castle. Sedimentary grits and shales
_ occur in North and South Haven, and at the Rye Rocks; they pass beneath a
basalt which apparently forms all the remaining portion of the Neck.
IIL. Influence of the Geological Structure on the Physical Featwres,—The two
marked inlets of North and South Haven, as also the channel separating (at high
_ water) the Mewstone from the main parts of the island, have been formed by the
more rapid erosion of the sedimentary strata, and the Wick has been clearly eaten
out along a line of fault between basalt and sedimentary beds. A curious series of
798 REPORT—1896.
ridges running across the island in a more or less east and west direction mark the
outcrops of massive basalts, felsites, and hard felsitic conglomerates, the lower
ground between them being formed of softer sedimentary strata, or of more thinly
bedded rocks of basaltic character.
1V. Age of the Rocks.—No fossils have yet been found on Skomer, but along
the south side of the promontory at Wooltack Park, on the mainland, some grits
and shales occur, containing tentaculites, &c., which closely resemble those of
Skomer, and have the same general dip. ‘These beds are mapped by the Survey as
Llandeilo, but are probably somewhat later in age. We are therefore inclined to
regard the corresponding beds on Skomer, with their associated igneous rocks, as
of Bala or Llandovery age.
V. Microscopic Characters of the Rocks. (a) SEDIMENTARY.—The grits consist
of clear quartz grains, with the angles rounded off, a felspar weathered beyond
recognition, and, rarely, some mica. A granite pebble from the conglomerate
ridge comes from the same mass as the Brimaston granite. (4) Frnsires.—
Several of the slides show good flow structure, with phenocrysts of felspar, some-
times largely kaolinised. A section cut from the more coarsely spherulitic part of
the rock to the east of Tom’s House shows five well-marked whitish spherules (of
about 2-inch diameter) in a greenish granular ground. The spherules are much
cracked, and show dusty brown material in concentric bands towards the edges.
Under crossed Nicols a well-marked fibrous radiating structure is apparent, but the
crystallisation is somewhat confused, and the spherules do not show a clearly
defined black cross. In two places the slide shows patches of crystalline character,
which appear to be basaltic inclusions. (c) Basatrs anD PorPpHyrites.—The
slides cut from specimens obtained from the west side of Tom’s House, the cave at
the bottom of the Wick, the west side of South Haven, and from North Castle, all
show porphyritic felspars, often with good crystal outlines, granules of augite, and
much ilmenite or magnetite. The rock from the Neck, opposite Midland Island, is
a porphyrite, showing fine laths of plagioclase felspar, and much black granular
material, probably ilmenite, with no phenocrysts. The Skomer Head rock is a
basalt—ophitic in parts—with lath-shaped felspar crystals, much augite (some of
which is quite fresh), magnetite or ilmenite, and greenish decomposition products.
The basalt of the Pigstone Rock shows good phenocrysts of felspar in a fine-grained
dusty ground-mass ; the augite is small, and mostly altered, The rock seen at the
Table is a porphyritic basalt, with large felspars showing very distinct crystal out-
lines, some olivine, a little augite, and numerous opaque granules of ilmenite.
Some of the basalts (e.g., that north of Bull Hole) show distinct flow structure,
the small lath-shaped felspars being seen to bend round larger crystals.
6. Notes on Sections along the London Extension of the Manchester,
Sheffield, and Lincoln Railway between Rugby and Aylesbury. By
Horace B. Woopwarp, F.&.S., £.G.S.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. ]
Commencing at Willoughby, near Braunston, attention was drawn to cuttings
in the Lower Lias, from the zone of Ammonites armatus to that of A. capricornus
at Catesby. The Catesby tunnel was excavated partly in the higher beds of
Lower Lias, and partly in the Middle Lias, zone of 4. margaritatus. The Marl-
stone rock-bed occurred above the tunnel and was exposed at its southern
entrance. At Charwelton a mass of Upper Lias was let down by a trough-fault
between beds of Middle Lias. Gravel containing pebbles of chalk and derived
Jurassic fossils occurred also at Charwelton. Sections of Upper Lias were noted
at Woodford Halse and Banbury Lane, near Moreton Pinkney.
Boulder Clay was first encountered south of Woodford Halse, the vale of
Lower Lias not exhibiting any section of it, It covers considerable tracts of the
higher grounds onwards towards Steeple Claydon, and is an extension of the East
Anglian Chalky Boulder Clay.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 799
Cuttings near Sulgrave and onwards to Helmdon and Brackley showed
peeitorons marls and limestones of the Great Oolite with underlying Estuarine
8.
At one point east of Hill Farm, south of Radstone, where the Boulder Clay
rested on the marls and limestones of the Great Oolite, streaks of reddish brown
clay were noticed at the base of the grey Glacial Clay. Elsewhere the Boulder
Clay was seen resting on a piped surface of Great Oolite, the ‘ pipes’ being filled
with reddish-brown clay. In places the Great Oolite was somewhat disturbed
and nipped up. Evidently the agent which produced the Boulder Clay was
forced over an old land-surface formed of Great Oolite. That formation was
disturbed in places, and portions of the old soil were stripped off and incorporated
in the Boulder Clay. Further south the Boulder Clay was banked up against a
bed of coarse boulder-gravel, such as is found near Buckingham, near the southern
margin of this Glacial drift.
In places pebbles from overlying gravel were noticed to occur a foot or two
down, in Great Oolite Clay. In dry weather, when clays become deeply fissured,
stones from overlying drift or soil may drop into crevices, and become embedded
ina much older deposit to a depth of four or five feet.
No cornbrash was shown in any of the cuttings. South-west of Rosehill
Farm, near Chetwode, the Oxford Clay appeared, and it was well seen north-east
of Charndon Lodge Farm, where clays of the zone of Ammonites ornatus were
exposed.
Near Steeple Claydon a specimen of 4. Sutherlandie with A. Lamberti
attached was picked up on the embankment. The fossils were identified by
Mr, G. Sharman.
7. Report on the Stonesfield Slate—See Reports, p. 356.
8. Report on the Investigation of a Coral Reef.—See Reports, p. 377.
9. Report on Geological Photographs.—See Reports, p. 357.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Hoxne Excavation.—See Reports, p. 400.
2. On the Discovery of Marine Shells in the Drift Series at High Levels in
Ayrshire, N.B. By Joun Situ.
By rye best developed the Ayrshire Drift Beds are arranged in the following
order :—
- Upper Boulder-clay, often with large blocks.
. Stratified sand and gravel.
- Boulder-clay, blocks generally small.
- Gravel, sharp sand, hour-glass sand, and muddy sand.
» Laminated mud or clay, sometimes with one or two beds of Boulder-clay.
» Lower Boulder-clay, often with large blocks.
- Mammoth and Reindeer bed at Kilmaurs.
In bed No. 1 marine shells occur at 40 and 1,061 ft. above sea-level, and at
many intermediate heights,
In bed No. 2 I have got marine shells frequently up to a little above 200 ft.
above sea-level, and in one instance at about 800 feet.
In bed No, 8 marine fossils are frequent up to at least 600 ft, above sea-level.
“ID Orie COD
800 REPORT—1896,
In bed No. 5 (laminated mud or clay) I have not yet found any fossils.
In the lower Boulder-clay (6) marine fossils are occasionally got, but it is,
generally speaking, much obscured by talus along the river banks.
The Boulder-clays in fresh cuttings often look as if they were massive, but
weathered exposures often show lines of stratification, and sometimes there are
thin horizontal bands of sand or gravel through them.
Striated stones are got in them lying beside perfectly unscratched and angular
stones, and far-travelled stones and boulders are got beside those of the district.
The Boulder-clays, generally speaking, take their colour from the formations on
which they rest, or at Jeast from one not far away.
About the middle of the county some stones and boulders from the north are
mixed with those from the south. .
At about 700 feet of altitude in certain districts there is no Boulder-clay to be
seen on top of the sand and gravel, the latter being well bedded and the gravel well
rounded.
Up to 800 feet in the open country there are many drums of drift, and in the
narrow glens under certain conditions the drums are got up to a much higher alti-
tude, the Boulder-clay reaching to over 1,700 feet, and the sands and gravel inter-
bedded with it to over 1,000 feet.
‘In the sand and gravel beds there are cecasionally large boulders, as well as in
the laminated mud.
The interstratified beds are sometimes much contorted
Under the Boulder-clay the rock is sometimes crushed, the fragments being
often mixed into the bottom of the clay.
The Boulder-clay appears sometimes to have been dragged a bit, and then the
stones are more intensely striated and the sheily fragments scratched.
Sometimes the stones are standing on edge in the Boulder-clay. :
The ‘25 foot’ beach always rises on a platform cut out by the waves, but the
‘40-foot’ one is sometimes seen resting on drwms of Boulder-clay.
The great bulk of the marine shells occur as fragments, although there are some
very good specimens.
The fragments are mostly sharp-edged, and many have the epidermis, a few being
scratched and polished.
The fossils that turn up most frequently are: Astarte compressa, Astarte
suleata, Cyprina islandica, and Leda pernula.
The occasional being: Pecten islandicus, Cardium, Natica, Buccinum or Fusus,
Littorina littorea (worn), Plates of Balani, and burrows of bering sponges. Many
fragments cannot be determined.
What looks like Melobesia (sticking to stones) has turned up in three localities.
3. Notes on the Superficial Deposits of North Shropshire.
By C. Catuaway, D.Se., F.GS.
The author gives a sketch of observations on the sandy and shingly deposits
that lie scattered over the plain of North Shropshire. They are found as high as
1,100 feet at Gloppa, while erratics occur on the Longmynd hills as high as
1,050 feet. That the gravels and sands are of marine origin is inferred from their
arrangement, which is similar to that of ordinary littoral deposits, and from their
abundant molluscan fauna, which is entirely marine. Under the former head
attention is called to the frequent occurrence of ripple-marks in the sands, and
under the latter it is remarked that the comminuted condition of many of the
fossils is to be expected from littoral conditions. It is pointed out that, in the
~ eastern part of the area, chalk flints are abundant, which is hardly consistent with
a north-western derivation; while the discovery of a Cornbrash fossil in the sands
at Wellington proves derivation from the east or south. In conclusion, the author
insists upon the decisive fact that the hills and crags of the area do not present the
rounded outlines to be expected in a glaciated district.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 801
4. The Glacial Phenomena of the Vale of Clwyd.
By J. Lomas A.R.C.8., and P. F. Kennan, £.G.8.
The Vale of Clwyd is a V-shaped valley running almost N. and 8S. The floor
is composed of Triassic rocks, while the sides consist of Silurian slates and grits
with faulted inliers of Carboniferous age at intervals along the inner edges.
The tract of land occupying the mouth of the Vale is low and marshy. As
the solid rock is reached in this district only at a considerable depth below O. D.,
and there are evidences of a pre-Glacial line of cliffs along the neighbouring coasts,
we must regard it as an arm of the sea which has been filled up with drift
deposits.
. About St. Asaph and southwards the ground rises into mounds which run
nearly parallel to the axis of the Vale. Where gaps appear in the Moel Fammau
range the drift mounds curve round so as to be parallel with the opening.
Further south, beyond Denbigh, the ground is again flat, and this character con-
tinues to the end of the open part of the Vale.
“The deposits at the north consist of clays and sands with shell fragments
similar to those spread over the plains of Lancashire and Cheshire, and contain
erratics from the N.
* At St. Asaph, Colwyn, and other :places these northern drifts are seen to
overlie an older deposit -yielding Welsh erratics exclusively, and containing no
shell fragments.
The northern drift extends as far as Tremeirchion on the east, and a boulder of
Scotch granite has been found near Denbigh on the west.
Above Denbigh only Welsh drift is found.
Near Llanfair the Clwyd leaves the main valley and goes through a gorge con-
tinuing tonear Corwen. At Pwll-glas, Derwen, Gwyddelwern, and other places the
valley is blocked by mounds of gravel which run athwart the valley. They repre-
sent terminal moraines laid down by a glacier proceeding down the Vale from the
Dee Valley.
Sequence of Events.—The Welsh hills nursed glaciers during the early part of
the Glacial period. These increased and spread out from Arenig Mawr asa centre.
So great was the ice-spread that boulders were carried over the highest points in
the Moel Fammau and the Mynydd Hiraethog and Cyrn-y-Brain ranges.
The ice from Scotland, Lake District, and Ireland, creeping southwards and
filling the shallow Ivish Sea, cleaved on reaching the N. Wales massif about the
Gt. Orme’s Head.
So great was the pressure that the Welsh ice was also divided into two streams,
one going west through the Menai Straits and over Anglesey, and the other going
eastwards and joining with the great sheet which swept over Cheshire into the
Midlands,
Evidence of this cleavage we have in the Glacial strie which are divergent E.
and W, of the Conway and in the character of the boulder transport. The E. side
of the Vale of Clwyd is covered with great deposits of red drift derived from the
floor of the Vale, while the W. side contains no Triassic rocks. Through the
opening about Bodfari enormous masses of red sand were carried, and formed the
well-known deposits of the Wheeler Valley.
On the dwindling of the ice the valleys still retained small glaciers, the
deposits of one being found in the Upper Clwyd.
Conclusions. —The Drift lends no countenance to the theory that this portion
of North Wales was submerged during the Glacial period. In fact the absence of
northern Drift with shells in places at a level below the shell-bearing beds on each
_ side directly contradicts the assumption.
| 5. On some Post-Pliocene Changes of Physical Geography in Yorkshire.
By Percy F, Kenpat, £.G.S.
The drift deposits of Yorkshire are extensively developed over all the low
grounds and in much of the hill country. They have been attributed by the
802 REPORT—1896.
officers of the Geological Survey, the late Professor Carvill Lewis, Mr. Lamplugh,
and other geologists, to the action of glaciers descending all the principal valleys,
from Teesdale on the north to Airedale on the south, with a great main stream
occupying the Vale of York almost as far as the Humber, and a Scandinavian
ice-sheet abutting against the whole coast-line.
Pre-Glacial valleys have been detected beneath the drift at depths exceeding
170 feet below O.D.
The irregular accumulation of the glacial deposits produced many changes in
the courses of the rivers, and a great area was added to the coast-line.
The Derwent has been shown by Mr. Fox Strangways to have reversed its
flow, and instead of discharging into Filey Bay, it now flows westward, passes
through the Howardian Hills in a narrow gorge 150 feet deep, and ultimately
joins the Ouse. The change of direction has been ascribed to the formation of a
ridge of boulder-clay, which extends across the valley behind Filey, and has a
minimum altitude of 130 feet, which is only 70 feet below the top of the notch in
the Howardian Hills. The author considers it more probable that the diversion
was effected by an ice-barrier. At one-stage a lake would be formed occupying
the whole Vale of Pickering, and lacustrine deposits are found, having a thick-
ness of over 90 feet.
The river system of the Vale of York is very peculiar. The Tees crosses a very
broad tract of soft rocks without receiving a single tributary from the south. The
Wiske rises in the north-western corner of the Cleveland Hills, and approaches
within two miles of the Tees, then turns south and joins the Swale.
The Drift is very deep along the line of the Tees, and thins to the south, so
that the solid rocks are exposed at many places along a line running through
Northallerton and Bedale. ‘This was the pre-Glacial Watershed. Northward of
it the Drift is mainly boulder-clay, while southward gravels largely predominate ;
exactly the same fact is observed south of the watershed between the Mersey and
the Severn.
The Swale and Wiske were formerly tributaries of the Tees.
No study has yet been made of the Ure.
The Mdd furnishes an example of a diversion different from any yet noted.
Down to Ripley it flows through a wide and open valley, but below that village it
enters a narrow and deep gorge or ravine cut partly through grits and shales of
the Millstone Grit series, and partly through Magnesian Limestone. For long
distances its banks are extremely steep, and in places, as at Knaresborough and
Plumpton, even vertical, producing scenery unrivalled in any part of Yorkshire.
This 1s obviously so recent a channel that the author was impelled to seek an
older one, and discover the cause of its abandonment. Such an old valley is
clearly traceable from Ripley, past Nidd Hall and Brearton, out into the Vale of
York. It is broad and well defined, and its sides have a very gentle slope, like
those of the upper part of the valley, and there are extensive marshy patches in its
course. Near Nidd Hall a large lateral moraine of a glacier, which came down
Uredale, obstructs the old valley. Many excavations display the usual structure
of moraines.
The Wharfe presents similar features to those of the Nidd. Its valley is wide
and open until the town of Wetherby is reached; then the river, instead of pur-
suing a north-easterly course through a valley extending through the town,
turns abruptly to the south-east, and runs through a gorge in the Magnesian
Limestone down to Tadcaster. The valley across the site of Wetherby is filled
with a great thickness of excessively coarse morainic gravel, thrown down by the
side of the same glacier as that which deflected the Nidd, and it seems probable
that this also is a case of diversion.
There are numerous small diversions of the Aire by terminal moraines—for
example, near Keighley and Bingley—but its lower course appears quite normal.
Great changes have been wrought in the upper part of the Calderdale by the
events of the Glacial period, but they and the remarkable vicissitudes of the
Trent will be dealt with in a future communication.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 803
6. Report on Erratic Blocks.—See Reports, p. 366.
7. Another Possible Cause of the Glacial Epoch.
By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.LS.
The author gave an account of the results arrived at by Professor J. W.
Spencer, Ph.D.,in his memoir on ‘ The Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent’
(‘Bull. Geol. Soc.,’ America, January 1895) from observations laid down on the
Admiralty charts of the east coast of North America and the shores of the West
Indian Islands and Gulf of Mexico. He shows that the ‘continental shelf’ lying
between the coast and the 100-fathom line is succeeded by a second and deeper
plateau, called by Professor A. Agassiz ‘the Blake plateau,’ the average depth of
which may be taken at 2,700 feet, separated from the continental shelf by a steep
descent, and in its turn bounded by a second steep descent leading down to the
abysmal depths of the Atlantic Ocean at 12,000 or 13,000 feet below the surface.
A careful investigation of the soundings shows that these plateaus are traversed
by channels, sometimes of great depth and with precipitous sides, leading down
from the embouchures of the existing rivers which open out on the coast, and con-
nected with the outer margins of the plateaus by wide embayments. The form of
these channels would in some cases entitle them to be called ‘ cafions’ or ‘fjords’ ;
and, as Professor Spencer truly considers that such channels could only be formed
by river erosion, he concludes that the whole eastern coast and the West Indian
Isles were elevated to the extent of the outer embayments where they open out on
the floor of the ocean. Such an elevation of 12,000 feet or so would have con-
nected North and South America along the line of the Antilles, constituting a
angle continent,' and are termed ‘ stupendous changes of level’ of the Pleistocene
epoch.
The author of this paper proceeds to discuss some of the climatic conditions which
would result from such changes, and supposes that the elevation of the Antillean
continent would have shut out the northern branch of the great equatorial current
known as the Gulf Stream from the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, causing
it to enter the North Atlantic directly ; and he comes to the conclusion that the
Atlantic current would have crossed the 40th parallel with surface temperature of
only 74° F., instead of 84° F., as is the case at the present day. The author then
discusses the question to what extent such a lowering of the temperature of the
present Gulf Stream would have affected the climate of the regions bordering the
North Atlantic, and considers that this effect may be approximately arrived at by
transferring the climatic conditions of the isotherm of annual mean temperature of
30° F. (the freezing point of water) to those of the 42° F. of the present day,
resulting in sub-glacial conditions along the line of this isotherm.
Proceeding next to examine the effects of the elevation of the American con~
tinent to the extent required by Professor Spencer’s conclusions, the author
considers it as extremely probable that the cold produced by this physical change,
added to that due to the lowering of the temperature of the Atlantic current,
would result in bringing about the conditions of the Glacial epoch; and as similar
elevation of land has been determined in the case of the platform of the British
Isles and North-western Europe—though to a much smaller extent than in the
case of the American continent—the increased cold due to this cause, added to that
due to the diminished temperature of the Atlantic current, would have been, if not
a vera causa of the Glacial epoch of Europe, a most material cause in bringing
about the climatic conditions of that epoch.
8. Final Report on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava
and Kintyre.—See Reports, p. 378. :
? For those who are unable to obtain Professor Spencer's original memoir, the
review thereof by Mr. A.J. Jukes-Browne, F.G.S., in the Geological Magazine for
April 1895, will probably suffice.
804 REPORT—1896.
9. Interim Report on the Singapore Caves.—See Reports, p. 399.
10. Interim. Report on the Calf Hole Exploration.
11. Interim Report on the High-level Flint-drift at Ightham.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Interim Report on the Investigation of the Locality where the
Cetiosaurus Remains in the Oxford Museum were found.
2. Interim Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the
Pentland Hills.
3. Interim Report on the Paleozoic Phyllopoda.
4. Interim Report on the Registration of Type Specimens.
5. Fifth Contribution to Rhetic Literature.
Ly Montacu Browne, F.G.S., F.Z.8.
The Rhetic Bone-bed of Aust Cliff, and the Rock-bed above it.
The Rheetic bone-bed of Aust Cliff seldom yields perfect examples of vertebrate
remains, and still more rarely, if ever, objects in association. An examination of
the rock shows the reason for this. It is made up largely of sub-angular frag-
ments or rolled boulders of the Keuper sandstone to be found immediately below
it, around which are sands, probably of Keuper age, so arranged, and so highly
charged with fragmentary remains of Rheetic vertebrata and their excretée, as to
denote currents of considerable turbulence, such as now obtain in seas or estuaries
of no great depth.
Of quite a different character are the black shales above, and the bed of stone
resting thereupon. This band of stone, which has been described by Wright, and
is known as the Pullastra arenicola bed, shows it to have been much more quietly
deposited, and it is in this that bones are more likely to be found in association at
Aust and Westbury-on-Severn. This band of stone is the so-called bone-bed. of
the ‘Garden Cliff,’ Westbury-on-Severn, of Penarth, Lavernock, and Watchet,
the true bone-bed of Aust not being represented at those places, or if at Lavernock
in a very attenuated form. Neither at Pylle Hill, Bristol, nor at the Spinney
Hills, nor at’ Wigston, Leicester, nor at Walton, Leicestershire, nor in the Notting-
hamshire Rheetics does a bone-bed exist of the same character as that at Aust;
the bone-bed of the Spinney Hills, though not of like extent, is on the same
horizon, and contains specimens in the same state of mineralisation as at Aust
Cliff. Another point which lends colour to this theory of partial similitude is that
in both Aust and the Spinney Hill bone-bed remains of Ceratodus have been
found, which have not yet been obtained.in the lower Pullastra arenicola or
Isodonta Ewaldi beds.
It is therefore in the first band of stone containing these invertebrate fossils,
and which never es immediately upon the ‘ tea-green marls,’ that the most perfect
~
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 805
remains of the lesser Dinosauria, Labyrinthodontia, and of other vertebrata must
be sought, and from this bed at Aust was procured the fine jaw with teeth of
Saurichthys described by Mr. A. Smith Woodward, and several unusually perfect
specimens obtained by the writer at Aust Cliff and Westbury-on-Severn..
The genus Sphenonchus, i.e., Head-defences of certain Hybodont Sharks.
Sphenonchus hamatus, Agassiz.
This species, already recorded in Britain from the Lias, has now been discovered
by the author in the Rhetic bone-bed of Aust Cliff. Other specimens examined
by him were collected by Mr. Storrie from the Lavernock bone-bed, and by Mr. T.
Burrows in the bone-bed of the Spinney Hills.
6. On the Skull of the South African Fossil Reptile Diademodon.
By H. G. Srzxey, F.2.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London.
Only two or three teeth have hitherto been known. The crowns are of
mammalian type, and although referred to the Gomphodont division of the
Theriodontia, no proof of the structure of the skull has been previously available.
The skull now described was found at Wonderboom by Dr. Kannemeyer. It
gives evidence of ten premolar and molar teeth,of which four are counted as
premolars and six as molars. The molar teeth are transverse, with a type of
crown which closely resembles Diademodon Brownii. ‘The last molar is small,
with a narrow posterior talon. The skull is fractured, so that the cerebral region
is lost, and the snout is lost by a vertical fracture, which passes through tbe hemi-
spherical pits upon the pre-orbital angle at the junction of the frontal nasal and
maxillary bones ; so that the canine teeth are not preserved. The author described
the limits of the pre-frontal and post-frontal bones, and states that the post-frontat
differs from that of Ornithorhynchus in its different relation to the small brain
cavity, and in contributing to form the circular orbit of the eye.
7. Note on examples of Current Bedding in Clays.
By H.G. Szexey, 7. 2.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London.
The author remarked that, although thin layers are defined by differences of
colour in some slates, it is rare for bedding in the great clays to be marked unless
by changes in mineral character. He has observed current bedding in the mottled
clays of the Woolwich and Reading beds, and in Wealden purple clays near
Tunbridge Wells.
About two years since current bedding was uncovered in Messrs. Poulton's pit
in the Reading beds at Katesgrove, near Reading. Above the current bedded
sand, with bands of pipe-clay and fossil leaves, which occur towards the base of
the deposit, crimson and green clays occurred in regular alternations of about
twenty thin beds, which thickened from the west to the east. They were laid
down in the usual curved succession of thin layers horizontally truncated above
by the rapidity of flow of the current. The layers thickened to the west, beyond
the sheltering bank of the deposits. Each of these beds, which was only two to
four inches thick in the western corner of the pit in which the current bedding is
seen, spreads over the pit as one of the nearly horizontal layers of mottled clay,
which form the part of the section between the yellow sands below and the brown
clay above with marine fossils. There is no evidence of the laminated structure
being due to sand, but a few small irregular calcareous concretions, about an inch
or two in diameter, occur in the beds of green colour.
The second example was first observed by the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S.,
at the new Recreation Ground, Tunbridge Wells, and at his request the author
examined the section. The deposit is a purple clay of Wealden age, and either
Weald Clay or a subordinate deposit in the Tunbridge Wells sand. It has at first
806 REPORT—1896.
the aspect of a boulder clay with bedding inclined tothe east. Every layer, in the
thickness exposed of 14 feet, is full of fragments of yellow sandstone, all apparently
derived from one deposit, such as the Ashdown sand. They are all angular, and
vary in size from one inch to two feet in length. There is no trace of smoothing or
grooving on any of the large number of fragments examined, and therefore no
ground for attributing their transport to ice. The volume of water which
would effect transport of such a thickness of clay may have been merely the
result of exceptionally heavy rain, for the large fragments appear to be torn away
by their natural joints and bedding planes, and the small fragments are such as the
action of varying temperature would produce in a terrestrial surface. The angle
of dip was about 15°. Mr, F. G. Smart, M.A., F.L.S., of Tunbridge Wells, photo-
graphed the sections at the author's request.
It is remarked that, although alternating green and red clays in geological
deposits are generally of freshwater origin, there is a similar alternation in some
of the old Cambrian slates.
8. On some Crush-Conglomerates in Anglesey.
By Sir Arcuipatp Geixiz, PS.
The important observations made by Mr. Lamplugh among the ‘ crush-
conglomerates’ of the Isle of Man suggest that the phenomena described by him
may have a much wider range than had previously been supposed. Ever since the
author had the opportunity of going over the Manx evidence with him, he has sus-
pected that some of the fragmental rocks which he has himself regarded as volcanic
agglomerates might prove to be due, not to volcanic explosions, but to the same
kind of underground movements which have undoubtedly given rise to the enor-
mous masses of ‘ crush-conglomerate ’ in the Isle of Man. The breccias of Anglesey
seemed to the author likely, on renewed examination, to prove to belong to the
latter series. Accordingly he recently took occasion to revisit these rocks, both in
the centre and along the north coast of the island. The result was entirely con-
firmatory of his suspicions. The breccias in question are, he now feels convinced,
true crush conglomerates.
The amount of mechanical deformation which these rocks have undergone is
one of their most obvious characteristics. On the supposition of their volcanic
origin, it was quite conceivable that coarse agglomerates and volcanic breccias
might undergo crushing together with the sedimentary series to which they
belonged, so that the evidence of deformation formed is itself no proof that they
were not of pyroclastic derivation. But more detailed investigation, in the light
of the Manx examples, bringsto view proofs that the conglomeratic structure has been
produced by the breaking up of stratified rocks zz situ, At Llangefni, for example,
the strata affected appear to have been originally shales or mudstones (with possibly
some fine felsitic tutis), alternating with bands of hard siliceous grit. They have
been crumpled up and crushed into fragments, which have been driven past each
other along the planes of movement. Every stage may be traced, from a long piece
of one of the grit-bands down to mere rounded and isolated pebbles of the same
material. The grits, being much more resisting, have withstood the deformation
better than the argillaceous strata, which have been crushed into a kind of broken
slate or phyllite. Kyerywhere the signs of movement, or ‘flow-structure,’ meet
the eye. It is not that the rocks have been merely crushed to fragments; the
differential movements which produced the ruptures also made the materials to
flow onwards, the dislocated bands of grit being reduced to separate blocks and
pebbles entirely surrounded in the moving matrix of finer shaly paste.
The ‘agglomerates’ on the coast near Cemmaes, so singularly deceptive as to
be easily mistaken for volcanic necks, prove to be capable of a like interpretation.
The huge blocks of limestone there to be seen, isolated among fragmentary grits
and slates, are referable to the disruption of some of the limestone bands which
occur abundantly in the neighbourhood. A gradation may be traced from the
slates and grits outside the areas of more severe dislocation into the intensely
crushed and sheared ‘agglomerate.’ The dykes which cut through these rocks
F
oo ihe
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 807
and increase the likeness to true volcanic vents are later than the period of
crushing, and may be traced in the surrounding slates and grits.
But though the volcanic nature of the rocks formerly believed to be agglome-
rates must be abandoned, the question of the original formation of the strata which
have been so greatly ruptured remains quite distinct. The author agrees with
Mr. Blake in regarding these strata as largely composed of volcanic detritus. The
breccias and fine tuffs which alternate with and overlie the Lower Silurian black
shales can be traced upward into the mass of the Amlwch slates, which are full of
volcanic dust. The evidence for the existence of Lower Silurian volcanoes in the
north of Anglesey remains quite valid and ample, though we must abandon the
voleanic origin of the ‘agglomerates’ which seemed to form part of that evidence.
The crush-conglomerates have involved the volcanic as well as the non-volcanic
paris of the series in the same destruction. But it is obvious that in a region
which has undergone such severe compression and disruption it cannot be always
an easy task to distinguish between breccias due to original volcanic explosions
and those produced among these yery volcanic rocks by subsequent mechanical
stresses.
9. Report on Seismological Investigations.—See Reports, p. 180.
10. Note on some Fossil Plants from South Africa.
By A. C. Sewarp, JLA., FGA.
The author has recently had an opportunity, through the kindness of Mr. Dayid
Draper, F.G.S., of examining a collection of fossil plants from a locality a short
distance south of Johannesburg. The collection forwarded to England by Mr.
Draper includes examples of Glossopteris,, Vertebraria, and other genera, asso-
ciated with specimens of Lepidophloios The occurrence of Lepidodendrons
in strata containing typical members of the Glossopteris flora is extremely
important from the point of view of the geological and geographical distribution of
fossil plants, and specially interesting in connection with a similar association lately
recorded by Professor Zeiller in Brazilian plant-bearing beds. In South Africa, as
in South America, we have evidence of the existence of a plant genus characteristic
of the Upper Paleozoic flora of the northern hemisphere, in the same region with
the Permo-Carboniferous Glossopteris flora.
11. On the Production of Corundum by Contact Metamorphism on
Dartmoor. Ly Professor Karu Busz.
At South Brent the valley of the Avon cuts right through the contact-zone of
the Dartmoor granite. The clay-slate is altered into chiastolite slate and spotted
_ mica schist, and small interbedded seams of limestone are represented by aggregates
of garnet, malacolite, axinite, and what seems to be anorthite. The crystals of
andalusite in one of the altered slates have proved to contain a small quantity of
cassitorite in minute crystals. This stream also exposes the intimate contact
between a felspar porphyry and clay-slate: irregular pieces of the latter rock are
included in the former. Around these pieces there occurred a large number of
minute colourless hexagonal crystals, which, when isolated by the action of hydro-
fluoric and hydrochloric acids, proved to consist of alumina with a very little iron
oxide, Their hardness was also greater than that of topaz, so that it is clear they
must consist of corundum. In the opinion of the author the melted porphyry has
dissolved the clay, and thus become supersaturated with alumina, which has
erystallised out as crystalline corundrum.
12. Interim Report on the Age and Relation of Rocks near Moreseat,
Aberdeen.
808 REPORT—1896.
Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEecTION—E. B. Pourton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Zoology in the University of Oxford.
THURSDAY,.SEPTEMBER 17.
The President delivered the following Address :—
A Naruratist’s ConTRIBUTION TO THE DISCUSSION UPON THE AGE OF
THE EARTH.
A very brief study of the proceedings of this Section in bygone years will show
that Presidents have exercised a very wide choice in the selection of subjects. At
the last Meeting of the Association in this city in 1870 the Biological Section had as
its President the late Professor Rolleston, a man whose remarkable personality
made a deep impression upon all who came under his influence, as I have the
strongest reason for remembering, inasmuch as he was my first teacher in zoology,
and I attended his lectures when but little over seventeen. His address was most
characteristic, glancing over a great variety of subjects, literary as well as scientific,
and abounding in quotations from several languages, living and dead. A very
different style of address was that delivered by the distinguished zoologist who
presided over the Meeting. Professor Huxley took as his subject ‘The History of
the Rise and Progress of a Single Biological Doctrine.’
O ithese two types I selected the latter as my example, and especially desired
to attempt the discussion, however inadequate, of some difficulty which confronts
the zoologist at the very outset when he begins to reason from the facts around
him—a difficulty which is equally obvious and of equal moment to the highly
trained investigator and the man who is keenly interested in the results obtained
by others, but cannot himself lay claim to the position and authority of a skilled
observer—to the naturalist and to one who follows some other branch of know-
ledge, but is interested in the progress of a sister science.
Two such difficulties were alluded to by Lord Salisbury, in his interesting presi-
dential address to the British Association at Oxford in 1894, when he spoke of
‘two of the strongest objections to the Darwinian explanation’ of evolution—viz.,
the theory of natural selection—as appearing ‘ still’to retain all their force.’ The
first of these objections was the insufficiency of the time during which the earth
has been in a habitable state, as calculated by Lord Kelvin and Professor Tait,
100 million years being conceded by the former, but only ten million by the latter.
Lord Salisbury quite rightly stated that for the evolution of the organic world as
we know it by the slow process of natural selection at least many hundred
million years are required; whereas, ‘if the mathematicians are right, the biologists
cannot have what they demand. . . . The jelly-fish would have been dissipated in
steam long before he had had a chance of displaying the advantageous variation
which was to make him the ancestor of the human race.’
The second objection was that ‘we cannot demonstrate the process of natural
selection in detail; we cannot even, with more or less ease, imagine it.’ ‘In
natural selection who is to supply the breeder’s place ?’ ‘There would be nothing
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 809
but mere chance to secure that the advantageously varied bridegroom at one end
of the wood should meet the bride, who by a happy contingency had been advan-
tageously varied in the same direction at the same time at the other end of the
wood. It would be a mere chance if they ever knew of each other’s existence—a
still more unlikely chance that they should resist on both sides all temptations to
a less advantageous alliance. But unless they did so the new breed would never
even begin, let alone the question of its perpetuation after it had begun.’
Professor Huxley, in seconding the vote of thanks to the President, said that
he could imagine that certain parts of the address might raise a very good dis-
cussion in one of the Sections, and I have little doubt that he referred to these
criticisms and to this Section. When I had to face the duty of preparing this
address, I could find no subjects better than those provided by Lord Salisbury.
At first the second objection seemed to offer the more attractive subject. It
was clear that the theory of natural selection as held by Darwin was misconceived
by the speaker, and that the criticism was ill-aimed. Darwin and Wallace, from the
very first, considered that the minute differences which separate individuals were
of far more importance than the large single variations which occasionally arise—
Lord Salisbury’s advantageously varied bride and bridegroom at opposite ends of the
wood. In fact, after Fleeming Jenkins’s criticisms in the ‘ North British Review’
for June 1867, Darwin abandoned these large single variations altogether. Thus
he wrote in a letter to Wallace (February 2, 1869): ‘I always thought individual
differences more important ; but I was blind, and thought single variations might
be preserved much oftener than I now see is possible or probable. I mentioned
this in my former note merely because I believed that you had come to a similar
conclusion, and I like much to be in accord with you.’ Hence we may infer that
the other great discoverer of natural selection had come to the same conclusion at
an even earlier date. But this fact removes the whole point from the criticism
I haye just quoted. According to the Darwin-Wallace theory of natural selection,
individuals sufficiently advantageously varied to become the material for a fresh
advance when an advance became necessary, and at other times sufficient to main-
tain the ground previously gained—such individuals existed not only at the
opposite ends of the wood, but were common enough in every colony within its
confines. The mere fact that an individual had been able to reach the con-
dition of a possible bride or bridegroom would count for much. Few will dispute:
that such individuals ‘have already successfully run the gauntlet of by far the
greatest dangers which beset the higher animals (and, it may be added, the lower
animals also |—the dangers of youth. Natural selection has already pronounced a
satisfactory verdict upon the vast majority of animals which have reached
maturity.’ ?
But the criticism retains much force when applied to another theory of evolution
_ by the selection of large and conspicuous variations, a theory which certain writers
have all along sought to add to or substitute for that of Darwin. Thus Huxley
from the very first considered that Darwin had burdened himself unnecessarily in
rejecting per saltum evolution so unreservedly.’ And recently this view has been
revived by Bateson’s work on variation and by the writings of Francis Galton. I
had at first intended to attempt a discussion of this view, together with Lord
Salisbury’s and other objections which may be urged against it; but the more the
two were considered, the more pressing became the claims of the criticism alluded
to at first—the argument that the history of our planet does not allow sufficient
time for a process which all its advocates admit to be extremely slow in its
operation. I select this subject because of its transcendent importance in relation
to organic evolution, and because I hope to show that the naturalist has something
of weight to contribute to the controversy which has been waged intermittently
ever since Lord Kelvin’s paper ‘On Geological Time’ * appeared in 1868. It has
_ been urged by the great worker and teacher who occupied the Presidential Chair
1 Life and Letters, vol. iii. 2 Poulton, Colours of Animals, p. 308.
3 See his letter to Darwin, November 23, 1859: Life and Letters, vol. ii.
‘ Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow, vol. iii. See also‘ On the Age of the Sun’s Heat,’
Macmillan, March 1862: reprinted as Appendix to Thomson and Tait, Natural Philo-
1896. 3G
810 REPORT—1896.
of this Association when it last met in this city that biologists have no right to
take part in this discussion. In his Anniversary Address to the Geological So-
ciety in 1869 Huxley said: ‘ Biology takes her time from geology... . If the
geological clock is wrong, all the naturalist will have to do is to modify his
notions of the rapidity of change accordingly.’ This contention is obviously true
as regards the time which has elapsed since the earliest fossiliferous rocks were laid
down. For the duration of the three great periods we must look to the geologist ;
but the question as to whether the whole of organic evolution is comprised within
these limits, or, if not, what proportion of it is so contained, is a question for the
’ naturalist. The naturalist alone can tell the geologist whether his estimate is suffi-
cient, or whether it must be multiplied by a small or by some unknown but cer-
tainly high figure, in order to account for the evolution of the earliest forms of
life Inown in the rocks, This, I submit, is a most important contribution to the
discussion.
Before proceeding further it is right to point out that obviously these argu-
ments will have no weight with those who do not believe that evolution is a
reality. But although the causes of evolution are greatly debated, it may be
assumed that there is no perceptible difference of opinion as to evolution itself, and
this common ground will bear the weight of all the zoological arguments we shall
consider to-day.
It will be of interest to consider first how the matter presented itself to
naturalists before the beginning of this controversy on the age of the habitable
earth. I will content myself with quotations from three great writers on biological
problems—men of extremely different types of mind, who yet agreed in their
conclusions on this subject.
In the original edition of the ‘ Origin of Species’ (1859), Darwin, arguing from
the presence of trilobites, Nautilus, Lingula, &c., in the earliest fossiliferous rocks,
comes to the following conclusion (pages 306, 307) : ‘Consequently, if my theory
be true, it is indisputable that before the lowest Silurian stratum was deposited
long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval
from the Silurian age to the present day; and that during these vast yet quite
unknown periods of time the world swarmed with living creatures.’
The depth of his conviction in the validity of this conclusion is seen in the fact
that the passage remains substantially the same in later editions, in which, how-
ever, Cambrian is substituted for Silurian, while the words ‘ yet quite unknown’
are omitted, as a concession, no doubt, to Lord Kelvin’s calculations, which he
then proceeds to discuss, admitting as possible a more rapid change in organic life,
induced by more violent physical changes.*
We know, however, that such concessions troubled him much, and that he
was really giving up what his judgment still approved. Thus he wrote to
Wallace on April 14, 1869: ‘Thomson’s views of the recent age of the world have
been for some time one of my sorest troubles... .’ And again, on July 12,
1871, alluding to Mivart’s criticisms, he says: ‘I can say nothing more about
missing links than what I have said. I should rely much on pre-Silurian times ;
but then comes Sir W. Thomson, like an odious spectre.’
Huxley’s demands for time in order to account for pre-Cambrian evolution, as
he conceived it, were far more extensive. Although in 1869 he bade the
naturalist stand aside and take no part in the controversy, he had nevertheless
spoken as a naturalist in 1862, when, at the close of another Anniversary Address
to the same Society, he argued from the prevalence of persistent types ‘that any
admissible hypothesis of progressive modification must be compatible with per-
sistence without progression through indefinite periods’; and then maintained
that ‘should such an hypothesis eventually be proved to be true . . . the conclusion
will inevitably present itself that the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic fauns
sopiy, vol. i. part 2, second edition; and ‘On the Secular Cooling of the Earth,’
Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1862. 1 6th ed., 1872, p. 286.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 811
and flore, taken together, bear somewhat the same proportion to the whole series
of living beings which have occupied this globe as the existing fauna and flora do
to them.’
Herbert Spencer, in his article on Illogical Geology in the ‘ Universal
Review ’ for July 1859,' uses these words: ‘ Only the last chapter of the earth’s
history has come down to us. The many previous chapters, stretching back to a
time immeasurably remote, have been burnt, and with them all the records of life
we may presume they contained.’ Indeed, so brief and unimportant does Herbert
Spencer consider this last chapter to have been that he is puzzled to account for
‘such evidences of progression as exist’; and finally concludes that they are of no
significance in relation to the doctrine of evolution, but probably represent the
succession of forms by which a newly upheaved land would be peopled. He
argues that the earliest immigrants would be the lower forms of animal and
vegetable life, and that these would be followed by an irregular succession of
higher and higher forms, which ‘ would thus simulate the succession presented by
our own sedimentary series.’
We see, then, what these three great writers on evolution thought on this
subject: they were all convinced that the time during which the geologists con-
cluded that the fossiliferous rocks had been formed was utterly insufficient to
account for organic evolution.
Our object to-day is first to consider the objections raised by physicists against
the time demanded by the geologist, and still more against its multiplication by
the student of organic evolution ; secondly, to inquire whether the present state
of paleontological and zoological knowledge increases or diminishes the weight of
the threefold opinion quoted above—an opinion formed on far more slender
evidence than that which is now available. And if we find this opinion sustained,
it must be considered to have a very important bearing upon the controversy,
The arguments of the physicists are three :— ’
First, the argument from the observed secular change in the length of the day
the most important element of which is due to tidal retardation. It has been
known for a very long time that the tides are slowly increasing the length of our
day. Huxley explains the reason with his usual lucidity: ‘That this must be so
is obvious, if one considers, roughly, that the tides result from the pull which
the sun and the moon exert upon the sea, causing it to act as a sort of break upon
the solid earth.’ ”
A liquid earth takes a shape which follows from its rate of revolution, and
from which, therefore, its rate of revolution can be calculated.
The liquid earth consolidated in the form it last assumed, and this shape has
persisted until now, and informs us of the rate of revolution at the time of con-
solidation. Comparing this with the present rate, and knowing the amount of
lengthening in a given time due to tidal friction, we can calculate the date of
consolidation as certainly less than 1000 million years ago,
This argument is fallacious, as many mathematicians have shown. The present
shape tells us nothing of the length of the day at the date of consolidation ; for
the earth, even when solid, will alter its form when exposed for a long time to the
action of great forces. As Professor Perry said in a letter to Professor Tait: %
‘T know that solid rock is not like cobbler’s wax, but 1000 million years is a very
long time, and the forces are great.’ Furthermore, we know that the earth is always
altering its shape, and that whole coast-lines are slowly rising or falling, and that
this has been true, at any rate, during the formation of the stratified rocks.
This argument is dead and gone. Weare, indeed, tempted to wonder that the
' Reprinted in his Essays, 1868, vol. i. pp. 324-376.
2 Anniv. Address to Geol. Soc., 1869. » Nature, Jan. 3, 1895.
‘ It must not be forgotten, however, that this argument and those which follow it
- have done very good work in modifying the unreasonable demands of geologists a
quarter of a century ago,
3G2
812 : REPORT—1896.
physicist, who was looking about for arguments by which to revise what he con-
ceived to be the hasty conclusions of the geologist as to the age of the earth,
should have exposed himself to such an obvious retort in basing his own con-
clusions as to its age on the assumption that the earth, which we know to be
always changing in shape, has been unable to alter its equatorial radius by a few
miles under the action of tremendous forces constantly tending to alter it, and
having 1000 million years in which to do the work.
With this flaw in the case it is hardly necessary to insist on our great uncer-
tainty as to the rate at which the tides are lengthening the day.
The spectacle presented by the geologist and biologist, deeply shocked at
Lord Kelvin’s extreme uniformitarianism in the domain of astronomy and cosmic
physics, is altogether too comforting to be passed by without remark; but in thus
indulging in a friendly tu guogue I am quite sure that I am speaking for every
member of this Section in saying that we are in no way behind the members of
Section A in our pride and admiration at the noble work which he has done for
science, and we are glad to take this opportunity of congratulating him on the
half-century of work and teaching——both equally fruitful—which has reached its
completion in the present year.
The second argument is based upon the cooling of the earth, and this is the
one brought forward and explained by Lord Salisbury in his Presidential Address.
It has been the argument on which perhaps the chief reliance has been placed, and
of which the data—so it was believed—were the least open to doubt.
On the Sunday during the meeting of the British Association at Leeds (1890):
I went for a walk with Professor Perry, and asked him to explain the physical
reasons for limiting the age of the earth to a period which the students of other
sciences considered to be very inadequate. He gave me an account of the data
on which Lord Kelvin relied in constructing this second argument, and expressed
the strong opinion that they were perfectly sound, while, as for the mathematics,
it might be taken for granted, he said, that they were entirely correct. He did
not attach much weight to the other arguments, which he regarded as merely
offering support to the second.
This little piece of personal history is of interest, inasmuch as Professor Perry
has now provided us with a satisfactory answer to the line of reasoning which so
fully satisfied him in 1890, And he was led to a critical examination of the sub-
ject by the attitude taken up by Lord Salisbury in 1894. Professor Perry was
not present at the meeting, but when he read the President’s address, and saw
how other conclusions were ruled out of court, how the only theory of evolution
which commands anything approaching universal assent was set on one side
because of certain assumptions as to the way in which the earth was believed to
have cooled, he was seized with a desire to sift these assumptions, and to inquire
whether they would bear the weight of such far-reaching conclusions. Before
giving the results of his examination, it is necessary to give a brief account of the
argument on which so much has been built.
Lord Kelvin assumed that the earth is a homogeneous mass of rock similar to
that with which we are familiar on the surface. Assuming, further, that the tem-
perature increases, on the average, 1° F. for every 50 feet of depth near the
surface everywhere, he concluded that the earth would have occupied not less
than twenty, nor more than four hundred, million years in reaching its present
condition from the time when it first began to consolidate and possessed a uniform
temperature of 7000° F.
If, in the statement of the argument, we substitute for the assumption of a
homogeneous earth an earth which conducts heat better internally than it does
toward the surface, Professor Perry, whose calculations have been verified by Mr.
O. Heaviside, finds that the time of cooling has to be lengthened to an extent
which depends upon the value assigned to the internal conducting power. If,
for instance, we assume that the deeper part of the earth conducts ten times as
well as the outer part, Lord Kelvin’s age would require to be multiplied by 56.
Even if the conductivity be the same throughout, the increase of density in the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 813
deeper part, by augmenting the capacity for heat of unit volume, implies a longer
age than that conceded by Lord Kelvin. If the interior of the earth be fluid or
contain fluid in a honeycomb structure, the rate at which heat can travel would
be immensely increased by convection currents, and the age would have to be
correspondingly lengthened. If, furthermore, such conditions, although not
obtaining now, did obtain in past times, they will have operated in the same
direction.
Professor Tait, in his letter to Professor Perry (published in ‘Nature’ of
January 3, 1895), takes the entirely indefensible position that the latter is bound
to prove the higher internal conductivity. The obligation is all on the other side,
and rests with those who have pressed their conclusions hard and carried them
far. These conclusions have been, as Darwin found them, one of our ‘sorest
troubles’; but when it is admitted that there is just as much to be said for another
set of assumptions leading to entirely different conclusions, our troubles are at an
end, and we cease to be terrified by an array of symbols, however unintelligible to
us. It would seem that Professor Tait, without, as far as I can learn, publishing
any independent calculation of the age of the earth, has lent the weight of his
authority to a period of ten million years, or half of Lord Kelvin’s minimum. But
in making this suggestion he apparently feels neither interest nor responsibility in
establishing the data of the calculations which he borrowed to obtain therefrom a
very different result from that obtained by their author.
Professor Perry’s object was not to substitute a more correct age for that
obtained by Lord Kelvin, but rather to show that the data from which the true
age could be calculated are not really available. We obtain different results by
making different assumptions, and there is no sufficient evidence for accepting one
assumption rather than another. Nevertheless, there is some evidence which
indicates that the interior of the earth in all probability conducts better than the
surface. Its far higher density is consistent with the belief that it is rich in
metals, free or combined. Professor Schuster concludes that the internal electric
conductivity must be considerably greater than the external. Geologists have
argued from the amount of folding to which the crust has been subjected that
cooling must have taken place to a greater depth than 120 miles, as assumed in
Lord Kelvin’s argument. Professor Perry’s assumption would involve cooling to
a much greater depth.
Professor Perry’s conclusion that the age of the habitable earth is lengthened
by increased conductivity is the very reverse of that to which we should be led
by a superficial examination of the case. Professor Tait, indeed, in the letter
to which I have already alluded, has said: ‘Why, then, drag in mathematics
at all, since it is absolutely obvious that the better conductor the interior in
comparison with the skin, the longer ago must it have been when the whole was
at 7000 F., the state of the skin being as at present?’ Professor Perry, in reply,
pointed out that one mathematician who had refuted the tidal retardation
argument ' had assumed that the conditions described by Professor Tait would
have involved a shorter period of time. And it is probable that Lord Kelvin
thought the same; for he had assumed conditions which would give the result—
so he believed at the time—most acceptable to the geologist and biologist.
Professor Perry’s conclusion is very far from obvious, and without the mathematical
reasoning would not be arrived at by the vast majority of thinking men.
The ‘natural man’ without mathematics would say, so far from this being
‘absolutely obvious,’ it is quite clear that increased conductivity, favouring escape
a heat, would lead to more rapid cooling, and would make Lord Kelvin’s age even
shorter.
The argument can, however, be put clearly without mathematics, and, with
Professor Perry’s help, I am able to state it in a few words. Lord Kelvin’s
assumption of an earth resembling the surface rock in its relations to heat leads to
the present condition of things, namely, a surface gradient of 1° F. for every
50 feet, in 100,000,000 years, more or less. Deeper than 150 miles he imagines
1 Rev. M. H. Close in R. Dublin Soc., February 1878.
814 REPORT—1896.
that there has been almost no cooling. If, however, we take one of the cases
put by Professor Perry, and assume that below a depth of four miles there is ten
times the conductivity, we find that after a period of 10,000,000,000 years the
gradient at the surface is still 1° F. for every 50 feet; but that we have to
descend to a depth of 1500 miles before we find the initial temperature of
7000° F. undiminished by cooling. In fact the earth, as a whole, has cooled
far more quickly than under Lord Kelvin’s conditions, the greater conductivity
enabling a far larger amount of the internal heat to escape; but in escaping it
has kept up the temperature gradient at the surface.
Lord Kelvin, replying to Professor Perry’s criticisms, quite admits that the age
at which he had arrived by the use of this argument may be insufficient. Thus,
he says, in his letter: ! ‘I thought my range from twenty millions to 400 millions
was probably wide enough, but it is quite possible that I should have put the
superior limit a good deal higher, perhaps 4000 instead of 400.’
The third argument was suggested by Helmholtz, and depends on the life of
the sun. Ifthe energy of the sun is due only to the mutual gravitation of its
parts, and if the sun is now of uniform density, ‘the amount of heat generated by
his contraction to his present volume would have been sufficient to last eighteen
million years at his present rate of radiation.’* Lord Kelvin rejects the assump-
tion of uniform density, and is, in consequence of this change, able to offer a much
higher upward limit of 500 million years.
This argument also implies the strictest uniformitarianism as regards the sun.
We know that other suns may suddenly gain a great accession of energy, so that
their radiation is immensely increased. We only detect such changes when they
are large and sudden, but they prepare us to believe that smaller accessions may be
much more frequent, and perhaps a normal occurrence in the evolution of a sun.
Such accessions may have followed from the convergence of a stream of meteors.
Again, it is possible that the radiation of the sun may have been diminished
and his energy conserved by a solar atmosphere.
Newcomb has objected to these two possible modes by which the life of the
sun may have been greatly lengthened, that a lessening of the sun’s heat by under
a quarter would cause all the water on the earth to freeze, while an increase of much
over half would probably boil it all away. But such changes in the amount of
radiation received would follow from a greater distance from the sun of
15} per cent., and a greater proximity to him of 18:4 per cent., respectively.
Venus is inside the latter limit, and Mars outside the former; and yet it would be
a very large assumption to conclude that all the water in the former is steam, and
allinthe latter ice. Indeed, the existence of water and the melting of snow on Mars
are considered to be thoroughly well authenticated. It is further possible that in
a time of lessened solar radiation the earth may have possessed an atmosphere
which would retain a larger proportion of the sun’s heat ; and the internal heat of
the earth itself, great lakes of lava under a canopy of cloud for example, may have
played an important part in supplying warmth.
Again we have a greater age if there was more energy available than in
Helmholtz’s hypothesis. Lord Kelvin maintains that this is improbable because
of the slow rotation of the sun, but Perry has given reasons for an opposite
conclusion.
The collapse of the first argument of tidal retardation and of the second of the
cooling of the earth warn us to beware of a conclusion founded on the assumption
that the sun’s energy depends, and has ever depended, on a single source of which
we know the beginning and the end. It may be safely maintained that such a
conclusion has not that degree of certainty which justifies the followers of one
science in assuming that the conclusion of other sciences must be wrong, and in
disregarding the evidence brought forward by workers in other lines of research.
We must freely admit that this third argument has not yet fully shared the fate
1 Nature, January 3, 1895.
2» Newcomb’s Popular Astronomy, p. 523.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 815
of the two other lines of reasoning. Indeed, Professor George Darwin, although
not feeling the force of these latter, agrees with Lord Kelvin in regarding 500
million years as the maximum life of the sun.!
We may observe, too, that 500 million years is by no means to be despised; a
great deal may happen in such a period of time. Although I should be very sorry
to say that it is sufficient, it is a very different offer from Professor Tait’s
ten million.
In drawing up this account of the physical arguments, I owe almost everything
to Professor Perry for his articles in ‘ Nature’ (January 3 and April 18, 1895),
and his kindness in explaining any difficulties that arose. I have thought it right
to enter into these arguments in some detail, and to consume a considerable pro-
portion of our time in their discussion. This was imperatively necessary, because
they claimed to stand as barriers across our path, and, so long as they were admitted
to be impassable, any further progress was out of the question. What I hope has
been an unbiassed examination has shown that, as barriers, they are more imposing
than effective; and we are free to proceed, and to look for the conclusions warranted
by our own evidence. In this matter we are at one with the geologists; for, as
has been already pointed out, we rely on them for an estimate of the time occupied.
by the deposition of the stratified rocks, while they rely on us for a conclusion as to
how far this period is sufficient for the whole of organic evolution.
First, then, we must briefly consider the geological argument, and I cannot do
better than take the case as put by Sir Archibald Geikie in his Presidential Address
to this Association at Edinburgh in 1892.
Arguing from the amount of material removed from the land by denuding
agencies, and carried down to the sea by rivers, he showed that the time required
to reduce the height of the land by one foot varies, according to the activity of the
agencies at work, from 730 years to 6800 years. But this also supplies a measure
of the rate of deposition of rock; for the same material is laid down elsewhere,
and would of course add the same height of one foot to some other area equal in
size to that from which it was removed.
The next datum to be obtained is the total thickness of the stratified rocks
from the Cambrian system to the present day. ‘On a reasonable computation
these stratified masses, where most fully developed, attain a united thickness of
not less than 100,000 feet. If they were all laid down at the most rapid recorded
rate of denudation, they would require a period of seventy-three millions of years
for their completion. If they were laid down at the slowest rate, they would
demand a period of not less than 680 millions,’
The argument that geological agencies acted much more vigorously in past
times he entirely refuted by pointing to the character of the deposits of which the
stratified series is composed. ‘We can see no proof whatever, nor even any
evidence which suggests that on the whole the rate of waste and sedimentation
was more rapid during Mesozoic and Paleozoic time than it is to-day. Had there
been any marked difference in this rate from ancient to modern times, it would be
— that no clear proof of it should have been recorded in the crust of the
earth.
It may therefore be inferred that the rate of deposition was no nearer the more
rapid than the slower of the rates recorded above, and, if so, the stratified rocks
would have been laid down in about 400 million years.
There are other arguments favouring the uniformity of conditions throughout
the time during which the stratified rocks were laid down, in addition to those
which are purely geological and depend upon the character of the rocks themselves.
ee etae more biological than geological, these arguments are best) considered
ere.
The geological agency to which attention is chiefly directed by those who desire
to hurry up the phenomena of rock formation is that of the tides, But it seems
* British Association Reports, 1886, pp. 514-518.
816 REPORT—1896.
certain that the tides were not sufficiently higher in Silurian times to prevent the
deposition of certain beds of great thickness under conditions as tranquil as any of
which we have evidence in the case of a formation extending over a large area.
From the character of the organic remains it is known that these beds were laid
down in the sea, and there are the strongest grounds for believing that they were
accumulated along shores and in fairly shallow water. The remains of extremely
delicate organisms are found in immense numbers, and over a very large area.
The recent discovery, in the Silurian system of America, of trilobites, with their
long delicate antennz perfectly preserved, proves that in one locality (Rome, New
York State) the tranquillity of deposition was quite as profound as in any locality
yet discovered on this side of the Atlantic.
There are, then, among the older Palzeozoic rocks a set of deposits than which
we can imagine none better calculated to test the force of the tides; and we find
that they supply evidence for exceptional tranquillity of conditions over a long
period of time.
There is other evidence of the permanence, throughout the time during which
the stratified rocks were deposited, of conditions not very dissimilar to those
which obtain to-day. Thus the attachments of marine organisms, which are per-
manently rooted to the bottom or on the shores, did not differ in strength from
those which we now find—an indication that the strains due to the movements
of the sea did not greatly differ in the past.
We have evidence of a somewhat similar kind to prove uniformity in the
movements of the air. The expanse of the wings of flying organisms certainly
does not differ in a direction which indicates any greater violence in the atmo-
spheric conditions. Before the birds had become dominant among the larger
flying organisms, their place was taken by the flying reptiles, the pterodactyls,
and before the appearance of these we know that, in Paleozoic times, the insects
were of immense size, a dragon-fly from the Carboniferous rocks of France being
upwards of 2 feet in the expanse of its wings. As one group after another of
widely dissimilar organisms gained control of the air, each was in turn enabled to
increase to the size which was best suited to such an environment, but we find that
the limits which obtain to-day were not widely different in the past, And this is
evidence for the uniformity in the strains due to wind and storm no less than to
those due to gravity. Furthermore, the condition of the earth’s surface at present
shows us how extremely sensitive the flying organism is to an increase in the
former of these strains, when it occurs in proximity to the sea. Thus it is well
known that an unusually large proportion of the Madeiran beetles are wingless,
while those which require the power of flight possess it in a stronger degree than
on continental areas. This evolution in two directions is readily explained by the
destruction by drowning of the winged individuals of the species which can
manage to live without the power of flight, and of the less strongly winged indi-
viduals of those which need it. Species of the latter kind cannot live at all in the
far more stormy Kerguelen Land, and the whole of the insect fauna is wingless,
The size and strength of the trunks of fossil trees afford, as Professor George
Darwin has pointed out, evidence of uniformity in the strains due to the condition
of the atmosphere.
We can trace the prints of raindrops at various geological horizons, and in some
cases found in this country it is even said that the eastern side of the depressions
is the more deeply pitted, proving that the rain drove from the west, as the great
majority of our storms do to-day.
When, therefore, we are accused of uniformitarianism, as if it were an entirely
unproved assumption, we can at any rate point to a large body of positive evidence
which supports our contention, and the absence of any evidence against it.
Furthermore, the data on which we rely are likely to increase largely, as the result
of future work.
After this interpolation, chiefly of biological argument in support of the geo-
logist, I cannot do ister than bring the geological evidence to a close in the words
which conclude Sir Archibald Geikie’s address: ‘ After careful reflection on the
subject, I affirm that the geological record furnishes a mass of evidence which no
>
—s «
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION. D. 817
arguments drawn from other departments of Nature can explain away, and which,
it seems to me, cannot be satisfactorily interpreted save with an allowance of time
much beyond the narrow limits which recent physical speculation would concede.’
In his letter to Professor Perry,! Lord Kelvin says :—
‘So far as underground heat alone is concerned, you are quite right that my
estimate was 100 million, and please remark * that that is all Geikie wants; but I
should be exceedingly frightened to meet him now with only twenty million in
my mouth.’
We have seen, however, that Geikie considered the rate of sedimentation to
be, on the whole, uniform with that which now obtains, and this would demand
a period of nearly 400 million years. He points out, furthermore, that the time
must be greatly increased on account of the breaks and interruptions which occur
in the series, so that we shall probably get as near an estimate as is possible from
the data which are available by taking 450 million as the time during which the
stratified rocks were formed.
Before leaving this part of the subject, I cannot refrain from suggesting a line
of inquiry which may very possibly furnish important data for checking the
estimates at present formed by geologists, and which, if the mechanical difficulties
can be overcome, is certain to lead to results of the greatest interest and importance.
Ever since the epoch-making voyage of the ‘Challenger,’ it has been known that
the floor of the deep oceans outside the shallow shelf which fringes the continental
areas is covered by a peculiar deposit formed entirely of meteoric and volcanic
dust, the waste of floating pumice, and the hard parts of animals living in the
ocean, Of these latter only the most resistant can escape the powerful solvent
agencies. Many observations prove that the accumulation of this deposit is
extremely slow. One indication of this is especially convincing: the teeth of sharks
and the most resistant part of the skeleton—the ear- bones—of whales are so thickly
spread over the surface that they are continually brought up in the dredge, while
sometimes a single haul will yield a large number of them. Imagine the count-
less generations of sharks and whales which must have succeeded each other in
order that these insignificant portions of them should be so thickly spread over
that vast area which forms the ocean floor! We have no reason to suppose that
sharks and whales die more frequently in the deep ocean than in the shallow
fringing seas; in fact, many observations point in the opposite direction, for
wounded and dying whales often enter shallow creeks and inlets, and not uncom-
monly become stranded. And yet these remains of sharks and whales, although
well known in the stratified rocks which were laid down in comparatively shallow
water and near coasts, are only found in certain beds, and then in far less abun-
dance than in the oceanic deposit. We can only explain this difference by supposing
that the latter accumulate with such almost infinite slowness as compared with
the continental deposits that these remains form an important and conspicuous
constituent of the one, while they are merely found here and there when looked
for embedded in the other. The rate of accumulation of all other constituents is
so slow as to leave a layer of teeth and ear-bones uncovered, or covered by so thin
a deposit that the dredge can collect them freely. Dr. John Murray calculates
that only a few inches of this deposit have accumulated since the Tertiary period.
These most interesting facts prove, furthermore, that the great ocean basins and
continental areas have occupied the same relative positions since the formation of the
first stratified rocks ; for no oceanic deposits are found anywhere in the latter. We
know the sources of the oceanic deposit, and it might be possible to form an esti-
mate, within wide limits, of its rate of accumulation. If it were possible to
ascertain its thickness by means of a boring, some conclusions as to the time which
has elapsed during the lifetime of certain species—perhaps even the lifetime of the
oceans themselves—might be arrived at. Lower down the remains of earlier
species would probably be found. The depth of this deposit and its character at
deeper levels are questions of overwhelming interest; and perhaps even more so is
1 Nature, Jan. 3, 1895. 2? P. L. and A,, vol. ii. p. 87.
818 REPORT—1896.
the question as to what lies beneath. Long before the ‘Challenger’ had proved
the persistence of oceanic and continental areas, Darwin, with extraordinary fore-
sight, and opposed by all other naturalists and geologists, including his revered
teacher, Lyell, had come to the same conclusion. His reasoning on the subject is
so convincing that it is remarkable that he made so few converts, and this is all
the more surprising since the arguments were published in the ‘ Origin of Species,’
which in other respects produced so profound an effect. In speculating as to the
rocks in which the remains of the ancestors of the earliest known fossils may still
exist, he suggested that, although the existing relationship between the positions
of our present oceans and continental areas is of immense antiquity, there is no
reason for the belief that it has persisted for an indefinite period, but that at some
time long antecedent to the earliest known fossiliferous rocks ‘continents may
have existed where oceans are now spread out; and clear and open oceans may
have existed where our continents now stand.’ Not the least interesting result
would be the test of this hypothesis, which would. probably be forthcoming as the
result of boring into the floor of a deep ocean; for although, as Darwin pointed
out, it is likely enough that such rocks would be highly metamorphosed, yet it
might still be possible to ascertain whether they had at any time formed part of a
continental deposit, and perhaps to discover much more than this. Such an under-
taking might be carried out in conjunction with other investigations of the highest
interest, such as the attempt to obtain a record of the swing of a pendulum at the
bottom of the ocean.
We now come to the strictly biological part of our subject—to the inquiry as
to how much of the whole scheme of organic evolution has been worked out in
the time during which the fossiliferous rocks were formed, and how far, therefore,
the time required by the geologist is sufficient.
It is first necessary to consider Lord Kelvin’s suggestion that life may have
reached the earth on a meteorite—a suggestion which might be made the basis
of an attempt to rescue us from the dilemma in which we were placed by the
insufficiency of time for evolution. It might be argued that the evolution which
took place elsewhere may have been merely completed, in a comparatively brief
space of time, on our earth. :
We Imow nothing of the origin of life here or elsewhere, and our only
attitude towards this or any other hypothesis on the subject is that of the
anxious inquirer for some particle of evidence. But a few brief considerations
will show that no escape from the demands for time can be gained in this way.
Our argument does not deal with the time required for the origin of life, or
for the development of the lowest beings with which we are acquainted from the
first formed beings, of which we know nothing. Both these processes may have
required an immensity of time ; but as we know nothing whatever about them, and
have as yet no prospect of acquiring any information, we are compelled to confine
ourselves to as much of the process of evolution as we can infer from the structure
of living and fossil forms—that is, as regards animals, to the development of the
simplest into the most complex Protozoa, the evolution of the Metazoa from the
Protozoa, and the branching of ‘the former into its numerous Phyla, with all their
classes, orders, families, genera, and species. But we shall find that this is
quite enough to necessitate a very large increase in the time estimated by the
geologist.
The Protozoa, simple and complex, still exist upon the earth in countless
species, together with the Metazoan Phyla. Descendants of forms which in their
day constituted the beginning of that scheme of evolution which I have defined
above, descendants, furthermore, of a large proportion of those forms which, age
after age, constituted the shifting phases of its onward progress, still exist, and in
a sufficiently unmodified condition to enable us to reconstruct, at any rate in
mere outline, the history of the past. Innumerable details and many phases of
supreme importance are still hidden from us, some of them perhaps never to be
recovered. But this frank admission, and the eager and premature attempts to
expound too much, to go further than the evidence permits, must not be allowed
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 819
to throw an undeserved suspicion upon conclusions which are sound and well
supported, upon the firm conviction of every zoologist that the general trend of
evolution has been, as I have stated it, that each of the Metazoan Phyla originated,
directly or indirectly, in the Protozoa.
The argument founded on the meteorite hypothesis would, however, require
that the process of evolution went backward on a scale as vast as that on which
it went forward ; that certain descendants of some central type, coming to the earth
on a meteorite, gradually lost their Metazoan complexity and developed backward
into the Protozoa, throwing off the lower Metazoan Phyla on the way, while cer-
tain other descendants evolved all the higher Metazoan groups. Such a process
would shorten the period of evolution by half, but it need hardly be said that all
available evidence is entirely against it. 4
The only other assumption by means of which the meteorite hypothesis might
be used to shorten the time is even more wild and improbable. Thus it might be
supposed that the evolution which we believe to have taken place on this earth
really took place elsewhere—at any rate as regards all its main lines—and that
samples of all the various phases, including the earliest and simplest, reached us
by a regular meteoric service, which was established at some time after the com-
pletion of the scheme of organic evolution. Hence the evidences which we study
would point to an evolution which occurred in some unknown world with an age
which even Professor Tait has no desire to limit.
If these wild assumptions be rejected, there remains the supposition that, if life
was brought by a meteorite, it was life no higher than that of the simplest Proto-
zoou—a supposition which leaves our argument intact. The alternative supposition,
that one or more of the Metazoan Phyla were introduced in this way while the
others were evolved from the terrestrial Protozoa, is hardly worth consideration.
In the first place, some evidence of a part in a common scheme of evolution is to
be found in every Phylum. In the second place, the gain would be small; the
arbitrary assumption would only affect the evidence of the time required for evolu-
tion derived from the particular Phylum or Phyla of supposed meteoric origin.
The meteoric hypothesis, then, can only affect our argument by making the
most improbable assumptions, for which, moreover, not a particle of evidence can
be brought forward.
We are therefore free to follow the biological evidence fearlessly. It is neces-
sary, in the first place, to expand somewhat the brief outline of the past history of
the animal kingdom, which has already been given. Since the appearance of the
‘Origin of Species,’ the zoologist, in making his classifications, has attempted as far
as possible to set forth a genealogical arrangement. Our purpose will be served by
an account of the main outlines of a recent classification, which has been framed
with a due consideration for all sides of zoological research, new and old, and
which has met with general approval. Professor Lankester divides the animal
kingdom into two grades, the higher of which, the Enterozoa (Metazoa), were
derived from the lower, the Plastidozoa (Protozoa). Each of these grades is again
divided into two sub-grades, and each of these is again divided into Phyla, cor-
responding more or less to the older sub-kingdoms. Beginning from below, the most
primitive animals in existence are found in the seven Phyla of the lower Protozoan
sub-grade, the Gymnomyxa. Of these unfortunately only two, the Reticularia (Fora-
minifera) and Radiolaria, possess a structure which renders possible their preservation
in the rocks. The lowest and simplest of these Gymnomyxa represent the starting-
point of that scheme of organic evolution which we are considering to-day. The
higher order of Protozoan life, the sub-grade Corticata, contains three Phyla, no one
of which is available in the fossil state. They are, however, of great interest and
importance to us as showing that the Protozoan type assumes a far higher organ-
isation on its way to evolve the more advanced grade of animal life. The first-
_ formed of these latter are contained in the two Phyla of the sub-grade Ccelentera,
the Porifera or Sponges, and the Nematophora or Corals, Sea-anemones,
Hydrozoa and allied groups. Both of these Phyla are plentifully represented in
‘the fossil state. Itis considered certain that the latter of these, the Nematophora,
820 REPORT—1896.
gave rise to the higher sub-grade, the Ccelomata, or animals with a ccelom or
body-cavity surrounding the digestive tract. This latter includes all the remain-
ing species of animals in nine Phyla, five of which are found fossil—the Echino-
derma, Gephyrea, Mollusca, Appendiculata, and Vertebrata.
Before proceeding further I wish to lay emphasis on the immense evolutionary
history which must have been passed through before the ancestor of one of the
higher of these nine Phyla came into being. Let us consider one or two examples,
since the establishment of this position is of the utmost importance for our argu-
ment. First, consider the past history of the Vertebrata—of the common ancestor
of our Balanoglossus, Tunicates, Amphioxus, Lampreys, Fishes, Dipnoi, Amphibia,
Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals. Although zoologists differ very widely in their
opinions as to the affinities of this ancestral form, they all agree in maintaining
that it did not arise direct from the Nematophora in the lower sub-grade of
Metazoa, but that it was the product of a long history within the Ccelomate sub-
grade. The question as to which of the other Coelomate Phyla it was associated
with will form the subject of one of our discussions at this meeting; and I will
therefore say no more upon this period of its evolution, except to point out that
the very question itself, ‘the ancestry of Vertebrates,’ only means a rela-
tively small part of the evolutionary history of the Vertebrate ancestor within
the Coelomate group. For when we have decided the question of the other
Ceelomate Phylum or Phyla to which the ancestral Vertebrate belonged, there
remains of course the history of that Phylum or those Phyla earlier than the point
at which the Vertebrate diverged, right back to the origin of the Coelomata; while,
beyond and below, the wide gulf between this and the Ccelentera had to be
crossed, and then, probably aftera long history as a Ccelenterate, the widest and
most significant of all the morphological intervals—that between the lowest
Metazoon and the highest Protozoon—was traversed. But this was by no means
all. There remains the history within the higher Protozoan sub-grade, in the
interval from this to the lower, and within the lower sub-grade itself, until we
finally retrace our steps to the lowest and simplest forms. It is impossible to
suppose that all this history of change can have been otherwise than immensely
prolonged ; for it will be shown below that all the available evidence warrants the
belief that the changes during these earlier phases were at least as slow as
those which occurred later.
If we take the history of another of the higher Phyla, the Appendiculata, we
find that the evidence points in the same direction. The common ancestor of our
Rotifera, earthworms, leeches, Peripatus, centipedes, insects, Crustacea, spiders
and scorpions, and forms allied to all these, is generally admitted to have been
Cheetopod-like, and probably arose in relation to the beginnings of certain other
Ccelomate Phyla, such as the Gephyrea and perhaps Mollusca. At the origin of
the Ccelomate sub-grade the common ancestor of all Coelomate Phyla is reached,
and its evolution has been already traced in the case of the Vertebrata.
What is likely to be the relation between the time required for the evolution
of the ancestor of a Coelomate Phylum and that required for the evolution, which
subsequently occurred, within the Phylum itself? The only indication of an
answer to this question is to be found in a study of the rate of evoluticn in the
lower parts of the animal kingdom as compared with that in the higher. Con-
trary, perhaps, to anticipation, we find that all the evidences of rapid evolution are
confined to the most advanced of the smaller groups within the highest Phyla,
and especially to the higher classes of the Vertebrata. Such evidence as we have
strongly indicates the most remarkable persistence of the lower animal types. Thus
in the class Imperforata of the Reticularia (Foraminifera) one of our existing
genera (Saccamina) occurs in the Carboniferous strata, another (Trochammina) in
the Permian, while a single new genus (Receptaculites) occurs in the Silurian and
Devonian. The evidence from the class Perforata is much stronger, the exist-
ing genera Nodosaria, Dentalina, Textularia, Grammostomum, Valvulina, and
Nummulina all occurring in the Carboniferous, together with the new genera
Archeediscus (?) and Fusulina.
I omit reference to the much-disputed Eozoon from the Laurentian rocks far
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 821
below the horizon, which for the purpose of this address I am considering as the
lowest fossiliferous stratum. We are looking forward to the new light which will
be thrown upon this form in the communication of its veteran defender, Sir
William Dawson, whom we are all glad to welcome.
Passing the Radiolaria, with delicate skeletons less suited for fossilisation, and
largely pelagic, and therefore less likely to reach the strata laid down along the
fringes of the continental areas, the next Phylum which is found in a fossil state
is that of the Porifera, including the sponges, and divided into two classes, the
Calcispongie and Silicospongize. Although the fossilisation of sponges is in many
cases very incomplete, distinctly recognisable traces can be made out in a large
number of strata. From these we know that representatives of all the groups of
both classes (except the Halisarcide, which have no hard parts) occurred in the
Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous systems, The whole Phylum isan example of
long persistence with extremely little change. And the same is true of the Nema-
tophora: new groups indeed come in, sometimes extremely rich in species, such as
the Palzozoic Rugose corals and Graptolites; but they existed side by side with
representatives of existing groups, and they are not in themselves primitive or
ancestral. A study of the immensely numerous fossil corals reveals no advance in
organisation, while researches into the structure of existing Aleyonaria and Hydro-
corallina have led to the interpretation of certain Palzeozoic forms which were pre-
viously obscure, and the conclusion that they find their place close beside the
living species,
All available evidence points to the extreme slowness of progressive evolu-
tionary changes in the Ceelenterate Phyla, although the Protozoa, if we may judge
by the Reticularia (Foraminifera), are even more conservative.
When we consider later on the five Coelomate Phyla which occur fossil, we
shall find that the progressive changes were slower and indeed hardly appreciable
in the two lower and less complex Phyla, viz., the Echinoderma, and Gephyrea,
as compared with the Mollusca, Appendiculata, and Vertebrata.
Within these latter Phyla we have evidence for the evolution of higher groups
presenting a more or less marked advance in organisation. And not only is the
rate of development more rapid in the highest Phyla of the animal kingdom, but
it appears to be most rapid when dealing with the highest animal tissue, the
central nervous system. The chief, and doubtless the most significant, difference
between the early Tertiary mammals and those which succeeded them, between the
Secondary and Tertiary reptiles, between man and the mammals most nearly
allied to him, is a difference in thesize of the brain. In all these cases an enormous
increase in this, the dominant tissue of the body, has taken place in a time which,
geologically speaking, is very brief.
hen glancing later on over the evolution which has taken place within
the Phyla, further details upon this subject will be given, although in this as in
other cases the time at our disposal demands that the exposition of evidence
must largely yield to an exposition of the conclusions which follow from its
study. And undoubtedly a study of all the available evidence points to the con-
clusion that in the lower grade, sub-grades, and Phyla of the animal kingdom
evolution has been extremely slow as compared with that in the higher. We do
not know the reason. It may be that this remarkable persistence through the
stratified series of deposits is due to an innate fixity of constitution which has
rigidly limited the power of variation; or, more probably perhaps, that the lower
members of the animal kingdom were, as they are now, more closely confined to
particular environments, with particular sets of conditions, with which they had to
cope, and, this being successfully accomplished, natural selection has done little
more than keep up a standard of organisation which was sufficient for their needs ;
while the higher and more aggressive forms, ranging over many environments and
always prone to encounter new sets of conditions, were compelled to undergo respon-
sive changes or to succumb. But, whatever be the cause, the fact remains, and is of
importance for our argument. When the ancestor of one of the higher Phyla
was associated with the lower Phyla of the Ccelomate sub-grade, when further
back it passed through a Ccelenterate, a higher Protozoan, and finally a lower
822 REPORT—1896.
Protozoan phase, we are led to believe that its evolution was probably very slow
as compared with the rate which it subsequently attained. But this conclusion is
of the utmost importance ; for the history contained in the stratified rocks nowhere
reveals to us the origin of a Phylum. And this is not mere negative evidence, but
positive evidence of the most unmistakable character. All the five Coelomate
Phyla which occur fossil appear low down in the Paleozoic rocks, in the Silurian
or Cambrian strata, and they are represented by forms which are very far from being
primitive, or, if primitive, are persistent types, such as Chiton, which are now
living. Thus Vertebrata are represented by fishes, both sharks and ganoids; the
Appendiculata by cockroaches, scorpions, Limulids, Trilobites, and many Crustacea ;
the Mollusca by Nautilus and numerous allied genera, by Dentalium, Chiton,
Pteropods, and many Gastropods aud Lamellibranchs; the Gephyrea by very
numerous Brachiopods, and many Polyzoa ; the Echinoderma by Crinoids, Cystoids,
Blastoids, Asteroids, Ophiuroids, and Echinoids. It is just conceivable, although,
as 1 believe, most improbable, that the Vertebrate Phylum originated at the time
when the earliest known fossiliferous rocks were laid down. It must be remem-
bered, however, that an enormous morphological interval separates the fishes which
appear in the Silurian strata from the lower branches, grades, and classes of the
Phylum in which Balanoglossus, the Ascidians, Amphioxus, and the Lampreys are
laced. The earliest Vertebrates to appear are, in fact, very advanced members of
the Phylum, and, from the point of view of anatomy, much nearer to man than to
Amphioxus. If, however, we grant the improbable contention that so highly
organised an animal as a shark could he evolved from the ancestral vertebrate in
the period which intervened between the earliest Cambrian strata and the Upper
Silurian, it is quite impossible to urge the same with regard to the other Phyla,
Tt has been shown above that when these appear in the Cambrian and Silurian,
they are flourishing in full force, while their numerous specialised forms are a
positive proof of a long antecedent history within the limits of the Phylum.
If, however, we assume for the moment that the Phyla began in the Cambrian,
the geologist’s estimate must still be increased considerably, and perhaps doubled,
in order to account for the evolution of the higher Phyla from forms as low as
many which are now known upon the earth ; unless, indeed, it is supposed, against
the weight of all such evidence as is available, that the evolutionary history in
these early times was comparatively rapid.
To recapitulate, if we represent the history of animal evolution by the form of
a tree, we find that the following growth took place in some age antecedent to the
earliest fossil records, before the establishment of the higher Phyla of the animal
kingdom. The main trunk representing the lower Protozoa divided, originating
the higher Protozoa; the latter portion again divided, probably in a threefold man-
ner, originating the two lowest Metazoan Phyla, constituting the Ocelentera. The
branch representing the higher of these Phyla, the Nematophora, divided, origin-
ating the lower Coelomate Phyla, which again branched and originated the higher
Phyla. And, as has been shown above, the relatively ancestral line, at every
stage of this complex history, after originating some higher line, itself continued
down to the present day, throughout the whole series of fossiliferous rocks, with
but little change in its general characters, and practically nothing in the way of
progressive evolution. Evidences of marked advance are to be found alone in the
most advanced groups of the latest highest products—the Phyla formed by the
last of these divisions.
It may be asked, How is it possible for the zoologist to feel so confident
as to the past history of the various animal groups? I have already explained
that he does not feel this confidence as regards the details of the history,
but as to its general lines. The evidence which leads to this conviction is
based upon the fact that animal structure and mode of cevelopment can be, and
have been, handed down from. generation to generation from a period far more
remote than that which is represented by the earliest fossils; that fundamental
facts in structure and development may remain changeless amid endless changes of
a more general character; that especially favourable conditions have preserved
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 823
ancestral forms comparatively unchanged. Workirg upon this material, com-
parative anatomy and embryology can reconstruct for us the general aspects of a
history which took place long before the Cambrian rocks were deposited. This
line of reasoning may appear very speculative and unsound, and it may easily
become so when pressed too far. But applied with due caution and reserve, it
may be trusted to supply us with an immense amount of valuable information
which cannot be obtained in any other way. Furthermore, it is capable of stand-
ing the very true and searching test supplied by the verification of predictions
-made on its authority. Many facts taken together lead the zoologist to be-
lieve that A was descended from C through B; but if this be true, B should
possess certain characters which are not known to belong to it. Under the in-
spiration of hypothesis a more searching investigation is made, and the characters
are found. Again, that relatively small amount of the whole scheme of animal
evolution which is contained in the fossiliferous rocks has furnished abundant
confirmation of the validity of the zoologist’s method. The comparative anatomy
of the higher vertebrate classes leads the zoologist to believe that the toothless
beak and the fused caudal vertebrae of a bird were not ancestral characters, but
were at some time derived from a condition more conformable to the general plan
of vertebrate construction, and especially to that of reptiles. Numerous secondary
fossils prove to us that the birds of that time possessed teeth and separate caudal
vertebre, culminating in the long lizard-like tail of Archzeopteryx.
Prediction and confirmation of this kind, both zoological and paleontological,
haye been going on ever since the historic point of view was adopted by the
naturalist as the outcome of Darwin's teaching, and the zoologist may safely claim
that his method, confirmed by palzontology so far as evidence is available, may be
extended beyond the period in which such evidence is to be found.
And now our last endeavour must be to obtain some conception of the amount
of evolution which has taken place within the higher Phyla of the animal kingdom
during the period in which the fossiliferous rocks were deposited. The evidence
must necessarily be considered very briefly, and we shall be compelled to omit the
Vertebrata altogether.
The Phylum Appendiculata is divided by Lankester into three branches, the
first containing the Rotifera, the second the Chzetopoda, the third the Arthropoda.
Of these the second is the oldest, and gave rise to the other two, or at any rate to
the Arthropoda, with which we are alone concerned, inasmuch as the fossil records
of the others are insufficient. The Arthropoda contain seven classes, divided into
two grades, according to the presence or absence of antennze—the Ceratophora,
containing the Peripatoidea, the Myriapoda, and the Hexapoda (or insects); the
Acerata, containing the Crustacea, Arachnida, and two other classes (the Pantopoda
and Tardigrada) which we need not consider. The first class of the antenna-
bearing group contains the single genus Peripatus—one of the most interesting
and ancestral of animals, as proved by its structure and development, and by its
immense geographical range. Ever since the researches of Moseley and Balfour,
extended more recently by those of Sedgwick, it has been recognised as one of the
most beautiful of the connecting links to be found amongst animals, uniting the
antenna-bearing Arthropods, of which it is the oldest member, with the Cheetopods.
Peripatus is a magnificent example of the far-reaching conclusions of zoology, and
of its superiority to paleontology as a guide in unravelling the tangled history of
animal evolution. Peripatus is alive to-day, and can be studied in all the details
of its structure and development; it is infinitely more ancestral, and tells of a far
more remote past than any fossil Arthropod, although such fossils are well known
in all the older of the Paleozoic rocks, And yet Peripatus is not known as a
fossil. Peripatus has come down, with but little change, from a time, on a mode-
_ Tate estimate, at least twice as remote, and probably many times as remote, as
the earliest known Cambrian fossil. The agencies’ which, it is believed, have
crushed and heated the Archzean rocks so as to obliterate the traces of life which
they contained were powerless to efface this ancient type; for, although the passing
generations may have escaped record, the likeness of each was stamped on that
824 REPORT— 1896.
which succeeded it, and has continued down to the present day. It is, of course,
a perfectly trite and obvious conclusion, but not the less one to be wondered at, that -
the force of heredity should thus far outlast the ebb and flow of terrestrial change
throughout the vast period over which the geologist is our guide.
If, however, the older Paleozoic rocks tell us nothing of the origin of the
antenna-bearing Arthropods, what do they tell us of the history of the Myriapod
and Hexapod classes ?
The Myriapods are well represented in Paleozoic strata, two species being
found in the Devonian and no less than thirty-two in the Carboniferous. Although
placed in an order (Archipolypoda) separate from those of living Myriapods, these
species are by no means primitive, and do not supply any information as to the
steps by which the class arose. The imperfection of the record is well seen in the
traces of this class ; for between the Carboniferous rocks and the Oligocene there
are no remains of undoubted Myriapods.
We now come to the consideration of insects, of which an adequate discussion
would occupy a great deal too much of your time. An immense number of species
are found in the Paleozoic rocks, and these are considered by Scudder, the great
authority on fossil insects, to form an order, the Palzodictyoptera, distinct from any
of the existing orders. The latter, he believes, were evolved from the former in
Mesozoic times. These views do not appear to derive support from the wonderful
discoveries of M. Brongniart ! in the Upper Carboniferous of Commentry in the
Department of Allier in Central France. Concerning this marvellous assemblage of
species, arranged by their discoverer into 46 genera and 101 species, Scudder truly
says :—
‘Our knowledge of Paleozoic insects will have been increased three or four fold
at a single stroke... . . No former contribution in this field can in any way
compare with it, nor even all former contributions taken together.’ *
When we remember that the group of fossil insects, of which so much can be
affirmed by so great an authority as Scudder, lived at one time and in a single
locality, we cannot escape the conclusion that the insect fauna of the habitable
earth during the whole Palzozoic period was of immense importance and variety.
Our knowledge of this single group of species is largely due to the accident that coal-
mining in Commentry is carried on in the open air.
Now, these abundant remains of insects, so far from upholding the view that
the existing orders had not been developed in Palzozoic times, are all arranged by
Brongniart in four out of the nine orders into which insects are usually divided,
viz., the Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Thysanoptera, and Homoptera. The importance
of the discovery is well seen in the Neuroptera, the whole known Paleozoic
fauna of this order being divided into 45 genera and 99 species, of which 33
and 72 respectively have been found at Commentry.
Although the Carboniferous insects of Commentry are placed in new families,
some of them come wonderfully near those into which existing insects are classified,
and obviously form the precursors of these. This is true of the Blattidee, Phasmide,
‘Acridiidee, and Locustide among the Orthoptera, the Perlide among the
Neuroptera, and the Fulgoridz among the Homoptera. The differences which
separate these existing families from their Carboniferous ancestors are most
interesting and instructive. Thus the Carboniferous cockroaches possessed ovi-
positors, and probably laid their eggs one at a time, while ours are either vivi-
parous or lay their eggs ina capsule. The Protophasmide resemble living species
in the form of the head, antenne, legs, and body; but while our species are either
wingless or, with the exception of the female Phyllide, have the anterior pair
reduced to tegmina, useless for flight, those of Paleozoic times possessed four well-
developed wings. The forms representing locusts and grasshoppers (Paleacridiidie)
possessed long slender antenne like the green grasshoppers (Locustide), from
which the Acridiide are now distinguished by their short antenne. The diver-
gence and specialisation which are thus shown are amazingly smallin amount. In
1 Ch, Brongniart.—‘ Recherches pour servir 4 l’Histoire des Insectes fossiles des
temps primaires, précédées d’une Etude sur la nervation des ailes des Insectes.’ 1894.
2 §. H. Scudder, Am. Journ. Sci., vol. xlvii. February 1894. Art. Vili.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 825
the vast period between the Upper Carboniferous rocks and the present day the cock-
roaches have gained a rather different wing venation, and have succeeded in laying
their eggs in a manner rather more specialised than that of insects in general; the
stick insects and leaf insects have lost or reduced their wings, the grasshoppers
have shortened their antennz. These, however, are the insects which most closely
resemble the existing species ; let us turn to the forms which exhibit the greatest
differences. Many species have retained in the adult state characters which are
now confined to the larval stage of existence, such as the presence of tracheal gills
on the sides of the abdomen. In some the two membranes of the wing were not
firmly fixed together, so that the blood could circulate freely between them. On
the other hand, they are not very firmly fixed together in existing insects. Another
important point was the condition of the three thoracic segments, which were quite
distinct and separate, instead of being fused, as they are now, in the imago stage.
This external difference probably also extended to the nervous system, so that the
thoracic ganglia were separate instead of concentrated. The most interesting
distinction, however, was the possession by many species of a pair of prothoracie
appendages much resembling miniature wings, and which especially suggest the
appearance assumed by the anterior pair (tegmina) in existing Phasmide. There
is some evidence in favour of the view that they were articulated, and they exhibit
what appears to be a trace of venation. Brongniart concludes that in still earlier
strata, insects with six wings will be discovered, or rather insects with six of the
tracheal gills sufficiently developed to serve as parachutes. Of these the two
posterior pair developed into the wings as we know them, while the anterior pair
degenerated, some of the Carboniferous insects presenting us with a stage in
which degeneration had taken place, but was not complete.
One very important character was, as I have already pointed out, the enormous
size reached by insects in this distant period. This was true of the whole known
fauna as compared with existing species, but it was especially the case with the
Protodonata, some of these giant dragon-flies measuring over two feet in the
expanse of the wings.
As regards the habits of life and metamorphoses, Brongniart concludes that
some species of Protoephemeride, Protoperlide, &c., obtained their food in an
aquatic larval stage, and did not require it when mature. He concludes that
the Protodonata fed on other animals, like our dragon-flies; that the Paleeacridiida
were herbivorous like our locusts and grasshoppers, the Protolocustide herbivorous
and animal feeders like our green grasshoppers, the Palzoblattidee omnivorous
like our cockroaches. The Homoptera, too, had elongated sucking mouth-parts
like the existing species. It is known that in Carboniferous times there was a lake
with rivers entering it, at Commentry. From their great resemblance to living
forms of known habits, it is probable that the majority of these insects lived near
the water and their larvee in it.
When we look at this most important piece of research as a whole, we cannot
fail to be struck with the small advance in insect structure which has taken place
since Carboniferous times. All the great questions of metamorphosis, and of the
structures peculiar to insects, appear to have been very.much in the position
in which they are to-day. It is indeed probable enough that the orders which
zoologists have always recognised as comparatively modern and specialised, such
as the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera, had not come into existence.
But as regards the emergence of the class from a single primitive group, as regards
its approximation towards the Myriapods, which lived at the same time, and of
both towards their ancestor Peripatus, we learn absolutely nothing. AJL. we can
say is that there is evidence for the evolution of the most modern and specialised
members of the class, and some slight progressive evolution in the rest. Such evo-
lution is of importance as giving us some vague conception of the rate at which the
process travels in this division of the Arthropoda. If we look upon development as
a series of paths which, by successively uniting, at length meet in a common point,
_ then some conception of the position of that distant centre may be gained by
————eEeEr
measuring the angle of divergence and finding the number of unions which occur
in a given length. In this case the amount of approximation and union shown in
1896. 30
$26 REPORT—1896.
the interval between the Carboniferous period and the present day is relatively
so small that it would require to be multiplied many times before we could
expect the lines to meet in the common point, the ancestor of insects, to
say nothing of the far more distant past, in which the Tracheate Arthropods
met in an ancestor presenting many resemblances to Peripatus. But it must not
be forgotten that all this vast undefined period is required for the history of one of
the two grades of one of the three branches of the whole Phylum.
Turning now to the brief consideration of the second grade of Arthropods,
distinguished from the first grade by the absence of antenne, the Trilobites are
probably the nearest approach to an ancestral form met with in the fossil state.
Now that the possession of true antenne is certain, it is reasonable to suppose that
the Trilobites represent an early class of the Aceratous branch which had not yet
become Aceratous. They are thus of the deepest interest in helping us to under-
stand the origin of the antennaless branch, not by the ancestral absence, but by the
loss of true antennz which formerly existed in the group. But the Trilobites did
not themselves originate the other classes, at any rate during Paleozoic times.
They represent a large and dominant class, presenting more of the characters of the
common ancestor than the other classes; but the latter had diverged and had
become distinct long before the earliest fossiliferous rocks; for we find well-marked
representatives of the Crustacea in Cambrian, and of the Arachnida in Silurian
strata. The Trilobites, moreover, appear in the Cambrian with many distinct and
very different forms, contained in upwards of forty genera, so that we are clearly
very far from the origin of the group.
Of the lower group of Crustacea, the Entomostraca, the Cirripedes are repre-
sented by two genera in the Silurian, the Ostracodes by four genera in the Cambrian
and over twenty in the Silurian: of these latter, two genera (Cythere and Bairdia)
continue right through the fossiliferous series and exist at the present day.
Remains of Phyllopods are more scanty, but can be traced in the Devonian and
Carboniferous rocks. The early appearance of the Cirripedes is of especial interest,
inasmuch as the fixed condition of these forms in the mature state is certainly not
primitive, and yet, nevertheless, appears in the earliest representatives.
The higher group, the Malacostraca, are represented by many genera of Phyl-
locarida in the Silurian and Devonian, and two in the Cambrian. These also
afford a good example of the imperfection of the record, inasmuch as no traces of
the group are to be found between the Carboniferous and our existing fauna in
which it is represented by the genus Nebalia. The Phyllocarida are recognised as
the ancestors of the higher Malacostraca, and yet these latter already existed—
in small numbers, it is true—side by side with the Phyllocarida in the Devonian.
The evolution of the one into the other must have been much earlier. Here, as in
the Arthropoda, we have evidence of progressive evolution among the highest
groups of the class, as we see in the comparatively late development of the Brachyura
as compared with the Macrura. We find no trace of the origin of the class, or of
the larger groups into which it is divided, or, indeed, of the older among the small
groupings Into families and genera.'
Of the Arachnida, although some of the most wonderful examples of persistent
types are to be found in this class, but little can be said. Merely to state the
bare fact that three kinds of scorpion are found in the Silurian, two Pedipalpi,
eight scorpions, and two spiders in the Carboniferous, is sufficient to show that the
period computed by geologists must be immensely extended to account for the
development of this class alone, inasmuch as it existed in a highly specialised
condition almost at the beginning of the fossiliferous series; while, as regards
so extraordinarily complex an animal as a scorpion, nothing apparent in the way of
progressive development has happened since. Professor Lankester has, however,
pointed out to me that the Silurian scorpion Palezeophonus possessed heavier limbs
than those of existing species, and this is a point in favour of an aquatic life like
that of its near relation, Limulus. If so, it is probable that it possessed external
‘ For an account of the evolution of the Crustacea see the Presidential Addresses
to the Geological Socie in 1895 and 1896 by Dr. Henry Woodward.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 827
gills, not yet inverted to form the lung-book. The Merostomata are of course a
Paleozoic group, and reach their highest: known development at their first appear-
ance in the Silurian ; since then they have done nothing but disappear gradually,
leaying the single genus Limulus, unmodified since its first appearance in the
Trias, to represent them. It is impossible to find clearer evidence of the decline
rather than the rise of a group. No progressive development, but a gradual cr
rapid extinction, and consequent reduction in the number of genera and species, is
a summary of the record of the fossiliferous rocks as regards this group and many
others, such as the Trilobites, the Brachiopods, and the Nautilide. All these
groups begin with many forms in the oldest fossiliferous rocks, and three of them
have left genera practically unchanged from their first appearance to the present
day. What must have been the time required to carry through the vast amount
of structural change implied in the origin of these persistent types and the groups
to which they belong—a period so extended that the interval between the oldest
Paleozoic rocks and the present day supplies no measurable unit !
But I am digressing from the Appendiculate Phylum. We have seen that the
fossil record is unusually complete as regards two classes in each grade of the
Arthropod branch, but that these classes were well developed and flourishing in
Paleozoic times. The only evidence of progressive evolution is in the development
of the highest orders and families of the classes. Of the origin of the classes
nothing is told, and we can hardly escape the conclusion that for the development
of the Arthropod branches from a common Chetopod-like ancestor, and for the
further development of the classes of each branch, a period many times the length
of the fossiliferous series is required, judging from the insignificant amount of
development which has taken place during the formation of this series.
It is impossible to consider the other Coelomate Phyla as I have done the
Appendiculata. I can only briefly state the conclusions to which we are led.
As regards the Molluscan Phylum, the evidence is perhaps even stronger than
in the Appendiculata. Representatives of the whole of the classes are, it is believed,
found in the Cambrian or Lower Silurian. The Pteropods are generally admitted
to be a recent modification of the Gastropods, and yet, if the fossils described in the
genera Conularia, Hyolithes, Pterotheca, &c., are true Pteropods, as they are
supposed to be, they occur in the Cambrian and Silurian strata, while the group
of Gastropods from which they almost certainly arose, the Bullide, are not known
before the Trias. Furthermore, the forms which are clearly the oldest of the
Pteropods—Limacina and Spirialis—are not known before the beginning of the
Tertiary period. Either there is a mistake in the identification of the Paleozoic
fossils as Pteropods, or the record is even more incomplete than usual, and the
most specialised of all Molluscan groups had been formed before the date of the
-earliest fossiliferous rocks. Even if this should hereafter be disproved, there can be
no doubt about the early appearance of the Molluscan classes, and that it is the
irony of an incomplete record which places the Cephalopods and Gastropods in the
Cambrian, and the far more ancestral Chiton no lower than the Silurian. Through-
out the fossiliferous series the older families of Gastropods and Lamellibranchs are
followed by numerous other families, which were doubtless derived from them ;
new and higher groups of Cephalopods were developed, and, with the older groups,
either persisted until the present time or became extinct. But in all this splitting
up of the classes into groups of not widely different morphological value, there is
very little’ progressive modification ; and, taking such changes in such a period as
our unit for the determination of the time which was necessary for the origin of
the classes from a form like Chiton, we are led to the same conclusion as
that which followed from the consideration of the Appendiculata, viz., that
the ego series would have to be multiplied several times in order to
rovide it,
; Of the Phylum Gephyrea I will only mention the Brachiopods, which are
found in immense profusion in the early Paleozoic rocks and which have occupied
the subsequent time in becoming less dominant and important. So far from
helping us to clear up the mystery which surrounds the origin of the class, the
earliest forms are quite as specialised as those living now, and, some of them (Lingula,
3H 2
~
828 REPORT—1896.
Discina) even generically identical. The demand for time to originate the group
is quite as grasping as that of the others we have been considering.
All the classes of Echinoderma, except the Holothurians, which do not possess
a structure favourable for fossilisation, are found early in the Paleozoic rocks,
and many of them inthe Cambrian. Although these early forms are very different
from those which succeeded them in the later geological periods, they do not possess
a structure which can be recognised as in any way primitive or ancestral. The
Echiaoderma are the most distinct and separate of all the Ccelomate Phyla,
and they were apparently equally distinct and separate at the beginning of the
fossiliferous series.
In concluding this imperfect attempt to deal with a very vast subject in a very
short time, I will remind you that we were led to conclude that the evolution of
the ancestor of each of the higher animal Phyla probably occupied a very long
period, perhaps as long as that required for the evolution which subsequently
occurred within the Phylum. But the consideration of the higher Phyla
which occur fossil, except the Vertebrata, leads to the irresistible conclusion that
the whole period in which the fossiliferous rocks were laid down must be
multiplied several times for this later history alone. The pericd thus obtained
requires to be again increased, and perhaps doubled, for the earlier history.
In the preparation of the latter part of this address I have largely consulted
Zittel’s great work. I wish also to express my thanks to my friend Professor
Lankester, whom I have consulted on many of the details, as wellas the general plan
which has been adopted.
The following Papers and Reports were read :-—
1. On the Cultivation of Oysters as Practised by the Romans.
By R. T, Gonrner, JA.
9. On the Function of certain Diagnostic Characters of Decapod Crustacea.
By Waurer Garstane, I/.A., Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford.
The author deals with the functions of various minor characteristics of Decapod
Crustacea, especially the Brachyura.
A crab’s carapace shows two regions subject to great variability of form.
These regions are—
1. The frontal area between the orbits.
2. The pair of lateral margins.
The variability consists in the absence or presence of spines and teeth, and the
varying length, shape, and number of these structures. These characters are
employed by systematic writers to distinguish the different species and genera
from one another.
The author's investigations show that it is not merely the function of the
spines and teeth which is to be considered, but also the function of the spaces and
notches between them.
The frontal area of crabs is frequently either 3- or 5-toothed—z.ec., either
9- or 4-notched. Examination of living crabs shows that the notches are corre-
lated functionally with the play of the two pairs of antenne. When the frontal
area is 3-toothed (e.¢., Portunus pusillus) the first antenne are lodged in the two
notches, and the second antennz project on each side of the frontal prominence.
When the frontal area is 5-toothed (e.g., Polybius Henslowit) the first antennze
are lodged in the inner, and the second antennz in the outer pair of notches.
This type of denticulation is simply an arrangement by which crabs may have
their antennz protected by a projection of the frontal area, while the possibility
of free movement for the antenne is provided by the notches along its margin.
It is scarcely needful to point out that the antenne of a crab are organs of great
importance to it in the search for food, and that in the case of the antennules a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 829
power of free movement is necessary to enable the crab to detect the direction of
odoriferous bodies in its neighbourhood. At the same time the situation of the
antenne in front of the body renders these organs particularly liable to injury
unless specially protected.
In regard to the denticulation of the lateral margins of the carapace experi-
ments show that in sand-burrowing species a most important function of the
denticulated margins is in connection with the process of respiration. It may be
termed the ‘sieve-function.’
It is not generally known that a crab’s chelipeds are in many cases not merely
organs of prehension, but important agents in the respiratory process. The
principal afferent apertures to the branchial chambers are situated at the base of
the chelipeds. When the chelipeds are folded’ against the sides of the carapace
(for which purpose they are in many forms specially curved and moulded) a pair
of lateral slit-like channels is produced which lead directly downwards to the
afferent apertures at the basement of the chelipeds. The lateral denticulated
margins of the crab’s carapace overhang the slit-like orifices of these accessory
water-channels. When the crab is partially imbedded in sand it is possible, by
the addition of colouring matter to the water, to demonstrate that a constant
stream of water flows from above downwards through these accessory channels
between chelipeds and carapace. The stream enters through the gaps between
the teeth or spines on the lateral margins of the carapace. The teeth act asa
coarse sieve or grating over the slit-like orifice, and prevent foreign bodies, such
as particles of sand and shell, from falling into the channel and blocking its
lumen. The water, after traversing these channels, enters the branchial chambers
by the afferent apertures at the base of the chelipeds, and emerges in front by the
lateral apertures at the sides of the mouth.
As examples of sand-burrowing crabs to which the above remarks apply,
Bathynectes longipes and Atelecyclus heterodon may be mentioned. In each case
the lateral denticulated margins of the carapace subserve this sieve-function. The
number of teeth is five in Bathynectes and nine in Atelecyclus, but in each case
the extent of the denticulated area is commensurate with the extent of the lateral
inhalant gap between chelipeds and carapace.
This view is confirmed by the fact that in Ebalia and other Leucosiide, in
which the afferent water-channel is entirely independent of the chelipeds, the
lateral margins of the carapace are smooth and free from denticulations.
In Calappa granulata of the Mediterranean the chelipeds can be pressed
against the smooth sides of the carapace with extreme nicety. The author has
not yet had an opportunity of studying this crab alive; but, if the chelipeds are
held tightly to the body when the animal is buried in the sand, it must be
impossible for water to enter between them and the carapace, except at one point
on each side, between the anterior margin of the carapace and the curious cock’s-
comb-like crests with which the chelipeds in this genus are provided. The
antero-lateral margin of the carapace is smooth throughout, but the crests of the
chelipeds are conspicuously denticulated. The structure of the surrounding parts
renders it extremely probable that the inhalant current of water passes to the
afferent aperture through the notches between the spines on the crest-like
expansions.
In Matuta victor, an East Indian sand-burrowing crab, the inhalant current
actually seems to enter through the crab’s orbits, flowing thence downwards
through a special pair of orbital gutters. Here also we find the marginal teeth of
the carapace obsolete and scarcely recognisable.
A complete reversal of the ordinary branchial currents may take place in
certain sand-burrowing crabs, as the author has experimentally determined in the
ease of Corystes cassivelaunus, Atelecyclus heterodon, and Platyonichus nasutus.
A similar reversal probably occurs also in Albunea symnista, Platyonichus latipes,
and several other forms.
In Corystes and Atelecyclus filtration is effected during reversal by an inhalant
sieve-tube formed by the second antenne, with the participation of the third
maxillipeds. In A/bunea a similar tube is formed by the apposition of the first
830 REPORT—1896.
antenne. In Platyonichus nasutus, which burrows in coarse shell gravel, a
remarkable and characteristie prominence of the frontal area protects the anterior
apertures from the accidental intrusion of foreign bodies.
It thus appears that many of the specific and generic characteristics of
Crustacea, which have been hitherto regarded as features of trivial significance are
really of primary importance to their possessors under the particular conditions of
their existence. :
It is both remarkable and interesting that the same function in relation to the
process of respiration should be discharged by organs and parts so dissimilar from
one another as are the first antenne of Albunea, the second antennie of Corystes,
the frontal area of Platyonichus nasutus, the five lateral spines of the carapace of
Bathynectes, the nine lateral spines of Atelecyclus, the crests of the chelipeds of
Calappa granulata, and the orbits of Matuta victor.
3. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—See Reports, p. 492.
4, Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Liological
Laboratory, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 485.
5. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples.
See Reports, p. 478.
6. Report on the Fauna and Flora of the West Indies.
See Reports, p. 493.
7. Report on the Biological Investiyation of Oceanic Islands.
See Reports, p. 487.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. A Discussion on Neo-Lamarckism was opened by Professor Luoyp-
Morean.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
2. Report on the Coccide of Ceylon.—See Reports, p. 450.
3. Report on the Transmission of Specimens by Post.—See Reports, p. 477.
4. Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication.
See Reports, p. 490.
5. Report on the Index generum et specierum animalium.
See Reports, p. 489.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 831
6. On the Life-history of the Tiger Beetle (Cicindela campestris).
By ¥. Enocx.
7. The Hatchery for Marine Fishes at Flodevigen, Norway.
By G. M. Dannevic.
[Communicated by J. W. WOODALL. ]
The Flodevigen Hatchery for Salt-water Fish was, at Captain Dannevig’s
proposal, erected in 1883 by a private society in Arundal, with the object of
ascertaining whether it was possible to produce large numbers of fry of the better
class of salt-water fish at a reasonable cost, the decrease in the fisheries, especially
the cod fishing, being then greatly felt.
The work commenced in February 1884, and, as neither methods nor service-
able apparatus were invented, the troubles at the beginning were great and many.
Five millions of cod and nearly two millions of flounders and dabs were
hatched at a cost of about 1s. 3d. per 1000 fry.
The author gave details of the operations carried on from 1884 until the
present year.
During the later period —1890-96—1203 millions of fry were hatched at a cost
of 0:65d. per 1000 fry. The last season the cost was one-third of a penny per
1000, and there is still a good chance of diminishing the expenses. The hatchery
cost about 800/., and the annual expenditure is about 500/.
The practical result of the work is that the cod is rapidly increasing on the
south coast, and more especially where fry have been planted.
8. On the Necessity for a British Fresh-water Biological Station.
By D. J. ScourFieELD.
Although there are fresh-water biological stations actively at work in Germany,
Bohemia, the United States, and other countries, the idea of founding such an
institution in this country has received very little attention. In fact the only
tangible proposal to found such a station appears to be that made by the Norfolk
and Norwich Naturalists’ Society. But surely it is time, now that the more
pressing need for British marine biological stations has been largely satisfied, and
the anticipations as to their value are being steadily realised, to consider it the
careful study of fresh-water biology in this country cannot be helped forward by
the establishment of a properly equipped station. There can be no doubt that
many of the most interesting problems in fresh-water biology, problems of great
general importance bearing on vexed points of variation, heredity, selection, and
the influence of environment, will never be solved without the continuity of
observation which can practically only be secured by means of a station definitely
working towards this end.
Of the three principal districts in England and Wales offering suitable con-
ditions for a fresh-water station, viz., the Lake District, North Wales, and the
Norfolk Broads, the main work to be done in the two former would probably be
directed towards the fresh-water ‘plankton,’ while in the latter the influence of
the gradation from fresh to brackish water would be the most characteristic
feature. Many other lines of investigation could of course be followed in either
district, and the mere working-up of the aquatic fauna and flora of the immediately
surrounding neighbourhood, which is almost esseutial as a preliminary step to
deeper investigation, would be in itself no small gain to science.
The minimum cost of an efficient fresh-water station would probably amount
to about 500/., and the cost of maintenance to 250/. a year ; for it is evident that if
the station is to be a success there must be at least one trained biologist to live
and work at it continuously.
1 See Trans. Norf. and Norm. Nat. Soc., vol. vi. Part I. p. 108; also Natural Science,
Jan. 1896, p. 8.
832 REPORT—1896.
Compared with the large sums spent on marine biological stations, the amount
required for a fresh-water station, even if provided with a little more than the
minimum outfit, is evidently very modest, and it seems hardly necessary to advo-
cate the formation of a special society to carry out the proposal to found such a
station. A little co-operation on the part of the many existing institutions
interested in biology with a local society willing to undertake the work of organ-
isation and supervision seems to be all that is required. At least, so far as the
Norfolk Broads are concerned, this method would suffice, for there is the proposal
of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society already in the field, and it would
be a great pity if a scheme should be allowed to fall through which, if carried out,
would remove the reproach that the United Kingdom is almost the only country
in Europe without a heshiarater biological station.
9. On Improvements in Trawling Apparatus. By J. WH. Macrure.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 39.
The following Report was read :—
Report on the Migration of Birds.—See Reports, p. 451.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
1. A Discussion was held in conjunction with Sections H and I on the
Ancestry of the, Vertebrata.
The following Paper was read :—
2. On Paleospondylus Gunni. By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
i. A Discussion was held in conjunction with Section K on the Cell
Theory.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
2. The Theory of Panplasm.
By Professor Cuarxes 8. Minor, Harvard University, Boston.
The author reviews the series of theories which attribute essential general vital
functions to small particles, which may be called life units, and are present in large
numbers within a single cell. Such life units have been named Gemmules,
Physiological Units, Pangenes, Biophores, Plastidules, Ids, Idiosomes, &e. The
author regards all these theories as erroneous. They are to be looked upon as
little more than survivals of the old conception of absolute distinction between
living and non-living matter.
The Theory of Panplasm supposes that all the materials by their interaction
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 833
produce the vital phenomena of Protoplasm, and that therefore life can exist only
in Protoplasm of relatively large bulk, as compared with the hypothetical life
units. This view has experimental support. It also is in accordance with
Biitschli’s foam theory of Protoplasm, All vital phenomena depend upon the
arrangement and composition of the multifarious constituents of Protoplasm. The
Theory of Panplasm, therefore, calls for a chemical explanation of Protoplasmatic
functions.
3. On Multiple Cell Division as compared with Bi-partition as Herbert
Spencer's limit of growth. By Professor Marcus Hartoe, I.A., D.Sc.,
ELS.
Herbert Spencer showed that the growth of the cell without change of shape
necessarily reduced the area of surface in proportion to the mass, and gave this as
a sufficient explanation of ordinary cell-division. Another type of cell-division is
that in which successive divisions occur without any interval for growth; such
divisions are variously known as Sporulation, Segmentation, and Brood formation,
but a more convenient term is ‘multiple cell-formation.’ This frequently occurs
determined by considerations of space; as, for instance, when an elongated cell
rounds off, its superficial area is much reduced, and multiple cell-formation restores
the necessary ratio.
Another case is that of a cell in which the food has been utilised largely for
the storage of reserve materials instead of for the growth of protoplasm. Judging
from what takes place in plants, we might anticipate that the protoplasm could
not utilise these materials without the previous formation of a zymose or chemical
ferment with which to render such reserves available for growth. This antici-
pation has been confirmed; by appropriate methods the author has extracted a
peptonising zymose from the segmenting egg of the frog at a time when the
hypoblast was still visible through the blastopore; and from the hen’s embryo at
twenty-four hours, and from the extravascular blastoderm at later stages. This
affords a key to multiple cell-formation in a large number of cases, where the
secretion of a ferment has, by an abundant food-supply, determined protoplasmic
growth at the expense of the reserves, and so determined the need for an extension
of surface.
A probable deduction from this observation is that where reserves are to be
utilised by the containing-cell, the antecedent formation of a zymose is necessary,
and that digestion is a function, not of protoplasm, but of the ferments which
protoplasm may secrete.
The zymoses obtained by the author from segmenting embryos were active in
neutral as well as in acid solution, and in this respect appear to differ from the
ferments observed in protozoa.
4. The Present Position of Morphology in Zoological Science. By EK. W.
MacBripe, J/.A., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge ; Univer-
sity Demonstrator of Animal Morphology.
For some time back a distrust of the morphological method of studying
evolution has been growing up amongst zoologists. Alternative methods have
been suggested as more fruitful lines of research. These will be examined in the
first place to show that they labour from defects from which morphology is free ;
then the causes of the discontent with morphology will be inquired into; and
finally some new points of view from which morphological facts may be regarded
will be put forward. ;
4 The most important alternative methods which have been put forward are
three :—
1. Mechanics of development or experimental embryology.
In this method the endeavour is made to separate into its factors the complex
ye
834: REPORT—1896.
process known as develovment, and it is shown that the organs of the adult are
not traceable back into definite areas of the ovum, or even blastula. So far as it
oes, this is a most valuable kind of dissection; but it does not touch the question
of how the hereditary powers of animals may be altered and so congenital inherit-
able variations produced ; and this is the main problem of zoology.
2. The study of individual variations.
The drawbacks to this method are—
(a) It is often quite impossible to distinguish a congenital variation from a
variation produced in the particular individual examined by some accident in the
environment.
(b) Many of the most conspicuous variations are shown by a study of specific
and generic characters to have had no part in the evolutionary process. ©
(c) It is not enough that a variation should occur ; it must occur in a sufficient
number of individuals to prevent its being immediately swamped by intercrossing.
3. The statistical study of individual variations or mathematical zoology.
The drawbacks to this method are—
(a) It is only capable of application to one character at a time, and a character
is only a mental abstraction; natural selection acts on the balance of all the
characters.
(6) Even if we could establish that a certain value of a given character was
accompanied by a low death rate, and that therefore this value was likely to
become a specific character, the success of its possessors might be due to some
obscure constitutional change associated with it.
(c) But the only way it is possible to get such a result is to compare the
variations with respect to a particular character of young and fully adult animals.
To attribute the lesser number of deviations from the mean in the latter case to
the death of individuals which had widely varied is to overlook the possibility of
a self-regulating tendency in growth.
The reason of the discontent with the morphological method is that it proves
too much, z.c., the most contradictory conclusions may be drawn from the same
premisses, for
(a) Evolution is not only a progress from the simple to the complex ; degene-
racy or simplification of structure plays an important part, and so also does
homoplasy or parallel development, the evolution of similar structures in different
animals independently.
(5) It has been customary to postulate modifications as part of evolutionary
history, the utility of which is to be taken on faith; and if this principle be
admitted, the evolutionary theorist can, armed with progressive degeneracy, as
well as progressive differentiation, derive any one animal from any other.
Suggestions as to better ways of dealing with morphological facts :—
1. There are many cases where the fact that a certain modification has taken
place is doubted by no one; for instance, no one seriously doubts that Teredo and
Pecten have been derived from the ordinary Lamellibranch type.
The evolutionary changes which can be deduced from such cases as these are
really the data the morphologist has to go on; if he departs from these he is on
unsafe ground. It is possible that by a comparative study of such cases, ‘laws of
evolution’ might be formulated.
2. In reiation to the question of how degenerate and primitive structures are
to be distinguished, we have to consider two subsidiary questions :—
(az) Does the fact that an animal is obviously degenerate in some points
invalidate any conclusions that may be arrived at as to its general primitive
eharacter ?
(>) Can an animal which has descended to a degenerate mode of life give rise to
highly organised descendants P
The answer to the first question is that all animals which in their general
organisation are primitive are likewise degenerate, since they have by their
degeneracy escaped competition with their more highly organised relatives.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 835
Amount of modification is an ambiguous term, and covers two distinct varieties
of evolution:
(i.) Increase in differentiation of organs fulfilling the main functions (nervous,
muscular, circulatory, and reproductive organs, for instance), correlated with
greater intensity of metabolism.
Gi.) Modification of shape, size, and external organs.
(i.) is regarded by most zoologists as the essence of progressive evolution.
The lesser value assigned to (ii.) justifies the separation of the Thylacine
and Dog.
The answer to the second question is, so far as can be inferred from data laid
down above, in the negative.
Hence it is not legitimate to assume that Vertebrata are directly descended
from Balanoglossus or even Amphioxus.
On the main question as to the criteria of primitive and degenerate cha-
racters. Primitive structures are synthetic in nature; they either serve to link
together different groups, as the flat foot of Nucula connects Gastropods and
Lamellibranchs, or different organs, as the ccelom of the lower Annelids and of
Brachiopods unites the functions of the renal and reproductive organs; for new
organs have not arisen de novo from functionless rudiments, but by the modifica-
tion of pre-existing organs.
Degenerate structures do not recall structures of other groups, and their con-
dition does not correspond to the evolutionary level deducible from the condition
of the other organs of the body.
Example: Rudimentary limbs of certain Urodeles.
8. One of the most vexed questions in zoology is the value to be attached to
ontogeny as a record of phylogeny. Some have denied that it has any such
value, but cases exist where the phylogenetic value is simply undeniable.
It is highly improbable that ontogeny is a process of an essentially different
nature in different cases; therefore there is probably a phylogenetic element in
all ontogeny.
Many features in embryology are, as all admit, secondary.
The key to the puzzle is that the embryo is a modified larva, and that the
larva recapitulates not primarily ancestral structure but—
(a) Ancestral habits.
(6) Ancestral level of differentiation of functions, and ancestral structure so
far as is demanded by these conditions.
4, In relation to the question as to how far homoplasy interferes with the
conclusions we are accustomed to base on similarity of structure, it must be
admitted that parallel development has not only taken place in widely separated
groups, where there is no danger of confusion, but again and again in narrow
circles of affinity; the researches of modern systematists seem to show that it is
the normal thing. Instances of this, Arion and Limax amongst Pulmonata, &c.
Criticism of the conception of identity of ancestry.
We do not mean that animals belonging to different families are ultimately
descended from the same pair. We mean only from ancestors so similar as to have
been able to pair with one another, or in other words belonging to same species.
Species are, however, often separated by trivial marks, so far as we can see,
of a non-adaptive character. It is a gratuitous assumption that similarity in
broad outlines of structure which are adaptive indicates descent from same
species.
Closely allied species exposed to same environmental influence would undergo
the same change; descent from same species is only the extreme term in a series
in which there is a gradual passage from what would be called homology to
undeniable homoplasy. Structural resemblance indicates not primarily identity
of ancestry, but similarity of past environment; and there may be all degrees
‘in this similarity, both in extent and duration.
A conclusion like this is tacitly admitted by systematists who make the basis
of their system minute and apparently unimportant peculiarities of external form,
836 REPORT—1896.
colour, or arrangement of similar organs; it is, however, the origin and history of
adaptations which interest the morphologist, and his task must be, not primarily
to draw up genealogical trees, but to correlate these adaptations as far as possible
to the external conditions which have caused them.
5. The Olfactory Lobes.
By Professor Cuarues 8. Minor, Harvard University, Boston.
The author reports observations on the stratification and on the cell forms to
be found in the developing and mature olfactory lobes, and deduces the con-
clusion that the lobes must be regarded as modifications of the cortex cerebri.
He also emphasises the fact that the form of the cells of the cerebral cortex is
extremely variable, so that the current descriptions, especially of the pyramidal
cells, are really more or less conventionalised. These variations greatly facilitate
the comparison of the cells of the cortex proper with those of the olfactory lobe.
6. On the relation of the Rotifera to the Trochophore.
By Professor Marcus Harros, I.A., D.Sc., LS.
The author gave reasons for regarding the usually accepted affinities of the
Rotifera to the Trochophore as due to similarity of conditions and to no more
morphological identity. He regards the Rotifera as primitively aproctous, and
suggests that the anus has been formed by the fusion of the blind end of the gut
with a genito-urinary cloaca, This is indicated by the absence of the anus in the
males of most Rotifers and the females of one family. Again, while the anus of
the Trochophore is formed from part of the blastoporal area, the proctodeum in
Rotifera is formed outside this area. The author regards the Rotifera as corre-
sponding with Pilidum, in which the apical organ has been transformed into glands
for attachment, as occurs in the larva of certain Echinoderms. All the orientation
of the Rotifera is, according to this view, comparable with that of the cuttlefish.
‘ Anterior’ und ‘ posterior’ become replaced by oral and apical ends, ‘dorsal’
and ‘ ventral’ by anterior and posterior, while right and left are unchanged.
7. Statistics of Wasps. By Professor F. Y. Epczwortu.
By new methods and a new application of old methods (which are described in
the ‘Journal of the Royal Statistical Society ’ for June 1896) the writer confirms
the conclusion formerly obtained, that the average duration of a wasp’s absence
from the nest is about a quarter of an hour in the evening. But for the daytime
the average duration of a voyage is considerably longer.
8. Note on Genyornis, Stirling, an Extinct Ratite Bird supposed to belong
to the Order Megistanes. By Prof. A. Newton, /.R.S.
9. Report on the Fauna of African Lakes.—See Reports, p. 484.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1, Report on the Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea.
See Reports, p. 417.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 837
2. Phoronis, the Earliest Ancestor of the Vertebrata.
By A. T. Masterman.
The constitution of the group Chordata. The Hemichorda—Balanoglossus—
Cephalodiscus, Rhabdopleura—The claims of Phoronis to be allied to the Hemi-
chorda—Structural comparison of Phoronis to the Hemichorda (1) to Cephalodiscus,
(2) to Balanoglossus—Absence of gill-slits and notochord—The ‘branchial fissure ”
—Discovery of notochord in Actinotrocha—Structure and relations of notochord in
Actinotrocha—Segments of the mesoblast in Actinotrocha—Relationship to
Tornarta—Sugegested group ‘ Diplochorda’ and division of Chordate into Trimeta-
mera and Polymetamera—Relationship to lower organisms (Echinodermata, &c.).
3. The Effects of Pelagic Spawning Habit on the Life Histories of Fishes.
By A. T. MAsterMan.
The present position of work on Teleostean development—The ‘ontogenetic
migration ’ as exemplified by plaice, herring, and sand-ee!—Method of investigation
—Division of eggs into ‘pelagic’ and ‘demersal ’—Suggested ancestral character
of pelagic eggs—Explanation of ontogenetic migration by phyletic migrations—
Reasons for holding ‘ pelagic’ spawning habit to be ancestral—Effect of physical
surroundings upon the pelagic stage—(1) Surface-currents (¢.g., plaice)—Displace-
ment in two directions. (2) Change of salinity—Plaice of the Baltic—Fresh-
water fish of pelagic descent—Flounder—Eel. (3) Temperature—Hastening of
development and of ontogenetic migration—Fatality to fry—Plaice in Danish
waters. (4) Change of life habit of fish—Change to demersal (littoral)—The
‘ demersal ’ a specialised development—Littoral fish—Graphic representation of the
life histores and solution of types from ‘pelagic’ type.
4. The Structure of the Male Apus. By Dr. BenwaAm.
5. On the Life History of the Haddock.
By Prof. W. C. M‘Intosu, ID., F.R.S.
838 REPORT—1896.
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION —Masor Darwin, Sec. R.G.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.
The President delivered the following Address :—
In reviewing the record of geographical work during the past year, all other
performances pale in comparison with the feat accomplished by Nansen, It is not
merely that he has gone considerably nearer the North Pole than any other
explorer, it is not only that he has made one of the most courageous expeditions
ever recorded, but he has established the truth of his theory of Polar currents,
and has brought back a mass of valuable scientific information. When Nansen
comes to England I am certain that we shall give him a reception which will prove
how much we admire the heroism of this brave Norwegian.
Besides the news of this most remarkable achievement, the results of a con-
siderable amount of useful exploratory work have been published since the British
Association met last at Ipswich. With regard to other Arctic Expeditions, we
have had the account of Lieutenant Peary’s third season in Northern Greenland,
from which place he came back in September last, and to which he has again
returned, though without the intention of passing another winter there. In
October the ‘Windward’ brought home more ample information as to the progress
of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition than that communicated by telegram to the
Association at Ipswich, and on her return from her remarkably rapid voyage this sum-
mer she brought back the record of another year. As to geographical work in Asia,
Mr. and Mrs. Littledale returned safely from their explorations of the little knowr
parts of Tibet; the Pamir Boundary Commission, under Colonel Holdich, has
collected a great deal of accurate topographical information in the course of its
labours; Dr. Sven Hedin continues his important researches in Turkestan; and —
the Royal Geographical Society was glad to welcome Prince Henry of Orleans
when he came to tell us about his journey near the sources of the Irrawaddy. As
to Africa, the most important additions to our knowledge of that continent are
due to the French surveyors, who have accurately mapped the recently discovered
series of lakes in the neighbourhood of Timbuktu, Lake Faguibine, the largest,
being found to be 68 miles in length; Dr. Donaldson Smith has filled up some
large blanks in the map of Somaliland; and Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Bent have
investigated some interesting remains of ancient gold werkings inland of the Red
Sea. In other parts of the world less has been done, because there is less to do.
Mr. Fitzgerald has proved for the first time the practicable character of a pass
across the Southern Alps, thus supplementing the excellent work of Mr. Harper
and other pioneers of the New Zealand Alpine Club; and Sir W. M. Conway has
commenced a systematic exploration of the interior of Spitzbergen, a region to
which the attention of several other geographers is also directed.
'VRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 839
It is impossible in such a brief sketch to enumerate even the leading events of
the geographical year ; but what I have said is enough to remind us of the great
amount of valuable and useful work which is being done in many quarters of the
world. It is true that if we compare this record with the record of years gone by
we find a marked difference. Then, there was always some great geographical
problem to be attacked: the sources of the Nile had to be discovered ; the course
of the Niger had to be traced ; and the great white patches on our maps stimulated
the imagination of explorers with the thought of all sorts of possibilities. Now,
though there is much to be learned, vet, with the exception of the Poles, the work
will consist in filling in the details of the picture, the general outlines being all
drawn for us already. Personally I cannot help feeling a completely unreasoning
regret that we have almost passed out of the heroic period of geography. What-
ever the future may have in store for us, it can never give us another Columbus,
another Magellan, or another Livingstone. The geographical discoverers of the
future will win their fame in a more prosaic fashion, though their work may in
reality be of even greater service to mankind. There are now few places in the
world where the outline of the main topographical features is unknown; but, on the
other hand, there are vast districts not yet thoroughly examined. And, in examin-
. ing these more or less known localities, geographers must take a far wider view
than heretofore of their methods of study in order to accommodate themselves to
modern conditions.
But even if we confine our attention to the older and more narrow field of
geography, it will be seen that there is still an immense amount of work to be
done. We have been filling in the map of Africa during recent years with
extraordinary rapidity, but yet that map is likely to remain in a very unsatisfactory
condition for a long time to come. Englishmen and other Europeans have always
shown themselves to be ready to risk their lives in exploring unknown regions, but
we have yet to see how readily they will undertake the plodding work of recording
topographical details when little renown is to be won by their efforts. It should
be one of the objects of geographical societies to educate the public to recognise
the importance of this work, and General Chapman deserves great credit for bring-
ing the matter before the International Congress last year in such a prominent
manner. He confined himself to four main recommendations: (1) The extension
of accurate topographical surveys in regions likely to be settled by Europeans.
(2) The encouragement of travellers to sketch areas rather than routes. (3) The
study of astronomical observations already taken in the unsurveyed parts of Africa
in a systematic manner, and the publication of the results. (4) The accurate
determination of the latitude and longitude of many important places in unsurveyed
Africa. I am certain that all geographers are in hearty accord with General
Chapman in his views, and it is, perhaps, by continually bringing this matter before
the public that we shall best help this movement forward.
Not only do we want a more accurate filling in of the picture, but we have yet
to learn to read its lessons aright. The past cannot be understood, and still less
can the future be predicted, without a wider conception of geographical facts.
Look, for example, at the European colonies on the West Coast of Africa. Here
we find that there have been Portuguese settlements on the Gold Coast since the
year 1471, the French possibly having been established there at an even earlier
date ; whilst we English, who pride ourselves on our go-ahead character, have had
trading factories on the Coast since 1667, I have here a map showing the state of
our geographical knowledge in 1815. Why was it that Europeans have never,
broadly speaking, pushed into the interior from their base on the coast, which they
had occupied for so many centuries? That they had not done go, at least to any
purpose, is proved by this map. Why had four centuries of contact with Europeans
done so little even for geographical knowledge at that time? The answer to this
question may be said to be mainly historical; but the history of our African
colonies can never be understood without a study of the distribution of the dense
belt of unhealthy forest along the shore; of the distribution of the different types
of native inhabitants; and of the courses of the navigable rivers, all strictly geo-
a . . .
_ graphical considerations.
4
:
i
84.0 REPORT—1896.
Geography is the study of distribution, and early in that study we must be
struck with the correlation of these different distributions. If we take a map of
Africa, and mark on it all the areas within the tropics covered with dense forest
or scrub, we shall find we have drawn a map showing accurately the distribution
of the worst types of malarial fever ; and that we have also indicated with some
approach to accuracy—with, however, notable exceptions—the habitat of the lowest
types of mankind. These are the facts which give the key to understanding why
the progress of European colonisation on the West Coast has been so slow.
Along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea we find settlements of Europeans at
more or less distant intervals. All along, or nearly all along, this same coast we
find a wide belt of fever-stricken forest, fairly thickly inhabited by uncivilised
Negro and Bantu tribes. Inside this belt of forest the country rises in altitude,
and becomes more open, whilst at the same time there is a distinct improvement
in the type of native ; and the more we proceed inland, the more marked does this
improvement become. There appear in fact to have been a number of waves of
advancing civilisation, each one pressing the one in front of it towards these
inhospitable forest belts. Near the ¢oast the lowest type of Negro is, generally
speaking, to be found; then, as the more open country is reached, higher types of
Negroes are encountered: for example, the Mandingoes of the Senegal region are
distinctly higher than the Jolas inhabiting the mouths of the Gambia; and the
Hausas of the Sokoto Empire are vastly superior to the cannibals of the Oil Rivers.
Tn both these cases the higher types are probably not pure Negroes, but have Fulah,
Berber, or Arab blood in their veins; for we see, in the case of the Fulahs, how
they become absorbed into the race they are conquering; near the Senegal River
they are comparatively light in colour, but in Adamawa they are hardly to be dis-
tinguished by their features from the negroes they despise. Thus the process
appears to have been a double one; the higher race driving some of the lower
aboriginal tribes before them out of the better lands, and, at the same time, raising
other tribes by means of an admixture of better blood. These waves of advancing
civilisation seem to have advanced from the north and east, for the more we pene-
trate in these directions, the higher is the type of inhabitant met with, until at
last we reach the pure Berbers and the pure Arabs. Thus there are two civilising
influences visible in this part of Africa: one coming from the north and east—a
Mahommedan advance—which keeps beating up against this forest belt and occa-
sionally breaking into it; the other, a Christian movement, which, until the
middle of this century, was brought to a dead halt by this same obstacle. The
map of Africa, showing the state of geographical knowledge in 1815, makes it clear
that, except in a few cases where rivers helped travellers through these malarial
regions, nothing was known about the interior. No doubt much has been done
since those days, but this barrier still remains the great impediment to progress
from the West Coast; and those who desire our influence to spread more effec-
tively into the interior must wish to see some means of overcoming this obstacle.
On the East Coast of Africa the conditions are. somewhat different, as there is
comparatively little dense forest there; but the districts near that coast are also
usually unhealthy, and how to cross those malarial regions quickly into the healthy
or less unhealthy interior is the most important problem connected with the
development of Tropical Africa.
Other influences have been at work, no doubt, in checking our progress from
the West Coast. In old days the European possessions in these districts were
mere depéts for the export of slaves. As the white residents could not hope to
compete with the natives in the actual work of catching these unfortunate creatures,
and as the lower the type the more easily were they caught, as a rule, there was
no reason whatever for attempting to penetrate into the interior, where the higher
types are met with. But, though this export trade in human beings is now no
longer an impediment to progress, the slave trade in the interior still helps to bar
the way. When the forest belt is passed, we now come, generally speaking, to the
line of demarcation between the Mahommedan and the Pagan tribes, and here slave
catching is generally rife; when it is so, the constant raids of the Mahommedan
chiefs keep these border districts in a state of unrest which in every way tends to
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 841
impede progress. Thus a mere advance to the higher ialand regions will not by
any means solve all our difficulties; but it will greatly lessen them; and it is
universally admitted that the more communication with the interior is facilitated,
the more easy will it be to suppress this terrible traflic in human beings. By the
General Act of the Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference of 1890-91, it was agreed by
the assembled delegates that the construction of roads, and, in particular, of rail-
ways, connecting the advanced stations with the coast, and permitting easy access
to the inland waters, and to the upper courses of rivers, was one of the most effec-
tive means of counteracting the slave trade in the interior. Here, then, we have
the most formal admission which could be given of the necessity of opening up
main trunk lines of communication into the interior.
But not only does geographical knowledge help to demonstrate the necessity of
improving the means of communication between the coast and the interior, but it
helps us to decide where it is wise to make our first efforts in this direction. In
the first place, it is essential to note that ifthe Continent of Africa is compared
with other Continents, its general poverty is clearly seen. Mr. Keltie, in his excel-
lent work on the Partition of Africa, tells us that ‘ at present (1895) it is estimated
that the total exports of the whole of Central Africa by the east and west coast do
not amount to more than 2U,000,000/. sterling annually.’ For the purposes of com-
parison it may be mentioned that the export trade of India is between sixty and
seventy millions sterling annually, and that India is only about one-seventh or
one-eighth of the area of the whole of Africa. On the other hand, the trade of
India has been increasing by leaps and bounds, largely in consequence of the
country being opened out by railways, and there is every reason to hope that some-
what similar results would occur in Africa under similar circumstances, though
the lower civilization of the people would prevent the harvest being so quickly
reaped. But, however it may be as to the future, the present poverty of Africa is
enough to demonstrate the necessity of pushing ahead cautiously and steadily, and
of doing so in the most economical manner possible.
M. Decle, in an interesting paper, read before the International Geographical
Congress in London last year, strongly advocated the construction of cheap roads
for use by the natives, taking precautions to prevent any traffic in slaves along
them. His suggestions are well worthy of consideration ; but the cost of transport
along any road would, I should have thought, soon have eaten up any profits on
the import or export trade to or from Africa. What must be done in the first
instance is to utilise to the utmost all the natural lines of communication which
require little or noexpenditure to render them serviceable; in fact, to turn our
attention at first to the rivers and to the lakes. I have already pointed out that
the early maps of Africa prove that the rivers have almost invariably been the first
means of communication with the interior, and until this continent is rich enough
to support an extensive railway system, we must rely largely on the waterways as
means of transport.
It may be as well here to remark that geographical knowledge is often required
in order to control the imagination. I do not know why it is, but almost everyone
will admit that if he sees a lake of considerable size depicted on a map, he immedi-
ately feels a desire to visit or possess that locality in preference to others. A lake
may be of far lesa commercial value than an equal length of thoroughly navigable
river, and yet it will always appear more attractive. Look at the way in which
the English, the French, and the Germans are all pressing forward to Lake Chad ;
and yet Lake Chad is in reality not much more than a huge swamp, and, in all pro-
bability, it is excessively unhealthy. Again, it is probable that the Albert Nyanza
will prove to be of comparatively small value, because the mountains come down so
close to its shores. Of course, the great lakes form an immensely important feature
in African geography, but we must judge their commercial value rationally, and
without the bias of imagination. ,
To develop the traffic along the rivers and on the lakes is the first stage in the
commercial evolution of a continent like Africa. But it cannot carry us very
far. Africa is badly supplied with navigable rivers, chiefly as a natural result
of the general formation of the land. ‘The continent consists, broadly speaking,
1896. Be
842 REPORT—1896.
of a huge plateau, and the rivers flowmg off this plateau are obstructed by
‘cataracts in exactly the places where we most want to use them—that is, when
approaching the coasts. The second stage in the commercial evolution will
therefore be the construction of railways with the view of supplementing this
river traffic. Finally, no doubt, a further stage will be reached, when railways
will cut out the rivers altogether; for few of the navigable rivers are really well
suited to serve as lines of communication. This last stage is, however, so far off
that we may neglect it for the present; though it must be noted that there are
some parts of Africa where there are no navigable rivers, and where, if anything
is to be done, it must be entirely by means of railways.
Thus, as far as the immediate future is concerned, the points to which our
attention should be mainly directed are (1) the courses of the navigable parts of
the rivers, and (2) the routes most suitable for the construction of railways in
order to connect the navigable rivers and lakes with the coast. As to the
navigable rivers, little more remains to be discovered with regard to them, and
we can indicate the state of our geographical knowledge on this point with
sufficient accuracy for our purposes by means of a map. Of course the commercial
value of a waterway depends greatly on the kind of boats which can be used, and
that point cannot well be indicated cartographically.
As to the railways, we must study the physical features of the country
through which the proposed lines,of communication would pass. All the
obstacles on rival routes should be most carefully surveyed when considering
the construction of railways in an economical manner. Great mountain chains
are seldom met with in Africa, and from that point of view the continent is as a
whole remarkably free. from difficulties. But drifting sand is often a serious
trouble, and that is met with commonly enough in many parts. Wide tracks of
rocky country also form serious impediments, both because of the cost of con-
struction, and also because the supply of water for the engines becomes a problem
not to be neglected. Such arid and sandy districts are of course thinly in-
habited, and we may therefore generally conclude that where the population is
scanty, there railway engineers will have special difficulties to face. On the
other hand, dense forests are also very unsuitable. We have not much ex-
perience to guide us, but it would appear probable that the initial expense of
clearing the forest, and the cost of maintenance, in perpetually battling against
the tropical vegetable growth, will be very heavy; for it will not do to allow the
line to be in constant danger of being blocked. The dampness of the forest,
which will cause all woodwork and wooden sleepers to rot, will be no small
source of trouble, and the virulent malarial fevers, always met with where the
vegetation is very rank, will add immensely to the difficulty both of construction
and of maintenance. The health of the European employés will be a most serious
question in considering the construction of railways in all parts of tropical Africa,
for the turning up of the soil is the most certain of all methods of causing an
outbreak of malarial fever; and the evil results would be most severely felt in
constructing ordinary railways in dense forests. In making the short Senegal
railway, where the climate is healthier than in many of the districts further
south, the mortality was very great. Perhaps we shall have to modify our usual
methods of construction so as to mitigate this danger, and, in connection with
this subject, I may perhaps mention that the Lartigue system seems to be specially
worthy of consideration—a system by which the train is carried on a single ele-
vated rail. This is perhaps travelling rather wide of the mark of ordinary geo-
graphical studies, but it illustrates the necessity of a thorough examination of
the environment: before we try to transplant our own methods to other climes.
We may, however, safely conclude that we must as far as possible ayoid
both dense forests and sandy and rocky wastes in the. construction of our first
railways.
Thon, as to the lines of communication, considered as a whole, rail and river
combined, we must obviously, if any capital is to be expended, make them in the
directions most likely to secure a profitable traffic. In considering this part of the
question, it will be seen that there are several different problems to be discussed :
a ~~
2
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 843
(1) trade with the existing population in their presenticondition ; (2) trade with
the native inhabitants when their countries have been further developed with the
aid of European supervision; and (8) trade with actual colonies of European
settlers: To many minds the last of these problems will appear to be the mest
important, and in the end it may prove to be so. But the time at my disposal
compels me to limit myself to the consideration of trade with the existing native
races within the tropics, with only an occasional reference to the influence of white
residents. We must, no doubt, carefully consider which are the localities most
likely to attract those Europeans who go to Africa with the view of establishing
commercial intercourse and commercial methods in the interior; and there can be
no doubt that considerations of health will play a prominent part in deciding
this point. Moreover, as the lowest types of natives have few wants, the more
primitive the inhabitants of the districts opened up, the less will be the probability
of a profitable trade being established. For both these reasons the coast districts
are not likely in the end to be as good a field for commercial enterprise as the
higher lands in the interior; for the more we recede from the coast, the less
unhealthy the country becomes, and the more often do we find traces of native
civilisation. To put it simply, we must consider both the density of the population
and the class of inhabitant in the districts proposed to be opened up. Of course,
‘the exact nature of the products likely to be exported, and the probability of
demands for European goods arising amongst the natives of different districts, are
vitally important considerations in estimating the profits of any proposed line of
railway ; but to discuss such problems in commercial geography at length would
-open up too wide a field on an occasion like this.
If the importance of considering the density of the population in the different
districts in such a preliminary survey is admitted, we may then simplify our
inquiry by declining to discuss any lines of communication intended to open up
regions where the population falls below some fixed minimum—whatever we may
like to decide on. Of course, the question of the greater or less probability of a
locality attracting white temporary residents is very important, but unless there is
‘a native population ready to work on, there will be little done for many years to
come. Politically it may or may not be right to open up new districts by railways
for the sake of finding outlets for our home or our Indian population; but here I
am considering the best lines for the development of commerce, taking things as
they are. What then shall be this minimum of population? The population of
Bengal is 470 per square mile; of India, as a whole, about 180; and of the United
States, about 21,or 22. If it is remembered that the inhabitants of the United
States are, per head, vastly more trade-producing than the natives of Africa, it will
be admitted that we may for the present exclude from our survey all districts in
which the population does not reach a minimum of 8 per square mile; it might be
right to put the minimum much higher than this. On the map now before you,
the uncoloured parts show where the density of population does not come up
to this minimum, and we can see at a glance how enormously this reduces the area
to be considered. The light pink indicates a population of from 8 to 82 per square
mile, and the darker pink a denser population than that. Of course, such a map,
in the very imperfect state of our knowledge, must be very inaccurate, as I am
sure the compiler would be the first to admit. On the same map are marked the
navigable parts of rivers. I should like to have shown the dense forests also, but
the difficulty of giving them with any approach to correctness is at present
insuperable. | oHn
Here, then, is the kind of map we want in order to consider the broad outline
of the questions connected with the advisability of attempting to push lines of
communication into the interior. The problem is how to connect the inland. parts
of Africa, which are coloured pink on this map, with the coast, by practicable lines
-of communications, at the least cost, with the least amount of dense forest to be
traversed, and, in the case of railways, whilst avoiding as far as possible all thinly
‘populated districts,
It is of course quite impossible here to discuss all the great routes into the
interior, and I should like to devote the remaining time at my disposal to: the
312
844 REPORT—1896.
consideration of this problem as far as a few of the most important districts are
concerned, confining myself, as I have said, to trade with existing native races
within the tropics. Taking the East Coast first, and beginning at the north, the
first region sufficiently populous to attract our attention is the Valley of the Nile,
and parts of the Central Sudan. Wadai, Darfur, and Kordofan are but scantily
inhabited, according to our map, and this is probably the case now that the
Khalifa has so devastated these districts ; but, without doubt, much of this country
could support a teeming population, and is capable of great commercial develop-
ment. The Bahr-el-Ghazal districts are especially attractive, being fertile and
better watered than the somewhat arid regions further north. These remarks
remind me how difficult it is at this moment to touch on this subject without
trenching on politics. Few will deny that the sooner this region is connected
with the civilised world the better, and it is only as to the method of opening it
up, and as to who is to undertake the work, that burning political questions will
arise. The geographical problems connected with the lines of communication to
the interior can be considered whilst leaving these two points quite on one side.
A glance at the map reminds us of the well-known fact that, below Berber,
the Nile is interrupted by cataracts for several hundred miles, whilst above that
town there is a navigable water-way at high Nile until the Folarapids are reached,
a distance of about 1,400 miles, not to mention the 400 to 600 miles of the Blue
Nile and the Bahr-el-Gazal, which are also navigable. The importance of a rail-
way from Suakin to Berber is thus at once evident, and there is perhaps only one
other place in Africa where an equal expenditure would open up such a large tract
of country to European trade. This route, however, is not free from difficulties.
Suakin is hot and unhealthy. ‘Then the railway, about 260 miles in length, passes
over uninhabited or thinly inhabited districts the whole way. Though the hills
over which it would pass are of no great height, the highest part of the track
being under 3,000 feet above the sea, it is often said that the desert to be
traversed would add greatly to the difficulty of construction. According to
Lieut.-Colonel Watson, R.E., however, these difficulties have been greatly exag-
gerated, for the water supply would give no great trouble. The sixth cataract,
between Metemma and Khartum, would make navigation for commercial purposes
impossible when the waters are low; it is probable that this impediment could be
overcome by erecting locks, but it is impossible to estimate the cost of such works.
Then, again, the Nile above Khartum is much obstructed by floating grass or sudd,
making navigation at times almost impossible; but it was Gordon’s opinion that a
line of steamers on the river, even if running at rare intervals, would keep the
course of the stream clear; this, however, remains to be proved.
If the canalisation of the sixth cataract should prove to be too costly an under-
taking, then it would be most advisable to carry on the railway beyond that
obstacle. This might be done by prolonging the line along the banks of the Nile,
or by adopting an entirely different route from Suakin through Kassala, I hope
we shall hear something from Sir Charles Wilson as to the relative merits of
these proposals during the course of our proceedings. Proposals have also been
made for connecting the Nile with other ports on the Red Sea, and all of these
suggestions should be carefully examined before a decision is made as to the exact
route to be adopted. But in any case, considering the matter merely from a
geographical standpoint, and putting politics on one side—a very large omission
in the case of the Sudan—it would appear that one or other of these routes
should be one of the very first to be constructed in all Africa.
Passing further south, it is obvious from the configuration of the shore, and
from the distribution of the population, that the lines of communication next to
be considered are those leading to the Victoria Nyanza, and on to the regions lying
north and west of the lake.
Two routes for railways from the coast to the Victoria Nyanza have been pro-
posed, one running through the British and the other through the German sphere
of influence. Looking at the matter from a strictly geographical point of view,
there is perhaps hardly sufficient information to enable us to judge of the relative
merits of the two proposals. Both run through an unhealthy coast zone, and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 845
both traverse thinly inhabited districts until the lake is reached. The German
route, as origiually proposed, would be the shorter of the two; but there is some
reason to think that the British line will open up more country east of the lake,
which will be suitable for prolonged residence by white men. Sir John Kirk, in
discussing the question of the possible colonisation of tropical Africa by Europeans,
said: ‘These uplands vary from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in height, the climate is cool,
and, as far as known, very healthy for Europeans, This district is separated from
the coast by the usual unhealthy zone, which, however, is narrower than elsewhere
on the African littoral. Between the coast zone and the highlands stretches a
barren belt of country, which attains a maximum width of nearly 200 miles, The
rise is gradual, and throughout the whole area to be crossed the climate is drier
and the malarial diseases are certainly much less frequent and less severe than in
the regions further south.’ These very advantages, however, may have to be
paid for by the greater difficulty of railway construction. Putting aside future
prospects, the map shows that the populous region to the west of the lake makes
either of these proposed lines well worthy of consideration, though it would
perhaps be rash to predict how soon the commerce along them would pay for the
interest on the capital expended. What will be the fate of the German project I
do not know, but we may prophecy with some confidence that the British line, the
construction of which has been commenced, will be completed sooner or later.
The two lines of communication we have discussed—the Suakin and the Victoria
Nyanza routes—are intended to supply the wants of widely separated districts ; but,
looking to a more distant future, they must sooner or later come into competition
one with the other, in attracting trade from the Central Sudan, Before this can
occur, communication by steamboat and by railway must be opened up between the
coast and the navigable Nile by both routes. This will necessitate a railway being
constructed, not only to the Victoria Nyanza, but also from that lake, or round it, to
the Albert Nyanza ; and, as the Nile is rendered unnavigable by cataracts about Du-
file, and as the navigation is difficult between Dufile and Lado, here also a railway
would be necessary in order to complete the chain of steam communication with
the coast. If goods were brought across the Victoria Nyanza by steamer, and taken
down the Nile in the same manner from the Albert Nyanza to Dufile, this route
would necessitate bulk being broken six times before the merchandise was under way
on the Nile; by the Suakin route, on the other hand, bulk would only have to be
broken twice, provided the sixth cataract were rendered navigable. Thus, if this
latter difficulty can be overcome, and if the sudd on the Nile is not found to
impede navigation very much, this Nyanza route will certainly not compete with
the Suakin route for any trade on the banks of the navigable Nile until a railway
is made from the coast to Lado, a distance of over 800 miles as the crow flies, and
certainly over 1,000 miles by rail. It must be remembered also that the Nyanza
route passes over mountains 8,700 feet above the sea; that the train will have to
mount, in all, nearly 13,000 feet in the course of its journey from the coast; and
that a diffieult gorge has to be crossed to the eastward of the Victoria Nyanza.
From these facts we may conclude that it will be a very long time before the
Nyanza route will draw any trade from the Central Sudan.
The line through the British sphere of influence runs to the northern end of
Victoria Nyanza, but from Mr. Vandeleur’s recent expedition into these regions we
learn that a shorter route, striking the eastern shore of the lake, is under considera-
tion. To lessen the expense of construction would be a great boon, but if we look
to the more ambitious schemes for the future, something may be said in favour of
the original proposal as being better adapted to form part of a line of railway
reaching the navigable Nile.
With regard to the comparison between the German and British routes to the
Victoria Nyanza, the latest accounts seem to imply that the Germans have prac-
tically decided on a line from the coast to Ujjiji, with a branch from Tabora to the
Victoria Nyanza. ‘his would be a most valuable line of communication ; but it
seems a pity that capital should be expended in compctitive routes when there are
so many other directions in which it is desirable to open up the continent. If the
Germans wish to launch out on great railway projects in Africa, let them make a
846 REPORT— 1896.
line from the south end of Lake Tanganyika to the northern end of Lake Nyasa,
and thence on to the coast; they would thus open up a vast extent of territory,
and Baron von Schele tells us that a particularly easy route can be found from
Kilva to the lake. Such a line of communication, especially if eventually con-
nected with the Victoria Nyanza to the north, would be more valuable than any
other line in Africa in putting an end to the slave trade, as it would make it pos-
sible to erect a great barrier, as it were, running north and south across the roads
traversed by the slave traders.
A line through German territory connecting Lake Nyasa with the sea would, no
doubt, come into competition with the route connecting the southern end of that
lake with the Zambesi, and thus with the coast. The mouths of the Zambesi,
though they are passable, will always present some impediment to commerce. But
after entering the river navigation is not obstructed until the Murchison Rapids on
the Shiré River arereached. Here there are at present sixty miles of portage to be
traversed, and this transit must be facilitated by the construction of a railway, if this
route is to be properly developed ; Mr. Scott Elliot tells us that 120 miles of railway,
from Chiromo to Matope, would be necessary for this purpose. Beyond this latter
point there isa good waterway to Lake Nyasa. Thus a comparatively short line of
railway would open up this lake to European commerce, and this route is likely to
be developed at a much earlier stage of the commercial evolution of Africa than the
one through German territory above suggested. It will be seen that these routes
connect fairly populous districts with the coast, and it must also be recollected
that the high plateau between Lake Nyasa and the Kafue River is one of the very
few regions in tropical Africa likely to attract white men as more or less perma-
nent residents.
Further south we come to the Zambesi River, which should, of course, be
utilised as far as possible. But this line of communication to the interior has
many faults. The difficulties to be met with at the mouths of the Zambesi have
already been ailuded to. Then the whole valley is unhealthy, and white travellers
would prefer any route which would bring them on to high land more quickly.
Moreover the Kebrabasa rapids cause a serious break in the waterway, and, as the
river above that point is only navigable for canoes, it is doubtful if it would ever
be worth making a railway for the sole purpose of connecting these two portions
of the river.
As the population of the upper Zambesi valley is considerable, and as the
country further from its banks is said to be likely to be attractive to white men,
there can be no doubt of the advisability of connecting it with the coast. This
naturally leads us to consider the Beira route, as a possible competitor with the
Zambesi. A sixty centimetre railway is now open from Fontesvilla to Chimoio
(190 kilometres), and it is probable that during the course of the next two years
the construction of the railway will be completed from the port of Beira itself as
far as the territory of the Chartered Company. This will form the first step in the
construction of a much better line of communication to the Upper Zambesi regions
than that afforded by the river itself. It is true that the gauge is very narrow, and
that the first part of the line passes through very unhealthy districts; but this line
will nevertheless be a most valuable addition to the existing means of. penetrating
into the interior of the continent. It is needless to say that the object of this
railway is to open up communications with Mashonaland, not for the purposes now
suggested.
South of the Zambesi the map shows us that there are no regions in tropical
Africa where the density of the native population reaches the minimum of eight
per square mile. Here, however, we come to the gold fields, where there is
attractive force enough to draw white men in great numbers within the tropics,
and where, no doubt, some of the most important problems connected with railway
communications will have to be solved in the immediate future. But, for reasons of
time and space, I have limited myself to the discussion of districts within the tropics,
where trade with the existing native races is the object in view. The Beira
railway does not in reality come within the limits I have imposed on myself,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 847
except as to its future development. Had time permitted, I should like to have
discussed the route leading directly from the Cape to Mashonaland, its relative
merits in comparison with the Beira railway, and as to where the two will come
into competition one with the other. But I must pass on at once to consider the
main trunk routes from the West Coast leading into the interior of Africa.
Passing over those regions on the West Coast where railways would only be
commenced because of the probable settlement, temporary or permanent, of white
men—passing over, that is, the whole of the German sphere of influence—we first
come to more dense native populations near the coast towns of Benguela and
St. Paul de Loanda. The latter locality is the more hopeful of the two, accord-
ing to our map, and here we find tbat the Portuguese have already con-
structed a railway leading inland for 191 miles to close to Ambaca. The intention
of connecting this railway with Delagoa Bay was originally announced, and I am
not aware to what extent this vast project has now been cut down, so as to bring
it within the region of practical proposals. A further length of 35 miles is, at all
events, being constructed, and 87 more miles have been surveyed. The Portuguese
appear to be very active at present in this district, as there are several other rail-
ways already under consideration ; one from Benguela to Bihe, of which 16 miles
is in operation, another from Mossamedes to the Huilla Plateau, and a third from
the Congo to the Zambesi. It is difficult to foretell what will be the outcome of
these schemes, but our population map is not very encouraging.
Next we come to the Congo, and here there is a grand opportunity of opening
up the interior of the continent. In going up this great stream from the coast we
first traverse about 150 miles of navigable waterway, and afterwards we come to
some 200 miles of cataracts, through which steamers cannot pass. Round this im-
pediment a railway is now being pushed, 18 kilometres of rails (117 miles) being
already laid. Then we enter Stanley Pool, and from this point we have open
before us—if Belgian estimates are to be accepted—7,000 miles of navigable water-
way. If this fact is correct, and if the population is accurately marked on our
map, then there is no place in all Africa where 200 miles of railway may be ex-
pected to produce such marked results. The districts traversed are unhealthy,
and the natives are, generally speaking, of a low type; but in spite of these draw-
backs, which no doubt will delay progress considerably, we may contidently predict
a grand future for this great natural route into the interior.
To. the north of the Congo, the next great navigable waterway met with is the
Niger. Again, granting the correctness of the population map, it can be scen at a
glance that there is no area of equal size in all Africa so densely inhabited, and no
district where trade with the existing native population appears to offer greater
inducement to open up a commercial route into the interior. Luckily little has to
be done in this respect, for the Niger is navigable for light-draught steamers in the
full season as far as Rabba, about 550 miles from the sea; here the navigation
soon becomes: obstructed by rocks, and at Wuru, about 70 miles further up the
river, the rapids are so unnavigable that even the light native canoes have to be
emptied before attempting a passage, and there are frequent upsets. From Wuru
the rapids extend to Wara, after which a stretch of clear and slow-running river
is met with. Above this, again, the Altona Rapids extend for a distance of 15
miles ; then 15 miles of navigable waterway, and then 20 miles more of rapids are
encountered. Yelo, the capitalof Yauui, is situated on these latter cataracts, above
which the Middle Niger is navigable for a considerable length. ‘The Binue is also
navigable in the floods for many miles, the limits being at present unknown ; part
of the year, however, it is quite impassable except for canoes. The trade with
the Western Sudan, which has been made possible by the opening up of this river,
is still only in its infancy, and to get the full benefit of this waterway a line of
railway ought to be carried on from Lokoja to Kano, the great commercial centre
of Hausal and Mr. Robinson's recent journeys over this country, which we hope to
hear about at a later period of our proceedings, have served to confirm the impres-
sion that no great physical difficulties would be encountered. The political con-
dition of the country may, however, make the construction of this railway quite
impossible for the present; for here we are on the borderland between Mahom-
848 REPORT-—1896.,
medanism and Paganism, where the slave trade always puts great impediments in
the path of progress, but where the same circumstances make it so eminently desir-
able to introduce a higher condition of civilisation. The only drawback to the
Niger as a line of communication to the Western Sudan is the terribly unhealthy
nature of the coast districts which have to be traversed. Any man, who finds a
means of combating the deadly diseases here met with, will be the greatest bene-
factor that Africa has ever had; but of such a discovery there are but few signs
at present.
lt is perhaps too soon to speculate as to the best means of opening a trade
route to Wadai and the more central parts of the Western Sudan; for we may be
sure that little will be done in this direction for years to come. Several com-
peting routes are possible. From the British sphere, we may try to extend our
communications eastward from the navigable parts of the Binue. The French,
on the other hand, may push northwards from the Ubangi; whilst, in a later
stare of commercial evolution, the best route of all may be found through
German terrritory, by pushing a railway from the shore in a direct line towards
Bagirmi and Wadai. To compare the relative merits of these trunk lines is
perhaps looking too far into the future, and traversing too much unknown
country, to make the discussion at all profitable.
Proceeding northwards, or rather westwards, along the coast we find ourselves
skirting the belt of dense forest already described as being the great cbstacle to
advance in this part of Africa. It is to be hoped that this barrier will be pierced
in several places before long. Naturally we turn our attention to the different
spheres of British influence, and here we are glad to learn that there are several
railways being constructed or being considered, with a view to opening up the
interior,
At Lagos a careful survey of a railway running in the direction of Rabba has
been made, and the first section is to be commenced at once. To connect the
Niger with the coast in this way would require 240 miles of railway, but the
immediate objectives are the towns of Abeokuta and Ibadan, which are said to
contain more than a third of a million inhabitants between them. No doubt the
populous coast region makes such a line most desirable; but whether it would
be wise to push on at all quickly to the Niger, and thus to come into competition
with the steamboat traffic on that river, is a very different question.
Surveys have also been made for a railway to connect either Kormantain or
Apan on the Gold Coast with Insuaim, a town situated on a branch of the Prab.
It is believed that the local traffic will be sufficiently remunerative to justify the
construction of this line. But, looking to the further prolongation of this rail-
way into the interior, it appears possible that those who selected this route were
too much influenced by the desire to reach Kumasi, which is a political rather
than a commercial centre. According to the views I have been advocating to-day,
the main object of a railway in this quarter should be the crossing of the forest
belt, and if, as there is some reason to believe, that belt is exceptionally wide and
dense in this locality, the choice of Kumasi as a main point on the route will
have been an unfortunate selection. A little further south, nearer the banks of
the Volta, it ie probable that more open land would be met with, and moreover
that river itself, which is navigable for steam launches from Ada to Akusi, would
be of use as a preliminary means of transport. Itis to be hoped that the merits
of a line from Accra through Odumase will be considered before it is too late.
I am now approaching the end of my brief survey of tropical Africa, for the best
method of opening communication between the Upper Niger and the coast is the
last subject I shall touch on. With this object in view, the French have con-
structed a railway from Kayes, the head of steam navigation during high water,
on the Senegal to Bafulabé, with the intention of ultimately continuing the line
to Bamaku on the Niger Unexpected difficulties have been met with in the
construction of this railway, and, as the Senegal River between Kayes and St.
Louis is only navigable for about a quarter of the year, it would hardly appear as
if the selection of this route had been based on sound geographical information.
No doubt the French will find some other practicable way of connecting the Upper
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 849
Niger with the coast, and surveys are already in progress with that object in
view. It may be worth mentioning that the Gambia is navigable as far as
Yarbutenda, and that it affords on the whole a better waterway than the Senegal ;
it is possible, therefore, that a railway from Yarbutenda to Bamaku might form a
better means of connecting the Niger with the coast, than the route the French
haye selected. :
At Sierra Leone a railway is now being constructed in a south-easterly
direction with a view of tapping the country at the back of Liberia. But here, as
in the case of the Gambia route, political considerations are of paramount im-
portance ; for no doubt the best commercial route, geographically speaking, would
have been a line run in a north-easterly direction to some convenient point on the
navigable part of the Upper Niger. If such a railway were ever constructed, it
would connect the longest stretch of navigable waterway in this region with the
best harbour on the coast. But the fact that it would cross the Anglo-French
boundary is a complete bar to this project at present.
Proposals for connecting Algeria with the Upper Niger by rail have often been
discussed in the French press, the idea being to unite the somewhat divided parts
of the French sphere of influence by this means, If the views here sketched
forth as tu the necessity of selecting more or less populous districts for the first.
opening up of lines of communication into the interior are at all correct, these
projects would be simple madness. For many a year to come Algeria and the
Niger will be connected by sea far more efficiently than by any overland route,
and I feel sure that when the details of these plans are properly worked out we
shall not find the French wasting their money on such purely sentimental schemes.
I must now conclude, and must give place to the other geographers who have
kindly undertaken to read papers to us on many interesting subjects, All I have
attempted to do is briefly to sketch out some of the main geographical problems
connected with the opering of Central Africa in the immediate future. Such a
review is necessarily imperfect, but its very imperfections illustrate the need of
more accurate geographical information as to many of the districts in question.
Many blunders may have been made by me in consequence of our inaccurate know-
ledge, and, from the same cause, many blunders will certainly be made in future by
those who have to lay out these routes into the interior. In fact my desire has.
been to prove that, notwithstanding the vast strides that geography has made in
past years in Africa, there is yet an immense amount of valuable work ready for
anyone who will undertake it.
Possibly, in considering this subject, I have been tempted to deviate from the
strictly geographical aspect of the case. Where geography begins and where it
ends is a question which has been the subject of much dispute. Whether geography
should be classed as a separate science or not has been much debated. No doubt
it is right to classify scientific work as far as possible; but it is a fatal mistake to
attach too much importance to any such classification. Geography is now going
through a somewhat critical period in its development, in consequence of the
solution of nearly all the great geographical problems that used to stir the imagina-
tion of nations; and for this reason such discussions are now specially to the fore.
My own humble advice to geographers would be to spend less time in considering
what geography is and what it is not; to attack every useful and interesting
problem that presents itself for solution; to take every help we can get from every
quarter in arriving at our conclusions ; and to let the name that our work goes by
take care of itself.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On a Journey in Tripoli. By H. 8. Cowper.
The author gave some account of a short journey made in March, 1896, in the
Tarhuna and M’salata districts of Tripoli. During his visit he examined or noted
about forty additional megalithic ruins of the type called by the Arabs Senam.
The route taken was by the Wadi Terr’qurt, a fine valley running parallel to the
850 ; REPORT—1896.
Wadi Doga, by which he entered the hills in 1895. He then proceeded to the
districts of Ghirrah and Mamurah, south of Ferjana, through which runs a great
wadi, the Tergilat. This reaches the sea at Kam, twelve miles south-east of the
ruins of Leptis Magna, and is undoubtedly the Cinyps of Herodotus. On reaching
the coast a week was spent at the ruins of Leptis and the Kam district, and the
return journey was made to Tripoli by sea.
2. The Land of the Hausa. By Rev. J. C. Ropryson.
3. Photographic Surveying. By JoHN Couzs,
This paper contains a concise history of the application of perspective drawings
and photographs to surveying. It then states the manner in which photographs
taken with an ordinary camera may be utilised in filling in the details of a map,
and proceeds to describe two surveying cameras of recent date, constructed on
different principles. The paper concludes with a reference to the method of
photographic surveying, which is being extensively employed by the department of
the Surveyor-General of the Dominion of Canada.
4. Marine Research in the North Atlantic. By H. N. Dickson, /.R.S.L.
5. On a Proposed Geographical Description of the British Islands.
By Hucu Roserr Mitt, D.Sc, /RSL.
The scheme submitted ig that of providing for each sheet of the 1-inch Ordnance
Survey map a memoir giving a succinct account of the geography of the district
represented. For this purpose it would be necessary to give an index of the names
on the map, certain measurements of natural features, e.g., mean height of land,
length of rivers, &c., a full discussion of the physical geography in the light of
modern geographical methods, and an indication of the influence exerted by
geographical conditions on the utilisation of natural resources, the sites of towns,
and the movements of population. The scheme has been published in full in the
‘Geographical Journal’ for April 1896 ; but since, if it is ever to be carried out, it
will require the co-operation of an immense number of workers throughout the
country, it is desirable that no opportunity be lost for making it known and
eliciting criticisms or suggestions.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
l. The Weston Tapestry Maps.
By Rey. W. K. R. Beprorp, JA.
William Sheldon, of Weston and Beoley (died 1570), was an enterprising man,
who conceived the idea of introducing the art of tapestry weaving into England.
He sent to Flanders one Richard Hicks, of Barcheston, to learn the work and bring
back artisans. Among other results of the looms which were kept in work for at
least half a century after Sheldon’s death are five maps of the Midland counties
which were bought by Horace Walpole after the mansion at Weston was pulled
down in 1776 for the sum of thirty guineas, and given by him to Earl Harcourt,
who presented two to the Bodleian and kept three at Nuneham, where they
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 851
remained until 1827, when Archbishop Harcourt presented them to the Museum at
York. Gough has described them at this period in his British Topographer,
1780. The first noticed represents Warwickshire, and is now at York. It is
13 ft. x 17 ft. x 3 ft. exclusive of the border, and contains a long inscription copied
from Camden. Its date is ascertained by the arms of Sheldon impaling Markham,
viz., Edward Sheldon, grandson of William, who married Elizabeth Markham
about 1588, which date is on the map.
The second of the York maps is the most modern, having the arms of Ralph
Sheldon, born 1623, and his wife Henrietta, daughter of Viscount Rocksavage. In
this map the north is at the top, but in the former map the north is upon the
east side. This represents the valley of the Thames from Chippenham (spelt
Chipnam) to London Bridge, the dimensions are 13 ft. x 17 ft. 9 inches.
The third map at York is one of Worcestershire, and is so begrimed with soot
as to be almost undecipherable, though enough can be made out to identify it with
Gough’s description.
The Bodleian maps are much mutilated. A large fragment cut off one made
into a screen was sold at the Strawberry Hill Sale, 1842, and Mr. D. P. (Dudley
Perceval ?) in ‘Notes and Queries,’ June 26, 1869, says that he had lately been offered
a portion of the West of Gloucestershire at an old curiosity shop. Still there are
remnants of great beauty and interest. On the fragments of the border are many
ornamental and allegorical figures, one favourite subject being the exploits of
Ifercules. There is a small map of Africa also which has unfortunately suffered
terribly, though the Capo de Bona Speranza and the island of Madagascar are
quite distinct. Another feature is that poetical inscriptions in decorative panels
torm part ofthe border.
On this side which the sonne doth warme With his declining beames,
Severn and Teme in channell deepe Doo run, too ancient stremes,
Thes make the neibor’s pasture riche. Thes yeld of fruit great store,
And do convey tho out the shire, Commodities many more.
Again, under the word Occidens,
Here hills do lift their heads aloft. From whence sweet springes doo flow,
Whose moistur good doth firtil make The vallies coucht below.
Here goodly orchards planted are, Infinite which doo abounde
Thine ey wold make thin heart rejoyce To see such pleasant grounde.
The Tudor arms also date the map as having been executed before the accession
of James I., and Richard Hyckes has placed his name upon it. ‘Wigom: comit:
Compiletata, Rich. Hyckes.’ The remaining map is one of the valley of the
Thames similar to the one at York already described. It was from this that
Walpole cut the piece for the screen. Fortunately, the piece containing London is
intact 18 x 36 inches, and gives a most graphic and curious portraiture of the
suburbs. The manor houses and deer parks, the churches, villages, bridges, and
windmills, are all represented in a bird's-eye view, and the colours have stood the
test of time remarkably well. Every village is named, and the spelling even to
some obvious mistakes seems to follow that of Saxton’s maps, but these maps are
so much larger a scale, 3 inches to the mile, that it is evident some personal
observation or survey was undertaken, I am inclined to believe, by Francis Hicks,
of Barcheston, who was a student at St. Mary Hall, Oxford, and a good scholar.
He died in 1630, ,
2. The Altels Avalanche. By Tempest AnvERsON, JLD., B.Sc.
On September 11, 1895, an enormous avalanche fell from the Altels mountain
and overwhelmed a large pasture ; it destroyed 6 men and 150 cattle.
About two hours to the south of Kandersteg the Gemmi path traverses an
upland valley with the Altels rising steeply from the stream on the east side and
with gentle slopes on the west, rising to the foot of the Oeschinen Grat, a precipi-
tous wall of rocks which separates it from the Oeschinen Thal. The basin_of
852 REPORT—1896.
Spittalmatte thus formed is about 14 mile long from north to south and 3 mile
wide. Its southern portion is diversified by low wooded hills, the Arvenwald,
obviously formed by avalanches in past ages, and the northern portion was an open
pasture or Alp now overwhelmed,
The Altels is a roughly pyramidal mountain. The west face from which the
avalanche descended slopes at a high angle, and the limestone strata of which it is
composed dip at about the same angle. The upper part is, or rather was, covered
with snow and glacier ice, At a certain distance from the top the glacier ceases
to spread, and becomes confined within rocky walls on either side, where the
strata, formerly continuous, have been removed in past ages by avalanches.
The whole width of the glacier at the place where it has slid appears from the
Sigfried map to be about a kilometre, and the middle half of this descended,
leaving a portion of about + kilometre standing at each side. The portion on the
south side which has not descended is separated from the rest by a wall of rock,
and this separation probably accounts for it not having come down at the same time ;
it extends lower down the mountain than the fallen part appears to have done.
The avalanche descended to the bottom of the valley, a vertical distance of
about 4,000 feet, and the acquired momentum carried the greater part of it up the
slope on the other side to a height of about 400 feet above the lowest point.
Here it spread out in a fan shape, and formed a return current on each side, the
northern one of which descended again quite to the bottom of the valley. There
were also local return slips, The stream was covered up by the avalanche ice, but.
speedily worked a way underneath it, and the glacier bridge thus formed had not
quite melted on a second visit a year after the event, The area covered was about
1 mile by } mile. The average thickness, as estimated in the sections exposed by
the return slips, was about 6 feet, but there were places 20 feet thick, and some
doubtless more, near the bed of the stream. The materials of which the avalanche
was composed were an intimate mixture of snow and glacier ice with stones and
mud, the two former, perhaps, on the whole, predominating ; but in one good
exposure, though the ice and snow predominated in the upper part the stones and
mud did so near the base. Many of the stones showed marks of rubbing and scratch-
ing, especially those at the parts of the avalanche further from the Altels; nearly
all of these, however, retained some angle unworn, and thus differed from ordinary
river gravel.
The effects of the wind which always accompanies avalanches was strikingly
shown by the over-turning of about 1,000 trees and the destruction of some
chalets, the materials of which were carried above 100 yards. The tops of the
trees all pointed radially away from the direction of the couloir, down which the
avalanche had fallen. This destruction by the wind was in an area outside that
actually overwhelmed by the avalanche, and here also large boulders could be seen
which had been rocked by the force of the wind, Six men were killed in the
chalets, and about 160 cattle on the pasture.
The ice cliff left standing by the fall of the avalanche was semi-elliptical in
shape, about 4 a kilometre in extent, and from 50 feet to 70 feet high. Nearly all
of it presented the appearance of a perfectly fresh fracture. There were blue
veins of more compact ice in many parts, and also a few dirt bands of stones in
the substance of the ice. One was specially conspicuous towards the south end of
the cliff, and about one-third of its height from the bottom. Its presence here
was very remarkable, as there are no rocks overhanging the glacier from which the
stones could have fallen. A few rocks just peep through the snow at the edge of
the aréte, and if the stones did not come from this source, which seems unlikely,
they must have been picked up by the glacier from its floor. There were slight
indications of another crack in the glacier parallel with, and perhaps 100 yards
further up than, the cliff, but the author is inclined to think that it was only the
usual bergschrund.
The rocky floor of the glacier left exposed by the fall was singularly smooth,
and its inclination coincided with the dip of the limestone strata of which it was
composed. Dr. Heim believes that the glacier is usually frozen in its bed, and
that the catastrophe is due to the unusual period of hot weather which preceded it.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 853
A similar avalanche which took place at the same place in 1782 also followed a
period of unusual heat.
The author visited and photographed the scene of the avalanche in the first
instance on September 23, 1895, and following days, and again visited it Sep-
tember 9, 1896. A good deal of ice still remains unmelted. The stones, having
been washed by rain, show their scratchings much more conspicuously than last
year. Vegetation is beginning to show itself in many places, spreading chiefly
from sods and pieces of earth dislodged by, and mixed up with, the avalanche
material.
The ice cliff has altered very little in appearance, though it is somewhat
rounded by melting. The dirt bands are still conspicuous.
The total loss in land and eattle has been estimated at 130,000 frances, or above
5,0002.
3. On Uganda and the Upper Nile.
By Lieutenant C. F. 8. Vanpeeur, Scots Guards.
Lieutenant Vandeleur started from Mombasa on September 7, 1894, with Mr.
Jackson and Captain Ashburnham, and a large caravan of about 400 men, carrying
arms and ammunition, and after a most successful march reached Uganda at the
end of November, at the time Colonel, now Sir H. E. Colvile, was Commissioner.
He started again with Major Cunningham on December 19 for Unyoro and Lake
Albert. The road used at that time led by Singo and across the river Kafu at
Barauwa, and was a very bad one, crossing many large and deep swamps. The
first Wanyoro were met with at Kaduma, and there is a marked difference
between them and the Waganda, the former having much sharper features, and
being of a slighter build than the Waganda. Having arrived at Fort Hoima,
the headquarters, on January 1, 1895, after a halt of five days they continued
their journey to the Albert Nyanza. On nearing the lake the country became
more open and rocky in places, until the edge of the escarpment was reached,
where the lake lies 1,200 feet below it, bordered by a strip of yellow sand, the
Sudanese fort and the native village called Kibero looking mere specks close to the
water's edge. Lieutenant Vandeleur then described the journey down the Nile
in a steel boat with a crew of sixteen men. A friendly Wanyoro chief called
Keyser, who spoke the Lure language, and had lived at Wadelai, went as guide.
They sailed all the first day with a good breeze, and camped on the western shore
at Mahagi after dark, where they had difficulty in finding a landing place, owing
to the reeds and swampy nature of the shore. They eventually reached
Wadelai, and camped one mile further on at Emin Pasha’s old fort, which was
then completely overgrown. The natives appeared very hostile, and had evidently
thrown in their lot with Kabba Rega, king of Unyoro. After Wadelai the
stream was very strong, and they glided rapidly past narrow channels through
the floating vegetation and papyrus, stopping sometimes near the villages on the
banks to ask for news, at all of which they were informed that the dervishes were
advancing from Dufile by both banks. The first Madi village was met with at
Towara, and the natives became more friendly as they made their way down the
river. The natives are continually fighting among themselves, and lead a pre-
carious existence; several of the latter came to have their wounds dressed.
An enormous amount of floating vegetation passes down the Nile; it is gradu-
ally broken off from the sides of the river by the force of the current, and floats
down until it attaches itself to the sides again, or reaches the cataracts below
Dufile, where it gets broken up into little pieces. After Bora, an old Egyptian
fort on the right bank, the river is very broad, about 13 miles, though the
actual channel through the mud is only about 500 yards in breadth. The banks
between Uniewe and Dufile seemed well populated; several of the villages were
hidden away among the high rocks and boulders on small hills close to the river,
and there was a certain amount of dbhurra and mtama cultivation, but very few
sheep and goats. Late in the afternoon of January 14 they arrived at the old
fort at Dufile, situated close to the water’s edge at a bend of the river on the
854 REPORT—1896,
left bank. The parapet and ditch were still very distinct ; some mud-brick houses,
some lemon and cotton trees, were the only signs remaining of the Egyptian
occupation. It is believed they were the first white men to have reached Dufile
since the abandonment of the place in 1888. The native reports proved quite
untrue, and the deryishes were now at Regaff, below the cataracts, which they
went to inspect the next day. The Madi natives are a fine, strong-looking race ;
they wear little or no clothes, and have no wants excepting beads and iron wire.
At Umiaa’s village, at the bend of the Nile, a representative of Abu Sulla was
met with, an important chief living one day’s march below Dufile, on the right
bank, He was dressed in white cloth, which was probably obtained from the
Arabs or Mahdists to the north. Most of the villages are reached by narrow
channels, cut through the floating vegetation, and are almost impossible to find.
The return journey to the Albert Nyanza was long and tedious, owing to the
strong stream. On reaching the Albert Nyanza camp was pitched at Boki; it
was a very dark night, and a large herd of elephants came down on both sides of
the camp to drink, some of them coming unpleasantly close.
The people on the west of the Albert Nyanza used to pay tribute to Kabba
Rega, but that is at an end now. The Shulis, in the angle contained by the two
Niles, are inclined to be friendly. With steamers on the lake and railway com-
munication, a large extent of country would be opened for trade, and there is no
limit at present to the ivory to he obtained from the countries bordering the
Albert. There. is no hindrance to navigation down to Dufile. The road now
used between Unyoro and Uganda passes by Mrulfi at the junction of the Kafu
river, where there is a fort garrisoned by Sudanese, and on along the Victoria Nile
to Lake Kioja, from where it runs in a direct line to Mengo, the capital of
Uganda. The road is a very good one, and has been carried across the swamps or
causeways.
In Kampala there are broad roads which enclose houses and shambas.. The
railway will make a great difference to this country. There is a large demand
for European clothes, boots, and shoes; the people are very imitative, and already
the king and chiefs have given orders to traders for various articles which they
see the Europeans possess.. A great deal of rice and a certain amount .of English
potatoes and native coffee are grown in Uganda. Cotton has been found to grow
well. One result of the railway will be that horses and donkeys will be trans-
ported rapidly through the belt of country infested by the tsetse fly, and ought
to reach Uganda in good condition. Animals do well there, if well looked after,
though dangers exist in snakes and bad grass met with in places.
4. Coast-forms of Romney Marsh, By Dr. F. G. Guiniver.
Dungeness Point in south-eastern England projects from. the dissected Weald
dome into the English Channel. It consists of two classes of recent deposits,
shingle and marsh, It is proposed here to discuss these deposits, formed during
the present cycle of shore development, as representing a coastal form characteristic
of a certain stage of a cycle.
The whole deposit may be called a cuspate foreland.’ Foreland is here used
as a technical term, meaning those deposits which are built in front of the oldland,
including all those forms that project into the sea beyond the initial coastline,
“which was formed where the sea surface intersected the land at the-beginning of
the cycle.
This initial coast was attacked by the sea, and early in the development of the
coast and shore form a low cliff or ‘nip’ was made in the coast all along the shore.
At a later stage in the development the supply of load was just enough to
equal the ability of the sea to transport, and a graded condition resulted. A beach
now was seen at the foot of the cliff. This equilibrium would not last at all
1 Bull. GS.A., vol. vil. 1895, p. 399.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 855
points, and aggradation would necessarily occur when more waste was supplied
than the sea could carry. This aggradation would take place where the action of
the sea wasting was least. The writer has suggested eddies in the tidal in and
outflow as the determining agent in the location of some of the cuspate forelands.'
Topley recognised the action of the sea upon the oldland previous to the build-
ing out of this foreland. He said: ‘Along the northern boundary of Romney
Marsh the termination of the Weald Clay is certainly an old sea-cliff, now worn
down into undulating ground.’* The much fresher cliff north from Rye along the
military road indicates a more recent action of the sea upon this portion of the
initial shoreline.
The geographic interpretation from form is corroborated by the history and
tradition of Romney Marsh.’
The historical students of Romney Marsh do not sufficiently regard the line of
former shorelines indicated by the ridges of shingle, but place rather too much
reliance upon outlines given on early maps, many of which show poor sketching
and little knowledge of geographic form. It has been very common to attribute
the formation of this great deposit to the tides, but the details of the process have
not been explained except in a most general manner by such expression as the
‘meeting of the tides.’
Diagrams were shown illustrating the formation of tidal cuspate forelands,
and it was pointed out that Dungeness with its included marshes corresponds to
the filled stage plus cutting back and rebuilding of the Point.
The most recent curves of aggradation are very prettily shown at the Point
when ‘looking toward the centre of the cuspate foreland from the lighthouse.
Recent observations at the Point indicate that this shoreline is here advancing at
the rate of 9 feet a year. A mile to the west the sea is at present cutting into
the shingle. Upon the eastern side of this foreland there are some twenty-three
successive shorelines shown between Lydd and the present shoreline. These all
curve sympathetically, indicating steps in the eastward growth of the foreland.
These ridges are not absolutely parallel or continuous, for some twenty lines of
‘aggradation at the Point were traced by the writer into fourteen at a point a mile
north, and these fourteen were in turn traced into seventeen ridges at a point a
couple of miles further north! At one time there seems to be greater advance in
one place, and when thé complex conditions which govern depositions are changed
another point receives the most waste,
The hypothetical initial) shoreline ‘was indicated by a diagram. Where the
cliffs are high the initial land has presumably been most cut back. Behind the
foreland the land probably did not extend a great deal farther than the present
low cliff or ‘ nip’ which was made in the youth of the present cycle.
On account. of the graded form the present coast may appropriately be said to
be in adolescence, following Professor Davis’ use of this term for land surfaces.*
English sailors have recognised forms similar to Dungeness, and have applied
the same name to forelands of like geological structure in Puget Sound, and south
of Patagonia in the Straits of Tierra del Fuego.
f 5, Last Year's Work of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition.
By A. Monreriore Brice,
» Loe. cit:, p. 413.
2 Geol. Weald, pp. 251, 302.
3 See Cingue Ports, by. Montague Burrows; also writings of Robertson, Wn.
Hollaway, Wm. Somner, F. H. Appach, Hasted, A. J. Burrows, and many other refe-
rences in Topley’s Geology. of the Weald. ‘
4See Geog. Jour., vol. v. 1895, p. 127; ‘Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania.’
‘Nat. Geog. Mag., p.1; ‘Geog. Development of N. New Jersey’ (with J, W. Wood,
jun.), Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1889.
856 REPORT—1896.
6. The Influence of Climate and Vegetation on African Civilisations.
By G. ¥. Scorr-Exxiot, 7.L.8., FRG.
An attempt is made in this paper to connect the various African states of
civilisation with the climate and vegetation of the particular districts in which
they took origin. For this purpose the continent is divided into four main groups
or divisions, which are characterised by the following points :—
I. ‘The wet jungle, which is marked roughly by the presence of the oil or
cocoanut palm, numerous creepers—especially the Landolphia (rubber vines)—and
such forms as Sesamum, Cajanus indicus, and Manihot as cultivated plants. This
region is characterised by creat heat and continuous humidity, without a season
sufficiently dry to leave a mark on the vegetation.
Il. The deserts.—Characterised by xerophytic adaptations, by Zilla, Mesem-
bryanthemum, Capparis sodada, &c. The climate is distinguished by possessing
no proper rainy season whatever. 4
Ill. The acacia and dry grass region.—Characterised by acacias, tree euphor-
bias, giant grasses, or frequently grassy plains in which each tuft of grass is
isolated. The climate is marked from all the remaining regions by distinct dry
and wet seasons; the dry season occupies from five to nine months, and leaves a
distinct mark on the vegetation. This region occupies practically all Africa
between 3,000 feet and 5,000 feet, and also extends below 3,000 feet wherever the
above climatic conditions prevail.
IV. The temperate grass and forest area.—This region is distinguished by
having at no season of the year such drought as leaves a permanent mark on the
vegetation, by a moderate rainfall, by moderate heat, &c. The grass resembles
the turf of temperate countries, and the forest shows the same sorts of adap-
tation as occur in temperate countries. This region is found between 4,600 feet
and 7,000 feet.
The paper is an attempt to trace the native races inhabiting these divisions
comparing their civilisations, so far as this is possible. i
I. The wet jungle is shown to be limited by the direction of the prevalent
winds (‘Challenger’ Reports), by various meteorological considerations, and by
the elevation. It extends to 3,000 feet, but often ceases below this level.
Reference is given to the works of many travellers, to the Report of the British
Association dealing with African meteorology, and by the assistance of these data
an attempt is made to trace its boundaries exactly. Then it is shown that it is.
everywhere inhabited by small tribes of a weak, enfeebled character and on the
lowest stage of civilisation. All these tribes have been subdued by Arabs and
Europeans without difficulty.
Il. The desert is very shortly disposed of. The account is directed chiefly to
the extreme severity of the climate and the exceedingly healthy and vigorous
nature of the tribes inhabiting it.. A short account of the causes leading to its
present condition is also given.
ILI. The acacia region is more clearly and carefully detined, and hints are given
as to the easiest means of recognising the climate from the vegetation. Itis shown
to vary much in character, and a brief sketch is given of the Upper Scarcies and
Niger region about Falaba, of the Mombasa to Kibwezi tract, of the Shiré High-
lands, and the Victoria Nyanza basin. The region is shown to be every where
rather densely inhabited, but there has not been a swarming centre, and no
emigration in large numbers has taken place from this acacia region. The nations
inhabiting it have also fallen under the Arab and European with scarcely a
struggle. An explanation is given of the reason of this,
LV. The temperate grass and forest regions above 5,000 feet are then shown to
be the only places in Africa that have acted as swarming centres of population.
'The character of the native races inhabiting them is shown to be vigorous and
turbulent, and often raiding is carried on. The differences in climate, ‘Vegetation
and abundance of wild and domestic animals are shown to explain why it is that
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 857
these races only have, except in one instance, resisted both Arab and European.
In a note an attempt is made to reconcile the classification given by Herr Engler
with that adopted in this paper.
7. Sand Dunes. By Vaucuan Cornisu, I.Sc.
In the sorting of materials by wind the coarser gravel is left on stony deserts
or sea-beaches, the sand is heaped up in dune tracts, and the dust (consisting
largely of friable materials which have been reduced to powder in the dune dis-
trict itself) forms widely scattered deposits beyond the limits of the dune district.
Three principal factors operate in dune tracts, viz. (1) the wind ; (2) the eddy in
the lee of each obstacle ; (3) gravity. The wind drifts the fine and the coarse sand.
The upward motion of the eddy lifts the fine sand and, co-operating with the wind,
sends it flying from the crest of the dune. The backward motion of the eddy
arrests the forward drift of the coarser sand, and thus co-operates with the wind
to build the permanent structure of the dune. Gravity reduces to the angle of
rest any slopes which have been forced to a steeper pitch either by wind or eddy ;
hence in a group of dunes the amplitude cannot be greater than (about) one-third
cf the wave-length. This limit is most nearly approached when the wind blows
alternately from opposite quarters, but does not hold in one quarter sufficiently
long to completely reverse the work of preceding winds. Gravity also acts upon
the sand which flies from the crests, causing it to fall across the stream lines of
the air, the larger or heavier particles falling more steeply. To the varying density
of the sand-shower is due the varying angle of the windward slope of dunes.
When there is no sand-shower the windward becomes as steep as the leeward slope.
When the dune tract is all deep sand the lower part of the eddy gouges out the
trough, and, when the sand-shower fails, the wind by drifting and the eddy by
gouging form isolated hills upon a hard bed. On the other hand, the sand-shower
sometimes smooths over a dune tract, leaving lines of hollows (‘ Fuljes’), where
the troughs were deepest and the wind strongest. The encroachment of a dune
tract being due not only to the march of the dunes (by drifting) but also to the
formation of new dunes to leeward from material supplied by the sand-shower,
it follows that there is both a ‘group velocity’ and a ‘ wave velocity’ of dunes.
Since the wave velocity decreases as the amplitude increases, a sufficiently large
dune is a stationary hill, even though composed of loose sand throughout. Bind-
ing the surface will stop the wave-motion, but not the group motion. Both may
be arrested by promoting the growth of the dune.
The fundamental forms of sand-dunes include the longitudinal, formed where
_ the strength of the wind is too great to permit free lateral growth. Where the
_ wind begins to decrease a form is met with intermediate between the longitudinal
and the transverse. Conical dunes may be produced by the action of varying
winds upon the rudimentary longitudinal dunes, called Barchanes.
Where material is accumulated by the action of tidal currents, forms homolo-
gous with the ground plan of dunes are produced.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. World Maps of Mean Monthly Rainfall.
By Anprew J. Hersertson, /.R.SL., PRG.
For practical purposes it is almost as important to know how rainfall is
distributed throughout the year, as to know the total annual precipitation. The
best way to show this is to make maps of mean monthly rainfall that will be
comparable. Each month must be considered one-twelfth of a year and the
1896, 3K
————
858 ; REPORT—1896.
‘ average monthly rainfall reduced accordingly. This is being done at present by
Dr. Buchan, Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, and the author, and,
as far as they are aware, it is the first attempt to do so for the whole world. The
scanty records of some regions make the positions of the lines of equal rainfall
(tsohyets) somewhat uncertain. These are dotted onthe maps. The other isohyets
are shown by firm lines, and the different intensities of colour indicate different
quantities of water precipitated. From such maps the relationship of the distri-
bution of rainfall to latitude and altitude, to remoteness from the coast and the
nature of the land around, to the changing seasons or prevalent winds, is
clearly seen. Some typical examples were given, especially those of economic
importance.
2. The Climate of Nyasaland. By J. W. Morr.
3. Report on African Climate.—See Reports, p. 495.
4. Practical Geography in Manchester. By J. Howarp ReEep.
The author believes the Manchester Geographical Society has demonstrated that
geography is popular among the people. Mr. Eli Sowerbutts, secretary of the
Manchester Society, commenced giving popular geographical lectures some years
ago. The demands for work of this kind grew to such proportions that a body of
prominent members of the Society, including the chairman, took up the lecturing
work, which has increased year by year ever since. The lecturers now form an
organised body of expert geographers and practised speakers, who freely volunteer
their services for the purpose of spreading reliable geographical information. The
lectures are all given in a popular manner, and are mostly illustrated by lantern
views. During the past five years over three hundred lectures have been delivered
in Manchester and the surrounding districts, and over ninety thousand hearers have
been reached. The audiences are principally of the working class, but also include
the members of many well-known literary and scientific clubs, and students of
continuation schools. The lectures given include such titles as: ‘ Shaping of the
Earth’s Surface by Water-action, ‘Map Projection,’ ‘ India,’ ‘ China, Corea, and
Japan,’ ‘Polar Exploration,’ ‘ Across the Rocky Mountains,’ ‘Canada,’ ‘ Across
Africa with Stanley, ‘ Uganda,’ &c. Applications for lectures are made to an hon.
secretary, who conducts all correspondence and makes arrangements with the local
societies and clubs and the lecturers. The engagement of halls, printing, and
similar matters are carried out on the spot by the local people. This system has
proved so satisfactory, and the enthusiasm of the voluntary workers has been so
well maintained, that no hitch has ever occurred. The terms on which the lectures
are given are very simple. Any member of the Manchester Geographical Society
or any affiliated society is entitled to apply for lectures. Lantern apparatus and
volunteer operator are supplied when required. A nominal fee is charged for each
lecture, travelling and lantern expenses being added when incurred. Any balance
in hand at the end of each season is applied to the upkeep of lantern plant and the
making and purchase of new slides. Another important branch of voluntary work
consists in the analysis of some two hundred British and foreign scientific journals.
This is most useful for scholars and students. It enables them to follow up, with
ease, the literature on any special subject. It has received the commendation of
several high authorities. The Manchester geographers intend to follow up the
work they are doing, and hope to more fully occupy the field. They are conscious
that there is ample room for development. The author feels sure they would be
glad to hear of similar organised effort in other parts of the country.
5, Canada and its Gold Discoveries. By Sir JAMES GRANT.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 859
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21,
The following Papers were read :—
1. A Journey towards Lhasa. By W. A. L. Firtcuer.
2. The Northern Glaciers of the Vatna Jékull, Iceland. By FREDERICK
W. W. Howe t.
The route taken was from Seydifjordr on the east coast, up the valley of the
fine river lake Lagarflj6t.
At Valthjéfstadr is the finest skogar, or wood, in the country, some trees (birch)
being 20 to 25 feet high. Hengifoss is the loftiest waterfall in Iceland, the upper
portion having a perpendicular drop of 350 feet. Surturbrand in the gil,
Fleadquarters at Valthjofstadr. Thence two journeys: first vid Bri to the unknown
valley of the Kverka, which river was followed to its source in an ice-cave in the
Briar Jékull ; it abounds in quicksands, The second journey was from Valthjéfstadr
to Snaefell and the Eyjabakka Jokull.
In the winter of 1889-90 a volcanic eruption took place under the ice of these
two glaciers, causing an enormous Jékulhlaup, or glacier leap. The whole face of the
30 mile wide Briar Jékull was carried forward, in some places for nearly 6 English
miles; and the face of the 15 mile wide Eyjabakka Jékull for 2 to 3 miles. The
former has since retired 16 yards, and the latter about one-eighth of a mile.
New cones on the Eyjabakka Jékull, reaching a height of 4 feet. 6in., afford an
index to the rate of surface diminution which is not less than 8 inches per annum,
The face of this glacier is extremely fine, the ice cliff being 100 feet high; and,
being undermined by the river, it frequently gives way, exposing fresh sections.
The flowers in the valley of the Jokulsa-i-Fljdtsdal call for special notice,
Columnar basalt occurs throughout the district. Sneefell is not a single mountain,
but a handsome group of ten to twelve peaks, mostly composed of tufa and cinder,
The glaciers upon it are small, and lie at a high level. The junction of Jékulkvisl
with Jékuls4-4-Brii is wrongly marked. Reindeer abound in the district.
3. Notes on the less-known Interior of Iceland. By Karu GrossMann,
M.D., FRC SE., PGS.
The author's last journey to Iceland, which was undertaken in the summer
1895, for the purpose of investigating leprosy amongst the inhabitants, admitted of
an exploring excursion into the lonely district to the east of Hekla, while the
crossing of the island from north to south gave occasion for examining parts
equally interesting and equally unvisited.
The eruptions of the various vents comprised under the name of the Hekla
group are particularly rich in obsidian lavas. A very finely vesicular obsidian
goes as far south as Storolfshvoll. Of very rugged character is the landscape of
the Hrafntinnuhraun, most desolate, void of vegetation, full of voleanic ashes and
sand and large torrents of a peculiar obsidian lava, on which in many places the
three stages of pumice, obsidian, and banded rhyolite are seen in the same blocks,
_ tlie three parts following in the order given from above downwards.
The landscape in the neighbourhood of the large lake of Sudur Namur resembles
a lunar landscape in appearance, Various exquisite craters are found here,
amongst others one that is probably the finest ring crater in Iceland. On climbing
up the wall of the ring a central cone is seen of perfect shape, built up of slags
which form a sharp-edged hemispherical cup of beautiful regularity.
The journey across the island was made from Akureyi by way of the
Kyjafjardaré valley. The dense fogs made this part of the journey both difficult
and obscured the views. When the plateau was reached, the clouds lifted, and
the Hofsjékull was seen in all its enormous extent.
3K 2
860 REPORT — 1896.
The country nortan of tae Hofsjékull is absolutely barren, and consists of gently
undulating territory of loose débris, many water-worn pieces of obsidian and
obsidian bombs being found scattered everywhere. The hot sunshine made it
impossible to cross the swollen Jékulsa vestri, which was followed up to its source
on the Hofsjékull; but the mud and slush prevented a crossing. Nor could the
horses be brought over the glacier itself. For more than twenty-four hours they
had not had a blade of grass to eat, and it seemed impossible to proceed further
southwards; but, after a severe night’s frost, a fording was ultimately effected in
the small hours of the following morning some miles below the source of the
river,
The Hveravellir were examined and a large series of photographs taken. The
sinter crater and terraces of these hot springs are the most beautiful in the island,
and the territory round them forms one of the richest oases.
To the east of the Hverayellir a wide crater resembling Hverfjall, but not
complete to the S.W., was seen, which is neither the Strytur nor Difufell of
Thoroddsen’s map. On the E. it is flanked by a large lake, which was named
Karlsvatn. The lava flow between Hveravellir and the crater mentioned has on
its surface a fine layer of black tachylite, } inch thick (specimens were shown).
The further progress S was of equal interest. The “high peak” called Blagnypa
could not be seen at all, although the weather was perfect during that part of the
journey. On the other hand, very clear photographs were taken of a big mountain
chain of quite alpine character, contrasting most strikingly with the flat and tame
polagonite plateau on which the enormous ice-sheet of the Hofsj6kull rests.
This mountain chain, going from N. to S., has large glaciers quite of alpine
appearance; that they must be permanent is clear from the fact that the snow had
melted more than usually during that year, so that the snowcap of Skjaldbreid
had disappeared altogether some four weeks previously. Thoroddsen does not
mention these mountains and glaciers, nor does he show them in his map; he
cannot have seen them, as they are not what he figures as the Kerlingafjéll,
although they take the place immediately north of where he puts the latter.
The district of the Hvitarvatn was also visited. All this district is highly
interesting and full of surprises. It will well repay a careful exploration, as
hitherto only a very sketchy and fragmentary outline of it is known.
4. The Relativity of Geographical Advantages.
By Grorce G. Cuisuowm, I,A., B.Sc.
The considerations to which attention is drawn in this paper are for the most
part obvious and familiar, and the only excuse for laying them before the British
Association is that they are nevertheless apt to be overlooked, especially in esti-
mates of past conditions, and still more in forecasts based on geography as to the
condition of the future.
Geographical advantages may be considered—(1) as relative to the physical
condition of the surface of a country, e.g. the extent of forests, marshes, &c. The
former and present relative importance of Liverpool and Bristol may be explained
in part at least by changes that have taken place under this head. Also the dif-
ference in direction of some of the great Roman roads and those of the present day,
and the consequent fact that some important Roman stations in Britain are now
represented not even by a hamlet. (2) As relative to the political condition of a
country and of other countries. (8) As relative to the state of military science.
Under these two heads the difference in the situation of the Roman wall between
Tyne and Solway and the Anglo-Scottish boundary suggests some considerations.
Also the difference in the situation of some important Roman towns or stations
and their modern representatives (Uriconium, Shrewsbury ; Sorbiodunum, Salis-
bury). (4) As relative to the state of applied science—well illustrated in this
country, as in the history of the iron and textile industries. (5) As relative to
the density of population—another important consideration in the industrial history
of our own country. (6) As relative to the mental attitude of the people where
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 861
. . . .
_ the geographical advantages exist. Many Chinese travellers and students of China
have recognised the excessive reverence for ancestors in that country as one great
_ hindrance in the way of turning the advantages of the country to account.
5. The various Boundary Lines between British Guiana and Venezuela
attributed to Sir Robert H. Schomburgk. By Ratpu RicHarpson,
FRS.E., Hon. Sec., RS.GS., FSA. Scot.
As a Geographical curiosity, if nothing else, the Protean forms assumed by the
celebrated ‘ Schomburgk Line’ are worth noticing. Let us tabulate them as laid
down by various eminent authorities in the course of their discussion of the ques-
tion of the Western boundary of British Guiana:
1. The Schomburgk Line 1841-42 of the Map in the British Government's
Blue Book, March, 1896.—Commencing at the mouth of the River Amacura, this
line runs along that river’s eastern bank, including as British territory the whole
basin of the River Barima, and then proceeds S.E. to the River Acarabisi, after
which it follows the course of the River Cuyuni, and passes S.E. to the summit of
Mount Roraima, where it stops. It may be noticed that, whilst this Line was
drawn in 1841-42, Schomburgk’'s surveys were not completed till 1844.
2. The ‘ Historic’ Schomburgk Line of Dr. Emil Reich. ‘ Times, March 14,
1896 —Dr. Reich considers that the ‘Schomburgk Line, if drawn from the mouth
of the River Wainy, is borne out by irrefragable historic arguments.’ No map,
however, shows a Schomburgk Line drawn from the mouth of the river Waini.
3. The ‘Legal’ Schomburgk Line of Dr. Emil Reich. ‘ Times, March 14,
1896.—Dr. Reich holds that the Schomburgk Line, ‘if drawn from the mouth of
the Barima, may be defended successfully by legal arguments.’ He states that
the line so appears ‘in all current maps’; but current maps belonging to the
R.S.G.S. represent the Schomburgk line as drawn not from the mouth of the
Barima, but of the Amacura.
4. The ‘ Reliable’ Schomburgk Line of Mr. John Bolton, F.R.G.S. ‘ Nineteenth
Century,’ February, 1896.—Mr. Bolton says the Schomburgk Line first appeared
on a crude sketch map, lithographed by Arrowsmith in 1840, and presented to
Parliament, and that it was not till 1841 that Schomburgk surveyed the country
_ north of the River Cuyuni, the original drawing of this survey being sent to the
~ Colonial Secretary in 1841. It has never heen reproduced, but this, the only
reliable Schomburgk Line, begins at the Amacura mouth, includes as British
territory the whole basin of the Barima, and stops at the junction of the Acarabisi
and Cuyuni rivers. The ‘Blue Book, published by the British Government in
August, 1896, contains a facsimile of Schomburgk's Map of 1841, showing that his
1841 Line did not stop at the Acarabisi, but was continued along the upper course
of the Cuyuni.
5. The ‘ Provisional’ Schomburgk Line of Mr. George G. Dixon. ‘ The Geo-
graphical Journal, April 1895.—This line corresponds to No. 1, but is derived
from a map published in 1875 attributed to Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, who died
in 1865. The 1875 map in Proceedings R.G.S. 1880 contradicts this one.
6. The ‘ Modified’ Schomburgk Line of ‘The Statesman's Year-Book,’ 1896,
corresponds to Nos. 1 and 5. The ‘ original’ Schomburgk Line is, however, also
_ given, and is stated to have been drawn in 1840,
7. The ‘Venezuelan Government's’ Schomburgk Line. Mapa de la Parte
Oriental de Venezuela, published with Government authority ct Caracas, 1887.—
Generally speaking, this Line is similar to the ‘original’ Schomburgk Line,
although the former gives Venezuela both banks of the Amacura and Otomonga
rivers, whereas the ‘ original’ line gives Venezuela only their western banks.
__. 8. The ‘ Original’ Schomburgk Line. Reisen in Britisch-Guiana von Richard
chomburgk. Mit Abbildungen und einer Karte von Britisch-Guiana aufgenommen
von Sir Robert Schomburgk. 2 vols, Leipzig: J. J. Weber. 1847.—Three years
_ after Sir Robt. H. Schomburgk had completed his surveys, his brother and fellow-
; traveller, Richard, published this important work, to which, with the authority of
862 REPORT-—1896.
Sir Robert, he appended the latter’s map of British Guiana as prepared by Siz
Robert for the British Government, and showing on it the well-known ‘ original’
Schomburgk Line. The map is dated 1846 and represents the results of Sir
Robert’s surveys during 1835-44 as lodged in the Colonial Office, London.
Cartographers of all nations have ever since (?.c., tor 50 years) represented this
‘original’ Schomburgk Line as the western boundary of British Guiana. It was
also recognised as the boundary by the Crown Surveyor of British Guiana in 1875
(Map in Proceedings R.G.S. 1880); by M. Smidt, Governor of Dutch Guiana, in
the ‘Kaart van Guiana’ (1889); by Professor Sievers, of Giessen, in the
‘Globus’ (January, 1896); and by Mr. Gignilliat, of the U.S. War Department,
in the ‘National Geographic Magazine’ (Washington, February 1896). With
only two exceptions, all the atlases belonging to the R.S.G.S. give the ‘original’
Schomburgk Line as the British boundary, thus leaving the British title to terri-
tory west of that Line to be proved by treaty rights and by occupation during
a prescriptive period.
6. A Journey in Spitzbergen in 1896. By Sir W. Martin Conway, J.A.
7. The Present Condition of the Ruined Cities of Ceylon.
By Henry W. Cave, J/.A., Queen’s College, Oxford.
The conversion of the Singhalese to Buddhism in the third century B.c —The
first monastic establishment at Mibintale—The granite stairway of 1,840 steps
illustrated and described—The Maha Seya Dagaba—Ancient rock insecriptions—
The foundation of the Maha Vihara or sacred quarter of the city of Anuradhapura—
Erection of the Thuparama Dagaba—Curious vessels and their uses—The Sacred
Bo-Tree—The Isurumuniya Temple carved out of the natural rock, third century
B.c.—Remarkable frescoes and sculptures on the terraces of the Isurumuniya
Temple—The Loha Pasada or Brazen Palace—The Ruanweli or Gold-dust
Dagaba—Specimens of Sculpture in the early centuries of the Christian era—
Unexplored ruins of Anuradhapura—The stone-built Pokunas or baths—The
Abhayagiria Dagaba, the largest tope in the world—The Peacock Palace erected
in the first century of the Christian era—The Jetawanarama Dagaba (third
century)—Remains of religious edifices of third century, not yet identified—Im-
ortant archeological discoveries—Hermit cells of the third century—The first
alada Maligawa, or Temple of the Tooth of Buddha (fourth century)—The past
and the present condition of native life contrasted—Remains of an ancient street-—
The hill fortification of Sigiriya (fifth century )—Present-day travelling illustrated—
Success of heretic invaders—Downfall of the sacred city of Anuradhapura and the
establishment of a new capital—The journey to Polonnaruwa—Ancient irrigation
systems—The Minneria Tank—Remains of seventh to twelfth century buildings at
Polonnaruwa—The Rock Temples of Dambulla—The Aluwihari at Matale—A
glimpse at modern Ceylon,
8. Earthquakes and Sea-Waves. By Professor Joun Mine, F.R.S.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Southern Alps of New Zealand ; and a proposed Ascent of Aconcagua.
By A. EH. FirzGErayp.
The New Zealand Alps have in past years been much neglected by travellers.
Few people realise that there exists in our antipodean colony a chain of Alps un-
i et” ie
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 863
surpassed by anything in Switzerland, while the glaciers that roll down from these
great mountains exceed in length and area any of those we know in Europe.
The Southern Alps, which were explored by the author and Mr. C. G. Barrow
in 1894-95, lie close to the west coast of the South Island. Mount Cook, the
monarch of the range, rises to a height of 12,349 feet, and is situated at not more
than fifteen miles from the sea-coast. The author's work was confined to the |
Mount Cook district, between Mount McKerrow and the Whymper Glacier. His
object was to find a pass feasible for tourist traffic during the summer months
between The Hermitage, a small inn in the Tasman Valley, at the foot of the
Hooker and Miiller Glaciers, and the country of Westland, so beautiful in its
luxuriant subtropical vegetation and its great glaciers that roll down amidst lianas _,
and tree ferns to within 600 feet of the sea level. The part of Canterbury situated
near these ranges is extremely bare and rugged. A great plateau or table land,
called the McKenzie country, reaches up towards the Tasman Valley, and in this
are two great elacier-fed lakes, Pukaki and Tekapo. All up and along this great
plain, some 2,000 feet above sea level, can be seen traces of ancient glacier action. .
Huge mounds of moraine matter are strewed about, while a low species of snow
grass covers the whole, rendering it all a dreary brown colour.
Mount Sealy, 8,631 feet ; Mount Tasman, second highest in the Colony, 11,475
feet; Mount Haidinger, 10,107 feet; the Silberhorn, 10,250 feet; and Mount
Sefton, 10,359 feet, were ascended. In these ascents much trouble was given by
the rotten condition of the rocks, and by the huge overhanging glaciers, caused no |
doubt by the enormous rainfall, and therefore snowfall, in high altitudes. The
snow line is very low, not more than 6,000 feet. This, combined with the fact that
one had to commence operations from almost sea-level, renders ascents far more
difficult than in Switzerland. When on the top of Mount Sefton the author was
fortunate enough to see how a pass could be effected to the Karangarua River in
Westland, and accordingly ten days later he set out with his guide Zurbriggen to
cross the ranges, and accomplished this journey in three days, after many difficulties
and hardships, over a saddle 7,180 feet above sea-level, which the New Zealand
Government have named the Fitzgerald Pass. This passage could be rendered easy
for tourists by a path being made, and it is only twenty-two miles in length. He
came back over some of the largest glaciers in the Colony, and several high Alpine
passes, when four consecutive nights were spent in the open. Mr. Harper, one of
the New Zealand Government Surveyors, accompanied the expedition on its
return,
In a few weeks the author proposes to leave for South America to try and
climb the mountain Aconcagua, which rises to a height of about 23,000 feet, and is
the highest mountain in South America—in fact, outside of the Himalayan range
it is the highest mountain in the world. His plan is to proceed from Buenos
Ayres to Mendoza, and thence towards the Cordilleras de los Andes. The party
will consist of Mr. C. L. Barrow, who was with the author in New Zealand; Mr.
de Trafford ; Mr. Stewart Vines ; Mr. Philip Gosse, who will be charged with the
natural history collections which will be made; and Zurbriggen, with three other
guides and a porter from Switzerland.
The author intends to cover as much of the country as possible ; to ascend
several peaks; and to bring back natural history and geological specimens. He
hopes to ascend Aconcagua gradually, moving slowly upwards and establishing
several camps ; and by leaving one of the party at each camp he expects to keep
up communication and to facilitate the supply of provisions, while at the same
time he hopes to report the ascent to London immediately on reaching the summit
if he should be successful.
2. The Egyptian Sudan.
By General Sir Cuartes Witson, .C.B., FBS.
864. REPORT—1896.
3. The Teaching of Geography in Relation to History.
By A. W. ANDREWS.
The study of the physical geography of a country should proceed and be co-
extensive with that of its history.
The ideal of history teaching in English schools.
A lack of perspective in the teaching of English history, owing to the neglect
of physical geography.
Teachers and writers of school histories may be themselves geographers, but
usually fail to appreciate the standpoint of the student.
As a consequence, physical geography, or the physical side of history is rele-
gated to special text-books and special lessons, not taught in conjunction with
history.
ial asia? of physical geography would give the student a firm standpoint for the
appreciation of the events ot history, and prevent much of the present confusion,
At present the teaching of geography in connection with history is chiefly con-
fined to the use of topographical maps.
Teachers, however, forget that a topographical map is merely a diagrammatic
method of learning statistics relating to the distribution of names.
The danger of both history and geography being taught as a mere verbal record
of statistics.
The different branches that make up history, such as geography, social life,
literature, parliament, &c., must not be studied in complete isolation.
There must always in the study of history be comparison and contrast, and
this would be gained in English history by a more detailed study of some half-
dozen periods, ¢.9.
(1) The present physical geography of Great Britain in connection with the
main and essential ideas of the history of to-day.
(2) Some few epochs of history studied in sufficient detail for a similarly com-
prehensive view of the life of the time, as in (1) e.g. :—
The Times of Chaucer, 1350-1400,
A. Physical geography of British Isles at that date compared with—
I. Causes which led population to centralise at different points;
physical changes (Cinque Ports); [population in E. & S.J;
coal and iron manufactures, «ce.
II. Means of Communication—Ocean routes, sailing vessels, roads,
railways, steam, canals, Xe.
III. The widening of the horizon of thought coextensive with the
exparsion of geographical knowledge.
IV. Influence of geographical conditions on the ideas of the time.
B, A knowledge of the main factors that made up life in England at that date
grouped round some prominent figure like Chaucer, ¢.g.: literature,
social life, trade, religion, &c., considered not merely as independent
streams of knowledge, but as they affected the life of an average per-
son at that date.
Threefold advantages of studying geography and history together.
(1) It provides a standard of comparison with the past.
(2) It assists a student to visualise history, 7.c. to think of it not merely asa
series of isolated branches of knowledge, but as the different manifestations of a
living people at different epochs.
(3) It is the one factor of history of which it is impossible to limit the influence.
It is invaluable for teaching the student to think.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 865
‘4. The Border-land of British Columbia and Alaska. By E. Opium.
In this paper it is shown how the building of the transcontinental railway by
the Canadian Pacific Company opened British Columbia, how the rapid influx of
population into the fishing, mining, and lumbering centres led to the study of the
boundaries, and how, especially the goldfields of the Yukon River, which is partly
in Canada and partly in Alaska, forced the question of delimitation on both
countries.
The southern cause of dispute—viz., the Portland Channel claim, with the
adjacent islands of Mary, Revilla Gegido, Annette, and Gravina, with the
Oolachan fisheries, the Tsimpsen Indians, who removed from Canada to Annette
Island, and other matters in this area of over 5,000 square miles—was referred to
first in order. Then followed the central or great gold-bearing strip, in which, or
adjacent to which, are the mines of silver, Bow Basin, the Junean, and the
Treadwell, the latter being one of the largest in the world.
Lastly, the northern portion was considered. This includes the Lynn channel
and the Chilcat and Chilcoot inlets, the whole giving the only waterway from the
Pacific into the north of British Columbia and that portion of Canada north of
lat. 60°.
The author in the paper gives an account of the excellent climate and the vast
resources of that part of Western Canada. The value of the Chinook winds and
the ‘Kuro Siwa’ or Japanese current in modifying the ccast and the Canadian
prairies was indicated.
The paper sets forth that all matters relating to what is called the disputed
territory are being handled by the two governments in the most friendly spirit.
Reference was made to the inadequate nature of the British school maps and
geographies in relation to Western and Central Canada, and the speaker affirmed
that this central and western part of the Dominion will yet contain scores of
millions of loyal British people.
5. Some Remarks on Dr. Nansen and the Results of his Recent Arctic
Expedition. By J. Scorr KEtriz.
6. An Apparatus to Illustrate Map Projections.
By Anprew J. Hersertson, /.AS.L., FR.GS.
Every teacher of geography experiences a difficuity in trying to give his pupils a
vivid idea of the various map projections. This is in part overcome by using a
candle and a skeleton hemisphere formed of a wire network of meridians and paral-
lels, and, if possible, with an outline of the continents, such as the author has
recently devised, and Messrs. Philip make, By altering the position of the lighted’
candle, different projections of the network can be thrown on a flat screen, and the
pupils can see the different distortions of the network that result for themselves,
By using half a cylinder or half a cone, various cylindrical and conical projections
can be illustrated in the same graphic way.
7. A New Population Map of the South Wales Coal District.
By B. V. Darpisuire, M.A,
The population maps one sees in atlases are mostly on a comparatively small
scale, and of course are much generalised. The usual method is to show by different
depth of colouring the approximate number of inhabitants to the square mile.
This, of course, is the only method possible when large areas are under considera-
tion. In representing the distribution of population within a small area we shall
be able to do without generalisation, and to deal with, and to show on our map,
the actual facts on which the generalisations for larger areas should be based,
866 REPORT—1896.
and—most important of all—to make clear the connection between the physio-
graphy and the anthropogeography of a region.
The map shown is an attempt in this direction.
It is reduced from the One-inch Ordnance Map (1 : 63860) to the scale of
1:100000, with contours at intervals of 200 feet. On it are inserted all
detached houses, and all villages and towns shown on the Ordnance Map. Of
course a map of this kind does not show the actual number of persons living
on a given area. But it does show clearly various facts which are much more
interesting to the geographer than mere numerical strength.
It shows the distribution of human settlements, and it shows how that distri-
bution has been influenced by physical features. It shows the different nature of
the settlements in industrial districts and in agricultural districts. It brings out
clearly the facts that go to make a great seaport. It even enables us by a study of
the shape of villages and towns to get an idea of the circumstances to which they
owe their origin, and makes clear many other facts which are masked by the
amount of detail shown on the Ordnance Map.
8. Report on Geographical Teaching—See Reports, p. 494.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 867
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—The Right Hon. Leonarp Courtney, M.A., M.P,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Address by the PResIDENT was read by Professor Gonner :—
WHEN the British Association revisits a town or city, it is the laudable custom
of the President of a Section to refer to what was said by his predecessor in the
same chair on the former occasion. -I should in any case be disposed to follow this
practice, but I could not choose to do otherwise when I find it was my honoured
friend Professor Jevyons who occupied this place in Liverpool in 1870. He was
one of a group which passed away in quick succession, to the great loss of the study
of Economics in this country, since each had much premise of further usefulness, and
left us with labours unfulfilled. Bagehot, Cairnes, Cliffe Leslie, Fawcett, Jevons,
occupied a large space in the field of economic study, and no one among them
excelled Professor Jevons in the vigour and clearness of his analysis or in the sin-
cerity and range of his speculations. His first work which arrested public attention
was perhaps not so much understood as misunderstood. This busy, bustling, hurrying
world cannot afford time to pause and examine the consecutive stages of a drawn-
out argument, and too many caught up and repeated to one another the notion that
Jevons predicted a speedy exhaustion of our coalfields, and they and their successors
have since been congratulating themselves on their cleverness in disbelieving the
prophecy. No such prophecy was in truth ever uttered. The grave warning that
‘was given was of the impossibility of continuing the rate of development of coal
production to which we had been accustomed, of slackening, and even arrested
growth, and of the increasing difticulty of maintaining a prosperity based on the
relative advantages we possessed in the low cost of production of coal; and this
warning has been amply verified in the years that have since passed, as will be at
once admitted by all who are competent to read and understand the significance
of our subsequent experience. But I must not dwell on this branch of Jevons’s
work nor on the many other contributions he made to the study of our economic
life. Tam concerned with what he said here twenty-six years since.
At first sight the address of my predecessor may seem loose and discursive ; but
viewed in due perspective, it appears a serious inquiry into the apparent failure of
economic teaching to change the course and elevate the standard of our social life,
and an earnest endeavour to impress these principles more strongly on the public
mind so that the future might better the history he reviewed. He referred to the
repeal of the Corn Laws, and owned with regret that the condition of the people
was little changed, that pauperism had scarcely abated, that little forethought was
shown by the industrial classes in preparing for the chances of the future ; and he
dwelt on the mischievous influence of the unthinking benevolence of the wealthy
in undermining provicence by its constant and increasing activity in mitigating the
868 REPORT—1896.
evils of improvidence. Jevons was not content to condemn the doles of past
testators ; he wanted the reorganisation of the Hospital service of our towns, so that
as far, at least, as the ordinary and inevitable casualties of sickness and accident are
concerned, they might be met by the co-operation of workers inspired by motives
of self-reliance instead of by ever open gratuitous service making forethought un-
necessary and even foolish. In this connection it may be noticed that while giving
a hearty welcome to Mr. Forster’s Education Act, passed in the same year that he
spoke, he noted with satisfaction that primary education had not been made gra-
tuitous so as to take away another support of prudence. It is strange, too, in the
light of our recent experience, to find him regretting that the task of remodelling
local taxation had not been undertaken, so that local wants might be met by a just
apportionment of their charge and the principles of association of the members of
local communities placed on a firmer basis.
It will be seen that what really occupied the mind of my predecessor was the
apparent slow success of Economic thinkers in influencing political action, and
we, looking back over the intervening twenty-six years, have certainly no more
cause of congratulation than he felt ; we are forced to ask ourselves the same ques-
tion what is the reason of our apparent failure; we are driven to examine anew
whether our principles are faulty and incomplete or whether the difficulties in their
acceptance, they being sound, lie in the prejudices of popular feeling which politi-
cians are more ready to gratify than to correct.
I do not pause to meet the charges of inhumanity or immorality which have in
other times been brought against Economists. Jevons pleaded for the benevolence
of Malthus, who might indeed be presumed, as an English clergyman, to be not
altogether inhuman or immoral. In truth everyone who has ever had any thought
about social or fiscal legislation—and we have had such laws among ourselves for
five centuries—everyone who has ever tried to influence the currents of foreign
trade—and such attempts date from an equally remote past—has been moved by some
train of economic reasoning, and must strictly be classified as an Economist ; and
the only difference between such men and those who are more usually recognised
by the name is that the latter have attempted to carry their thoughts a little
further, and have been more busy to examine the links of their own reasoning and
the soundness of their conclusions. The men who attempted to fix wages, to limit
the numbers in special trades, to prohibit or to compel certain specific exports, all
had some notion that they were engaged in doing something to strengthen if not
to improve the better organisation of communities. Even the aims which appear
to us most selfish were disguised as embodying social necessities, But by the
beginning of the present reign it may be said that the study of Political Economy
in this country had worked itself free from earlier errors, and it had come to be
believed that the secret of social regeneration lay in the utmost allowance of free-
dom of action to every individual of the community, so far at least as that action
affected himself, coupled with the most complete development of the principle of
self-reliance, so as to bring home to every member, freed from legal restraint on
his liberty of action, the moral responsibility of self-support and of discharging the
duties, present and to come, of his special position. With this education of
the individual in self-reliance, and with this liberation of the same individual in
the conduct of life, it was held that by certain, if slow, stages the condition
+ the ‘ sepamshan would be improved, and a wholesome reorganisation naturally
effected.
Whatever view we may now hold of this belief, whether we must discard it as
incomplete or even erroneous, or whether we remain strong in the conviction of its
intrinsic soundness and in the possibility of realising the hopes it offered, it must
still be evident that those who professed it were imbued with the deepest interest
in the well-being of their fellow creatures, and that the aim of all their speculations
was the purification of social life, and its healthy and abundant development.
Such was the theory more or less openly expressed by Economie thinkers when
the British Association was founded, and the same theory, as I conceive, lay at the
base of Jevons’s address in 1870. Can we hold it now, or must it be recast ?
Since 1870 Primary Education has practically been made gratuitous. The
——————oee eee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 869
Legislature had an opportunity for abolishing the mischief of doles, but showed no
inclination to make use of it, and there were even traces of a feeling of favour for
the maintenance of these bequests of the past. The indiscriminate multiplication
of so-called charitable institutions has in no way been reformed, and there is as
great activity as ever in the zeal of those who would mitigate or relieve the effects
of improvidence without touching improvidence itself. As far as the course of
legislation is concerned, it may be feared that it has been directed to diminish
rather than to increase the spirit of self-reliance. Codes of regulations have been
framed for the supervision of the conduct of special industries, and their sphere
has been extended so as to embrace at no distant period, if not now, the whole
industrial community. The reformed Poor Law, which was regarded as a great
step in the education of the workman, especially of the agricultura! labourer, in
independence, stands again upon its trial, and proposals are at least in the air for
assuring to the aged poor a minimum measure of support without any regard to
the circumstances of their past lives, or to the inevitableness of their condition.
The suggestions made by responsible statesmen have indeed been more limited and
cautious, but it will be acknowledged of those, as of the German system, from which
they may be said to be in some measure borrowed, that they involve a great depar-
ture from that ideal of individual development to which I have referred. Add to this
that there isa movement, which has become practical in many large cities and towns,
for the community itself to engross some forms of industrial activity, and to under-
take in respect of them to meet the wants of their inhabitants. All these develop-
ments and more may be summed up as illustrations of Collectivity—an ideal
which has its advocates and professors, and which looks in the future for regulated
civic and national monopolies instead of unrestricted freedom of individual
activity, and for the supervision and control of those industries which may
yemain unabsorbed by state or town. In pursuit of this last conception there
have been put forward not: only requirements as to hours and conditions of
labour, but a demand also for a Living Wage or a minimum, below which no
workman shall be paid; and this principle has been already adopted by some muni-
cipalities in respect of their monopolised industries. The State itself indeed has,
through the popular branch of the legislature, declared more or less clearly in
favour of the same principle in respect of the industries which are conducted in
its service.
We have not only to acknowledge the coutinued slowness of politicians to
adopt and enforce the teaching of Economists such as Jevons contemplated, but
also the rise of another school of Economic thought which competes for, and in
some measure successfully obtains, the attention of the makers of laws. The
question which has already been suggested thus becomes inevitable. We must
inquire whether the failure of former teaching has not been due to errors in itself
rather than to the indocility of those who have neglected it.
The greatest difficulty which the teachers of the past have to overcome when
put upon their self-defence lies in the suspicion, or more than suspicion, of an
occupied multitude that their promises have failed. It is thought of them, if it
is not openly said, that they had the ear of legislators for a generation, that the
course and conduct of successive administrations were governed by their principles,
and yet society, as we know it, presents much the same features, and the lifting up
of the poor out of the mire is as much as ever a promise of the future. Some
quicker method of introducing a new order is called for, and any scheme offering
an assurance of it is welcomed. A ready answer can be given to much of the
suspicion of failure that is entertained. That freedom of industrial action, which
is the first postulate of the Economists, has never been secured. We are so much
accustomed to the conditions of our own life that this declaration may seem
strange to many, who will say that at least in England labour and trade are free ;
but it must be admitted, on reflection, that in one great sphere of action the liberty
so postulated has, for good or bad reasons, never been conceded. The limitations
and restrictions necessarily consequent upon the system of land laws established
among us are not commonly understood, but although much has been done to libe-
rate agriculture from their fetters, its perfect freedom has not been attained. There
870 REPORT—1896.
may be free trade in the United Kingdom and free land in the United States,
but the country is yet to be found in which both are realised, and even if
both these requisites were attained the sores of social life would not be
removed unless the spirit of self-reliance were fully developed: and how little has
been done to secure this essential condition of progress! nay, how much has
been done by law, and still more by usage, to weaken and destroy its power!
The Economist of whom I have been speaking may boldly claim that so far as he
has had a free hand, his promises have been realised; there has been a larger
population with increased means of subsistence and diminished necessity of toil, a
people better housed, better fed, better clothed, with fewer relative failures of self-
support ; and if the teaching which has been partially adopted has brought about
so much, everything it promised would have been secured had it been fully
followed. If the teaching had been fully followed? This raises the question
whether there are inherent difficulties in the nature of man preventing such a con-
summation, and many will be ready with the answer that such difficulties exist,
are permanent and cannot be surmounted. As long as human nature is what it is
—so runs the current phrase—men will not see misery without relieving it, they will
not wait to inquire into its cause and whether it could have been prevented, and it
is claimed that this instinct is one of the best attributes of humanity, which we
should not attempt to eradicate. This kind of reply easily catches the popular ear.
It seems generous, sympathetic, humane. But it is based on a view of human
nature being incapable of education which has been and will long be the excuse for
acquiescence in all imperfections and even iniquity; nor can that be said to be
truly generous, sympathetic, or humane which refuses to inquire into the possi-
bility of curing disease, and prefers the selfishness of self-relief to the patient
endeavour to probe and remove the causes of the sufferings of others. The
Economist ofthe past generation would, I think, be justified in repudiating with
warmth the feeble temper which recoils from the strenuousness of endeavouring to
deal with social evils at their origin, and in reprobating the acceptance as inevi-
table of vices we take no pains to prevent. This, however, does not conclude the
whole matter. Even if we did attain the ideal of bringing home to all the members
of the community the fatal consequences of improvidence and vice, should we find
improvidence and vice ever narrowing into smaller and smaller circles, or should we
be confronted with their existence as before, with this difference, that past attempts
toalleviate their miserable consequences would be discredited and abandoned? I fear
I must here confess to a somewhat faltering faith. That a vigorous enforcement
of the penalties of improvidence would diminish it, is a conclusion justitied by
experience as well as suggested by theory ; but that it and its consequences would not
still remain gross and palpable facts is a conclusion I have not the courage to gain-
say. At all events, I cannot refuse to consider the question whether something
more than the complete freedom of the individual is not necessary for the reforma-
tion of society, and to examine with an open mind any supplementary or alternative
proposals that may be made to reach this end. Yet one thing must be said, and
said with emphasis, of the theory of the Economist. It was a working theory. No
theory can be accepted even for examination which does not show a working
organisation of society, and the theory we have had under review has this necessary
characteristic, even if it does not open up a certain way to a perfect reconstruction
of our social system.
It will be conceded by the most fearless and thorough-going advocates of the
liberty of individual development, that it must be supported by large measures of
co-operative action. No individual can by any amount of forethought protect himself
by himself against the chances and accidents of the future. No one can tell beforehand
what is in store for himself in respect of sickness, or accident, or those changes of cir-
cumstances which may arise from the default of others ; and mutual aid is necessary
to meet such contingencies. The freedom and activity of association thus indicated
are in no way inconsistent with the fullest theory of individual responsibility. Nor
is there any departure from it in the voluntary combination among themselves of
persons, individually weak, to supervise and safeguard the economic conditions into
which they may enter with others relatively stronger. A single workman may be
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 871
powerless to induce his employer to modify in any particular the terms of his
employment, but when workmen band together they may meet employers as equal
powers. Such liberty of combination is a development and not a limitation of
- Individual liberty. Another step is taken when the parties to such an arrange-
ment as has been suggested seek to make its provisions compulsory on others, be
they workmen or employers, who may enter into similar relations; and the prin-
ciples of former Economists would generally prompt them to condemn such
attempts at compulsion, The Factory Acts were opposed in this way, although
- they rested upon different grounds; for, though in their consequences they affected
_ the labour of adults, they were propounded for the defence of young persons and
children unable to protect themselves or to be the parties to free contracts. Legis-~
lation has, however, been extended to control directly the employment of fully
responsible persons, and this has been defended by three lines of argument. It is
urged that when the unchecked liberty of individuals destroys in fact the liberty
of action of larger multitudes, it is in defence of liberty of action that those
individuals are controlled. If a sea wall is necessary to prevent a large tract from
being periodically inundated, it cannot be permitted to the owner of a small patch
along the coast to leave the wall unbuilt along his border, and thus threaten the
lands of his neighbours with inundation. Again, it is urged that when the over-
whelming majority of persons engaged in a particular industry, employers and
employed, are agreed upon the necessity of certain rules to govern the industry, it
is not merely a convenience, but is a fulfilment of their liberty, to clothe with the
sanction of law the regulations upon which they are agreed. Lastly, it is sub-
mitted that there are individuals in whom the sense of responsibility is so weak
and whose development of forethought is so hopeless, that it is necessary the law
should regulate their conduct as it may regulate the conduct of children. I do
not propose to examine in detail these real or apparent limitations of individual
liberty. The first plea appears to me to be sound in principle, though it may often
have been applied to cases not properly coming within it. As to the second, the
convenience of giving to an all but universal custom the force of law is incontestable,
but it is at least doubtful whether this is sufficient to deprive individuals who
deliberately wish to put themselves outside it of the liberty of doing so. Unless
their action could be brought within the first line of argument, sufficient reason for
restraint does not appear. As for the hopeless class whose existence is made a
plea for restrictive legislation, the Economist may forcibly argue that they have
never been left to learn the full force of the lessons of experience, and it is the
impatient interference of thoughtless men and thoughtless laws which allows this
class to be perpetually recruited.
The limitations of individual liberty, to which I have referred, are familiar to
us, and have obtained’a firm hold in our legislation; but we enter upon compara-
tively new ground when we turn to the proposals that an increasing number of
industries should be undertaken and directed by State or Municipality, and that a
minimum and not inadequate subsistence should be assured to all those engaged in
such industries, if indeed the principle be not presently extended outside the
monopolies so established. The ideas which are clothed in the phrases ‘The
socialisation of the instruments of industry,’ and ‘The guarantee of a minimum
wage to all workmen,’ appear to involve a complete reorganisation of society, and
an absolute abandonment of the theories of the past. This is not enough to justify
their immediate rejection or their immediate acceptance. The past has not been
so good that we can refuse to look at any proposals, however strange in appearance,
offering a better promise for the future. It has not been so bad that we must
abandon its methods in despair, as if no change could be for the worse, if not: for
the better. A patient inquirer, feeling his way along the movement of his time,
may even be constrained to accept a patchwork covering of life instead of the ideal
garment woven without seam throughout; or he may be led to see that the
harmony of society, like the harmony of the physical universe, must be the result
of divers forces, out of which is developed a perfect curve.
No one could now be found to deny the possibility, and few to question the
utility, of the socialisation of some services. The post office is in all civilised
872 REPORT—1896.
countries organised as a national institution, and the complaints that are some-
times heard as to ¢efects in its administration never extend to a demand for its
abolition. Jevons, in a careful paper, showed that the same financial success
which marks our present postal system, must not be expected from the nationalisa-
tion of the telegraph service, and he dismissed even suggestions for the nationalisa-
tion of railways. His predictions have been amply verified with respect to the
telegraph account; but telegraphs are a national service amongst ourselves, and
railways are largely nationalised in ‘many continental countries, and in some of our
own colonies and dependencies. Some of our largest municipalities have under-
taken the supply of water and of gas, or even of electric light, to the inhabitants,
and a movement has begun, which seems likely to be extended, of undertaking the
service of tramways. Demands have also been made for the municipalisation or
nationalisation of the telephone service.
It may be said of all the industries thus described as taken over, or likely to be
taken over, by the nation and local communities, that when they are not so taken
over they require for their exercise special powers and privileges conceded by the
State or community, and the conditions of such concessions are settled by agree-
ment between the community and the body or bodies exercising such industries.
These conditions may involve the payment of a fixed sum, or of a rent for the
concession, or the terms upon which the services are to be rendered may be
prescribed in a stipulated tariff of charges, or the amount of profit to be realised
by the concessionaires may be limited with provisions for reduction of charge
when such limit is reached, or it may be required that in working such industries
certain limits of wages shall be observed as the minima to be paid to the work-
men employed upon them. Speaking very broadly, it may be said that the
community delegates or leases the right of practising the industry, and there is no
impassable gulf between prescribing the terms on which a lease shall be worked
and assuming the conduct of the industry leased. There may be difficulties in
the management by a community of a cumbrous and unwieldy undertaking, but
there is no difficulty affecting the organisation of society when the undertaking
must be created and shaped by the community in the first place. The arguments
against the assumption of such monopolies by State or Local Authorities are those
of expediency, founded on a comparison cf gain and loss. It may be urged that
there are more forcible motives of economy on the part of a concessionaire than on
the part of a community working the undertaking itself; that improvements of
method and reductions of cost will be more carefully sought; and although such
improvements and reductions might in theory be realised by the workmen and
agents of a community, which would thus secure all the savings effected by them,
yet private interest is quicker in discovery and more fertile in suggestion, and
it is more profitable in the end for the community to allow a concessionnaire to
secure such profits, subject to a stipulation that some part of them should return to
the community in the way either of increased money payment, or of reduced rates
of charge fur the services performed. It may be urged that when a community
works an industry itself, it may do so at a loss, thus benefiting those who specially
require its services at the cost of the whole body; but this objection is not peculiar
to undertakings so directly worked. It is a matter of common experience for State.
or Municipality to grant important subventions to persons willing to undertake
such works on stipulated terms of service, and such subventions involve a levy
from the whole community for the benefit of those availing themselves of the
services.
New considerations of great difficulty arise when we pass to the suggestion of
the undertaking by local authorities of productive industries not in the nature of
monopolies. In monopolies direct competition, often competition in any shape,
is practically impossible; in other industries competition is a general rule; and it is
by virtue of such competition that the members of the community do in the long
run obtain their wants supplied in the most economical manner. When com-
modities are easily carried without serious deterioration, the constantly changing
conditions of production and of transport induce a constant variation in the sources.
of cheapest supply—that is of supply under conditions of least toil and effort---
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 873
and any arrest of this mobility involves a corresponding set-back in the advance-
ment of the economic condition of mankind. It is a necessary consequence
of this process that the local production of special commodities should be subject
to diminution. and extinction, and that the labours hitherto engaged in such local
production should become gradually worthless, Quite as much labour as before
might be expended in achieving the result, but it would be misapplied; it
ought not to command the same return; it should cease. It is at least difficult to
foresee how far the production of commodities exposed to free competition could
be maintained by communities themselves in face of the movement we have
described. There would be a danger of pressure to do away with invasive com-
petition—action which, in my judgment, would be destructive of the most powerful
cause of improvement in the condition of the people. There would be an allied
danger of a refusal to recognise the possibility of a diminished worth of work
which remains as toilsome as ever, and of an increasing congestion of labour when
the great movement of the world demands its dispersion. It may be that those
evils are not inevitable, but they would require to be faced if any serious attempt
were made to increase the range of national or municipal industries, and I have not
yet seen any attempt at their serious investigation.
The position thus taken may be illustrated by an experience to which I have
elsewhere referred, but so pregnant with suggestion that I need not apologise for
recalling it. My native county, Cornwall, was in my boyhood the scene of wide-
spread activity in copper and tin mining. There had not been wanting warnings
that the competition of richer deposits in far countries would put an end to these
industries in the county, but the warnings had not been realised and remained
unheeded. In the years that have since passed they have been gradually and
almost completely fulfilled. There are no copper mines now in Cornwall, and the
tin mines, which were scattered far and wide throughout the county, are reduced
to two or three within one limited area. It is not the case that the ores have
been exhausted; they could still be raised, but at a cost of production making the
process unprofitable. The mines were abandoned one by one, and the population
of the county has steadily diminished in every recent census. What would the
experience have been had the mines been a county or national property worked by
county or nation? I do not stop to comment on the difficulty of expropriating
present owners, which, however, must not be forgotten. If the collective owner
had leased the mines to companies of adventurers (to use the local phrase), the
lessees would have gradually relinquished their concessions, as they have done
when taking them from private owners. Nor would the case have been materially
different even if the collective owner had introduced the novel stipulation into his
leases that the working miners should be paid according to prescribed rates of
wages. The process of relinquishment might have been precipitated and accelerated
by insisting on such a condition, but otherwise the experience would have been the
same. The shrinkage of industry would go on without a check, and it is to be
hoped that the workmen who found their work failing would, with the fine courage
and enterprise they have in fact shown, have betaken themselves to the fields of
mining industry displacing their own in all parts of the world. Can one think that
the same process would have been maintained had the collective owner worked
the mines directly, and the working men looked to county or nation for the con-
tinuance of work and wages? The attachment which all men have for the homes
of themselves and their fathers would have stimulated a demand for a recurrence
to the other resources of the collective owner for the maintenance of an industry
that was dying. Some demand might even be made for a repression or prohibition
of that competition which was the undoing of the local industry. These possi-
bilities may be regarded as fanciful, and it is true that forces might be kept under
control that operated within an area and affected a population relatively so
limited. But what if the warnings of Jevons respecting coal in England proved like
the warnings of the men who foresaw the cessation of tin mining in Cornwall, and
the community had to deal with the problem of the dwindling coal industry in
face of nationalised coal mines and_armies of workmen employed by the nation ?
The initial difficulties of the nationalisation of that which for centuries has been
1896. 3.1L
874, REPORT—1896.
the subject of private property are formidable, but they could doubtless be overcome
by the short and simple process of confiscation, This transformation is theoretically
conceivable. It is in the subsequent development of the scheme of nationalised and
municipalised industries that we are confronted with tasks not so easy of solution.
How is its working to be reconciled with that opening up of more and more pro-
ductive fields which is one of the prime factors of social progress? How is the
allotment of men to be directed so that they may be shifted about as new centres
open and old centres close? What checks or commands can be invoked to restrain
the growth of population in a district when it should be dwindling? These are
questions that can scarcely be put aside, and it may even be acknowledged that
they gain fresh force when viewed in the light of another experience. Agricul-
tural industry has recently been subjected to severe trials through a great breadth
of this country. This has been due to cheaper importations from other lands, and
though the competition has in my judgment been aggravated by causes into which
I will not now digress (which aggravation however might and should be dealt
with), the importation of food at less cost is a result no Economist wil] regard
as otherwise than beneficial to the community as a whole. It is well that
bread and flesh and the sustenance of life should be procured with as little toil as
possible, however severe the trial for those who have been engaged hitherto in
the production of those necessaries. We know that it has been so severe that
demands for relief and assistance have been loudly made, and their power has been
such as to have been in some measure successful; but had land been nationalised
and farms held from the State or from county, town, or parish, they would have
assumed a different shape, have been urged with greater purpose, and have received
larger treatment. The difficulties of such a nationalised industry, passing into what
may be described as a water-logged condition, would test beyond the straining point
such statesmanship as our experience warrants us to believe possible.
However much we may contemplate the reconstruction of an industrial system,
it must, if it is to be a living social organism, be constantly responsive to the ever-
changing conditions of growth ; some parts must wax whilst others wane, extend-
ing here and contracting there, and manifesting at every moment those phenomena
of vigour and decline which characterise life. Inthe development of industry new
and easier ways are constantly being invented of doing old things; places are
being discovered better suited for old industries than those to which resort had
been made ; there is a continuous supersession of the worth of known processes and
of the utility of oldforms of work involving a supersession, or at least a transfer, of
the labour hitherto devoted to them. All these things compel a perpetual shifting
of seats of industry and of the settlements of man, and no organisation can be enter-
tained as practicable which does not lend itself to those necessities. They are the
pre-requisites of a diminution of the toil of humanity. As I have said before, the
theory of individual liberty, however guarded, afforded a working plan; society
could and did march under it. The scheme of collective action gives no such
pra of practicability ; it seems to lack the provision of the forces which should
ring about that movement upon which growth depends. The Economist of the
past generation still holds his ground, and our best hope lies in the fuller accept-—
ance of his ideas. Such, at least, appears to me to be the result of a dispassionate
inquiry ; but what may be wanting is something more than a dispassionate temper—
a certain fervour of faith. The Economist must feel, if he is to animate multitudes
and inspire legislatures, that he, too, has a religion. Beneath the calmness of his
analysis must be felt the throb of humanity. Slow in any case must be the secular
progress of any branch of the human family ; but if we take our stand upon facts,
if our eyes are open to distinguish illusions from truth, if we are animated by the
single purpose of subordinating our investigations and our actions to the lifting up
of the standard of living, we may possess our souls in patience, waiting upon the
’ promise of the future,
—_ =
se ltl
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 875
_ The following Papers were read :—
1. Some Economic Issues in regard to Charitable or Philanthropic
Trading. By C.8. Locu.
Philanthropic trading is, for the purposes of this paper, defined as trading
undertaken, in the case of a municipality, to provide, not the common wants of
the community, but those of its individual members. The definition thus excludes
trading in gas or water, but includes, for instance, the supply of artisans’
dwellings or municipal common lodging houses. In the case of institutions
philanthropic trading is defined as trading undertaken to supply the general
market, whether with the object primarily of reforming or occupying inmates or
dependents, or solely with the purpose of raising funds,
Of the relation of philanthropic trading to the use of capital and credit three
examples are given: the provision of dwellings for artisans and labourers by the
municipality, and the methods adopted, one by the Salvation Army, and one by a
philanthropic home, in order to raise capital.
By detailed reference to the Goldsmith’s Row and Boundary Road schemes of
the London County Council, it is shown that, in accordance with the general
evidence on the subject, there is loss on the purchase of land when it is utilised
for artisans’ dwellings in the centre of London; that those displaced by a scheme
do not return to occupy the new buildings; and that the system competes with
private agencies, who, it they take the land at all for artisans’ dwellings, will only
do so at such specially reduced rates as will enable them to make a profit.
The one economic result of this philanthropic trading is to undersell the capital
and eredit of the ordinary trader, who practically pays in diminished business for
the advantage which the community receive—namely, the difference between the
24 or 3 per cent. at which the London County Council, with the credit of the
community behind it, can raise money and the 4} or 5 per cent. that the private
capitalist would require. Other results are to cause waste, consisting (1) of the
difference between the value of the land in the market and its value when
reserved for artisans’ dwellings ; (2) of the continuing loss on the site, for though
rateable value will increase when the dwellings are built, it will increase at a
lesser rate than it would if the site were used for commercial purposes; (8) of the
loss due to misdirection, since, after all, the dwellings do not as a rule provide
for the very poor, but for the better class, who secure a better article at the usual
rates of rental prevailing in the neighbourhood, For all these forms of waste the
ratepayer has to pay. Socially, the system is wrong, as it tends to increase the
density of the population instead of spreading it over a larger area. And the
supply of house accommodation does not, in fact, demand State or municipal
intervention more than the supply of food or clothing. In the former case the
market lies at hand or the goods are brought to the house; in the latter the
market, the cheaper accommodation, has to be sought (always a difficult matter
with the poor) in the cheaper districts in the outskirts of the town.
‘General’ Booth’s loans at 43 per cent. are next referred to. In this case
spiritual credit is used for the philanthropic trading of the Salvation Army, which
undertakes to ‘supply shopkeepers at wholesale prices? &c. The parallel is drawn
kage the conditions of municipal trading and of such philanthropic trading
as this.
Of philanthropic retail trading four instances are given: the supply of common
lodging houses, the Salvation Army tea trade, the depéts of the Church Extension
Association, and. the free or part-pay supply of medicine and medical advice in
out-patient departments,
In the philanthropic supply of common lodging houses by the municipality the
ratepayer pays twice over—tirst to meet waste of the kind referred to above in
connection with the capital expenditure, and next in order to maintain the persons
who resort to these institutions, and immediately or soon after apply for: relief
_ from the rates, This is shown in detail in the case of the Blackfriars shelter of
the Salvation Army and from evidence from Manchester and Whitechapel.
3L2
876 . .. REPORT—1896.
The Salvation Army tea trade is lucrative. They supply (with a philanthropic
capital) ‘the best possible teas at the lowest price at which they can be purchased
elsewhere.’ But those who pledge themselves (as they are asked to do) to buy
their teas do not thereby themselves pay towards the support of the Army.
Those who actually pay are the merchants and others who are engaged in the tea
trade, whose business is philanthropically diverted, and who are thus made to
contribute to the funds of the Salvation Army not merely without their consent
but to their detriment.
In regard to the philanthropic employment of labour in institutions, instances
are given showing the economic and social results of such interference upon
unskilled labour, and the principles that should limit and guide its introduction
are stated.
2. Trade Combinations and Prices. By H. J. Faux, IA.
‘Definitions. Trada Combination an ambiguous term; Combinations of Capital
and Combinations of Labour. Misuse of word Trust for former. A distinctive
terminology suggested.
Trade Combmation in general. Its general effect.
Combinations of Capital primarily Trusts for Partners or Shareholders and not
Public Trusts. Their Formation and Constitution actual and ultimate or ideal.
Brief history of Combinations of Capital. Distinction between old monopolies
created by law and voluntary combinations. Purpose of Combinations. Protessed
and Actual:—Reduction of cost; advance of price, Indirect effect of premium-
hunting, and of Stock-Exchange value of shares in a business upon management
of combinations and prices.
Liffect on prices.—Difference between effect of combinations of capital and com-
binations of labour. Actual effect and ideal or ultimate effect. Four stages.
First, monopoly complete or tentative. Second, competition with tacit combina-
tion of competitors. Third, thorough competition. Fourth, survival of fittest by
ultimate economy, (A) Effect upon cost. Economy of material. Concentration
of work, Elaboration of new methods from larger views. Better synthesis and
organisation. (B) Effect upon distribution. Larger production tends to better
arrangement of sales. Its various effects upon prices. Wider acquaintance with
consumers and demand. Lconomy in handling. Direction of channels of distri-
bution. Indirect effect through reaction upon cost of knowledge gained in distribu-
tion. Collateral effects on prices of allied products.
Remedies for evils of primitive stages of combination.—General remedies are
better statistics and more knowledge of economics in industrial world. Education
of commercial men as industrial trustees. Growing experience of public, both as
shareholders and consumers. Mistrust of uneducated plutocrats and their methods.
Methods of inducing ultimate economies of combination. Example of railways
and banks.
Ultimate effect on prices.—Progress towards a rational ideal of profit and
industrial methods accelerated by combination. Law of average operates. Forces
tending to produce result. Trade of individuals menaced, selfish instincts tend to
economy ; trade of country attacked, patriotic instincts add to effort. Increase of
education and the new industrial religion. The artist’s view of production. The
worthy product and its price.
3. Les Crises Commerciales. By Monsieur CLimEntT JUGLAR.
Statistics indicative of commercial activity during long periods of time exhibit
an ebb and flow extending over a variable number of years, and due to some
owerful force acting continuously in the same direction for a considerable time.
he movement so observed is more or less uniform in all countries at the same
time. The circulation of banks in England, France, and America, since 1800
affords an example. The cyclical period is not constant, but the credit-movement
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 877
showsa succession of stages of expansion, shock (or crisis), contraction (or liquida-
tion), stagnation, and renewed expansion. The crash or the Copper Syndicate,
of the Panama Canal Company and the Daring crisis fit in with a movement of
this kind.
The International Institute of Statistics had propounded the question, What
is the best measure of the economic condition of a nation? The consumption of
coal, iron, and corn, had been suggested as the measure ; but these are partial at
best. The credit circulation, on the contrary, embraces the whole industrial and
commercial activity of the country, cash and credit alike, for the second carries
with it the first.
A remarkable confirmation of the pervading power of credit is afforded by
diagrams showing the number of marriages and births in London and Paris, in
France, England, Germany, Prussia, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland. These
expand and contract with striking similarity, increasing in good times when credit
is active, contracting in bad times when credit is diminishing or sluggish, Similar
diagrams of the number of deaths show no such concordance with the movements of
credit, because, unlike credit, they are largely determined independently of
human volition, though the minimum on this curve usually occurs in a period of
prosperity.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. That Ability is not the Proper Basis of Local Taxation.
By Evwin Cannan, JA.
The assessment of the poor rate, to which nearly all other English rates are
now mere additions, was originally founded on the principle of ability to pay,
and that principle has never been expressly repudiated. But the successive steps
by which it has been practically abandoned have been called for by public opinion,
and, in spite of complaints, loud rather than dezp, the present system is generally
approved.
en portion of public expenditure on what are realiy national objects is still
raised by local taxation, in order to secure economy and efficiency of administra-
tion, The making of this expenditure a local charge is in itself a negation of
the principle of taxation according to ability, and the only question is whether
an attempt should be made to re-establish in each locality a principle which
has been abandoned as regards the nation as a whole. The answer is in the
negative. Most people migrate before reaching the prime of life, and the effect
of their consideration where to settle is to equalise tue advantages and dis-
advantages of different localities as places of business and residence. Local
taxation is a disadvantage duly taken into account, and consequently, no matter
what it is laid upon in the first instance, it tends to reduce the value of the land
and other fixed property of the locality. This being the case, it is expedient to
levy it directly in respect of such property, Even, therefore, if all local expendi-
ture were of this class, ability would not be the proper basis of local taxation.
But by far the greater portion of modern local expenditure is of a class to
which it would be unjust as well as inexpedient to apply the principle of taxation
according to ability, either locally or nationally. The principle is approved in
the case of national taxation, because the benefits produced by the national! expendi-
ture are of such a kind that their distribution cannot be traced and their amount
measured. The ideal commonly held is practically equal distribution modified by
differences of need, and this communistic principle has its natural counterpart in
payment according to ability. But the greater portion of modern local expendi-
ture is calculated (owing to the competition between localities) to produce com-
mensurable pecuniary benefits to the owners of land and other fixed property.
878 REPORT—1896,
The proper principle of contribution is therefore not the communistic one of pay-
ment according to ability, but the joint-stock principle of payment according to
share or interest.
2. Some Observations on the Distribution and Incidence of Ratesand Taxes ;
with special reference to the transfer of charges from the former to the
latter. By G. H. Buunpen.
Expenses of kinds formerly provided for by the levy of rates are now met by
the imposition of Imperial taxation to the amount of 8,000,000/. (including
1,000,000/. transferred by the Agricultural Rates Act, 1896). Who gains by the
Spas ai reduction of the rates, and who loses by the corresponding imposition
of taxes !
Calculations have been made which show that the payers of Income Tax con-
tribute 29 per cent. of the rates as occupiers of houses, and 31 per cent. as
ced SER and consumers ; or 6/)-per cent. in all. Non-payers of Income
ax are shown to pay 32 per cent. of the rates as occupiers of houses, and 8 per
cent. as property-owners and consumers; or 40 percent. in all. Ofthe rates levied,
12°6 per cent, are borne by certain kinds of real property, 12-1 per cent. by some
forms of personal property, and 75:3 per cent. by the community as occupiers and
consumers. Much of both real and personal property does not contribute.
Of the Imperial taxes levied, 3 per cont. is borne by real property, 10:4 per
cent. by other rateable property, 16-2 per cent. by non-rateable property, 5:5 falls
on the earnings of personal exertion, as such; and 64:9 on the consumers of taxed
commodities. One-half of the Imperial taxes are contributed by the classes who
fall below the Income Tax standard.
The transferred charges prior to 1896 are held to have fallen equally on the
payers of Income Tax and the consumers of tea, coffee, cocoa, and dried fruits. As
between those who pay Income Tax and those who do not, the shares of the burden
remain practically unaltered. But those of the former class who own rate-bearing
property gain largely at the expense of those who do not; and the share of the
latter class is less evenly distributed among its members, to the disadvantage of
the poorer of them. :
The Agricultural Rates Act reduces the quota of the rates borne by real pro-
perty from 12°6 per cent. to 75 per cent. The cost of the transfer falls upon the
whole community.
3. Proposed Modifications of the Rating System. By W. H. Smirn. |
The changes in local taxation usually proposed involve financial questions that
are matters of controversy ; but the rating system ought to continue in some form
the main source of local revenue, and it is probable that many grievances alleged
against it can be mitigated by modifications of the system which may be viewed
as the development, rather than the supersession, of the broader principles upon
which it rests. Thus, it should be observed that the primary question arising
is one between the persons interested in competing properties, and not between
those who are variously interested in a single property. Changes, mostly unfore-
seen, occur in the relative values of properties put to similar uses. These changes,
which necessitated ‘ reassessment,’ speedy in their operation, demand that reassess-
ment be associated, not with ‘an equal £ rate,’ but with a rate which, ceteris paribus,
would vary more widely than the rateable value varies. ‘To the grievance of the
ratepayer as tradesman, there is added his complaint as private householder. As
such, he occupies property whose value depends much on the building as dis-
tinguished from the site. Moreover, as one descends socially, the demand for
house accommodation becomes ineffectual more rapidly than the demand for other
comparative necessaries. It is to be considered whether this is in any measure a
result of the present distribution of local taxation. A question also arises as to
the effect, as regards the individual ratepayer, of the subsidies received by local
authorities in the shape of profits from undertakings,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 879
4, Farm Labour Colonies and: Poor Law Guardians.
By Haroxtp E. Moors, F.S.1.
With the experience now gained it is possible to divide Farm Labour Colonies
into two distinct classes. The first may be considered to be colonies for the reception
of well-conducted men of the working classes temporarily out of employment,
These colonies can be made self-supporting if managed under proper conditions, as
appears from the evidence collected by Mr. W. Mather, then M.P. for the Gorton
division of Lancashire, and placed before the Parliamentary Committee on the
Unemployed, in the scheme which that gentleman advocated for the foundation of
éolonies for this class from national resources.
The second class of colonies may be considered to be those for the reception of
men who would otherwise be in the casual wards or inmates of workhouses. This
kind of colony must be worked either by Boards of Guardians or in close connection
with the same. The advantages claimed for such colonies are the reduction in cost
of Poor Law Relief, and the giving of more hope to those engaged than if they
were employed in other classes of forced labour. Old enactments not yet repealed
give Boards of Guardians power to take land not exceeding fifty acres for each
parish and to pay wages for working the same. At the time of passing the Poor
Law Act of 1834 many such farms were in operation. To continue this class of
work was, however, contrary to the spirit of that Act, and has been discouraged.
In 1894, however, the Local Government Board consented to consider any
schemes submitted by Guardians for providing employment on land. The
proposals made by various Boards seem to have been either (a) to allow part of
the cost of men sent to colonies under private control to be paid by Guardians; or
(4) to sanction acquirement of land to be worked by paid labour; or (c) to permit
the acquirement of small areas mainly for purposes of test work. The first-named
proposition has been approved, the second rejected, and the third has received
favourable consideration.
These decisions of the Local Government Board seem to have been generally
prudent, for if land is to be worked for the class named it must be (a) largely
waste land, to admit of the employment of intermittent and unskilled labour 3; (4)
not of such a size as to involve usual farm risks; (c) used only for growth of such
crops as can be consumed in the workhouses or by the men employed; (@)
managed on a system giving a reward for labour on the basis of piece-work. The
experience quoted showed if these considerations were adhered to the cost of Poor
Relief would be lessened with benefit to the men helped. More especially has this
been the case where assistance of Guardians has been in the nature of a subsidy to
colonies carried on by voluntary committees. An extension of this system can,
therefore be recommended, especially in view of the recommendations of the
Parliamentary Report on the Unemployed, published in July 1896.
5. Raffeisen Village Banks in Germany.
Ly Professor W. B. Borromuey.
6. The Decay of British Agriculture : its Causes and Cure.
Sy Cuaries Rintout.
The decay of agriculture may be attributed to the abolition of the Corn Laws in
1846, which Act was a security to the farmer for the safe investment of his capital
and labour in producing food for the nation. This did not immediately follow, as
trade and manufacture, which were languishing under the Corn Laws, became
very prosperous, together with several other reasons, but as soon as the prairie
lands of virgin soil abroad were broken up and reaped with the labour-saving
string-binder, and produce sent into this country at very low freights, the exhausted
and clay lands, which then could not compete, began to become derelict. Large
tracts are thrown out of cultivation, and labourers who formerly produced food .
880 REPORT—1896.
supplies are driven into towns to compete with wage-earners there, or to emigrate,
and thus their services are lost to the country. Three important remedies :—
First: That rents should be adjusted in accordance with the prices, and that
permanent improvements executed by the tenantry should be secured to them.
Second: That all city refuse be returned to the soil to restore fertility. This is
being done in Glasgow at a profit, details of which are given in the paper.
Government ought to assist in making this universal. ‘The fertilising matter at
resent cremated, or thrown into the sea, is a national loss, and could be turned
into a national gain. Third: A national system of reclamation of all suitable
tidal wastes, to provide virgin soil and marsh pastures, so that the raw material
now necessary for successful agriculture be kept up. Some details of what has been
accomplished in Scotland and Holland are given. In the event of war, the limited
supply of home produce and steady increase of population in this country are
regarded as serious, and ought to be provided for,
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Metric Measures and our Old System. By F. Toms.
The metric system of weights and measures will doubtless be legalised in this
country before long. But, admirable as this system is for scientific purposes and
large commercial transactions, the decimal divisions are not well adapted to the
small dealings which prevail among the less educated portion of the community,
who form the great mass of the British nation. In legalising the new code, how-
ever, there is no need to sweep away the method now in force, as the two systems
may be combined, and the retention of old forms will make our untaught popula-
tion familiar with new principles.
Our English measures may be made to accord with the French by dividing
the metre into eleven equal parts and taking ten of those parts as the basis of
our yard. The divisions and multiples of our old system could be retained as
heretofore, the oniy difference being that inches, feet, yards, furlongs, &c., would
all be reduced by a small fraction (-006). ‘lhis done, the metres would be
exactly converted into yards when multiplied hy 1:1, and yards would be con-
verted into metres when divided by 1:1. At the same time, the complications of
our present land measures would be simplified.
A somewhat similar course might be taken with weights and measures of
capacity—old names being applied to new equivalents. If half a kilogramme be
taken as the new pound, and half a dekaiitre as the new gallon, their divisious
and multiples would follow the same course as that now in vogue, and retezin the
same nomenclature.
2. Comparison of the Age-Distribution of Town and Country Population
in Different Lands. By A. W. Fuux, IA.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Mercantile Markets for ‘ Futures” By Evisan Hem.
Origin and purpose of dealings in ‘Futures’ in the commercial markets—
Utility of the system to industry and commerce—It constitutes a method of
insurance to producers and distributors against the risks of fluctuating prices—Its
ew
—— Ee ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 881
effect upon prices examined in the light of the law of supply and demand—Its
influence in rising and falling markets respectively—It has accentuated the fall of
prices of commodities within the last twenty years—Its development assisted by
the telegraph and the telephone—Why it is confined to the markets for raw
materials—lts indirect effect in the markets for manufactures—Its connection
with speculative operations—How far these. can be differentiated from pure
gambling—The system, properly organised and controlled, is, on the whole,
economically beneticial—The demand for legislative suppression not justifiable.
2. Grain Futures, their Effects and Tendencies. By H. R. RATHBONE.
Futures trading, or ‘ options’ as they are generally called, has been of recent
growth in the grain trade, and has only during the last ten years exercised a para-
mount influence on the trade. Its introduction has increased the tendency already
in operation to reduce the margin of profit iu distribution to a minimum. Owing
to the tendency of speculators to overtrade the margin is generally against the
importer, and, except under rather unusual cireumstances, the cost of distribution
is borne chiefly by the speculators. In America, where the system has reached a
perfection unknown elsewhere, the option-market is the invariable basis of trading
both for the farmer, the distributor, and the miller. In fact, the option-market is
looked upon by the trader as a sort of insurance system. The rapidity with which
the trade can be executed in these speculative markets has invited operators from
all parts of the world, and undoubtedly during the great fall in prices since 1891,
the world used the American markets in which to insure their holdings. But itis
quite impossible to prove that this fall in values was brought about by option-
trading, although a natural fall is accentuated just as a rise is by the existence of
the option-market. On the other hand, it may easily be shown that much of the
shrinkage in values is due to a fall in freight both ocean and inland.
It is evident that this speculative trading by reducing margins and by making
large operations less risky and dangerous is steadily concentrating the grain trade
of England into fewer and fewer hands. ‘There are unmistakeable signs that this
concentration may eventually take the form of large trusts or syndicates for the
distribution of our breadstufts. As long as England follows her Free Trade prin-
ciples, it is unlikely that any such abuse of their powers will be possible as we are
familiar with in protectionist America. And the hope of the Fabian, that such
trusts are only the stepping-stones to the nationalisation of commerce, if not
brought about by abuse, is still less likely to be brought about on the ground of
economy. For, as long as mankind remains what it is, with an inherent, insatiable
passion for speculation, I can imagine no cheaper means for distribution than that
in which option-trading plays so important a part.
3. Cotton Futures, what they are, and how they operate in Practice.
By CuHarves STEWART.
Avoiding trade technicalities where possible, and explaining them where
unavoidable, the paper commences by a description of what a Cotton Futures con-
tract is, its method of working as a contract in suspense and at maturity, and how
differences in value are adjusted through the medium of the Clearizg House of
the Liverpool Cotton Association.
The subject is afterwards separated into two divisions: the utility of Cotton
Futures as ‘ Hedges,’ first as sales, second as purchases. The sales are again
divided: Ist. As sales by planters in order to secure a favourable current price
while the crop is growing, the feature dwelt upon being that such a sale can
always be immediately effected, and a ruling good or fair price instantaneously
secured. 2nd. The sales of Futures by importers as a hedge against shipments,
this operation fully protecting the value interest not only of the importer while
the cotton is in transit or in the warehouse, but also the interest of the banker:
382 OC REPORT—1896.
financing the bills of exchange drawn for the value of the shipment. This feature
is specially emphasised as an insurance against loss in value in a declining market,
it being pointed out that without such protection cotton importing would be a
sheer gamble and speculation. 3rd. The sales of Futures by spinners, manufac-
turers, and their agents against accumulated and accumulating stocks of yarn and
eta = times when from temporary and local causes production is ahead of
emand,
The purchase of Cotton Futures as a hedge is divided into two sections: 1st.
As purchases by shippers against contracts made for forward delivery, during such
time as their agents, spread over the cotton belt, can lay their hands upon the
actual specialties required. 2nd. As purchases by spinners against contracts made
for forward delivery of yarn, by manufacturers against contracts made for forward
delivery of cloth, and their agents, it being pointed out that after a sale is effected
on a recognised basis a cover-purchase of practically equivalent value can be made
immediately, the question of selection being a matter of detail and convenience,
The fidelity of contracts is explained, also the rapidity and facility of effecting
_ either sale or purchase, Cotton Futures being designated as the consols of produce.
It is claimed that the system of dealing in Futures is the natural outcome of the
expansion of trade, particularly the feature of the development of such by tele-
graphy. The increase in the size of the crops, the small margin of present-day
profits, the greater speed in transit, the increased magnitude of producing con-
cerns, the necessarily greater increase in the capital for their requirements, are all
demonstrated. Throughout the paper ignores theory or fallacy, and is devoted to
a simple explanation of practice.
4, The Influence of Business in Futwres on Trade and Agriculture.
By J. SILVERBERG.
Agitation against the system of dealing in produce for future delivery in
America, England, and Germany. The opponents allege that —
1. The system of selling fictitious produce is the cause of the decline and of
constant low prices.
2. That the system overrules the law of supply and demand.
3. That statistical figures prove this contention.
4, They stigmatise the magnitude of these transactions, which they brand as
gambling.
5. They produce evidence from their supporters.
As against these it is argued that the system operates as part of the law of
supply and demand. :
The statistics are unreliable.
The magnitude of the transactions in futures is immense.
Futures may be classed as follows :—
1. Speculation pure and simple is only a comparatively small part. Itis diffi-
cult to trace ard to distinguish it from other business ; it is impossible to legislate
against it and to stop it.
2. Selling against imports, called ‘hedging,’ quite legitimate and supremely non-
speculative.
3. ‘ Jobbing’ transactions, balancing one another mostly on the same day, and
not to be deprecated, having the advantage of creating a broad market.
4. ‘Straddling’ transactions not altering the position, being identical with
transposing quantities from one side of an arithmetical equation to the other, by
changing the signs.
Evidence given by opponents mostly biassed and contradictory ; they plead their,
own cause, while pretending to pose as public benefactors.
Dealers and importers of the old school are speculators, while the importer now-
adays finds in the system the means of eliminating the element of speculation. The
system moves the crops with ease and safety, draws them to our ports, and makes
these the centres of distribution, which is a great benefit.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, - 888
The influence of the system on agriculture is salutary :—
1. It furnishes buyers at a time when supplies are enormous and a congestion
likely to occur.
2. It increases the number of buyers, which is always an advantage to sellers.
3. It brings consumers into closer contact with producers, and the saving
hereby effected benefits producers.
4, It engenders speculative investments by capitalists.
4 5. It ensures banking facilities to the small shippers, and thus increases
competition.
6. It gives producers the cardinal advantage of making produce at all times
_ areadily saleable commodity.
7. It has a decidedly levelling effect on prices, while the abuses, such as arti-
ficial depression or artificial inflation, are only rare occurrences, and have only a
temporary effect.
The low price of produce is due to natural causes, ruled by the inexorable law
of supply and demand, and the trading in futures has nothing to do with it.
‘Bear’ selling is too sweepingly cendemned by the opponents; on the con-
trary, it very frequently acts beneficially.
In summing up, the conclusion is reached that the system of dealing in futures
is a branch of business with which, under modern conditions of trade, we cannot
dispense; and that the excrescences and abuses are insignificant compared with
the advantages which it confers on trade and agriculture.
5. The Cowrse of Average General Prices. By Henry Binns.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The following Papers were read :—
1, The Currency Question in the United States and its bearing on British
Interests. By Arruur Lee.
Recent developments of the currency question in the United States have rudely
dispelled many illusions. Both great parties bimetallist: the Republicans
declare for international bimetallism; the Democrats for national bimetallism.
No proper gold monometallist party now in the United States. The attitude of
England towards international bimetallism a potent factor in the development of
strength of the free silver party.
In whatever way struggle results it will vitally affect British interests:
1. If the Republicans win, by operation of a new McKinley tariff especially
hostile to British trade; by non-settlement of silver question and four years of
continual agitation; by prospect of free silver victory in 1900 and consequent
uncertainty as to future. 2. If Democrats win, by reduction in exchangeable value
of gold; by increase in exchangeable value of silver; by a violent change in
relative values of gold and silver, and consequently of the three standards of value
now in existence in British Empire.
Can the United States alone make a coinage ratio of 16 tol effective? Opinion
_ generally held in this country that they cannot do so. Not supported on any
definite scientific ground. Factors in the problem: Amount of gold now in the
States; how much of this can be absorbed by gold-standard countries; how
“much silver will probably rise and gold will probably fall. Argument of those
_ who maintain that ratio cannot be made effective. Effect of throwing one-seventh
of the total stock of gold in the world on the gold-standard countries. Effect of a
_ demand for one-seventh of the total silver money in existence. Gregory King’s
law. Professor Thorold Rogers on Gregory King’s law. No reason why law,
eo
884 REPORT—1896.
should not apply in present case. United States cannot exchange one-ninth of
total world’s stock of gold for silver without bringing market ratio of precious
metals below 16 to 1. Probability that the United States will retain large pro-
portion of her present holding of gold. In that case coinage ratio of 16 to I will be
effective. Effect on the various currencies of the British Hmpire. Interest of the
British Empire in stability of ratio between gold and silver money. But sudden
change will work terrible disturbance, Will affect British Empire more than any
other. Effect of turning a deaf ear to proposals with respect to international
agreement.
Appreciation of gold has been of advantage to certain classes in this country
although injurious to producing classes. But this class benefit dependent on
action taken by foreign powers. Settlement of the question an important British
interest. One for trained political economists, not for popular vote. Should be
result of calm deliberation and conference between wisest heads of principal
trading nations. Strength of Republican position the hope that international
agreement may be brought about. If this hope definitely abandoned free silver
agitation will become irresistible.
England’s responsibility. Present British attitude: Gives strength to present
free silver agitation ; may result in abandonment of any attempt at international
settlement. But question will be settled. Alternative settlement: Violent
change as a consequence of a popular vote after appeals to popular passion and
prejudice. Scant consideration of British interests. Wild revolution instead of
wise reform.
2. Standard of Value and Price. By Witu1AM Fow Ler.
Low Prices Origin of Contest of Standards.—Is it a monetary question? No
lack of gold or of standard money (state of banks, treasuries, &c.). Standard
money less and less used in trade. Increased output of gold.
What ts Price?—The fundamental question. It is the record in money of a
bargain depending on markets, not on supplies of money. Prices may aflect
money, not money prices (Giffen). Money a measure and not creator of price.
Price affected by money supply only in case of alarm. If credit maintained,
prices not so affected, e.g., dear money and high prices 1864-67. At present time
cheap money and low prices. (This true, though word money often used in
different senses.) Supply and demand of goods real source of changes of price.
Low Prices chiefly due to Excess of Supplies—caused by (1) inventions, cheap
carriage, cheap production. (2) Increase of capital applied to production by
(a) limited liability, (4) capital set free by changes in trade (telegrapbs, &c.).
(ec) Accumulations. (3) Special case of silver—great supplies—lessened demands
owing to demonetisation caused by great supplies. Fall in prices irregular, but
if caused by want of gold should act on all alike, e.g., minerals and wheat fallen
much and meat little. The causes atlecting them must be contrasted. Wages
have risen though labour is a commodity. Gold depreciated as against labour.
Allegation that Low Price of Silver affects (a) Prices, (b) Trade.) It
affects exports from silver-using countries, e.y., imports of wheat from India.
Russia and Argentine (paper) and U.S A. (gold) now rule our markets as to
grain. (2) Cheap silver discourages our exports to silver countries (silver prices).
But our exports to gold countries have fallen in twenty years far more than our
exports to silver countries (Whitehead). Our real rival in the East as to our
exports—local manufacture—cheap labour—cheap materials. Discoveries of gold
may cause speculative demands for goods—Query any recent evidence of this
affecting prices ?
Bimetallism. What is it ?—What is a standard? Is a double standard con-
ceivable ? Objections to change of standard. Bimetallism attempts to create a
price by law. It says gold worth so many times silver—market or no market. Is
this possible? ‘Fixed price’ impossible (Giffen), e y., France in 1873—Sherman
Act of 1890—France before and after 1850—Fall in silver from 1890 to 1898
(58d. to 38d.). Can legislation secure circulation ? e.g., silver holding of America
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ¥. 885
and France. Law as to circulation of two metals as legal tender money ; cheaper
remains, dearer goes, e¢g., America all silver 9234, all gold ’34~’73. Demand
for gold outside nations agreeing on ratio for (a) hoarding ; (6) war treasure.
Danger if not certainty of silver monometallism (Giffen), Danger of panic and
hoarding if free coinage of silver as legal tender seriously entertained—United
States in 93, and now. Permanent and unconditional agreement of all great
nations impossible. What is the ratio approved. No agreement (Cernuschi in
France). May not silver suit some and gold others? Danger of agreements in
giving power over us to others. Danger of loss of position—what is a pound ?
Is it honest to pay gold debt in silver? Desiderata—permanence and stability.
No proof of probable gain—certainty of dangers if standard made uncertain,
3. The Monetary Standard. By Major L. Darwin.
In this paper the author discusses the law which it is desirable that a metallic
standard of value should follow with reference to the price of commodities.
Taking the case of stagnant trade, when the production of commodities is neither
increasing nor diminishing, he shows that objectionable results will arise if the
standard is one which either tends to raise or to depress prices. Taking the case
of progressive trades, there are two standards to be considered, one which tends to
keep the price of the output per man per day constant, and the other which tends
to keep the price of the commodities produced constant. These standards are
compared under certain hypothetical conditions (also assumed in the case of
stagnant trade), and it is shown that both have merits, but that the standard of
constant price of output is on the whole the best. But in considering the various
facts of real life, omitted in such hypothetical discussions—such as the variations
in prices due to causes other than curreucy causes, the effect of charges of the
nature of mining royalties, and the influences which tend to revive trade in
periods of depression—all these circumstances show the desirability of keeping up
prices at a higher level than these theoretical discussions would indicate as ad-
visable. ‘Thus in times of progressive trade it would seem best that the standard
should tend to keep prices between the two extremes above mentioned—that it
should make the price of commodities fall, and the price of the average output of
human labour rise, the latter perhaps more than the former.
886 REPORT—1896,
Section G.m—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Sir DoverAs Fox, Vice-President of the Institution
of Civil Engineers.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.
The PresivEnT delivered the following address :—
Iv is rather over a quarter of a century since the British Association last held
its meeting in the hospitable city of Liverpool. The intervening period has been
one of unparalleled progress, both generally and locally, in the many branches of
knowledge and of practical application covered by Civil and Mechanical Engi-
neering, and therefore rightly coming within the limits for discussion in the
important Section of the Association in which we are specially interested.
During these twenty-five years the railway system of the British Isles, which
saw one of its earliest developments in this neighbourhood, has extended from
15,376 miles, at a capital cost of 552,680,000/., to 21,174 miles, at a capital cost of
1,001,000,0002, The railway system of the United States has more than trebled
in the same period, and now represents a total mileage of 181,082, with a capital
cost of $11,565,000,000.
The Forth and Brooklyn, amongst bridges, the Severn and St. Gothard,
amongst tunnels, the gigantic works for the water-supply of towns, are some of
the larger triumphs of the civil engineer; the substitution of steel for iron for so
many purposes, the perfecting of the locomotive, of the marine engine, of hydraulic
machinery, of gas and electric plant, those of the mechanical branch of the pro-
fession.
The city of Liverpool and its sister town of Birkenhead have witnessed
wonderful changes during the period under review. Great and successful efforts
have been made to improve the watergate to the noble estuary, which forms the
key to the city’s greatness and prosperity ; constant additions have been made to
the docks, which are by far the finest and most extensive in the world. The
docks on the two sides of the river have been amalgamated into one great trust.
In order properly to serve the vast and growing passenger and goods traffic of the
port, the great railway companies have expended vast sums on the connections
with the dock lines and on the provision of station accommodation, and there have
been introduced, in order to facilitate intercommunication, the Mersey Railway,
crossing under the river, and carrying annually nearly 10 millions of passengers,
and the Liverpool Overhead Railway, traversing for six miles the whole line of
docks, and already showing a traffic of 7} millions of passengers per annum. A
very complete waterside station connected with the landing-stage has been lately
opened by the Dock Board in connection with the London and North-Western
Railway. In addition to this, the water-supply from Rivington and Vyrnwy has
now been made one of the finest in the world.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 887
The following comparative figures, kindly supplied by Mr. K. Miles Burton,
may be of interest :—
1871 1895
Population of Liverpool. . . . 493,405 ., . 641,000 (Estimated)
ra Birkenhead - . e 65,971 = ° 109,000
”
Area of docks, Liverpool, about . . 236 acres, 3624 acres
s » Birkenhead, about . ° na - (aa
383 5224
Number of steamers using the port c 7,448 ° ° 18,429
Average tonnage of six largest vessels
entering the port ° - . ‘ 2,890 ° . 6,822
The following figures show the importance of the local railway traffic :—
Number of passenger stations within the
boroughs : : - : “ — ¥ 58
Number of goods stations. A F — H q 50
Number of passengers crossing the Mer-
sey in the twelve months (Woodside
Ferry). ¢ : : : i
Number of passengers crossing the Mer-
sey in the twelve months (Mersey
Railway) e . . . . . Tis . e 6,976,299
° » 17,143,088
To the hydraulic engineer there are few rivers of more interest, and present-
ing more complicated problems, than the Mersey and its neighbours the
Dee and the Ribble. They all possess vast areas of sand covered at high water
but laid dry as the tide falls, and in each case the maintenance of equilibrium
between the silting and scouring forces is of the greatest importance to the welfare
of the trading communities upon their banks. The enclosure of portions of the
areas of the respective estuaries for the purposes of the reclamation of land, or for
railway or canal embankments, may thus have-far-reaching effects, diminishing the
volume of the tidal flow and reducing the height of tide in the upper reaches of
the rivers. Some idea of the magnitude of these considerations may be derived
from the fact that a spring tide in the Mersey brings in through the narrows
between Birkenhead and Liverpool 710 millions of cubic yards of water to form a
scouring force upon the ebb. The tidal water is heavily laden with silt, which is
deposited in the docks, and, at slack water, upon the sandbanks. The ‘former is
removed by dredging, and amounts to some 1,100,000 cubic yards per annum ;
the latter is gradually fretted down into the channels and carried out to sea before
the ebb. Whilst a considerable portion of the narrows is kept scoured, in some
places right down to the sandstone rock, there is a tendency, on the Liverpool side
near the landing-stage, to silt up, a difficulty counteracted, to some extent by the
extensive sluicing arrangements introduced by Mr. George Fosbery Lyster the
engineer of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. ‘
Very extensive and interesting operations have been carried on by the Board
in connection with the bar at the mouth of the river, Dredgers specially designed
for the purpose have been employed for some six years, with the result that
15,142,600 tons of sand and other dredged matter have been removed and the
available depth of water at low-water increased from 11 to 24 feet in a channel
1,500 feet in width.
Those who have made the transatlantic passage in former years can more
readily appreciate the very great advantage accruing from this great improvement
Formerly vessels arriving off the port on a low tide had to wait for some hours
for the water-level to rise sufficiently to enable them to cross the bar; the result of a
large vessel lying outside, rolling in the trough of the sea with her engines stopped
was that not infrequently this proved to be the worst part of the voyage ee
New York and Liverpool, and passengers who had escaped the malady of sea-
888 _ REPORT—1896.
sickness throughout the voyage were driven to their cabins and berths within three
or four hours of landing.
Owing to the very successful dredging operations, ships of largest size can now
enter or depart from the Mersey at any state of the tide, and they are also able to
run alongside the landing-stage without the’ intervention of a tender.
Such vessels as the ‘ Teutonic’ or ‘ Majestic,’ of nearly 10,000 registered tonnage,
566 feet in length, 57 feet wide, and 37 feet deep; or the still larger vessels, the
‘Campania’ or ‘ Lucania,’ of nearly 13,000 tons tegister, 601 feet in length, 65 feet
in width, and 38 feet in depth, can be seen, on mail days, lying alongside.
Whilst the estuary of the Mersey presents a narrow entrance with a wide
internal estuary, the Dee, owing to extensive reclamation of land in the upper
reaches, has a wide external estuary leading to an embanked river of very limited
width, up which the tide rushes with great velocity laden with silt, rising in some
two hours, then, during a short time of slack water, depositing the silt, which is
not removed by the ebb-tide, spread over some ten hours, and therefore having
comparatively little velocity. In this case, also, the outer estuary shows a great
tendency to silt up beyond the reach of any but the highest spring tides.
The reclamation of the Ribble has not yet proceeded so far as to so seriously
affect the general conditions of the estuary ; but here, also, there is a constant
tendency in the channels to shift, and the erosion which takes place when a high
tide and wind combine is very remarkable. ;
A most important improvement was introduced in 1886, by Mr. G. F. Lyster,
when it was decided to raise the water-level in certain of the docks by pumping,
the wharves being heightened in proportion, and half-tide basins, or locks, made
use of to compensate for the difference of level.
The area of the docks so treated in Liverpool is 78 acres, whilst at Birkenhead
the whole area of the docks on that side of the river, amounting to 160 acres, is so
raised.
The hydraulic power used in the docks is very large, the indicated horse-power
of the engines amounting to 1,673 in the case of Liverpool, and 874 in that of
Birkenhead; whilst the Hydraulic Power Company are supplying some 1,000 h.p.
to railways and private firms.
The direct-acting hydraulic lifts of the Mersey Railway have now been at work
for ten years, and through these, at St. James's Station, no less than 75,000,000 to
80,060,000 of passengers have passed with regularity and safety.
It is remarkable that, whilst Great Britain led the van in the introduction of
steam locomotion, she has lagged in the rear as regards electric and other
mechanical traction. This arose in the first instance from mistaken legislation,
which strangled electrical enterprise, which is still much hampered by the reluctance
of public authorities to permit the introduction of the necessary poles and wires
into towns.
At the date of the latest published returns there were at work in the United
States no less than 12,133 miles of electric, in addition to 599 miles of cable,
tramway. Hardly a large village but has its installation, and vast have been the
advantages derived from these facilities. In Brooklyn one company alone owns
and works 260 miles of overhead trolley lines. With the exception of some small
tramways at Portrush, Brighton, Blackpool, South Staffordshire, Hartlepool, &c.,
the only examples in this country of serious attempts to apply electro-motive force
to the carriage of passengers are the City and South London Railway and the
Liverpool Overhead Railway, the latter being the latest constructed, and haying,
therefore, benefited by the experience gained upon the London line.
This railway is over six miles long, a double line of the normal, or 4 ft. 83 in.
gauge, running on an iron viaduct for the whole length of the docks ; the installa-
tion is placed for convenience of coal supply about one-third of the distance from
the northern end. Particulars of this interesting work will be placed before the
Section, but suffice it to say that a train service of three minutes each way is
readily maintained, with trains carrying 112 passengers each, at an average speed
of twelve miles per hour, including stoppages at fourteen intermediate stations.
EEO
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 859
®Ouring the last year, as before stated, 7} million passengers were carried, the cost
of traction per train mile being 34d.
The Hartlepool Tramway is proving successful, overhead trollies and electric
traction having taken the place cf a horse tramroad, which was a failure from a
“traffic point of view.
Careful researches are being prosecuted, and experiments made, with the
intention of reducing the excessive weight of storage batteries. If this can be
-effected, they should prove very efficient auxiliaries, especially where, in passing
-through towns, underground conductors are dangerous, and overhead wires
objectionable.
In connection with electric traction, it is very important to reduce, if possible,
the initial force required for starting from rest. Whether this will be best attained
by the improvement of bearings and their better lubrication, or by the storage, for
starting purposes, of a portion at least of the force absorbed by the brakes, remains
.to be seen, but it is a fruitful field for research and experiment.
In the United States there is a very general and rapid displacement of the
cable tramways by the overhead wire electric system. The latter has many oppo-
nents, owing, probably, to causes which are preventable.
Many accidents were caused by the adoption of very high tension currents,
which, on the breakage of a wire, were uncontrollable, producing lamentable
results,
The overhead wires were placed in the middle of the street, causing interference
‘with the passage of fire-escapes.
The speed of the cars was excessive, resulting in many persons being run over.
The cable system, therefore, found many advocates, but the result of experience
iis in favour of electrical traction under proper safeguards.
The cable system can only compete with the electric system when a three-
minute or quicker service is possible, or, say, when the receipts average 20/. per
mile per day; it is impossible to make up lost time in running, and the cars cannot
he ‘backed.’ If anything goes wrong with the cable the whole of the traffic is
disorganised. The cost of installation is much greater than in the case of elec-
tricity, and extensions are difficult.
On the other hand, electricity lends itself to the demands of a growing district,
and extensions are easily effected; it satisfies more easily the growing demands
on the part of the public for luxury in service and car appointment. It is less
expensive in installation, and works with greater economy. By placing the wire
at the side of the street, and using a current of low voltage, the objections are
greatly minimised, and the cars are much more easily controlled and manipulated.
In cases of breakdown these are limited to the half-mile section, and do not
completely disorganise the service. Electric cars have been worked successfully on
gradients of 1 in 7. ead
The conduit slot system can be adopted with good results, provided care is
taken in the design of the conduit, and allowance made for ample depth and
clearance ; a width of 3-inch is now proved to be sufficient. Where, however,
there are frequent turnouts, junctions, and intersecting lines, the difficulties are
great, and the cost excessive.
The following figures represent the cost of a tramway, on this system, in
America :—
£
Cost of track and conduit . : . 5,600 (per mile of single track)
Insulator, boxer, and double conductor. 480
Asphalte paving on 6 inches of concrete
to 2 feet outside double track . . 1,500
Complete cost of operating 4 miles of double track for 24 hours
per day with 23-minute service, 455d. per train mile (exclusive
of interest, taxes, &c.).
One train consists of one motor car and one trailer.
1896. 3M
890 REPORT—1896.
The trains make a round trip of eight miles in one hour, with three minutes
lay-off at each end.
The cost of keeping the slot clean comes to about 40/. per quarter, and the
repairs to each plough conductor about 50s. per quarter.
Attempts have been made to obviate the necessity of the slot by what is
lnown as the closed conduit : but at present the results are not encouraging.
The following figures will help to convey to the mind the great development .
which is taking place in America, as regards the earnings upon lines electrically
equipped. They are derived from the Report of the State Board of Railroad Com-
missioners for Massachusetts.
1888 1894 Increase
Net earnings per passenger carried Beets ‘78 62°5 per cent.
Net earning per car mile - 2°78 4:83 356,
Net earning per mile of road . . . £484 £762 57
”
In addition to the application of electricity for illuminating purposes, and for
the driving of tram cars and railways, it has also been applied successfully to the
driving of machinery, cranes, lifts, tools, pumps, &c., in large factories and works.
This has proved of the greatest convenience, abolishing as it does the shafting of
factories, and applying to each machine the necessary power by its own separate
motor; the economy resulting from this can hardly be over-estimated.
It is also successfully employed in the refining of copper, and in the manu-
facture of phosphorus, aluminium, and other metals, which, before its application,
were beyond the reach of commercial application.
The extent of its development for chemical purposes in the future no one can
foresee.
It is hardly necessary to call attention to the successful manner in which the
Falls of Niagara, and the large Falls of Switzerland, and elsewhere, are being
harnessed and controlled for the use of man, and in which horse-power by thousands
is being obtained.
At Niagara, single units of electrical plant are installed equal to about 5,000
horse-power output. These units are destined to be utilised for any of the purposes
previously suggested, and it is computed that one horse-power can be obtained
from the river, and sold for the entire year day and night continuously, for the
sum of 3/. 2s. 6d. per annum.
Electric head lights are being adopted for locomotives in the United States.
The use of compressed air and compressed gas for tractive purposes is at
present in an experimental stage in this country. The latter is claimed to be the
cheapest for tramway purposes, the figures given being—
: d
Single horse cars - 3 : . . ; : : 2
Blectrical cars, with overhead wires. i 4h
Gascars . ‘ : 4 4
Combination steam and electric locomotives, gazoline, compressed air, and hot-
water motors are all being tried in the United States, but definitive results are not
yet published.
The first electric locomotive practically applied to hauling heavy trains was
put into service on the Baltimore and Ohio Railway in 1895 to conduct the traffic
through the Belt Line Tunnel.
It is stated that, not only was the guaranteed speed of 30 miles per hour
attained, but, with the locomotive running light, it reached double that speed.
On the gradient of 8 per cent. a composite train of forty-four cars, loaded with
coal and lumber, and three ordinary locomotives—weighing altocether over 1,800
tons—was started easily and gradually to a speed of 12 miles an hour without
slipping a wheel. The voltage was 625. The current recorded was, at starting
about 2,200 ampéres, and, when the train was up to speed, it settled down to
about 1,800 ampéres. The drawbar pull was about 63,000 Ibs.
The actual working expense of this locomotive is stated to be about the same
as for an ordinary goods locow otive—viz., 23 cents per engine mile.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 891
The rapid extension of tunnel construction for railway purposes, both in towns
and elsewhere, is one of the remarkable features of the period under review, and
has been greatly assisted by the use of shields, with and without compressed air.
This brings into considerable importance the question of mechanical ventilation.
Amongst English tunnels, ventilation by fan has been applied to those under the
Severn and the Mersey. The machinery for the latter is, probably, the most
complete and most scientific application up to the present time.
There are five ventilating fans, two of which are 40 feet in diameter, and
12 feet wide on the blades; two of 30 feet, and 10 feet wide; and one quick-
running fan of 16 feet in diameter, all of which were ably instailed by Messrs.
Walker Brothers of Wigan. They are arranged, when in full work, to throw
800,000 cubic feet of air per minute, and to empty the tunnel between Woodside
and St. James’s Street in eight minutes ; but, unfortunately, it is found necessary,
for financial reasons, not to work the machinery to its full capacity.
The intended extension of electrical underground railways will render it neces-
sary for those still employing steam traction either to ventilate by machinery or to
substitute electro-motive force.
Great improvements have been lately made in the details of mechanical venti-
lators, especially by the introduction of anti-vibration shutters, and the driving
by belts or ropes instead of direct from the engine. The duties now usually
required for mining purposes are about 300,000 cubic feet of air per minute with
a water-gauge of about 4 inches; but one installation is in hand for 500,000 cubic
feet of air per minute, with a water-gauge of 6 inches. Water-gauge up to 10
inches can now be obtained with fans of 15 feet diameter only.
An interesting installation has been made at the Pracchia Tunnel on the
Florence and Bologna Railway.
The length of the tunnel is 1,900 metres, or about 2,060 yards; it is for a
single line, and is on a gradient of 1 in 40, When the wind was blowing in at the
lower end, the steam and smoke of an ascending train travelled concurrently with
the train, thus producing a state of affairs almost unimaginable except to those
engaged in working the traffic.
Owing to the height of the Apennines above the tunnel, ventilating shafts are
impracticable ; but it occurred to Signor Saccardo that, by blowing air by means
of a fan into the mouth of the tunnel, through the annular space which exists
between the inside of the tunnel arch and the outside of the traffic gauge, a
sufficient current might be produced to greatly ameliorate the state of things.
The results have been most satisfactory, the tunnel, which was formerly
almost dangerous, under certain conditions of weather, being now kept cool and
fresh, with but a small expenditure of power.
In an age when, fortunately, more attention is paid than formerly to the well-
being of the men, the precautions necessary to be observed in driving long
tunnels, and especially in the use of compressed air, are receiving the consideration
of engineers. In the case of the intended Simplon Tunnel, which will pierce the
Alps at a point requiring a length of no less than 123 miles, a foreign commission
of engineers was entrusted by the Federal Government of Switzerland with an
investigation of this amongst other questions.
During the construction of the St. Gothard Tunnel, which is about 10 miles
in length, the difficulties encountered were, of necessity, very great; the question
of ventilation was not fully understood, nor was sanitary science sufficiently ad-
vanced to induce those engaged in the work to give it much attention. The
results were lamentable, upwards of 600 men having lost their lives, chiefly from an
insidious internal malady not then understood. But the great financial success of
this international tunnel has been so marked, as to justify the proposed construction
of a still longer tunnel under the Simplon.
The arrangements which are to be adopted for securing the health of the
employés are admirable, and will surely not only result in reducing the death rate
to a minimum, but also tend to shorten the time necessary for the execution of the
undertaking to one-half.
The quantity of air to be forced into the workings will he twenty times greater than
3M 2
892 REPORT—1896.
in previous works. Special arrangements are devised for reducing the temperature of
the air by many degrees, suitable houses are to be provided for the men, with excel-
lent arrangements for enabling them to change their mining clothes, wet with the
water of the tunnel, before coming in contact with the Alpine cold; every man
will have a bath on leaving ; his wet clothes will be taken care of by a custodian,
and dried ready for his return to work; suitable meals of wholesome food will be
provided, and he will be compelled to rest for half-an-hour on emerging from the
tunnel, in pleasant rooms furnished with books and papers. This may appear to
some as excessive care; but kind and humane treatment of men results, not only
in benefit to them, but also in substantial gain to those employing them, and the
endeavour of our own authorities, and of Parliament, to secure for our own worl-
people the necessary protection for their lives and limbs in carrying out hazardous
trades and employments, is worthy of admiration.
The great improvements in sub-aqueous tunnelling can be clearly recognised
from the fact that the Thames Tunnel cost 1,150/. per lineal yard, whilst the
Blackwall Tunnel, consisting of iron lined with concrete, and of 25 feet internal
diameter, has, by means of Greathead’s shield and grouting machine, been driven
from shaft to shaft a distance of 754 yards for 875/. per yard.
Tunnels have now been successfully constructed through the most difficult strata,
such as waterbearing silt, sand, and gravel, and, by the use of grouting under pres-
sure, subsidence can almost entirely be avoided, thus rendering the piercing of the
substrata of towns, underneath property without damaging it, a simple operation ;
and opening up to practical consideration many most important lines of communi-
cation hitherto considered out of the question.
On the other hand, very little improvement has taken place in the mode of
constructing tunnels in ordinary ground, since the early days of railways. The
engineers and contractors of those days adopted systems of timbering and construc-
tion which have not been surpassed. The modern engineer is, however, greatly
assisted by the possibility of using Brindle bricks of great strength to resist pres-
sure, combined with quick-setting Portland cement, by the great improvements
which have taken place in pumping machinery, and by the use of the electric light
during construction.
A question which is forcing itself upon the somewhat unwilling attention of
our great railway companies, in consequence of the continual great increase of
the population of our cities, is the pressing necessity for a substantial increase in
the size of the terminal stations in the great centres of population.
Many of our large terminal stations are not of sufficient capacity to be worked
properly, either with regard to the welfare of the staff or to the convenience of the
travelling public.
Speak to station-masters and inspectors on duty, when the holiday season
js on, and they will tell you of the great physical strain that is produced upon
them and their subordinates, in endeavouring to cope with the difficulty.
This, if nothing else, is a justification for the enterprise of the Manchester, Shef-
field and Lincolnshire Railway Company in providing an entirely new terminus
for London.
It is thirty years since the last, that of St. Pancras, was added, and during that
period the population of London has increased by no less than two millions.
The discussion, both in and out of Parliament, of the proposals for light rail-
ways has developed a considerable amount of interest in the question. Experi-
ence only c2n prove whether they will fulfil the popular expectations. If the
intended branch lines are to be of the standard gauge, with such gradients and
curves as will render them suitable for the ordinary rolling-stock, they will, in
many cases, not be constructed at such low mileage costs as to be likely to be
remunerative at rates that would attract agricultural traffic. The public roads of
this country (very different from the wide and level military roads of Northern
Italy and other parts of the Continent) do not usually present facilities for
their utilisation, and, once admitted, the necessity for expropriating private
property, the time-honoured questions of frontage severances and interference
with amenities will force their way to the front, fencing will be necessary, and,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECYION G. 893
even if level crossings be allowed at public roads, special precautions will have to
be taken.
Much must then depend upon the regulations insisted upon by the Board of
Trade. If, in consideration of a reduction in speed, relaxation of existing safe-
guards are permitted, much may, no doubt, be effected by way of feeders to existing
main lines.
If, on the other hand, the branches are of narrower gauge, separate equipment
will be necessary, and transhipment at junctions will involve both expense and
delay. It is very doubtful whether the British farmer would benefit much from
short railways of other than standard gauge. He must keep horses for other pur-
poses, and he will probably still prefer to utilise them for carting his produce to the
nearest railway station of the main line, or to the market town.
The powers granted by the Light Railways Act, in the hands of the able
Commissioners appointed under the Act, cannot, however, fail to be a public boon.
Special Acts of Parliament will be unnecessary, facilities will be granted,
procedure simplified, some Government aid rendered, and probably the heavy
burden of a Parliamentary deposit will be removed.
It would seem quite probable, that motor cars may offer one practical solution of
the problem how best to place the farms of the country in commercial touch with
the trunk railways, seaports, and market towns. They could use existing roads,
could run to the farmyard or field, and receive or deliver produce at first hand.
Such means of locomotion were frequently proposed towards the end of the
last century, and in the early part of the present one, and it was not until the year
1840, that the victory of the railway over steam upon common roads was assured,
the tractive force required being then shown to be relatively as 1 to 7.
The passing of the Act of 1896, superseding those of 1861 and 1865, will
undoubtedly mark the commencement of a new era in mechanical road traction.
The cars, at present constructed chiefly by German and French engineers, are
certainly of crude design, and leave much to be desired. They are ugly in appear-
ance, noisy, difficult to steer, and vibrate very much with the revolutions of their
engines, rising as they do to 400 per minute; those driven by oil give out offensive
odours, and cannot be readily started, so that the engine runs on during short
stops. There would seem to be arising here an even more important opening for
the skill of our mechanical engineers than in the case of bicycles, in which
wonderful industry the early steps appear also to have been foreign.
It is claimed for a motor car that it costs no more than carriage, horse, and
harness, that the repairs are about the same, and that, whilst a horse, travelling
20 miles per day, represents for fodder a cost of 2d. per mile, a motor car of
2} horse-power will run the same distance at 3d. per mile.
The highway authorities should certainly welcome the new comer, for it is
estimated that two-thirds of the present wear and tear of roads is caused by
horses, and one-third only by wheels.
Perhaps no inyention has had so widespreading an influence on the construction
of railways as the adoption of the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel rails.
This has substituted a homogeneous crystalline structure, of great strength and
uniformity, for the iron rails of former years, built up by bundles of bars, and
therefore liable to lamination and defective welds. The price has been reduced
from the 13/. per ton, which iron rails once reached, to 3/. 15s. as a minimum for
steel. There are, however, not infrequently occurring, in the experience of rail-
way companies, the cracking, and even fracture of steel rails, and the Government
has lately appointed a Board of Trade Committee for the investigation, inciden-
tally of this subject, but specially of the important question of the effect of fatigue
_ upon the crystallisation, structure, and strength, of the rail. Experience proves, at
any rate, that it is of great importance to remove an ample length of crop end, as
fractures more frequently take place near the ends, aided by the weakening caused
by bolt holes. Frequent examination by tapping, as in the case of tyres, seems, at
present, the most effective safecuard.
It is open to serious question, whether the great rigidity of the permanent way
of the leading railways of this country is an advantage. Certainly the noise is
894 REPORT—1896.
very great, more so than in other countries, and this points to severe shocks, heavy
wear and tear of rails and tyres, and—especially when two heavy locomotives are
run with the same train—liability to fracture. Whilst the tendency in this
country, and in the United States, has been to gradually increase the weight of
rails from 40 lb. up to 100]b. per lineal yard, there are engineers who think that
to decrease the rigidity of rail and fishplate, and weight of chair, and to increase the
sleepers, so as to arrive as nearly as possible at a continuous bearing, would result
in softness and smoothness of running.
The average and maximum speeds now attained by express trains would appear
to have reached the limit of safety, at any rate under the existing conditions of
junctions, cross-over roads, and other interferences with the continuity of the rail.
If higher speeds are to be sought, it would seem to be necessary to have isolated
trunk lines, specially arranged in all their details, free from sharp curve and severe
gradient, and probably worked electrically, although a speed of 100 miles per hour
is claimed to have been reached by a steam locomotive in the United States.
The grain trade of the port of Liverpool has assumed very large proportions,
and the system of storage in large silos has been adopted, with great advantage,
both as regards capital, outlay, and the cost of working, per ton of grain.
The Liverpool Grain Storage Warehouses at Bootle will be open to Members
of the Association, and there can be seen the latest development of the mechanical
unloading, storing and distribution of grain in bulk ; the capacity is large, being :—
Warehouse No. 1, 56,000 tons
- », 2,80,000 _,, ho 4,240,000 bushels,
Quay Stores 20,000 ,,
thus constituting this granary as one of the largest, if not the largest, in the
world. .
The question of the pressure of grain is a very difficult one, and, in constructing
the brick silos, which are 12 feet across at the top, by nearly 80 feet in depth, large
allowance has been made both for ordinary pressure, and for possible swelling of
the grain.
The grain is unloaded by elevators, and then transported on bands, the result
being its cooling and cleansing, as well as its storage and distribution.
The question of the early adoption in England of the metric system is of im-
portance not only to the engineering profession, but also to the country at large.
The recommendation of the recent Royal Commission, appointed for the consideration
of the subject, was, that it should be taught at once in all schools, and that, in two
years’ time, its adoption should be compulsory ; but it is much to be regretted that,
up to the present time, nothing has been done.
The slight and temporary inconvenience of having to learn the system is of no
moment compared to the great assistance it would prove to the commercial and
trading world; the simplification of calculations and of accounts would be hailed
with delight by all so soon as they realised the advantages. England is suffering
greatly in her trade with the Continent for want of it.
Our foreign customers, who have now used it for many years, will not tolerate
the inconvenience of the endless variety of weights and measures in use in
England, and they consequently purchase their goods, to a great extent, from
Germany, rather than use our antiquated English system. It is no exaggeration to
say that, with their knowledge of the metric system, they regard ours as completely
obsolete and unworkable, just in the same way as we should were we to buy our
corn, our wine, our steel and iron, by the hin, the ephah, or the homer, or to
compute cur measurements by cubit, stadium, or parasang.
It behoves all who desire to see England regain her trade to use all their
influence in favour of the adoption of this system, as its absence is, doubtless, one
of the contributory causes for the loss that has taken, and is taking, place.
An important argument in favour of the metric system of weights and measures
is that it is adopted all over the civilised world by physicists and chemists; and it
may be stated with confidence, that the present international character of these
sciences is largely due to this.
all atta ta
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 895
It is interesting also to notice, that the metric system is being gradually intro-
duced into other branches of science. Anthropometric measurements made by the
Committees of the British Association in this country and in Canada are invariably
given in metres, and a comparison with meesurements made in other countries can
be at once made.
The period of twenty-five years under review has indeed witnessed great
advances, both in scientific knowledge and practical application. This progress has
led to powerful yet peaceful competition between the leading nations. Both from
among our cousins of the United States, and from our nearer neighbours of
Europe, have we, at this Meeting, the pleasure of welcoming most respected repre-
sentatives. But their presence, and the knowledge of the great discoveries made,
and colossal works carried out, by them and their brother scientists and engineers,
must make us of Great Britain face with increased earnestness the problem of
maintaining our national position, at any rate, in the forefront of all that tends
towards the ‘utilisation of the great sources of power in Nature for the use and
convenience of man.’ Those English engineers who have been brought in contact
with engineering thought and action in America and abroad have been impressed
with the thoroughness of much of the work, the great power of organisation, and
the careful reliance upon scientific principles constantly kept in view, and upon
chemical and mechanical experiments, carried out often upon a much more
elaborate scale than in this country. This is not the place from which to discuss
the questions of bounties and tariffs, which have rendered possible powerful com-
petition for the supply of machinery and railway plant from the Continent to our
own Colonies ; but there is certainly need for advance all along the line of mechani-
cal science and practice, if we are to hold our own—need especially to study the
mechanical requirements of the world, ever widening and advancing, and to be
ready to meet them, by inventive faculty first, but also by rigid adherence to .
sound principles of construction, to the use of materials and workmanship of the
hichest class, to simplicity of design and detail, and to careful adaptation of our
productions to the special circumstances of the various markets.
It is impossible to forecast in what direction the great advances since 1871 will
be equalled and exceeded in the coming quarter of a century. Progress there will
and must be, probably in increased ratio ; and some, at the end of that period, may
be able to look back upon our gathering here in Liverpool in 1896 as dealing with
subjects then long since left behind in the race towards perfection.
The mechanical engineer may fairly hope for still greater results in the per-
fection of machinery, the reduction of friction, the economical use of fuel, the
substitution of oil for coal as fuel in many cases, and the mechanical treatment
of many processes still dependent upon the human hand.
The electrical engineer (hampered as he has been in this country by unwise
and retrograde legislation) may surely look forward to a wonderful expansion in
the use of that mysterious force, which he has already learned so wonderfully to
control, especially in the direction of traction.
The civil engineer has still great channels to bridge or tunnel, vast communi-
ties to supply with water and illuminating power, and (most probably with the
‘assistance of the electrician) far higher speeds of locomotion to attain. He has
‘before him vast and ever-increasing problems for the sanitary benefit of the world,
and it will be for him to deal from time to time with the amazing internal traffic
of great cities. China lies before him, Japan welcomes all advance, and Africa is
great with opportunities for the coming engineers.
Let us see to it, then, that our rising engineers are carefully educated and
prepared for these responsibilities of the future, and that our scientific brethren
may be ever ready to open up for them by their researches fresh vistas of possibili-
ties, fresh discoveries of those wonderful powers and facts of Nature which man
to all time will never exhaust.
The Mechanical Section of the British Association has done good work in this
direction in the past, and we may look forward with confidence to our younger
brethren to maintain these traditions in the future.
896 REPORT—1896.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Physical and Engineering Features of the River Mersey and the
Port of Liverpool.
This Paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed zz extenso.—
See Reports, p. 548.
2. The Cause of Fracture of Railway Rails.
By W. Worsy Beaumont, I Jnst.C.£.
In this paper the author gives an explanation of the apparently anomalous
fractures of railway rails. Attention is first directed to the leading features in the
history and characteristics of fractured rails, and from these the conclusion is drawn
that the failure of any rail, however perfect, is chiefly a question of the number
and weight of the trains passing over it. The effect of the rolling of the heavily
loaded wheels of engines and vehicles! is the gradual compression of the upper part
of the rails and the production thereby of internal stresses which are cumulative
and reach great magnitude. That which takes place in the material of a rail head
under the action of very heavy rolling loads at high speed, is precisely that which
is purposely brought into use every day in our ironworks. The effect is, however,
obscured by the slowness of the growth and transmission of the forces which are
ultimately destructive.
When a piece of iron or steel is subjected to pressures exceeding the limit of
elastic compression, by a rolling or hammering action, or by both these combined,
the result is spreading of the material and general change of the dimensions. This
is equally the case with a plate pane hammered on one side or rolled on one side
while resting on a flat surface, or with a rivet when hammered over. In all these
cases and many others, the hammering or rolling work done upon the surfaces
tends to compress the material beneath it, but being nearly incompressible and
unchangeable in density, the material flows, and change of form results.
Generally the material thus changed in form suffers permanently no greater
stresses than those within its elastic limit of compression or extension. When,
however, the material is not free to flow or to change its form in the directions
in which the stresses set up would act, the effect of continued work done on the
surface is the growth of compressive stress exceeding elastic resistance.
In the case of railway rails the freedom for the flow of the material is very
limited, especially when considered with reference to the rolling and hammering
media and the surface contact between rails and wheels. Hardening of the surface
takes place and destructive compression of the surface material is set up, If the
material be cast iron, the destructive compression causes crumbling of the superficial
parte and the consequent relief of the material immediately below it from stress
eyond that of elastic compression ; but when the material is that of steel rails,
the stress accumulates, the upper part near the surface being under intense
compression, differentiating from a maximum at the surface.
This compression gives rise to molecular stresses analogous to those which,
on the compression side or inner curve of a bar bent on itself, originate traverse
flaws on that side.
This condition of compression exists along the whole length of a rail, so that
when its magnitude is sufficient to originate crumbling or minute flaws, any
unusual impact stress, or a stress in the direction opposite to that brought about
by the usual rolling load, the rail may break into two or into numerous pieces.
Stresses originating in the same manner explain the fracture of railway tyres as
described fully by the author in the ‘ Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers,’ 1876, vol. xlvii.
1 The static pressure per square inch of surface contact between wheel and rail
with locomotive weights now common is considerably more than 30 tons, and the
pressure under heavily balance-weighted locomotive wheels at high speed is much
greater than this.
’
:
|
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 897,
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were. read :—
1. Report on the Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Presswre on the Tides.
See Reports, p. 503.
2. Report on the Calibration of Instruments in Engineering Laboratories.
See Reports, p. 538.
3. Description of General Features and Dimensions of the Tower Bridge.
By J. Wore Barry, C.L., PLS.
London Bridge built in 1280.—\ts dimensions.—The houses upon it.—Its im-
provement in 1758: ¥
New London Bridge built in 1824 to 1831.—Its approaches.—Only one bridge-
for metropolis till 1729, when Putney Bridge was built in spite of opposition of
Corporation of London.
Eight more bridges built between 1730 and 1830.—Development of South Lon-
don and distribution of population.—Reference'to Thames Tunnel and Tower Sub-
way.
S eeoprolitan Board of Works proposed Bridge in 1879.—Proposal by private:
company for Subway in 1883.—Subway of Metropolitan Board of Works in 1884,
and duplex bridge.—Proposal for bascwe bridge.—Description and views of original
design by Sir Horace Jones.
Corporation of London apply for permission to build present Tower Bridge in
1885.—Description of Upper and Lower Pool of Thames.—Temporary works for
constructing the Bridge——Action of Government authorities and approval of the
Queen.—Detailed description of piers and bascule chamber.—Mode of construction
of substructure of piers.—The Caissons.—Mode of sinking Caissons.—Construction
of pier within Caissons—The Abutments.—The opening span.—Its dimensions.—
Mode of construction and weight.—Mode by which it is actuated.—The hydraulic
machinery.—Pumping engines and accumulators.—Estimated wind pressure.—
Requirements of Board of Trade and actual wind pressure.—Lifts for foot passen-
gers.—The fixed superstructure——The masonry of the towers and differences of
opinion asto employment of stone round the steel pillars of the tower.—The rollers
carrying the chains.—Description of the chains and anchorages.—Total weight of
steel and iron in the bridge.—Erection of superstructure.—Temporary bridge—
expedients adopted.—The approaches.—Opening of the bridge in June 1894,—
Estimates of river traffic as compared with actual traffic—The vehicular and foot
traffic across bridge-—Cost of the bridge defrayed by Bridge House Estates Com-
mittee —Acknowledgments of assistance rendered by various persons.
4. On the Liverpool Waterworks. By J. Parry.
Early history of the Liverpool water supply—Enyineering and chemical ideals
of a century ago—Private enterprise and public spirit—Competition and its conse-
quences—Bootle Company’s works—Harrington Company’s works—Purchase by
Corporation—Schemes of 1846—Rivington scheme and its lessons—Investigations
for additional supplies 1866-1880—Joint schemes for Manchester and Liverpool—
Vyrnwy works—Filtration: Rivington and Vyrnwy—Experiences of introducing
a new supply—Consumption of water—Supply of towns and villages on the lines
of aqueduct.
* 5. The Present Position of the British North Atlantic Mail Service.
By A. J. Macrnnis.
~
898 REPORT—1896,
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The Section did not meet,
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21,
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Small Screw Gauges.—See Reports, p. 527.
2. Test of Glow Lamps. By W. H. Preece, C.B., F.R.S.
3. The Liverpool Overhead Railway and the Southern Extension of it.
By 8. B. Corrrett.
4. Notes on Electric Cranes. By E. W, ANDERSON.
After some introductory remarks, the author states that his object is to give
an account of the experience gained during the last eight years at the Erith Iron
Works, where two electric travelling cranes have been in constant use for about that
eriod.
3 No actual experiments are, however, given, as a paper with all such informa-
tion is to be read by Mr. Rayenshaw at the Institution of Civil Engineers, and it
is not considered advisable to forestall this in any way.
A brief description of a 20-ton crane in the foundry is given, to which electricity
was applied as a motive power early in 1888, and of which a full account was
written in a paper read before the British Association in the same year by Dr. W.
Anderson, C.B., F.R.S.
This crane is driven by one single motor which actuates all the different
motions, and the paper describes some of the difficulties at first experienced with
it, and the way in which they were overcome. c
A self-contained steam crane was shortly afterwards placed in the foundry of
the same size, and enabled a comparison to be made of the practical advantages of
each, and of the amount of repairs required by them, resulting in the practical
proof of the superiority of the electric one, by the fact that early prejudice against
it had been quite overcome, and that now it was greatly preferred to the other.
Not only are the repairs required less, but in several other ways the electric
crane is both more convenient and less costly.
Attention is called to the first motion gearing of the electric crane, which
though satisfactory was very noisy, and the means whereby it was much improved
are mentioned, though from the necessities of the particular circumstances it can-
not be made quite as noiseless as it should be.
A description then follows of a second crane in the turnery to which electricity
was applied shortly after the first was started, but which had to be dealt with in
a different manner, namely, by applying a separate motor for each motion, the first
motion gear consisting of short belts with jockey pulleys. The motions were
therefore controlled by three reversing switches, and a brake for lowering.
The method of collecting the current was different from that used in the foundry,
and is fully described.
This crane has also proved very successful, and has given very little trouble.
The belt reduction gear is quite noiseless.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 899
The author sums up the experience with these cranes by stating that in his
opinion electricity applied to this purpose has proved itself to be remarkably
efficient, even in the somewhat trying atmosphere of a foundry.
Various practical points are then discussed relating to efliciency, cost, and
general convenience.
A comparison is made of the relative merits of the single motor system as used
in the foundry, and the three-motor arrangement as in the turnery.
Several methods of reducing the comparatively high speed of the motor to the
slow speed of the gearing shafts, as required in cranes and similar machines, are
described and commented upon.
The paper concludes with a brief comparison of the merits of hydraulic and
electric transmission as applied to cranes, pointing out that the adaptability of one
or the other must depend entirely on the circumstances of the case, but at the
same time showing that for travelling cranes the difficulty of conveying the pres-
sure-water to the crane practically precludes its adoption, while in this respect
electricity stands foremost, especially where there is a long travel.
5. Hauperiments on the Hysteresis of Iron in evolving Magnetic Fields.
By Professor J. A. Fuemine, F.A.S., R. Beatie, and R. C. CLinKer.
6. Street Lighting by Electric Incandescent Lamps.
By Witi1amM GEorGeE Watker, I Jnst.I£., A.M Inst.C.£.
Great difference exists between the quality of the illumination required for
the various streets of a large town. Arc lamps are undoubtedly the right thing
for busy streets, but would prove an extravagant illumination for ordinary bye-
streets or roads of country towns.
It may roughly be taken that the quality of the illumination necessary is of
two kinds—firstly, where a flood of light is necessary on account of the nature of
the traffic; secondly, where the light is necessary for the demarcation of the
roads, At present very little street lighting by glow lamps has been carried out
in this country. It has, however, been tried with success on a fairly large scale
in America and on the Continent. There are many objections to taking the
current off the ordinary low pressure mains that serve for house lighting. Esti-
mates show that the parallel system is generally impracticable on account of the
great cost of the copper mains required for the proper distribution of small incan-
descent lamps in streets.
The parallel system becomes practical in congested districts, and where natural
water power can be obtained. It has been felt that a way out of the adoption of
a ‘series system’ of distribution. The main difficulty against this system is that
the failure of a lamp filament is liable to put out all the lamps on the circuit.
In the town of Temesvar in Hungary, nearly ten years ago, 750 16-candle-power
lamps on the multiple series system were installed, with satisfactory results, the
wires being overhead,
The series system has been installed in the parishes of Kingswood and
Keynsham, near Bristol, with considerable success during the four and a half years
which it has been at work.
At Kingswood, about seven miles of roads are lighted by circuits of 2, 24 and
3 miles respectively from the central station. The lamps are spaced at 60 yards
apart, and are elevated at from 14 to 16 feet from the level of the road on
wooden poles, which also carry the overhead wires.
There are 150 street lamps of candle power varying from 100 to 25, The
indicated horse-power of the engine at full load is 32.
The revenue from street lighting at 24d. per unit is 650/. per annum, leaving a
clear profit of 100/., after allowing for depreciation and all expenses. Lighting
hours, 4,250 per annum. Total cost of plant, about 3,5007. ‘The chief feature
of this installation is the automatic cut out, so that the failure of one lamp
900 . REPORT—1896.
does not affect the lamps in series with it. Each circuit is divided into two
branches, taking equal amounts of current. Each lamp has in series with it an
electro-magnet. A resistance is placed as a shunt to the lamp. The normal
current will not lift the armature of the electro-magnet, but when a lamp breaks,
double the current passes through the allied lamp, and lifts the armature, com-
pleting the circuit through the shunt, the resistance of which is equal to the
lamp.
a series system with overhead wires is suitable for scattered districts, and is
as cheap as gas.
Now that it is possible to obtain lamps suitable for working at 250 volts, and
when used in conjunction with a three-wire system, it may be worth while to pay
for the extra copper.
An alternating system might be considered with a small transformer for each
lamp, reducing the voltage in the primary mains from, say, 2,000 to 250 in the
secondary wire, on which the glow lamp would be placed.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Armour and Heavy Ordnance—Recent Developmenis and Standards.
By Captain W. H. Jaques, of the United States of America.
When I picked up the last issue of Brassey's‘ Naval Annual’ (1896), and upon
the title-page read—
‘No system of conduct, however correct in principle, can protect Neutral
Powers from injury from any party. A defenceless position and a distinguished
love of peace are the surest invitations to war. —THoMAs JEFFERSON.
it occurred to me how little our legislators are influenced by the words of the
eminent statesman which have been selected by the editor of a British Annual of
the record of the naval events of the year as a warning to Great Britain, the first
naval power of the world, that its preparations for defence must be liberal and
continuous.
The situation and policy of the United States could not be more accurately de-
scribed than by these words of Jefferson, ‘A defenceless position and a distinguished
love of peace,’ yet little heed is given to his warning that these conditions ‘ ave the
surest wnvitations to war.
In fact our engineers and manufacturers are the only ones who have awakened
to the situation,and this awakening will no doubt be attributed to the hope of
pecuniary gain. They have, however, no matter whatever the incentive, attained
the highest standards in the production of armour, heavy ordnance, and projectiles.
All we need in the United States are adequate budgets and well-planned ship-
building programmes, That we are gradually reaching out in the right direction
is shown by the following table of estimates for 1896-7, taken from Brassey’s
‘ Annual’ for 1896 :—
£
England. : P : : ; : : . 21,823,000
France : : : : : i ; : . 10,637,096
Russia . : - : 5 > - : ; . 6,440,666
United States. : : : : : : . 5,862,228
Germany . : : : ; : : 3 . 4,372,068
Italy . - - : - : : : . 9,641,324
although in the table of effective fighting ships, built and building, the United
ae a left out, England, France, Russia, Italy, and Germany only being
included,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 901
The progress in armour-making referred to in my last public pamphlet (1894)
has been continuous, and the United States (The Carnegie Steel Co., Ltd.) and
Germany (Krupp) have produced armour fully 15% if not 20% better than
the best plain steel Harveyed armour that Great Britain has placed upon her
hattleships ; although one is handicapped in making thorough comparison so long
as England continues to determine the value of her battleship armour by firing
6-inch soft Holtzer shells against 6-inch plates at velocities below 2,000 ft. sec.
In making a comparison of the tests I have cited, we must not lose sight of the
fact that the German and French plates were eaperimental, and made to secure
the greatest resistance possible, whereas those of the United States were service
plates representing hundreds of tons of armour from which the inspectors had
selected what they considered were the poorest of the lot.
A summary of recent advances will include the cheapening and more extensive
use of nickel; the substitution of the hydraulic forging-press for hammers and
rolls ; better means of removing scale; simplification of the methods, and more
uniform results of supercarburisation ; utilisation of the valuable sub-forging pro-
cess (now required for all United States armour); improved facilities for harden-
ing, and improvements in the machines and tools for shaping and finishing.
While in the United States the increased resistance of armour has determined
the authorities to retain the higher calibres of heavy ordnance, the Navy Depart-
ment having ordered 13-inch B.L. rifles for battleships, and the War Department
having commenced a type gun of 16-inch calibre (both adhering to the forged-
hooped type), Great Britain still keeps the 12-inch as her limit, and continues the
radical departure to wire construction made by Dr. Anderson when he became
Director-General, and so successfully carried out by him.
France adheres to types containing too many parts, and Germany is satisfied to
possess a large number of comparatively low ballistic power.
No matter which type, hooped or wire, is adhered to, improved armour and
projectiles must be met by greater energies, which involve higher pressures,
shorter guns (for utility), and stronger material. That this last is to be obtained
in the United States is evident from the following requisites in a 38-inch test piece
for nickel steel tubes for cannon of 8-inch calibre and over :—
Tensile Strength *itesboterelas - 90,000 Ib. per sq. in.
Elastic Limit . : c ; : ePID yeni, Vashi one! hy
Elongation . : . . : c - 20 per cent.
Contraction of Area . : : : sO enn 5
Equally favourable progress has been made with projectiles, but as yet very
few truly competitive results are at hand. The uncertainty of their relative
value still causes a very large unknown quantity in the valuation of armour
comparisons. f
In conclusion we may count, at least in the United States, as commercial com-
modities, armour having a resistance 10% better than the best of last year; heavy
ordnance giving service velocities of 200 ft. sec. higher, and armour-piercing pro-
jectiles, that to be accepted must perforate a thickness of nickel-steel carburised
armour equal to their calibre. Truly an excellent record !
2. A new Spherical Balanced Valve for all Pressures.
By James Casey, Consulting Marine Engineer.
In this paper the author deals with the avoidable loss of life and damage to
property caused through explosions of defective valves, whether from steam, water,
or other fluid, where extreme pressures were used. Having described the valves
generally in use, he points out that in many cases water that had passed into the
valye-hox and steam-pipes from the boilers had caused danger and even fatal
results, often attributed to defective steam-pipes, whereas both valve-box and
902 REPORT—1896,
pipes were charged with water from the steam leaking and passing into the main
steam-pipe and getting condensed into water. No means were afforded under the
present valve system of draining this water, and hence it happened that the
moment the stop-valves were opened on the boilers full to the engines a hammer-
ing took place, the explosion immediately following. From the design of these
valves he did not see how it was possible for a satisfactory drainage to be applied
that could be always available and keep the steam-pipes free of water and of the
danger to which he referred.
The importance of haying reliable valves under extreme pressure, whether for
steam, water, or other fluid, could not be overestimated. Having regard to this,
he had designed a valve of globe form which, he might say with perfect confidence,
was balanced under all or any pressures. The valve formed a complete sphere,
with openings in the same at right angles to each other, with spindle cast on,
working in a fixed and adjustable seating, and so arranged that the pressures were
balanced or equalised, and friction was reduced to a minimum. This sphere was
fitted into a valve-box, sometimes made in two parts for convenience in adjusting
the sphere and its seatings, such being adopted to allow for contraction and
expansion under pressure. Suitable openings were formed in the valve-box corre-
sponding with those in the globe, so that when the globe was turned by its spindle
to the required position the same might’be turned off or on. ‘The openings in the
valve-box and in the sphere respectively were arranged to correspond with the
full supply of steam, water, or other fluid. The globe or ball was perforated
with a small passage corresponding to a similar passage in the valve casing, and
when opposite to each other any condensed steam or waterescaped from the steam-
pipes or valves either to the condenser or ran to waste, thereby effectually clearing
the pipe of water and preventing any chance of explosion.
As showing some of the defects arising from the existing system in connection
with boilers, steam-pipes, and heating-apparatus in mills, on board ship, in public
buildings and places of business, the author gave particulars derived from Board
of Trade reports of official inquiries under Act of Parliament. These clearly
pointed to the necessity of a new departure in the valve system if the present
destruction of life and property was to be obviated.
For hydraulic purposes the author claims that with the new valve no grit or
sandy matter could get between the valve and seatings, for the simple reason that
it worked in and on the seatings, and no foreign matter could be introduced. A
valve on this principle has now been at work close upon eighteen months, and it
had been found upon examination that it was as good nowas on the first day it was
put in place, and had not cost a penny for repairs or even adjustment, although in
daily work at a pressure of 750 lb. per square inch. In the use of higher pres-
sures the limit of its working was the cohesive strength of the material of which
it might be constructed, and being balanced it was manipulated by a small lever
which a boy could work. The system which the author had advocated possessed
equal advantages in connection with fire hydrants and water supply generally
owing to its simplicity and the ease with which it could be worked. Briefly
what the author claimed was that by the adoption of his valve system the follow-
ing, amongst other advantages, would he attained :—
1. The substitution of a perfectly balanced spherical valve under all pressure
for one on the old principle of lifting, which is liable to get out of order or to
cause explosion, consequent on faulty construction and the absence of proper
means of draining steam-pipes and other connections therewith.
2, The valve can be worked. easily and instantaneously, and is. not affected
where dirty or gritty water is used.
3. The valve can be adopted for steam, hydraulic, gas, mining, and all other
purposes for which valves are in daily use, and made of cast iron or gun metal.
4, The valve drains itself and the connections of boilers, &c., of all water
created by condensation of steam, thereby preventing dangerous hammering in the
pipes and obviating, under certain conditions, the bursting or freezing of pipes
and concomitant dangers.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 903
3. Engineering Laboratory Apparatus.
By Professor H. S. Hete-Suaw, If Inst.0.£.
At the Liverpool Meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1891
an account was given of the chief appliances in the Walker Engineering Labora~
tories at Liverpool.
A description of the Triple-Expansion steam engine and boiler, and the alterna
tive centre 100 ton testing Machine will be found illustrated in the Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers for 1891.
The first intention of the author on the present occasion was to give a descrip=
tion of certain appliances which are of a novel character and which were to be
shown in operation together with other experimental arrangements at the Walker
Engineering Laboratories after the reading of the paper.
These appliances might be conveniently arranged under the three following
heads, which constituted in fact the three divisions of Laboratory teaching, viz. :—
1. The steam engine.
2. Hydraulics.
3. Testing the strength and properties of materials,
The apparatus to be mentioned under the first head were as follows :—
1. Hydraulic brake and integrator.
2. Spring dynamometer.
3. Arrangement for drawing crank-effort diagrams.
» | 4, Arrangement in connection with steam-engine indicators.
5. General arrangements in connection with the experimental courses of
instruction.
Under the head of Hydraulics :—
1. Hydraulic tank, valve-boxes and sump,
Under the third head :—
1. An extensometer of novel design.
2. Arrangement for testing the torsion of shafts.
3. A convenient gauge in connection with crushing and bending experiments.
‘When, however, the author came to actually prepare the paper and diagrams,
he found that it would be impossible to deal ina satisfactory manner with all
these subjects, many of which were entirely new, all possessing novel features,
representing the hitherto unpublished work of some years. He therefore limited
himself to the experimental steam engine and the hydraulic tank, merely indicating
by means of diagrams various matters without attempting to describe them fully,
which might be seen in operation at the laboratories, where actual trials would be
conducted by the students in the same way as during the work of the college
classes.! bea of
In the above-mentioned paper the brake which was described was of the
ordinary friction type, except that the flywheel rim was hollow through which
1 The following demonstrations were given :—
to} 5
1. Full trial of experimental steam engine by third year students.
Conditions :—Triple expansion, unjacketed, condensing. Boiler pressure 100 lb.
per square inch. Natural draught,
2. Testing various specimens of wrought iron, and taking their stress-strain
diagrams, in the 100-ton testing machine.
3, Finding the deflection of beams, and value of E.
4. Experiments on the angle of torsion, and value of coefficient of rigidity.
5. Finding modulus ofrupture and strength of cast-iron bars.
‘6. Gauging and cement testing.
7. Experiments on the flow of water through orifices with the hydraulic
tank.
8. Drawing crank-effort diagrams by a new apparatus.
9. Experiments on the whirling and vibration of shafts.
04, REPORT—1896.
water circulated, a weight of 1,500 lb. being required to take the power of the
engine.
This brake never worked satisfactorily, and though every expedient was tried,
it was found impossible to conduct a trial with any regularity beyond 30 indicated
horse-power. Moreover, owing to the flywheel being overhung, and a weight
hanging upon it, during a long trial, the bearing nearest the wheel almost
4nvariably became heated. Beyond this, it was found that for practical pur-
poses a 3-ton wheel was unnecessarily large for any trials. A brake, of which
a descriptive diagram was shown, was therefore designed, the weight of the fly-
-wheel being about 15 ewt., instead of 3 tons, and the framing being so arranged
that the load was taken off the bearing. This brake at once remoyed the difficulty
of heating, and a regular series of trials were made up to about 60 horse-power,
which during one session served quite satisfactorily for the work of the students.
Beyond this, however, it was impossible to get regular runnings with the brake.
The loads were taken by a hemp cable, five coils of which passed round the wheel,
which is in the form of a broad pulley, and acted by taking advantage of the
power of coil friction. To get steady runnings it was found necessary to keep
the rope wet, a stream of water flowing upon it.
It had been originally intended to have the form of Froude hydraulic brake, as
modified by Professor Osborne Ieynolds, and it became evident that nothing but a
hydraulic brake would solve the problem of taking up continuously 150 horse-
power. The question of cost had prevented this form of brake from being obtained
originally from Messrs. Mather and Platt, and the same reason led toa modified design
of the hydraulic brake, in which the chief cause of expense in the Reynolds type
“was avoided, viz. by doing away with the considerable amount of coring for air and
water passages in the castings, and also in constructing the main part in cast iron
instead of gun-metal, and further, in having it single acting. For this, and other
apparatus, funds were provided through the kindness of Mr. Charles W. Jones (of
Messrs. Lamport and Holt) and Mr. R. R. Heap.
The author then proceeded to explain by means of models the action of the
brake, and the features which were peculiar in the new brake, which were as
follows :—
(1) The vortex is artificially produced.
(2) The brake is single acting.
(3) The pressure is downwards, so as to take the weight of the brake off; in
fact, practically not to take off the weight of the brake only, but also of
the flywheel.
(4) Autographic recording and registering arrangements are employed.
(5) Special arrangements are adopted by which automatic action is secured.
These various points were considered in detail and described by means of draw-
‘ings, but it was pointed out that as far as the actual work of the trials for the
students were concerned, none of the refinements mentioned were necessary. An
extremely simple form of brake was quite sufficient to maintain the engine running
perfectly steady under the highest steam pressures
The various features in which the engine itself has been improved were then
mentioned, and may be summarised as follows :—
() A sid of drain tanks, so as to measure the water condensed in the steam
jackets,
(2) A erate tank has been provided, into which the water from these drain
tanks is thereby checked.
(3) A new special tank for the exact calibration of feed-water supply has been
rovided, which works in connection with the injector by which the
oiler is supplied.
(4) A special arrangement has been devised by which the indicator diagrams
can be conveniently and rapidly taken by students,
(5) A system of checking and graduating the indicator springs, which has been
found most valuable in operation by means of a duplex standard steam
gauge.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 905
(6) An arrangement was shown in operation for obtaining the diagrams of
crank effort, by means of a special apparatus which is done on smoked
glass. These can either be printed off, or used direct in the lantern for
illustration upon the screen.
The dynamometer coupling was then described and illustrated, after which a
diagram giving a complete table of the results of several trials of the experimental
engine was shown, and copies were distributed amongst members of the Section."
The various conditions of the trials were as follows :—
Triple unjacketed condensing.
Triple jacketed condensing.
Jompound unjacketed condensing. (I. and II.)
Compound jacketed condensing. (I. and II.)
Compound unjacketed condensing. (II. and III.)
Compound unjacketed non-condensing. (II. and III.)
Single unjacketed condensing. (II.)
Single jacketed condensing. (II.).
These tables showed at a glance the method adopted for tabulating the results
of the trials which had been carried out by the senior lecturer, Mr. Dunkerley.
The hydraulic tank and sump was next alluded to, and the new form of valves
for rapidly operating with the jet under pressure was mentioned ; a brief descrip-
tion of the other laboratory apparatus illustrated on the diagrams then concluded
the paper.
4. Development of the Art of Printing in Colours. By T. Conn.
5. Expanded Metal. By H. B. Tarry.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Wreck Raising. By J. BEL.
2. Horseless Road Locomotion. By A. R. SENNETT.
3 Since’ published in Engineering, October 9, 1896.
1896. 3.N
906 REPORT—1896.
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—ARtTHUR J. Evans, M.A., F.S.A,
THURSDAY,-SEPTEMBER 17.
The PrusipEnt delivered the following Address :—
‘The Hastern Question’ in Anthropology.
TRAVELLERS have ceased to seek for the ‘Terrestrial Paradise,’ but, in a broader
sense, the area in which lay the cradle of civilised mankind is becoming generally
recognised. The plateaux of Central Asia have receded from our view. Anthropo-
logical researches may he said to have established the fact that the White Race, in
the widest acceptation of the term, including, that is, the darker-complexioned
section of the South and West, is the true product of the region in which the
earliest historic records find it concentrated. Its ‘Area of Characterisation’ is
-conterminous, in fact, with certain vast physical barriers due to the distribution of
sea and land in the latest geological period. The continent in which it rose, shut in
between the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, between the Libyan Desert, and
what is now Sahara, and an icier Baltic stretching its vast arms to the Ponto-
‘Caspian basin, embraced, together with a part of anterior Asia, the greater part of
Europe, and the whole of Northern Africa. The Mediterranean itself—divided
into smaller separate basins, with land bridges at the Straits of Gibraltar, and
from Sicily and Malta to Tunis—did not seriously break the continuity of the
whole. The English Channel, as we know, did not exist, and the old sea-coast of
what are now the British Islands, stretching far to the west, is, as Professor
Boyd Dawkins has shown, approximately represented by the hundred-fathom line.
‘To this great continent Dr. Brinton, who has so ably illustrated the predominant
part played by it in isolating the white from the African black and the yellow
races of mankind, has proposed to give the useful and appropriate name of
“Eurafrica.’ In ‘ Eurafrica,’ in its widest sense, we find the birthplace of the
highest civilisations that the world has yet produced, and the mother country of
its dominant peoples.
It is true that later geological changes have made this continental division no
longer applicable. The vast land area has been opened to the east, as if to invite
the Mongolian nomads of the Steppes and Tundras to mingle with the European
population ; the Mediterranean bridges, on the other hand, have been swept away.
Asia has advanced, Africa has receded. Yet the old underlying connexion of the
peoples to the north and south of the Mediterranean basin seems never to have
been entirely broken. Their inter-relations affect many of the most interesting
phenomena of archeology and ancient history, and the old geographical unity of
‘ Eurafrica ’ was throughout a great extent of its area revived in the great political
system which still forms the basis of civilised society, the Roman Empire. The
Mediterranean was a Roman lake. A single fact brings home to us the extent to
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 907
which the earlier continuity of Europe and North Africa asserted itself in the
imperial economy. At one time, what is now Morocco and what is now
Northumberland, with all that lay between them on both sides of the Pyrenees,
found their administrative centre on the Mosel.
It is not for me to dwell on the many important questions affecting the physio-
logical sides of ethnography that are bound up with these old geographical relations.
I will, however, at least call attention to the interesting, and in many ways
original, theory put forward by Professor Sergi in his recent work on the ‘ Mediter-
ranean Race.’
Professor Sergi is not content with the ordinary use of the term ‘ White Race.’
He distinguishes a distinct ‘brown’ or ‘brunette’ branch, whose swarthier com-
plexion, however, and dark hair bear no negroid affinities, and are not due to any.
‘intermixture on that side. This race, with dolichocephalic skulls, amongst which
certain clearly defined types constantly repeat themselves, he traces throughout
the Mediterranean basin, from Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, through a large part
of Southern Europe, including Greece, Italy, and the Iberic peninsula, to the
British islands. It is distributed along the whole of North Africa, and, according
to the theory propounded, finds its original centre of diffusion somewhere in the
parts of Somaliland.
It may be said at once that this grouping together into a consistent system of
ethnic factors spread over this vast yet inter-related area—the heart of ‘ Eurafrica’—
presents many attractive aspects. The ancient Greek might not have accepted
-kinship even with ‘the blameless Ethiopian,’ but those of us who may happen
to combine a British origin with a Mediterranean complexion may derive a certain
ancestral pride from remote consanguinity with Pharaoh. They may even be
willing to admit that ‘the Ethiopian’ in the course of his migrations has done
much to ‘change his skin.’
In part, at least, the new theory is little more than a re-statement of an ethno-
graphic grouping that commands a general consensus of opinion. From Thurnam’s
time onwards we have been accustomed to regard the dolichocephalic type found in
-the early Long Barrows, and what seem to have been the later survivals of the
same stock in our islands, as fitting on to the Iberian element in South-western
Europe. The extensive new materials accumulated by Dr. Garson have only served
“to corroborate these views, while further researches have shown that the character-
istic features of the skeletons found in the Ligurian caves, at Cro Magnon and
-elsewhere in France, are common to those of a large part of Italy, Sicily, and
Sardinia, and extend not only to the Iberic group, but to the Guanche interments
-of the Canary Islands.
The newly correlated data unquestionably extend the field of comparison; but
‘the theories as to the original home of this ‘ Mediterranean race’ and the course
of its diffusion may be thought to be still somewhat lacking in documentary
evidence. They remind us rather too closely of the old ‘ Aryan’ hypothesis, in
which we were almost instructed as to the halting places of the different detach-
ments as they passed on their way from their Central Asian cradle to rearrange
themselves with military precision, and exactly in the order of their relationship,
in their distant European homes. The existing geological conditions are made
- the basis of this migratory expansion from Ethiopia to Ireland ; parallel streams
move through North Africa and from Anatolia to Southern Europe. One cardinal
fact has certainly not received attention, and that is, that the existing evidence of
this Mediterranean type dates much further back on European soil than even in
ancient Egypt.
Professor Sergi himself has recognised the extraordinary continuity of the
cranial type of the Ligurian caves among the modern population of that coast.
But this continuity involves an extreme antiquity for the settlement of the
-4 Mediterranean Race’ in North-western Italy and Southern France. The cave
interments, such as those of the Finalese, carry back the type well into Neolithic
_times. But the skeletons of the Baoussé Roussé caves, between Mentone and
Ventimiglia, which reproduce the same characteristic forms, take us back far
behind any stage of culture to which the name of Neolithic can be properly applied.
3.N 2
908 REPORT—1896.
The importance of this series of interments is so unique, and the fulness of the
evidence so far surpasses any other records immediately associated with the earliest
remains of man, that even in this brief survey they seem to demand more than a
passing notice.
So much, at least, must be admitted on all hands: an earlier stage of culture is
exhibited in these deposits than that which has hitherto been regarded as the mini-
mum equipment of the men of the later Stone Age. The complete absence of
pottery, of polished implements, of domesticated animals—all the more striking
from the absolute contrast presented by the rich Neolithic cave burials a little
further up the same coast —how is it to be explained? The long flint knives, the
bone and shell ornaments, might, indeed, find partial parallels among Neolithic
remains; but does not, after all, the balance of comparison incline to that more
ancient group belonging to the ‘ Reindeer Period’ in the South of France, as illus-
rated by the caves of La Madeleine, Les Eyzies and Solutré ?
Tt is true that, in an account of the interments found in 1892 in the Barma
Grande Cave, given by me to the Anthropological Institute, I was myself so pre-
possessed by the still dominant doctrine that the usage of burial was unknown to
Paleolithic man, and so overpowered by the vision of the yawning hiatus between
him and his Neolithic successor, that I failed to realise the full import of the
evidence. On that occasion I took refuge in the suggestion that we had here to
deal with an earlier Neolithic stratum than any hitherto recorded. ‘ Neolithic,”
that is, without the Neolithic.
But the accumulation of fresh data, and especially the critical observations of
M. d’Acy and Professor Issel, have convinced me that this intermediate position is
untenable. From the great depth below the original surface, of what in all cases
seem to have been homogeneous quaternary deposits, at which the human remains
were found, it is necessary to suppose, if the interments took place at a later
period, that pits in many cases from 80 to 40 feet deep must have been excavated in
the cave earth. But nothing of the kind has been detected, nor any intrusion of
extraneous materials. On the other hand, the gnawed or defective condition of the
extremities in several cases points clearly to superficial and imperfect interment of
the body ; and in one case parts of the same core from which flints found with the
skeleton had been chipped were found some metres distant on the same floor level.
Are we, then, to imagine that another pit was expressly dug to bury these ?
Tn the case of a more recently discovered and as yet unpublished interment, at
the excavation of which I was so fortunate as to assist, the superficial character of
the deposit struck the eye. The skeleton, with flint knife and ochre near, decked
out with the usual shell and deer’s tooth ornaments, lay as if in the attitude of
sleep, somewhat on the left side. The middle of the body was covered with a large
flat stone, with two smaller ones lying by it, while another large stone was laid
over the feet. The left arm was bent under the head as if to pillow it, but the
extremities of the right arm and the toes were suggestively deficient : the surface
covering of big stones had not sufficiently protected them. The stones themselves
seem in turn to have served as a kind of hearth, for a stratum of charred and
burned bones about 45 cm. thick lay about them.
Is it reasonable to suppose that a deposit of this kind took place at the bottom
ofa pit over 20 feet deep, left open an indefinite time for the convenience of
roasting venison at the bottom ?
A rational survey of the evidence in this asin the other cases leads to the conclu-
sion that we have to deal with surface burial, or, if that word seems too strong, with
simple ‘ seposition ’—the imperfect covering with handy stones of the dead bodies
as they lay in the attitude of sleep on the then floor of the cavern. In other
words, they are 77 situ in a late quaternary deposit, for which Professor Issel has
proposed the name of ‘ Meiolithic.’
But if this conclusion is to hold good, we have here on the northern coast of
the Mediterranean evidence of the existence of a late Paleolithic race, the essential
features of which, in the opinion of most competent osteological inquirers, reappear
in the Neolithic skeletons of the same Ligurian coast, and still remain characteristic
of the historical Ligurian type. In other words, the ‘ Mediterranean Race’ finds
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 909
its first record in the West; and its diffusion, so far from having necessarily
followed the lines of later geographical divisions, may well have begun at a time
when the land bridges of ‘ Eurafrica’ were still unbroken.
There is nothing, indeed, in all this to exclude the hypothesis that the original
expansion took place from the East African side. That the earliest homes of
primeval man lay in a warm region can hardly be doubted, and the abundant
discovery by Mr. Seton Karr in Somaliland of Paleolithic implements reproducing
many of the most characteristic forms of those of the grottoes of the Dordogne
affords a new link of connexion between the Red Sea and the Atlantic littoral,
When we recall the spontaneous artistic qualities of the ancient race which has
left its records in the carvings on bone and ivory in the caves of the ‘ Reindeer
Period,’ this evidence of at least partial continuity on the northern shores of the
Mediterranean suggests speculations of the deepest interest. QOverlaid with new
elements, swamped in the dull, though materially higher, Neolithic civilisation,
may not the old xsthetic faculties which made Europe the earliest-known home of
anything that can be called human art, as opposed to mere tools and mechanical
contrivances, have finally emancipated themselves once more in the Southern
regions, where the old stock most survived? In the extraordinary manifestations
of artistic genius to which, at widely remote periods, and under the most diverse
political conditions, the later populations of Greece and Italy have given birth, may
we not be allowed to trace the re-emergence, as it were, after long underground
meanderings, of streams whose upper waters had seen the daylight of that: earlier
world ?
But the vast gulf of time beyond which it is necessary to carry back our gaze
in order to establish such connexions will hardly permit us to arrive at more
than vague probabilities. The practical problems that concern the later culture
of Europe from Neolithic times onwards connect themselves rather with its relation
to that of the older civilisations on the southern and eastern Mediterranean shores.
Anthropology, too, has its ‘ Eternal Eastern Question.’ Till within quite
recent years, the glamour of the Orient pervaded all inquiries as to the genesis
of European civilisation. The Biblical training of the northern nations prepared
the ground. The imperfect realisation of the antiquity of European arts; on the
ether hand, the imposing chronology of Egypt and Babylonia; the abiding force
of classical tradition, which found in the Phoenician a deus ex machind for
exotic importations; finally, the ‘Aryan Hypothesis,’ which brought in the
dominant European races as immigrant wanderers from Central Asia, with a
ready-made stock of culture in their wallets—these and other causes combined to
create an exaggerated estimate of the part played by the East as the illuminator of
the benighted West.
More recent investigations have resulted in a natural reaction. The primitive
‘Aryan’ can be no longer invoked as a kind of patriarchal missionary of Central
Asian culture. From d’Halloy and Latham onwards to Penka and Schrader an
array of eminent names has assigned to him an European origin. The means by
which a kindred tongue diffused itself among the most heterogeneous ethnic
factors still remain obscure; but the stricter application of phonetic laws and
the increased detection of loan-words has cut down the original ‘ Aryan’ stock of
culture to very narrow limits, and entirely stripped the members of this linguistic
family of any trace of a common Pantheon.
Whatever the character of the original ‘ Aryan’ stage, we may be very sure
that it lies far back in the mists of the European Stone Age. The supposed
common names for metals prove to be either a vanishing quantity or strikingly
irrelevant. It may be interesting to learn on unimpeachable authority that the
Celtic words for ‘gold’ are due to comparatively recent borrowing from the Latin;
but nothing is more certain than that gold was one of the earliest metals known
to the Celtic races, its knowledge going back to the limits of the pure Stone Age.
We are told that the Latin ‘ensis, ‘a sword, is identical with the Sanskrit ¢ asi’
and Iranian ‘ahi, but the gradual evolution of the sword from the dagger, only
completed at a late period of the Bronze Age, is a commonplace of prehistoric
- archeology. If ‘ensis,’ then, in historical times an iron sword, originally meant a
910 REPORT—1896.
bronze dagger, may not the bronze dagger in its turn resolve itself into a flint
knife P
The truth is that the attempts to father on a common Aryan stock the
beginnings of metallurgy argue an astonishing inability to realise the vast
antiquity of languages and their groups. Yet we know that, as far back as we
have any written records, the leading branches of the Aryan family of speech
stood almost as far apart as they do to-day, and the example of the Egyptian and
Semitic groups, which Maspero and others consider to have been originally con-
nected, leads to still more striking results. From the earliest Egyptian stela to
the latest Coptic liturgy we find the main outlines of what is substantially the
same language preserved for a period of some six thousand years. The Semitic
languages in their characteristic shape show a continuous history almost as ex-
tensive. For the date of the diverging point of the two groups we must have
recourse to a chronology more familiar to the geologist than the antiquary.
As importer of exotic arts into primitive Europe the Phoenician has met the
fate of the immigrants from the Central Asian ‘ Arya.’ The days are gone past
when it could be seriously maintained that the Phcenician merchant landed on the
coast of Cornwall, or built the dolmens of the North and West. A truer view of
primitive trade as passing on by inter-tribal barter has superseded the idea of a
direct commerce between remote localities. The science of prehistoric archzology,
following the lead of the Scandinavian School, has established the existence in
every province of local centres of early metallurgy, and it is no longer believed that
the implements and utensils of the European Bronze Age were imported wholesale
by Semites or ‘ Etruscans.’
It is, however, the less necessary for me to trace in detail the course of this re«
action against the exaggerated claims of Eastern influence that the case for the
independent position of primitive Europe has been recently summed up with fresh
arguments, and in his usual brilliant and incisive style, by M. Salomon Reinach, in
his ‘ Mirage Orientale”’ For many ancient prejudices as to the early relations of
East and West it is the trumpet sound before the walls of Jericho. It may, indeed,
be doubted whether, in the impetuousness of his attack, M. Reinach, though he has
rapidly brought up his reserves inhis more recent work on primitive European
sculpture, has not been tempted to oceupy outlying positions in the enemy’s country
which will hardly be found tenable in the long run. I cannot myself, for instance,
be brought to believe that the rude marble ‘ idols’ of the primitive AZgean popula-
tion were copied on Chaldean cylinders, I may have occasion to point out that the
oriental elements in the typical higher cultures of primitive Europe, such as those of
Mycene, of Hallstatt, and La Téne, are more deeply rooted than M. Reinach will
admit. But the very considerable extent to which the early European civilisation
was of independent evolution has been nowhere so skilfully focussed into light as in
these comprehensive essays of M. Reinach. It is always a great gain to have the
extreme European claims so clearly formulated, but we must still remember that
the ‘Sick Man’ is not dead.
The proofs of a highly developed metallurgic industry of home growth accu-
mulated by prehistoric students part passu over the greater part of Europe, and the
considerable cultural equipment of its early population—illustrated, for example,
in the Swiss Lake settlements—had already prepared the way for the more start-
ling revelations as to the prehistoric civilisation of the AZgean world which have
resulted from Dr. Schliemann’s diggings at Troy, Tiryns, and Mycenz, so admirably
followed up by Dr. Tsountas,
This later civilisation, to which the general name of ‘ Avgean’ has been given,
shows several stages, marked in succession by typical groups of finds, such as those
from the Second City of Troy, from the cist-graves of Amorgos, from beneath the
volcanic stratum of Thera, from the shaft-graves of Mycenz, and again from the
tombs of the lower town. Roughly, it falls into two divisions, for the earlier of
which the culture illustrated by the remains of Amorgos may be taken as the
sages point, while the later is inseparably connected with the name of
ycene.
The early ‘ Aigean’ culture rises in the midst of a vast province extending from’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 9T1
Switzerland and Northern Italy through the Danubian basin and the Balkan
peninsula, and continued through a large part of Anatolia, till it finally reaches
Cyprus. It should never be left out of sight that, so far as the earliest historical
tradition and geographical nomenclature reach back, a great tract of Asia Minor
is found in the occupation of men of European race, of whom the Phrygians and
their kin—closely allied to the 'Thracians on the other side of the Bosphorus—
stand forth as the leading representatives. On the other hand, the great antiquity
of the Armenoid type in Lycia and other easterly parts of Asia Minor, and its
priority to the Semites in these regions, has been demonstrated by the craniological
researches of Dr. yon Luschan, This ethnographic connexion with the European
stock, the antiquity of which is carried back by Egyptian records to the second
millennium before our era, is fully borne out by the archeological evidence. Very
similar examples of ceramic manufactures recur over the whole of this vast region.
The resemblances extend even to minutiz of ornament, as is well shown by the
examples compared by Dr. Much from the Mondsee, in Upper Austria, from the
earliest stratum of Hissarlik, and from Cyprus. It is in the same Anatolo-Danubian
area—as M. Reinach has well pointed out—that we find the original centre of
diffusion of the ‘Svastika’ motive in the Old World. Copper implements, and
weapons too, of primitive types, some reproducing Neolithic forms, are also a
common characteristic, though it must always be remembered that the mere fact
that an implement is of copper does not of itself necessitate its belonging to the
earliest metal age, and that the freedom from alloy was often simply due to a tem-
porary deficiency of tin. Cyprus, the land of copper, played, no doubt, a leading
part in the dissemination of this early metallurgy, and certain typical pins and other
objects found in the Alpine and Danubian regions have been traced back by Dr.
Naue and others to Cypriote prototypes. The same parallelism throughout this
vast area comes out again in the appearance of a class of primitive ‘idols’ of clay,
marble, and other materials, extending from Cyprus to the Troad and the Aigean
islands, and thence to the pile settlements of the Alps and the Danubian basin,
while kindred forms can be traced beyond the Carpathians to a vast northern
Neolithic province that stretches to the shores of Lake Ladoga.
It is from the centre of this old Anatolo-Danubian area of primitive culture, in
which Asia Minor appears as a part of Europe, that the new A®gean civilisation
rises from the sea. ‘Life was stirring in the waters” The notion that the
maritime enterprise of the Eastern Mediterranean began on the exposed and
comparatively harbourless coast of Syria and Palestine can no longer be main-
tained. The island world of the 4igean was the natural home of primitive navi-
gation. The early sea-trade of the inhabitants gave them a start over their
neighbours, and produced a higher form of culture, which was destined to react on
that of a vast European zone—nay, even upon that of the older civilisations of
Egypt and Asia.
The earlier stage of this Aigean culture culminates in what may conveniently
be called the Period of Amorgos from the abundant tombs explored by Dr. Diimm-
ler and others in that island. Here we already see the proofs of a widespread
commerce, The ivory ornaments point to the South ; the abundance of silver may
even suggest an intercourse along the Libyan coast with the rich silver-producing
region of South-eastern Spain, the very ancient exploitation of which has been so
splendidly illustrated by the researches of the brothers Siret. Additional weight
is lent to this presumption by the recurrence in these Spanish deposits of pots with
rude indications of eyes and eyebrows, recalling Schliemann’s owl-faced urns; of
stone ‘idols,’ practically identical with those of Troy and the Agean islands, here too
associated with marble cups of the same simple forms; of triangular daggers of
copper and bronze, and of bronze swords which seem to stand in a filial relation to
an ‘Amorgan’ type of dagger. In a former communication to this Section I
ventured to see in the so-called ‘Cabiri’ of Malta—very far removed from any
Pheenician sculpture—an intermediate link between the Iberian group and that of
the Aigean, and to trace on the fern-like ornaments of the altar-stone a comparison
with the naturalistic motives of proto-Mycenzan art, as seen, for instance, on the
early vases of Thera and Therasia. :
912 REPORT— 1896.
A Chaldean influence cannot certainly be excluded from this early Augean
art. It reveals itself, for instance, in indigenous imitations of Babylonian cylinders.
My own conclusion that the small marble figures of the Augean deposits, though
of indigenous European lineage, were in their more deyeloped types influenced by
Istar models from the East, has since been independently arrived at by the Danish
archeologist, Dr. Blinkenburg, in his study on pree-Mycenzan art. -
More especially the returning-spiral decoration, which in the ‘ Amorgan Period’
appears upon seals, rings, bowls, and caskets of steatite, leads us to a very interest-
ing field of comparison. This motive, destined to play such an important part in
the history of European ornament, is absent from the earlier products of the great
Anatolo-Danubian province. As a European design it is first found on these
insular fabrics, and it is important to observe that it first shows itself in the form
of reliefs on stone. The generally accepted idea, put forward by Dr. Milchhéfer,
that it originated here from applied spirals on metal work is thus seen to be bereft
of historical justification. At a somewhat later date we find this spiraliform
motive communicating itself to the ceramic products of the Danubian region,
though from the bold relief in which it sometimes appears, a reminiscence of the
earlier steatite reliefs seems still traceable. In the late Neolithic pile-station of
Butmir, in Bosnia, this spiral decoration appears in great perfection on the pottery,
and is here associated with clay images of very advanced fabric. At Lengyel, in
Hungary, and elsewhere, we see it applied to primitive painted pottery. Finally,
in the later Hungarian Bronze Age it is transferred to metal work.
But this connexion—every link of which can be made out—of the lower
Danubian Bronze Age decoration with the Egean spiral system—itself much
earlier in origin—has a very important bearing on the history of ornament in the
North and West. The close relation of the Bronze Age culture of Scandinavia and
North-western Germany with that of [Hungary is clearly established, and of
the many valuable contributions made by Dr. Montelius to prehistoric archeology,
none is more brilliant than his demonstration that this parallelism of culture
between the North-west and South-east owes its origin to the most ancient
course of the amber trade from the North Sea shores of Jutland by the valley
of the Elbe and Moldau to the Danubian Basin. As Dr. Montelius has also
shown, there was, besides, a western extension of this trade to our own islands.
If Scandinavia and its borderlands were the source of amber, Ireland was the land
of gold. The wealth of the precious metal there is illustrated by the fact
that, even as late as 1796, the gold washings of County Wicklow amounted to
10,0007. A variety of evidence shows a direct connexion between Great Britain
and Scandinavia from the end of the Stone Age onwards. Gold diadems of
unquestionably British—probably Irish—fabric have been found in Seeland and
Fiinen, and from the analysis of early gold ornaments it clearly results that it was
from Ireland rather than the Ural that Northern and Central Europe was supplied.
Mr. Coffey, who has made an exhaustive study of the early Irish monuments,
has recently illustrated this early connexion by other comparisons, notably the
appearance of a design which he identifies with the early carvings of boats on the
rocks of Scandinavia.
This prolongation of the Bronze Age trade route—already traced from the
Middle Danube—from Scandinavia to Ireland, ought it to be regarded as the
historic clue to the contemporary appearance of the spiral motive in the British
Islands? Is it to this earlier intercourse with the land of the Vikings that we
must ascribe the spiral scrolls on the slabs of the great chambered barrows of the
Trish Bronze Age—best seen in the most imposing of them all, before the portal
and on the inner chambers of New Granze ?
The possibility of such a connexion must be admitted; the probability is great
that the contemporary appearance of the spiraliform ornamentin Ireland and on the
Continent of Europe is due to direct derivation. It is, of course, conceivable that
such a simple motive as the returning spiral may have originated independently
in various parts of Europe, as it did originate in other parts of the world. But
anthropology has ceased to content itself with the mere accumulation of sporadic
coincidences. It has become a historic study. It is not sufficient to know how
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 915
such and such phenomeua may have originated, but how, as a matter of fact, they
did. Hence in the investigation of origins and evolution the special value of the
European field where the evidence has been more perfectly correlated and the
continuous records go further back. An isolated example of the simple volute
design belonging to the ‘Reindeer Period’ has been found in the grotto of
Arudy. But the earliest cultural strata of Europe, from the beginning of the
Neolithic period onwards, betray an entire absence of the returning spiral motive.
When we find it later propagating itself as a definite ornamental system in a
regular chronological succession throughout an otherwise inter-related European
zone, we have every right to trace it to a common source.
But it does not therefore follow that the only alternative is to believe that the
spiral decoration of the Irish monuments necessarily connects itself with the
ancient stream of intercourse flowing from Scandinavia.
We have to remember that the Western lands of gold and tin were the goals
of other prehistoric routes. Especially must we bear in mind the early evidence
of intercourse between the British Isles and the old Iberic region of the opposite
shores of the Continent. The derivation of certain forms of Bronze Age types in
Britain and Ireland from this side has already been demonstrated by my father,
and British or Ivish bronze flat axes with their characteristic ornamentation have
in their turn been found in Spain as well asin Denmark. The peculiar technique
of certain Irish flint arrowheads of the same period, in which chipping and grind-
ing are combined, is also characteristic of the Iberian province, and seems to lead
to very extended comparisons on the Libyan side, recurring as it does in the
exquisite handiwork of the non-Egyptian race whose relics Mr. Petrie has brought
to light at Nagada. In prehistoric Spanish deposits, again, are found the actual
wallet-like baskets with in-curving sides, the prototypes of a class of clay food-
vessels which (together with a much wider distribution) are of specially frequent
occurrence in the British Isles as well as the old Iberian area.
If the spiral decoration had been also a feature of the Scandinavian rock
carvings, the argument for derivation from that side would have heen strong.
But they are not found in them, and, on the other hand, the sculptures on the
dolmens of the Morbihan equally show certain features common to the Irish stone
chambers, including the primitive ship figure. The spiral itself does not appear on
these ; but the more the common elements between the Megalithic piles, not only
of the old Iberian tract on the mainland, including Brittany, but in the islands of
the West Mediterranean basin, are realised, the more probable it becomes that the
impulse came from this side, The prehistoric buildings of Malta, hitherto spoken
of as ‘Phcenician temples, which show in their primitive conception a great
affinity to the Megalithic chambers of the earliest British barrows, bear witness
on this side to the extension of the Aigean spiral system in a somewhat
advanced stage, and accompanied, as at New Grange, with intermediate lozenges.
In Sardinia, as I hope to show, there is evidence of the former existence of monu-
ments of Mycenzan architecture in which the chevron, the lozenge, and the spiral
might have been seen associated asin Ireland. It is on this line, rather than on the
Danube and the Elbe, that we find in a continuous zone that Cyclopean tradition
of domed chambers which is equally illustrated at Mycenz and at New Grange.
These are not more thau indications, but they gain additional force from the
converging evidence to which attention has already been called of an ancient line
of intercourse, mainly, we may believe, connected with the tin trade between the
East Mediterranean basin and the Iberian West. A further corroboration of the
view that an A’gean impulse propagated itself as far as our own islands from that
side is perhaps afforded by a very remarkable find in a British barrow.
I refer to the Bronze Age interment excavated by Canon Greenwell on Folkton
Wold, in Yorkshire, in which, beside the body of a child, were found three carved
chalk objects resembling round boxes with bossed lids. On one of these lids were
rouped together, with a lozenge-shaped space between them, two partly spirali-
form partly concentric circular ornaments, which exhibit before our eyes the
degeneration of two pairs of returning spiral ornaments. Upon the sides of two of
these chalk caskets, associated with chevrons, saltires, and lozenges, were rude
914 REPORT—1896,
indications of faces—eyes and nose of bird-like character—curiously recalling the
early Aigean and Trojan types of Dr. Schliemann. These, as M. Reinach has
pointed out, also find an almost exact parallel in the rude indications of the human
face seen on the sculptured menhirs of the Marne and the Gard valleys. To this
may be added the interesting comparisons supplied by certain clay vessels, of
younded form, somewhat resembling the chalk ‘caskets’ discovered by MM.
Siret in Spanish interments of the early metal age, in which eyes and eyebrows of
a primitive style are inserted, as on the British relics, in the inter-spaces of linear
ornamentation. The third chalk disc exhibits, in place of the human face, a
butterfly with volute antenne, reminding us of the appearance of butterflies as a
decorative motive on the gold roundels from the shaft-graves of Mycene, as also
on early Mycenzean gems of steatite from Crete ; in the latter case with the feelers
curving outwards in the same way. The stellate design with central circles on the
lid of one of the chalk caskets is itself not impossibly a distant degeneration of the
star-flowers on the same Mycenzan plates. Putting all these separate elements of
resemblance together—the returning spiral and star, the rude face and butterfly—
the suggestion of A2gean reminiscence becomes strong, but the other parallels lead
us for the line of its transmission towards the Iberian rather than the Scandi-
navian route.! :
So much, at least, results from these various comparisons that, whether we find
the spiral motive in the extreme West or North of Europe, everything points to
the ‘Hgean world as its first European centre. But have we any right to regard
it, even there, as of indigenous evolution ?
It had been long my own conviction that the A‘gean spiral system must itself
be regarded as an offshoot of that of ancient Egypt, which as a decorative motive
on scarabs goes back, as Professor Petrie has shown, to the Fourth Dynasty.
During the time of the Twelfth Dynasty, which, on general grounds, may be sup-
posed roughly to correspond with the ‘Amorgan Period’ of A%gean culture, it
attained its apogee. The spiral conyolutions now often cover the whole field of the
scarab, and the motive begins to spread to a class of black bucchero vases the challx
inlaying of whose ornaments suggests widespread European analogies. But the
important feature to observe is that here, as in the case of the early Agean
examples, the original material on which the spiral ornament appears is stone, and
that, so far from being derived from an advanced type of metal work, it goes back
in Egypt to a time when metal was hardly known.
The prevalence of the spiral ornamentation on stone work in the A%gean islands
and contemporary Egypt, was it merely to be regarded as a coincidence? To turn
one’s eyes to the Nile Valley, was it simply another instance of the ‘ Wrage
Orientale’? For wy own part, I ventured to believe that, as in the case of
Northern Europe, the spread of this system was connected with many collateral
symptoms of commercial inter-connexion, so here, too, the appearance of this early
/®gean ornament would be found to lead to the demonstration of a direct inter-
course between the Greek islands and Egypt at least a thousand years earlier than
any that had hitherto been allowed. .
One’s thoughts naturally turned to Crete, the central island, with one face on
the Libyan Sea—the natural source and seminary of Ai’gean culture—where fresh
light was already being thrown on the Mycenzan civilisation by the researches of
Professor Halbherr, but the earlier prehistoric remains of which were still unex-
plored. Nor were these expectations unfounded. As the result of three expe-
ditions—undertaken in three successive years, from the last of which I returned
three months since—it has been my fortune to collect a series of evidences of a
very early and intimate contact with Egypt, going back at least to the Twelfth
1 A further piece of evidence pointing in this direction is supplied by one of the
chalk ‘caskets.’ On the upper disc of this, in the place corresponding with the
double-spirals on the other example, appears a degeneration of the same motive in a
more compressed form, resembling two sets of concentric horseshoes united at their
bases. This recurs at New Grange, and single sets of concentric horseshoes, or semi-
circles, are found both there and at Gavrinnis. The degeneration of the returning
spiral motive extends therefore to Brittany,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 915
Dynasty, and to the earlier half of the third millennium before our era. It is
not onJy that in primitive deposits, like that of Hagios Onuphrios, scarabs, acknow-
ledged by competent archeologists to be of Twelfth Dynasty date, occurred in
association with steatite seals presenting the Aigean spiral ornamentation, and
with early pottery answering to that of Amorgos and the second city of Troy.
This by itself might be regarded by many as convincing. But,—what from the
point of view of intercourse and chronology is even more. important,—in the same
deposit and elsewhere occurred early button-shaped and triangular seals of steatite
with undoubted indigenous copies of Egyptian lotos designs characteristic of the
same period, while in the case of the three-sided bead-seals it was possible to trace
a regular evolution leading down to Mycenzean times. Nor was this all, Through-
out the whole of the island there came to light a great variety of primitive stone
vases, mostly of steatite, a large proportion of which reproduced the characteristic
forms of Egyptian stone vases, in harder materials, going far back into the Ancient
Empire. The returning spiral motive is also associated with these; as may be seen
from a specimen now in the collection of Dr. Naue, of Munich.
A geological phenomenon which I was able to ascertain in the course of my
recent exploration of the eastern part of the island goes far to explain the great
importance which these steatite or ‘soapstone’ fabrics played in the primitive
culture of Crete and the Aigean islands. In the valley of the Sarakina stream I
came upon vast deposits of this material, the diffusion of which could be further
traced along a considerable tract of the southern coast. The abundant presence
of this attractive and, at the same time, easily workable stone—then incomparably
more valuable, owing to the imperfection of the potter’s art—goes far to explain
the extent to which these ancient Egyptian forms were imitated, and the conse-
quent spread of the returning spiral motive throughout the Aigean.
In the matter of the spiral motive, Crete may thus be said to be the missing
link between prehistoric Ireland and Scandinavia and the Egypt of the Ancient
Empire. But the early remains of the island illustrate in many other ways the
comparatively high level of culture already reached by the AMgean population in
pre-Mycenzean times. Especially are they valuable in supplying the antecedent
stages to many characteristic elements of the succeeding Mycenzan civilisation.
This ancestral relationship is nowhere more clearly traceable than in a class of
relics which bear out the ancient claim of the islanders that they themselves had
invented a system of writing to which the Pheenicians did not do more than add
the finishing touches. Already, at the Oxford meeting of the Association, I was
able to call attention to the evidence of the existence of a prehistoric Cretan script
evolved by gradual simplification and selection from an earlier picture writing.
This earlier stage is, roughly speaking, illustrated by a series of primitive seals
belonging to the ‘Period of Amorgos.’ In the succeeding Mycenzan age the
script is more conventionalised, often linear, and though developments of the
earlier forms of seals are frequently found, they are usually of harder materials,
and the system is applied to other objects. As the result of my most recent
investigations, I am now able to announce the discovery of an inscribed pre-
historic relic, which surpasses in interest and importance all hitherto known objects
of this class. It consists of a fragment of what may be described as a steatite
‘Table of Offerings,’ bearing part of what appears to be a dedication of nine letters
of probably syllabic values, answering to the same early Cretan script that is seen
on the seals, and with two punctuations. It was obtained from the lowest level
of a Mycenzan stratum, containing numerous votive objects, in the great cave of
Mount Dikta, which, according to the Greek legend, was the birthplace of Zeus.
This early Cretan script, which precedes by centuries the most ancient records
of Phcenician writing, and supplies, at any rate, very close analogies to what may
be supposed to have been the pictorial prototypes of several of the Phcenician
letters, stands in a direct relation to the syllabic characters used at a later date by
the Greeks of Cyprus. The great step in the history of writing implied by the
evolution of symbols of phonetic value from primitive pictographs is thus shown
to have effected itself on European soil.
In many other ways the culture of Mycene—that extraordinary revelation from
916 REPORT—1896.
the soil of prehistoric Greece—can be shown to be rooted in this earlier ASgean
stratum, The spiral system, still seen in much of its pure original form on the
gold vessels and ornaments from the earlier shaft-graves of Mycenie, is simply the
translation into metal of the pre-existing steatite decoration.’ —
The Mycenzan repoussé work in its most developed stage as applied to human
and animal subjects has probably the same origin in stone work. Cretan examples,
indeed, give the actual transition inwhich an intaglio in dark steatite is coated
with a thin gold plate impressed into the design. On the other hand, the noblest
ef all creations of the Mycenzean goldsmith’s art, the Vaphio cups, with their bold
reliefs, illustrating the hunting and capture of wild bulls, find their nearest analogy
in a fragment of a cup, procured by me from Knésos, of black Cretan steatite,
with naturalistic reliefs, exhibiting a fig-tree in a sacred enclosure, an altar, and
men in high action, which in all probability was originally coated, like the intaglio,
with thin plates of gold.
In view of some still prevalent theories as to the origin of Mycenean art, it
is important to bear in mind these analogies and connexions, which show. how
deeply set its roots are in A%gean soil. The Vaphio cups, especially, from their
superior art, have been widely regarded as of exotic fabric. That the art of
an Huropean population in prehistoric times should have risen above that of
contemporary Hgypt and Babylonia was something beyond the comprehension
ef the traditional school ‘These most characteristic products of indigenous skill,
with their spirited representations of a sport the traditional home of which
in later times was the Thessalian plains, have been, therefore, brought from
‘Northern Syria’! Yet a whole series of Mycenzan gems exists executed in the
same bold naturalistic style, and of local materials, such as lapis Lacedeemonius,
the subjects of which are drawn from the same artistic cycle as those of the cups,
and not one of these has as yet been found on the Hastern Mediterranean shores.
Like the other kindred intaglios, they all come from the Peloponnese, from Crete,
from the shores and islands of the .Mgean, from the area, that is, where their
materials were procured. Their Jentoid and almond-shaped forms are altogether
foreign to Semitic usage, which clung to the cylinder and cone. The finer
products of the Mycenzan glyptic art on harder materials were, in fact, the
outcome of long apprentice studies of the earlier Ag¢ean population, of which we
have now the record in the primitive Cretan seals, and the explanation in the vast
beds of such an easily worked material as steatite.
But the importation of the most characteristic Mycensean products from
‘Northern Syria’ has become quite a moderate proposition beside that which we
have now before us. In a recent communication to the French Academy of
Inscriptions, Dr. Helbig has re-introduced to us a more familiar figure. Driven
from his prehistoric haunts on the Atlantic coasts, torn from the Cassiterides, dis-
lodged even from his Thucididean plantations in pre-Hellenic Sicily, the Phoenician
has returned, tricked out as the true ‘ Mycenzean.’
A great part of Dr. Helbig’s argument has been answered by anticipation.
Regardless of the existence of a regular succession of intermediate glyptic types,
such as the ‘ Melian’ gems and the engraved seals of the geometrical deposits of
the Greek mainland, like those of Olympia and of the Heron at Argos, which
link the Mycenzean with the classical series, Dr. Helbig takes a verse of Homer
to hang from it a theory that seals and engraved stones were unknown to
the early Greeks. On this imaginary fact he builds the astounding statement
that the engraved gems aud seals found with Mycenw#an remains must be of
foreign and, as he believes, Phoenician importation, The stray diffusion of one
er two examples of Myceniean pots to the coast of Palestine, the partial re-
semblance of some Hittite bronze figures, executed in a more barbarous Syrian
style, to specimens of quite different fabric found at Tiryns, Mycenz, and, it may
ke added, in a Cretan cave near Sybrita, the wholly unwarranted attribution to
Pheenicia of a bronze vase-handle found in Cyprus, exhibiting the typical lion-
headed demons of the Mycenzeans—these are only a few salient examples of the
1 See Hellenic Journal, xii. 1892, p. 221.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 917
reasoning by which the whole prehistoric civilisation of the Greek world, so.
instinct with naturalism and individuality, is handed over to the least original
member of the Semitic race. The absence in historic Greece of such arts as that
ef intarsia in metal work, of glass-making (if true) and of porcelain-making, is
used as a conclusive argument against their practice by an /Hgean population, of
uncertain stocls, a thousand years earlier, as if in the intervening dark ages between.
the primitive civilisation of the Greek lands and the Classical Renaissance no arts:
- could have been Jost!
Finally, the merchants of Kefté depicted on the Eeyptian monuments are once:
more claimed as Phcenicians, and with them—-though this is by no means a
necessary conclusion, even from the premise—the precious gifts they bear, in-
cluding vases of characteristic Mycenrean form and ornament. All this is
diametrically opposed to the conclusions of the most careful inquirer into the
origins of this mysterious people, Dr. W. Max Miiller (to be distinguished from
the eminent Professor), who shows that the list of countries in which Kefté occurs:
places them beyond the limit of Phcenicia or of any Semitic country, and connects.
them rather with Cilicia and with Cyprus, the scene, as we now know, of important
Mycenzan plantations. It is certain that not only do the Keftiu traders bear
articles of Mycenzean fabric, but their costume, which is wholly un-Semitic, their
leggings and sandals, and the long double locks of hair streaming down below their
armpits, identify them with the men of the frescoes of Mycenze, and of the Vaphio
and Knosian cups.
The truth is that these Syrian aud Phoenician theories are largely to be traced
to the inability to understand the extent to which the primitive inhabitants of the
Agean shores had been able to assimilate exotic arts without losing their own
individuality. The precocious offspring of our Continent, first come to man’s
estate in the A‘gean island world, had acquired cosmopolitan tastes, and already
stretched forth his hands to pluck the fruit of knowledge from Oriental boughs.
He had adopted foreign fashions of dress and ornament. Tis artists revelled in lion-
hunts and palm-trees, His very worship was infected by the creations of foreign
religions.
The great extent to which the Mycenzans had assimilated exotic arts and
ideas can only be understood when it is realised that this adaptive process had
begun at least a thousand years before, in the earlier period of AJgean culture.
New impulses from Egypt and Chaldza now succeed the old. The connexion
with Kighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasty Ezypt was of so intimate a kind that it
can only be explained by actual settlement from the Avgean side. The abundant
relics of ASgean ceramic manufactures found by Professor Petrie on Egyptian
sites fully bear out this presumption. The early marks on potsherds discovered
by that explorer seem to carry the connexion back to the earlier Aigean period,
but the painted pottery belongs to what may broadly be described as Mycenzean
times. ‘The earliest relics of this kind found in the rubbish heaps of Kahun,
though it can hardly be admitted that they go quite so far back as the Twelfth
Dynasty date assigned to them by Mr. Petrié (c. 2500 B.c.), yet correspond with the
earliest Mycenzean classes found at Thera and Tiryns, and seem to find their nearest:
parallels in pottery of the same character from the cave of Kamares on the northern
steep of the Cretan Ida, recently described by Mr. J. L. Myres and by Dr. Lucio
Mariani. Vases of the more typical Mycenzean class have been found by Mr. Petrie
in a series of deposits dated, from the associated Egyptian relics, from the reign
of Thothmes III. onwards (1450 B.c.), There is nothing Phoenician about these—
with their seaweeds and marine creatures they are the true products of the
island world of Greece. The counterpart to these Mycenzan imports in Egypt is
seen in the purely Egyptian designs which now invade the northern shores of
the Augean, such as the ceiling of the sepulchral chamber at Orchomenos, or the
wall-paintings of the palace at Tiryns—almost exact copies of the ceilings of the
‘Theban tombs—designs distinguished by the later Egyptian combination of the spiral
and plant ornament which at this period supersedes the pure returning spiral of the
earlier dynasties. The same contemporary evidence of date is seen in the scarabs
and porcelain fragments with the cartouches of Queen Tyi and Amenhotep IIL,
918 REPORT—1896.
found inthe Mycenzan deposits. But more than a mere commercial connexion
between the Aigean seat of Mycenzean culture and Egypt seems to be indicated by
some of the inlaid daggers from the Acropolis tombs. The subject of that repre-
senting the ichneumons hunting ducks amidst the lotos thickets beside a stream
that can only be the Nile, as much as the intarsia technique, is so purely of
Egypt that it can only have been executed by a Mycenzan artificer resident within
its borders. The whole cycle of Egyptian Nile-pieces thoroughly penetrated
Mycenzean art,—the duck-catcher in his Nile-boat, the water-fowl and butterflies
among the river plants, the spotted cows and calves, supplied fertile motives for
the Mycenzean goldsmiths and ceramic artists. The griffins of Mycene reproduce
an elegant creation of the New Empire, in which an influence from the Asiatic
side is also traceable.
The assimilation of Babylonian elements was equally extensive. It, too, as we
have seen, had begun in the earlier Aigean period, and the religious influence from
the Semitic side, of which traces are already seen in the assimilation of the more
primitive ‘idols’ to Eastern models, now forms a singular blend with the Egyptian,
as regards, at least, the externals of cult. We see priests, in long folding robes of
Asiatic cut, leading griffins, offering doves, holding axes of a type of Egyptian
derivation which seems to have been common to the Syrian coast, the Hittite
regions of Anatolia, and Mycenzean Greece. Female votaries in flounced Baby-
lonian dresses stand before seated Goddesses, rays suggesting those of Shamas
shoot from a Sun-God’s shoulders, conjoined figures of moon and star recall the
symbols of Sin and Istar, and the worship of a divine pair of male and female
divinities is widely traceable, reproducing the relations of a Semitic Bel and Beltis.
The cylinder subjects of Chaldean art continually assert themselves: A Mycenzean
hero steps into the place of Gilgames or Eabani, and renews their struggles with
wild beasts and demons in the same conventional attitudes, of which Christian art
has preserved a reminiscence in its early type of Daniel in the lions’ den. The
peculiar schemes resulting from, cr, at least, brought into continual prominence by
the special conditions of cylinder engraving, with the constant tendency to which
it is liable of the two ends of the design to overlap, deeply influenced the glyptic
style of Mycenz. Here, too, we see the same animals with crossed bodies, with
two bodies and a single head, or simply confronted. These latter affiliations to
Babylonian prototypes have a very important bearing on many later offshoots of
European culture. The tradition of these heraldic groups preserved by the later
Mycenzan art, and communicated by it to the so-called ‘ Oriental ’ style of Greece,
finds in another direction its unbroken continuity in ornamental products of the
Hallstatt province, and that of the late Celtic metal workers,
‘But this,’ exclaims a friendly critic, ‘is the old heresy—the “ Mirage
Orientale” overagain. Such heraldic combinations have originated independently
elsewhere :—why may they not be of indigenous origin in primitive Europe? ’
They certainly may be. Confronted figures occur already in the Dordogne
caves. But, in a variety of instances, the historic and geographical connexion of
these types with the Mycenan, and those in turn with the Oriental, is clearly
made out. That system which leaves the least call on human efforts at inventive-
ness seems in anthropology to be the safest.
Let us then fully acknowledge the indebtedness of early Aigean culture to the
older civilisations of the East. But thisindebtedness must not be allowed to obscure
the fact that what was borrowed was also assimilated. On the easternmost coast
of the Mediterranean, as in Egypt, it is not in a pauper’s guise that the Mycenzan
element makes its appearance. It is rather the mvasion of a conquering and
superior culture. It has already outstripped its instructors. In Cyprus, which had
lagged behind the A%gean peoples in the race of progress, the Mycenzan relics
make their appearance as imported objects of far superior fabric, side by side with
the rude insular products. The final engrafting on Cypriote soil of what may
be called a colonial plantation of Mycen later reacts on Assyrian art, and
justifies the bold theory of Professor Brunn that the sculptures of Nineveh betray
Greek handiwork. The concordant Hebrew tradition that the Philistines were
immigrants from the Islands of the Sea, the name ‘ Cherethim,’ or Cretans, actually
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 919
‘applied to them, and the religious ties which attached ‘Minoan’ Gaza to the cult
of the Cretan Zeus, are so many indications that the Avgean settlements, which in
all probability existed in the Delta, extended to the neighbouring coast of Canaan,
and that amongst other towns the great staple of the Red Sea trade bad passed
into the hands of these prehistoric Vikings. The influence of the Mycenzwans on
the later Phoenicians is abundantly illustrated in their eclectic art. The Cretan
evidence tends to show that even the origins of their alphabet receive illustration
from the earlier AXgean pictography. It is not the Mycenzans who are Pheeni-
cians. Itis the Phoenicians who, in many respects, acted as the depositaries of
decadent Mycenzean art.
If there is one thing more characteristic than another of Phoenician art, it is ite
borrowed nature, and its incongruous collocation of foreignelements. Dr. Helbig
himself admits that if Mycenzean art is to be regarded as the older Phcenician, the
Pheenician historically known to us must have changed his nature. What the
Mycenzans took they made theirown. They borrowed from the designs of Babylon-
ian cylinders, but they adapted them to gems and seals of their own fashion, and
rejected the cylinders themselves. The influence of Oriental religious types is
traceable on their signet rings, but the liveliness of treatment and the dramatic
action introduced into the groups separate them, toto celo, from the conventional
schematism of Babylonian cult-scenes, The older element, the sacred trees and
pillars which appear as the background of these scenes—on this I hope to say
more later on in this Section—there is no reason to regard here as Semitic. It
belongs to a religious stage widely represented on primitive European soil, and
nowhere more persistent than in the West.
Mycenzean culture was permeated by Oriental elements, but never subdued
‘by them. This independent quality would alone be sufficient to fix its original
birthplace in an area removed from immediate contiguity with that of the
older civilisations of Egypt and Babylonia. The Aigean island world answers
admirably to the conditions of the case. It is near, yet sufficiently removed,
combining maritime access with insular security. We see the difference if we
compare the civilisation of the Hittites of Anatolia and Northern Syria, in some
respects so closely parallel with that of Mycense. The native elements were there
cramped and trammelled from the beginning by the Oriental contact. No real
life and freedom of expression was ever reached ; the art is stiff, conventional,
becoming more and more Asiatic, till finally crushed out by Assyrian conquest.
It is the same with the Phcenicians. But in prehistoric Greece the indigenous
.element was able to hold its own, and to recast what it took from others in an
original mould. Throughout its handiwork there breathes the European spirit
of individuality and freedom. Professor Petrie’s discoveries at Tell-el-Amarna
show the contact of this Aigean element for a moment infusing naturalism and life
into the time-honoured conventionalities of Egypt itself.
A variety of evidence, moreover, tends to show that during the Mycenzan
period the earlier Aigean stock was reinforced by new race elements coming from
north and west. The appearance of the primitive fiddle-bow-shaped fibula or
safety-pin brings Mycenzan Greece into a suggestive relation with the Danube
Valley and the Terremare of Northern Italy. Certain ceramic forms show the
same affinities; and it may be noted that the peculiar ‘two-storied’ structure of
the ‘ Villanova’ type ef urn which characterises the earliest Iron Age deposits of
Italy finds already a close counterpart in a vessel from an Akropolis grave at
Mycenze—a parallelism which may point to a common Illyrian source. The
‘painted pottery of the Mycenzans itself, with its polychrome designs, betrays
Northern and Western affinities of a very early character, though the glaze and
exquisite technique were doubtless elaborated in the Augean shores. Examples of
»spiraliform painted designs on pottery going back to the borders of the Neolithic
“period have been found in Hungary and Bosnia. In the early rock-tombs of Sicily
‘of the period anterior to that marked by imported products of the fully developed
Mycenzan culture are found unglazed painted wares of considerable. brilliancy,
and allied classes recur in the heel of Italy and in the cave deposits of Liguria of
_ ‘the period transitional between the use of stone and metal. The ‘household gods,’
920 REPORT—1896.
if so we may call them, of the Mycenzans also break away from the tradition of
the marble Aigean forms. We recognise the coming to the fore again of primitive
Huropean clay types in a more advanced technique. Here, too, the range of
comparison takes us to the same Northern and Western area. Here, too, in Sicily
and Liguria, we see the primitive art of ceramic painting already applied to these
at the close of the Stone Age. A rude female clay figure found in the Arene
Candide cave near Finalmarina, the upper part of the body of which, armless
and rounded, is painted with brown stripes on a pale rose ground, seems to me to
stand in a closer relation to the prototype of a well-known Mycenzan class than
any known example, A small painted image, with punctuated cross-bands over
the breast, from a sepulchral grotto at Villafrati, near Palermo, belongs to the same
early family as the bucchero types of Butmir, in Bosnia. Unquestionable parallels
to the Mycenzean class have been found in early graves in Servia, of which an
example copied by me some years since in the museum at Belgrade was found near
the site of that later emporium of the Balkan trade, Viminacium, together with
a cup attesting the survival of the primitive %gean spirals. These extensive
Italian and Illyrian comparisons, which find, perhaps, their converging point in the
North-Western corner of the Balkan peninsula, show, at least approximately, the
direction from which this new European impulse reached the AJgean shores.
It is an alluring supposition that this North-Western infusion may connect itself
with the spread of the Greek race in the Avgean islands and the Southern part of
the Balkan peninsula. There seems, at least, to be a reasonable presumption in
favour of this view. The Mycenzean tradition, which underlies so much of the
classical Greek art, is alone sufficient to show that a Greek element was at least
included in the Mycenzean area of culture. Recent criticism has found in the
Mycenzean remains the best parallel to much of the early arts and industries
recorded by the Homeric poems. The megaron of the palaces at Tiryns and
Mycenz is the hall of Odysseus; the inlaid metal work of the shield of Achilles
recalls the Egypto-Mycenzan intarsia of the dagger blades ; the cup of Nestor with
the feeding doves, the subjects of the ornamental design—the siege-piece, the lion-
hunt, the hound with its quivering quarry—all find their parallels in the works of
the Mycenzan goldsmiths. The brilliant researches of Dr. Reichel may be said to
have resulted in the definite identification of the Homeric body-shield with the
most typical Mycenzan form, and have found in the same source the true expla-
nation of the greaves and other arms and accoutrements of the epic heroes.
That a Greek population shared in the civilisation of Mycenz cannot reasonably
be denied, but that is far from saying that this was necessarily the only element,
or even the dominant element. Archeological comparisons, the evidence of geo-
graphical names and consistent tradition, tend to show that a kindred race, repre-
sented later by the Phrygians on the Anatolian side, the race of Pelops and
Tantalos, the special votaries of Kybelé, played a leading part. In Crete a non-
Hellenic element, the Eteocretes, or ‘true Cretans,’ the race of Minés, whose name
is bound up with the earliest sea~empire of the Aigean and perhaps identical with
that of the Minyans of continental Greece, preserved their own language and
nationality to the borders of the classical period. The Labyrinth itself, the double-
headed axe as a symbol of the divinity called Zeus by the Greek settlers, the
common forms in the characters of the indigenous script, local names and historical
traditions, further connect these Mycenzan aborigines of Crete with the primitive
population, it, too, of European extraction, in Caria and Pisidia, and with the older
elements in Lycia.
It is difficult to exaggerate the part played in this widely ramifying Mycenzan
culture on later European arts from prehistoric times onwards. Beyond the limits
of its original seats, primitive Greece and its islands, and the colonial plantations
thrown out by it to the west coast of Asia Minor to Cyprus, and in all probability
to Egypt and the Syrian coast, we can trace the direct diffusion of Mycenz#an
products, notably the ceramic wares, across the Danube to Transylvania and
Moldavia. In the early cemeteries of the Caucasus the fibulas and other objects
indicate a late Mycenzean source, though they are here blended with allied elements
of a more Danubian character. The Mycenzan impress is very strong in Southern
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 921
Italy, and, to take a single instance, the prevailing sword-type of that region is of
Mycenzan origin. Along the western Adriatic coast the same influence is traceable
to a very late date in the sepulchral stele of Pesaro and the tympanum relief of
Bologna, and bronze knives of the prehistoric Greek type find their way into the
later Terremare. At Orvieto and elsewhere have even been discovered Mycenzean
lentoid gems. In Sicily the remarkable excavations of Professor Orsi have brought
to light a whole series of Mycenzan relics in the beehive rock-tombs of the south-
eastern coast, associated with the later class of Silkel fabrics.
Sardinia, whose name has with great probability been connected with the
Shardanas, who, with the Libyan and Algean races, appear as the early invaders of
Egypt, has already produced a Mycenean geld ornament. An unregarded fact
points further to the probability that it formed an important outpost of Mycenzan
culture. In 1853 General Lamarmora first printed a MS. account of Sardinian
antiquities, written in the latter years of the fifteenth century by a certain Gilj,
and accompanied by drawings made in 1497 by Johan Virde, of Sassari. Amongst
these latter (which include, it must be said, some gross falsifications) is a capital
and part of a shaft of a Mycenzean column in a style approaching that of the
facade of the ‘Treasury of Atreus.’ It seems to have been found at a place near
the Sardinian Olbia, and Virde has attached to it the almost prophetic description,
‘columna Pelasyica. That it is not a fabrication due to some traveller from
Greece is shown by a curious detail. Between the chevrons that adorn it are seen
rows of eight-rayed stars, a detail unknown to the Mycenzan architectural decora-
tion till it occurred on the painted base of the hearth in the megaron of the palace
at Mycenze excavated by the Greek Archeological Society in 1886. In this
neglected record, then, we have an indication of the former existence in Sardinia
of Mycenzean monuments, perhaps of palaces and royal tombs comparable to those
of Mycene itself.
More isolated Mycenzan relics have been found still further afield, in Spain,
and even the Auvergne, where Dr. Montelius has recognised an evidence of an old
trade connexion between the Rhone valley and the Eastern Mediterranean, in the
occurrence of two bronze double axes of ASgean form. It is impossible to do more
than indicate the influence exercised by the Mycenan arts on those of the early
Tron Age. Here it may be enough to cite the late Mycenzean parallels afforded by
the gina Treasure to the open-work groups cf bird-holding figures and the
pendant ornaments of a whole series of characteristic ornaments of the Italo-
Hallstatt culture.
In this connexion, what may be called a sub-Mycenzan survival in the North-
Western corner of the Balkan peninsula has a special interest for the Celtic West.
Among the relics obtained by the fruitful excavations conducted by the Austrian
archeologists in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and notably in the great prehistoric
cemetery of Glasinatz,a whole series of Early Iron Age types betray distinct
Mycenzan aflinities. The spiral motive and its degeneration—the concentric
circles grouped together with or without tangential lines of connexion—appear on
bronze torques, on fibulee of Mycenzan descent, and the typical finger-rings with
the besil at right angles to the ring. On the plates of other ‘spectacle fibule ’ are
seen triquetral scrolls singularly recalling the gold plates of the Akropolis graves
of Mycenz. These, as well as other parallel survivals of the spiral system in the
Late Bronze Age of the neighbouring Hungarian region, I have elsewhere ' ventured
to claim as the true source from which the Alpine Celts, together with many Italo-
Illyric elements from the old Venetian province at the head of the Adriatic, drew
the most salient features of their later style, known on the Continent as that of La
Téne. These Mycenzan survivals and Illyrian forms engrafted on the ‘ Hallstatt.’
stock were ultimately spread by the conquering Belgic tribes to our own islands, to
remain the root element of the Late Celtic style in Britain—where the older spiral
system had long since died a natural death—and in Ireland to live on to supply the
earliest decorative motives of its Christian art.
' Rhind Lectures, 1895, ‘On the Origins of Celtic Art,’ summaries of which
- appeared in the Scotsman.
1896. 30
922 REPORT—1896,
From a Twelfth Dynasty scarab to the book of Durrow or the font of Deerhurst
isa farcry. But, as it was said of old, ‘Many things may happen in a long time.’
We have not to deal with direct transmission per saltwm, but with gradual propa-
gation through intervening media. This brief survey of ‘ the Eastern Question in
Anthropology ’ will not have been made in vain if it helps to call attention to
the mighty part played by the early Aigean culture as the mediator between
primitive Europe and the older civilisations of Egypt and Babylonia. Adequate
recognition of the Eastern background of the European origins is not the ‘ Oriental
Mirage.’ The independent European element is not affected by its power of assimi-
lation. In the great days of Mycene we see it already as the equal, in many ways
the superior, of its teachers, victoriously reacting on the older countries from which
it had acquired so much, I may perhaps be pardoned if in these remarks, availing
myself of personal investigations, I have laid some stress on the part which Crete
has played in this first emancipation of the European genius. There far earlier
than elsewhere we can trace the vestiges of primeval intercourse with the valley
of the Nile. There more clearly than in any other area we can watch the con-
tinuous development of the germs which gave birth to the higher Agean culture.
There before the days of Phcenician contact a system of writing had already been
worked out which the Semite only carried one step further. To Crete the earliest
Greek tradition looks back as the home of divinely inspired legislation and the first
centre of maritime dominion.
Inhabited since the days of the first Greek settlements by the same race,
speaking the same language, and moved by the same independent impulses, Crete
stands forth again to-day as the champion of the European spirit against the
yoke of Asia.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Mental and Physical Condition of Children.
See Reports, p. 592.
2. Stone Implements in Somaliland. By H. W. Srron-Karr,
The author exhibited at Ipswich (‘ Proc. Brit. Assoc.,’ 1895, pp. 824-5) specimens
of Paleolithic implements collected in Somaliland (1893-4-5), mostly broad-
trimmed flakes of ‘le Moustier’ type. He has since (1895-6) revisited the country
with the special object of collecting such implements, and secured many hundreds
of them, ranging up to nine inches in length, during a journey of nineteen days, in
about 8° N. latitude, and 1,000-2,000 feet above Red Sea level. They are some-
times eroded even to a depth of +4, inch; the eroded areas have a chalcedonic ap-
pearance, and the chipping is only preserved on the raised patches.
These are the first Palzeoliths from this part of tropical Africa. ‘They seem
to be scattered all over the country, and to have been washed out of sandy or
loamy deposits by the action of rain, or in some instances to have been laid bare
by the wind. Their great interest consists in the identity of their forms with
those found in the Pleistocene deposits of W. Europe and elsewhere. . . . Under
any circumstances this discovery aids in bridging over the interval between Palzo-
lithic man in Britain and in India, and adds another link to the chain of evidence
by which the original cradle of the human race may eventually be identified, and
tends to prove the unity of race between the inhabitants of Asia, Africa,
and Europe in prehistoric times.’ (Sir John Evans, ‘Communication to the Royal
Society,’ April 27, 1896.)
On the way home the author stayed some days on the Upper Nile, and found
implements, perhaps Paleolithic, on the undisturbed surface of the Egyptian
desert plateau.
The author calls attention to the fact that in the later Paleolithic age the
glacial cold may have driven Paleolithic man towards the equator; and that
although hitherto more Paleolithic implements have been found in well-searched
.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EH. 923
temperate than in unexplored tropical regions, yet that under more favourable
conditions more Paleolithic implements were found in Somaliland than in Egypt,
and in Egypt than in Europe. He infers that Africa may have been the prim-
eval home of man, and notes the fact that Somaliland is about midway between
the sources of the Nile and the Persian Gulf, two sites which have been suggested
for the ‘Garden of Eden.’
[Cf. Besides the references given above :—
Spron-Karr, Jowr. Anthr. Inst., No. 94, p. 271, ff. Pl. xix.-xxi.; No. 96. p. 65 ff.
FLInDuRs Pereig, Lilahun, p. 51, Tell-el-Amarna, p. 37 ; Koptos (forthcoming).
Archeological Journal, xlix. p. 49 (Egyptian Flints of the Fourth Dynasty), and
p. 53 (Early Sickles in Egypt).
DL’ Anthropologie, vol. vi. No. 4.]
3. The Older Flint Implements of Ireland. By W. J. Kxrow.es, WRIA.
Locality.—Large rudely made implements have been observed by the author
in a raised beach of sand and gravel on the N.E. coast of Ireland. Good sections
occur at the Curran near Larne, along the harbour railway, &c. Cores and imple-
ments occur at all depths to 16 ft. to 20 ft. in the gravel, and even in the estuarine clay,
below sea level, at 28 ft. (in a shaft cut for the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club).
Similar implements are found in débris from this gravel on the shores of Belfast,
Lough, Larne, and Island Magee.”
Weathering.—The implements have a thick deeply stained crust, and have
undergone protracted weathering and rolling. This weathering results from
atmospheric exposure; for flints from peat bogs and boulder clay retain their
broken surfaces fresh. Successive layers of weathering seem to indicate repeated
arrest of the process, ¢.e. repeated burial. Neolithic implements very rarely have
any such weathered surface crust, and those actually found on this raised beach
show no signs of it.
At Ballyrudder, seven miles north of Larne, a glacial gravel with shells, over-
lain by 30 ft. of boulder clay, yield flints fresh, slightly and deeply weather-
stained.
At Whitepark Bay, co. Antrim, neolithic settlers have carried away, to sites
among the sandhills, the weathered cores and flakes from the raised beach, and
worked them up into fresh implements, which still show the older flaked surfaces.
Their new surfaces, however, are still fresh.*
Similar old cores and flakes in a reworked condition have been found by the
author at Portstewart, co. Derry; Dundrum, co. Down; Glenluce, Scotland ; and
elsewhere.
Forms.—tThree types of implement found, besides flakes :—
1. Chipped all over; usually triangular in section, with a blunt point at each
end.
2. Split pebbles (a) chipped to a point, (6) dressed to a circular shape as
knives or scrapers.
3. Partially and irregularly dressed to a pear shape, with extreme economy of
labour ; but certainly intended, in the author's opinion, as striking weapons.
Age.—The raised beach has yielded a mammoth tooth; and as, according to
Professor Boyd Dawkins,‘ it is highly probable the mammoth is preglacial in
Ireland, the associated implements may be so too. Some bear strise which haye
been pronounced to be glacial.
1 Annual Report, 1889-90, p. 205. The Clubs’ Committee call the objects found
in the estuarine clay ‘flint-chips,’ bearing a considerable resemblance to flakes.
2 Proceedings Royal Trish Academy, 2nd series, vol. ii., No.5. Polite Lit. and
Antigq. p. 209.‘ Belfast Nat. Field Club Report,’ 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 541.
— § Journal Royal Historical and Archeological Association, vol. vii. pp. 124-125.
4 Karly Man in Britain, p. 152.
302
924 REPORT—1896.
4, The Dolmens of Brittany. By Professor W. A. Herpman, 7.2.S.,
and Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, ’.2.S.
5. The Sculptured Stones of Scotland. By Miss C. Mactacan.
The followizg classes of sculptured stones were described in outline :—
1. § Cup and Ring’ markings: engraved probably with stone tools in the later
Stone Age on ice-worn and other rock surfaces; common in the Cheviot Hills ;
occasionally found inside Brochs ; not confined to Scotland. The authoress believes
that they were used for purposes of divination.
2. Symbolic or Hieroglyphic sculpture: worked with metal tools; peculiar to
Scotland.
3. Ogham inscriptions: the earliest indigenous alphabetic script.
4, Runic inscriptions: the characters of which are modified from the Roman
alphabet.
5. Christian monumental art: represented by the schools of St. Minian, of
Iona, of Arbroath, of St. Andrews, and of Fearn Abbey. In the East its rise is
evadual; the stones are large, upright, carved on both sides, one of which has
always a cruciform scheme. Ships are not represented, but riding, hunting, and
frequently fighting with crossbows and spears. ‘There are no inscriptions, but
symbolic devices occur. In the West the sword is more frequent than the cross,
and the latter is always small. Ships and short inscriptions are frequent, but
symbols are absent.’
6. The ‘ Brochs’ of Scotland (with Model). By Miss C. Mactacan.
The ‘ Brochs’ are buildings of rough masonry, with a circular enclosure open
to the sky, and sometimes surrounded by a portico akout 8 feet from the ground.
The height varies from 30 feet to 45 feet, and the diameter in proportion. The
encircling wall, which is often built hollow, is from 9 feet to 20 feet thick. The
entrance is by a doorway in the outer wall, closed by a massive doorstone never
more than 2} feet wide, and therefore not intended to admit long-horned cattle, as
has been supposed. The door is secured by a stone bolt, and could not be opened
or closed from without; therefore the brochs cannot be sepulchres. Secondary
chambers in the thickness of the wall, reached by a spiral staircase similarly con-
structed, and opening by windows into the inner court, seem to indicate that the
brochs were fortified dwellings. There is sometimes a doorkeeper’s chamber below,
and often a look-out opening in the top of the wall. These structures are often
surrounded by a fortified enclosure of large stones set vertically, which have been
mistaken for ‘ Druidic’ circles.
7. Ancient Measures in Prehistoric Monuments.”
By A. L. Lewis, £.C.A., Treasurer, Anthropological Institute.
The author, having analysed the measurements of the ruins in Mashonaland
given by Messrs. Bent and Swan, and the indications of sun and star worship or
observance contained in them, finds many instances of peculiarities of position and
1 300 sheets of rubbings, by Miss Maclagan, are in the MS. Department of the
British Museum.
2 Lewis, Proc. Soc. Antiq., April 28, 1892; Journ. Anthr. Inst., Aug. 1895; Proc.
Shropshire Archaeol. Suc., 1892; Jown. Roy. Inst. Cornwall, 1896; Nature, June 9,
1892; W. M. Flinders Petrie, Znductive Metrology, London, 1877; J. T. Bent, The
Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, London, 1893 ; R. W. M. Swan, The Orientation and
Mensuration of the Zimbabwe Temples (in the last-named work); ‘Some Notes on
Ruined Temples in Mashonaland,’ Journ. Anthr. Inst., August 1896; C, W. Dymond,
‘The Megalithic Antiquities of Stanton Drew,’ 1896 (privately printed, cf. Journ.
Brit. Arch@ol. Assoc., XXxiii., 1877, pp. 297-307).
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 925
measurement in connection with British stone circles which he believes to be the
game in principle and often in detail. The measurements of the circles at Stanton
Drew by Mr. Dymond, and of those on Bodmin Moor by the author, show that
there was in all the same fundamental idea of expressing something by propor-
tioned measurements, although the unit of measurement and the manner of using
it were different in each case. It may therefore be contended that, though the
circles were sometimes used for burials, they were not, as some haye suggested, merely
the outer railings of family cemeteries, but had other objects and meanings, which
it is worth some pains to discover.
8. Paleolithic Spear- and Arrow-heads. By H. Stopes.
From the terrace gravels of the lower Thames Valley a large number of
worked stones have been obtained. Of these some closely resemble in size and
shape spear heads and arrow tips, and they also present signs of wear or use that
indicate similar employment. The number exhibited was :—
No.
1. Very small tips not exceeding 1} in. in length : : 110
2. Larger and thicker points not exceeding 2 ins. in length 150
3. Still larger and thicker pointsnot exceeding 3} ins. in length 64
4, Very large points exceeding 3} ins. by 12 in. wide to
53 ins. by 23 ins... é : 4 4 : ; 28
352
These represent two per cent. of the total number found, so their occurrence is not
rare.
9. Palewoliths Derived and Re-worked. By H. Stopss.
Great numbers of worked stones are being continually found in the terrace
gravels of the Lower Thames Valley. The worked surfaces of the majority of
these implements are of the same date as the latest deposition of the gravel, but a
considerable number give unmistakable evidence that they have been derived from
older gravels, so that their more recent fashioners and users have utilised stones
which already had attained great antiquity. Some, nevertheless, still show that
they had been skilfully fashioned into form, and had been largely used by man
once, or, in rarer cases, twice before. Highty such stones were exhibited, which is
less than two per cent. of the number obtained from the gravels of the Kentish
shore, all at or above the level of 70 feet above O.D. Commonly abcut one worked
stone in seven found in this position gives signs of reworking, but the proportion
of such stones is largest in the higher terraces.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. The Centenary of the Birth of A. Rerzius was commemorated.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
2. Physical Anthropology of the Isle of Man. By A. W. Moorr, V.A.,
and JouN Breppor, ID., F.R.S.
This Paper consists mainly of an analysis by Mr. Moore of the ‘ Description
- Book of the Royal Manx Fencibles,’ in which are contained particulars of 1,112
native Manxmen, enrolled between 1803 and 1810, Their average stature was
926 REPORT—1896.
5 feet 7°52 inches (1,715 mm.), which is probably about equal to that of the general
population of the Isle of Man. It seems to be highest in the north-western
parishes, where also dark hair and dark eyes are least prevalent. Dark hair,
usually coupled with grey eyes, is most abundant in the somewhat rough and in-
fertile parishes of Maughold and Lonan; while dark eyes are comparatively fre-
quent in the central parishes, which contain the two towns of Douglas and Peel,
where the Scandio-Gaelic stock is probably less pure.
3. The Trinil Femur (Pithecanthropus erectus) contrasted with the Femora
of various Savage and Civilised Races. Ly Davip Hepsurn, J.D.,
LRS. Ed., Lecturer on Regional Anatomy in the University of
Edinburgh.
In this paper the Trini femur was criticised from the standpoint claimed for
it by Dr. Dubois, namely, that it presents a conjunction of three features not
found on human femora :
1. ¢ The trochanteric line is less raised.’
2. ‘The shaft is on the inner side far more round.’
3. ‘The popliteal space is less developed, convex in its middle, so that at this
height the shaft is almost round instead of flattened.’
According to Dr. Dubois this last feature has never been found by him ‘in
human femora, even separately.’
Dealing especially with the popliteal space, the author presented the results of
a detailed examination of the varied collection of human femora in the Anatomical
Museum of the University of Edinburgh, in which he followed the methods of
enquiry adopted by Professor Manouyrier, of Paris.
The femora examined in this research were: 13 Maori, 14 Aboriginal
Australian, 12 Andamanese, 5 Sandwich Islands, 4 Lapp, 4 Eskimo, 6 Hindu,
2 Bengalee, 2 Sikh, 2 Malay, 2 Chinese, 2 Bushman, 2 Kaffir, 9 Negro, 2 Creole,
1 Egyptian, 3 Guanche, and several dozens of British femora obtained from the
dissecting-room and used for the ordinary purposes of anatomical teaching.
As the majority of these race femora formed natural pairs, attention was drawn
to the absence of symmetry existing between the two femora of the same
individual.
Reference was made to the signification of the antero-posterior diameters of the
popliteal region which Professor Manouvrier has symbolised as ‘mn’ and ‘ mp,’
and attention drawn to the fact that ‘mp’>‘mn’ implies either flattening or con-
vexity of this surface, which in modern European femora tends to show concavity,
and therefore ‘mp ’<‘ mn.’
The author has found ‘mp’>‘ mn’ in the following femora: Lapp 1, Eskimo 1,
Maori 1, Hindu 2, Negro 3, Bushman 2, Andaman 5, Aboriginal Australian 4,
Guanche 2, British 4.
Measurements and indices of these femora were given and their significance
commented upon, in the course of which the factors concerned in producing a high
popliteal index: were criticised and their fallacies pointed out.
In an Australian femur from Swan Hill, N.S.W., the same popliteal measure-
ments and zvdez as given for the Trinil femur were obtained.
The differences in the popliteal indices of the two femora forming a natural
pair were given and commented upon, in order to show that the appearances found
in one bone form no certain guide to the state of its fellow.
The author therefore claims convexity of the popliteal surface of the femur as a
human character, and, moreover, he has seen the condition of the anterior intertro-
chanteric line, and the convexity of the inner aspect of the femoral shaft conjoined
on one bone, as in the Trinil femur, c.g. in Australian and Negro femora.
In endeavouring to explain the causes of convexity of the popliteal surface the
author divided them into normal and pathological groups.
In the former he referred to mechanical needs for resisting strain, and to the
special features resulting from muscular and aponeurotic attachments,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 927
The pathological causation of convexity of the popliteal surface being admis-
sible by reason of the exostoses shown by the Trinil femur, the author drew
attention to the influence of rachitis in producing convexity of the popliteal
surface.
Finally, special reference was made to the condyles of the Trinil femur, which are
human and not simian in type.
The author arrives at the following conclusions :—
1. The distinguishing features of the Trinil femur are found both singly and
in conjunction on human femora, with sufficient frequency to enable them to rank
as human characters.
2. The features of the Trinil femur do not entitle it to the distinction of a sepa-
rate genus, but it is a human femur which, from the geological horizon connected
with its discovery, associates the genus Homo with a period immensely more
remote than any former discovery of man’s remains.
Reasoning from the above conclusions, with regard to the femur, either the
skull-cap and the molar teeth discovered by Dr. Dubois were also parts of a
human being, or it has yet to be proved that they really formed parts of the
individual who provided the femur.
[Dupors. ‘'Trans. Roy. Soc. Dub.’ i. 1896.
MANOUVRIER. Deuwiime Etude sur le ‘P. erectus, Sc., ‘Bull. Soc. Anthrop. de
Paris,’ tom. vi. 1896, fasc. v (4° série).
HEPBURN. The Comparative Anatomy of the Muscles and Nerves of the Superior
and Inferior Extremities of the Anthropoid Apes, ‘Journ. Anat. and Phys.’ vol. xxvi.
p. 333.]
4. Proportions of the Human Body. By J. G. Garson, ILD.
The author began by giving a short historical outline of the study of the canon
of proportion of the human body from the time of the Ancient Egyptians to the
present. The Egyptian canon showed that the models from whom it was made
out were negroes. The Greeks appear to have adopted that of the Egyptians.
The canon of modern artists is essentially an ideal one, apt to vary as opinions
change. The first real attempt at a scientific canon was that of Quetelet; it was,
however, based upon too small a number of observations. The canon which has
been published by Professor Topinard of Paris is much more reliable. As a
number of circumstances would appear to modify the proportions of the people of
different countries, such as the race elements of which a nation is composed, the
social condition of the models, climatic conditions, &c., the author considered that
no better data could be obtained for establishing the true canon of the people of
Great Britain than the measurements which were made in the anthropometric
laboratory of the British Association on its members during seven successive
meetings, the models being persons living under the most favourable conditions of
life. The method of obtaining the mean dimensions of each measurement, so as to
eliminate causes of error, was explained. The mean stature thus obtained is
5 ft. 72in. This being taken as 100, the proportions of the various parts of the
head and face, as well as the trunk and limbs, were shown expressed in per-
centages. The head is 12°6 per cent., the neck and truuk 40, the lower limbs 47°5,
the arm 43:1, the span 102'5. The canon of the head and of the span indicated,
differ considerably from that of artists.
The paper will be published in full in the Journal of the Anthropological
Institute.
5. Some Pagan Survivals. By F. T, Etworruy.
928 REPORT—1896.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Reports and Papers were read :-—
1. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 607.
2. Kent in Relation to the Ethnographical Survey.
By BE. W. Brasroor, F.S.A.
[Published in full in the ‘ Archeological Journal, 1896, liii., pp. 215-234.]
3. An Imperial Bureau of Ethnology. By C. Hs Reap, Sec. S.A.,
Keeper of the Ethnographical Department of the British Museum.
The author proposed the establishment of a bureau in London, in which should
be gathered information relating to the manners and customs, religious beliefs, and
laws of all the primitive races inhabiting the British Colonies, or upon the borders
of the Empire. He strongly urged that it was not only the duty of the Govern-
ment to place on record such fects connected with races that were in a condition
either of decay or of constant change, but that it would be to the interest of the
nation to have such information at hand. He contended that the possession of
such facts would enable the settler or traveller to avoid many misunderstandings
with natives that are now so prolific a cause of disaster. A valid reason for the
prompt establishment of such a bureau is, in Mr. Read’s opinion, that the
raachinery for the collection of the necessary data already exists ; that such officers
as those of the Intelligence branch of the War Office, the surgeons in the navy,
and many others, are quite competent to furnish such returns as are required by
the bureau ; and if they obtained credit at home for intelligence in this direction,
many men of these branches of the service would be very ready to spend their
leisure in such pursuits. Thus only a small staff at home would be required for
arranging and editing the material. Mr. Read spoke in the highest terms of the
work done by the United States Bureau of Ethnology which the government of
that country had thought it worth while to establish and endow for the preserva-
tion of memorials of a single race—that of the American Continent.
4. Anthropological Opportunities in British New Guinea.
By Stpney H. Ray.
The purpose of the author was to reaffirm the danger of delay in commencing an
investigation of the Anthropology of British New Guinea, and to call attention to
the opportunities which exist at the present time for successfully carrying out a
system of ethnographical and philological enquiry. If anything is to be done, it
should be done soon. Already there are signs of change, customs and languages
are dying out before the advance of civilisation. Stress is laid upon languages as
folk-lore, religious beliefs, and practices, and legal customs can only be thoroughly
studied through the medium of the languages. We want to know the native’s reason
for his thought and practice. An European observer will make his observations
from his own standpoint, and, without a knowledge of inner motives, will often
draw the most erroneous conclusions from native practices. The opportunity
besides being in time is also fortunate in circumstances. The country is singularly
quiet and safe for Europeans. Sir William MacGregor says: ‘In gaining the
confidence and respect of the natives the Government has been more successful
than could ever have been expected. They begin to think in may places that
whatever is ordered or required by the Government is right. ‘hey fear the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 929
Government greatly.’ Other advantages are the facilities which would doubtless
be afforded by the New Guinea Government. It is fortunate for anthropological
science that the affairs of the Possession are in the hands of so enlightened an
administrator as Sir William MacGregor. Lastly, the cost would not be exces-
sive.
5. Interim Report on the Immediate Investigation of Oceanic Islands.
See Reports, p. 487.
6. On a Method of Determining the Value of Folk-lore as Ethnological
Data, illustrated by Survivals of Fire-worship in the British Isles.
By G. LAURENCE GoMME.
Appendix to Ethnographical Survey Report.—See Reports, p. 626.
7. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada.
See Reports, p. 569.
8. The Coast Indians of British Columbia. By Professor E. ODLUM.
9. The Growth of Agriculture i Greece and Italy, and its Influence
on Early Civilisation. By Rev. G. Harrwett Jonss, M.A.
10. Report on the North Dravidian and Kolarian Races of India.
See Reports, p. 659.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. Cyprus and the Trade Routes of S.E. Europe.
By Joun L. Myrss, IZA., FSA. ,
Several considerations indicate that Cyprus may have been the first centre of
copper-working in the Mediterranean, and that the knowledge of copper in Europe
was probably derived hence, vid Asia Minor, Hissarlik and the Dardanelles, and
the valley routes of the Hebros, Morawa and Danube.
1. Copper is found abundantly and accessibly in Cyprus; but is not here asso-
ciated with tin. Cyprus had in early times abundant supplies of timber, in fact
all the necessaries for an extensive and easy manufacture. There is, however, no
native copper, which corresponds with the fact that the early implements in Cyprus
appear to be usually cast.
2. The Copper Age in Cyprus seems to overlap the Stone Age of the Levant.
3. The persistence of early types in Cyprus would be inexplicable if Cyprus
had been importing implements from the more progressive areas of the Augean and
the Danube basin. The late arrival in Cyprus of both tin and amber confirms this
supposition. The view that copper implements are simply bronze weapons made
during a scarcity of tin fails to account for the predominance of primitive types
among the pure copper weapons.
4, Cypriote types determine those of the neighbouring mainland, and of the
930 REPORT—1896.
earliest implements of Hissarlik and Central Europe ; though local industries soon
arise in Central Europe, and outstrip the parent industry.
5. The Bronze Age pottery of Cyprus is followed in fabric and ornament, and
to some extent in forms, by the pottery of Hissarlik and Central Europe at the
point where copper implements first appear. As this Cypriote pottery itself does
not seem to have been exported northward, the knowledge of the fabric must have
been introduced in connection with some other object of commerce, presumably
with the copper.
6. The fully-developed Copper Age in Cyprus can be dated by objects of
Egyptian twelfth-dynasty styles ; and the beginnings of copper-working in Cyprus
must consequently be earlier.
7. The early existence of a trade route between south-west Asia Minor and the
Danube valley is indicated by the catalogue of the allies of Troy in Homer’s
liad II. The Trojan War may represent an attempt on the part of the Aigean
thalassocracy to force a way into the Euxine, and obtain possession of the fortress
which commanded the ferry on the older land route.1
2. The Transition from Pure Copper to Bronze made with Tin.
By Dr. J. H. Guapstone, /.R.S.
This communication was supplementary to a paper read at the Meeting at
Nottingham three years ago, and to matters published in the Proceedings of the
Society of Biblical Archeology for March 1890, February 1892, and February
1894. The new matter consisted mainly of the analysis of some metal tools
obtained by the author last winter in Egypt, and of borings of implements of the
supposed Libyan race found at Nagada, and of a dagger-lmife from Cyprus, which
had been given him by Mr. Arthur Evans. '
The use of copper in Egypt can be traced from the fourth dynasty, when
King Seneferu captured the copper and turquoise mines of the Sinaitic peninsula.
Tools made of this metal have been found not only in Egypt, belonging to the
fourth, sixth, and twelfth dynasties, but also in Assyria, at Lachish in Palestine,
Hissarlik in Asia Minor, and Nagada, Attempts were made to render this copper
harder and stronger, and that in three ways. First, the admixture of a large
quantity of suboxide of copper, or of its formation in the process of smelting, as
seen in adzes from Egypt and Palestine, and perhaps Nagada. Second, the
presence of a little arsenic or antimony, as shown in many tools from Kahun
dating from the twelfth dynasty, and from the Sinaitic mines, as shown in a com-
munication to the French Academy by Berthelot a few weeks since. Third, the
admixture of a little tin, as at Kahun, the Sinaitic mines, and Cyprus, perhaps not
exceeding one per cent. When, however, the superiority of tin, as the hardening
material, came to be acknowledged, it was added in larger quantities, and formed
the alloy known as bronze. Such proportions as four and six per cent. occur in
early specimens, as at Hissarlik; but subsequently about ten per cent. was usually
employed. Tools of this composition are found not only in Egypt during the
eighteenth dynasty, but in most countries, and for an immense variety of purposes.
This indicates a large traffic in the metals, and probably in the manufactured
tools themselves. The similarity of pattern observed in the instruments is also
suggestive of the latter hypothesis.
3. Hallstatt and the Starting-point of the Iron Age in Europe.
Ly Professor W. Ripceway, JA.
The origin of the Iron Age is one of the most important points in European
archeology. Scandinavia cannot be its place of origin, for there the Iron Age
1 Cf. Much, Kupferzeit in Europa, Wien (2nd ed.), 1893; Virchow, Zitschr. d.
Anthr. Gesellsch. xii. p. 73 ; Naue, ‘ Die Bronzezeit auf Cypern,’ Korresp.-Blatt, 1888,
p. 124; Myres, ‘Early Man in the Eastern Mediterranean,’ Science Progress, July
1896. Myres & Ohnefalsch Richter, Cyprus Museum Catalogue, Oxford, 1896,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 931
began late. It is admitted that the Iron Age comes in per sa/twm in Swiss lake
dwellings, in Italy, in Greece, in France, and in Britain. Iron is found going with
the Kelts into these various regions.
Hallstatt, in Austria, is the only place in Europe where articles of iron are
found gradually replacing those of the same kind made in bronze. It has not been
hitherto pointed out that within avery short distance of the Hallstatt cemetery
lies one of the most famous iron mines of antiquity. Strabo (v.i. 8) tells us
of the ironworks of Noreia, the chief town of the Keltic Taurisci, which gave its
name to Noricum, and to the Noricus ensis so dreaded by the Romans.
From this centre the use of iron spread into Italy, Switzerland, Gaul, Spain,
Greece, and into Eastern Germany, where the mining of iron by the Keltic
Cotini is mentioned by Tacitus (Germ. 43).
At many places in the Alps it is possible that there may have been outcrops of
terrestrial iron. Men would thus find ready to hand sources of iron, and there is
no need to suppose that meteorites first supplied him with that metal.
4, The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy.‘ By Dr. OscAR MonreELIvs.
The author brings a great variety of evidence in support of the following con-
clusions :—
1. That the Oriental civilisation long before 1500 B.c. was brought over to the
Greek coasts and isles.
2. That during this so-called Mycenean period an influence can also be traced
in Greece from the Phcenicians and from Egypt.
3. But that the main influence came from Asia Minor.
4, That it was due to the immigration of peoples from this part of Asia.
5. That these are the peoples generally called Pelasgi or Tyrrhenians by the
Greek authors.
6. That the Oriental civilisation advanced farther to the West, and was intro-
duced in the eleventh century B.c. into that part of Central Italy which the
Romans called Etruria and the Greeks Tyrrhenta.
7. That it was due, there also, to the immigration of a people of Oriental origin,
the Tyrrhenians, coming from over the sea, not over the Alps. This people was
consequently a non-Italian one. The question is reserved whether it was of
Aryan race or not.
5. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury.—See Reports, p. 656.
6. Sergi’s Theory of a Mediterranean Race. By J. L. Myrus, ILA.
7. Boat Graves in Sweden. By Dr. H. STOuPE.
8. Notes on a Prehistoric Settlement in Co. Kerry.”
By R. A. S. Macauister, JA.
The Barony of Corkaguiney, co. Kerry, is remarkable for the number and
interest of its antiquities; and foremost among these must be placed a settlement
of stone-built dwellings at its south-west corner, between Dunmore Head and
Ventry Harbour. These consist of beehive-shaped houses—single, double, and
triple, some alone, some congregated together, and surrounded by a strong enclosing
' The Paper will be published in full in Journ. Anthr. Inst., Feb. 1897.
2 To be published in full in a forthcoming work on the Barony of Corkaguiney.
932 REPORT—1896.
wall, In the modern village of Conmeenoole, at the western end of the settle-
ment, the ancient style of building is perpetuated in some of the cow-houses.
The most remarkable building is Dunbeg Fort, a great wall 22 feet thick, cutting
off a tongue of land which projects into the sea, and on which is built one of the
finest of the domestic buildings. The whole settlement has suffered by recent
restorations.
Though the settlement is not unlike the monastic remains of the west of Ireland
in some respects, it is in others widely different from them, especially in size, in
the absence of any distinctly ecclesiastical building contemporary with the rest,
and in the prevalence of multiple clochans or houses. The fact that a stone was
found in Caher Glengaun, used as building material, which bears Christian
symbols, proves nothing but that this particular building probably dates from the
Pagan-Christian overlap. On the other hand, an Ogham inscription on Dunmore
Head, which is entirely destitute of any trace of Christian influence, and which
probably commemorates some notable resident in the settlement, seems to put the
latter back to Pagan times. The person commemorated was a descendant of
Duibne, the ancestress of the clan from whom the Barony of Corkaguiney is
named,
The people were agricultural, and open to the attacks of enemies, especially
from Ventry ; this is evident from an examination of the remains. A great battle
was at some time fought at Ventry; the historical facts are obscured by fictitious
accretions, but the site is still in existence, showing some remarkable earthworks.
The conclusion to be drawn from these remains is, that Ptolemy and other
ancient geographers were right in asserting the existence of towns, z.e. centres of
a concentrated population, in ancient Ireland, and that archeologists have been
wrong in denying their existence. Other places might be mentioned where the
magnitude of the remains proves the former existence of such centres, but their
habitations in these places not being of stone, have all perished.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER, 29.
The three following Papers were read as contributions to a discussion on the
‘Karly Civilisation of the Mediterranean.
1. ‘ Who Produced the Objects called Mykenean?’! By Prof. W. RipGEeway.
The discovery of Mylkenzean remains in various parts of the Greek world out-
side of Peloponnese, such as Attica, Thessaly, Crete, Cyprus, Rhodes, Egypt, Asia
Minor, Italy and Sicily, makes it desirable to re-examine the question of the origin
of these remains. In Peloponnese and Crete we are fairly limited to the same
possibilities of race. For in Peloponnesos either the Greeks of classical times, or
the Achzans of the Homeric Age, or the older race, who preceded the Achzans,
and who, according to the consensus of Greek history, continued to occupy Arcadia
in historical times, must be the producers of the objects termed Mykenzan.
Homer enumerates” the races which occupied Crete—viz., Eteocretes, Kydonians,
Achveans, Dorians, and Pelasgians. As there is no evidence that the first two ever
played any important part in Peloponnese, they may be jetisoned, and the claim for
precedency must be fought out by the same three as in Peloponnese.
1. Busolt and others put forth a claim for the Dorians as the builders of My-
ken and Tiryns, but as this not only gives the lie direct to all Greek history, but
also makes the Dorians build the walls of Tiryns, and create beautiful works of
art—though in historical times they were notoriously incapable in building and
’ Printed in full in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. (1896), pp. 77 ff.
2 Od. xix. 175.
—s
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 933
art—we may leave them aside. As, moreover, Attica, which was not conquered
by the Dorians, shows Mykenzean remains, we may boldly reject the Dorian claim.
2, It then rests between Achzeans and the older race, who were called Pelas-
gians by the Greeks. Homer gives us a picture of a culture which Schliemana
and Helbig (till lately), followed by most scholars, have sought to identify with
that of Mykenze. This involves many difficulties: (1) The age of Mykenee is that
of Bronze; that of Homer's Achieans is distinctly of Iron. (2) Engraved gems are
characteristic of Mykenze, but such engraved gems, used either as signets or as
ornaments, are unknown to Homer. (3) No fibude have been found in the Acropolis
of Mykenze, but Homer’s Achieans use them to keep on their dress. (4) The My-
kenzans were skilled in painting, but when Ilomer mentions it he speaks of it as
‘Carian’ art. (5) The Mykenwans had a peculiar oblong shield, like the figure 8 ;
they had no breastplate, no greaves of metal, and wore their hair in three locks
behind ; whilst the Achzans had round shields, bronze breastplates and greaves,
and wore their hair flowing.
To obviate such difficulties Reichel,' followed by Leaf, would make wholesale
excision of passages which describe Achzean warriors as armed with round shields,
breastplates, and greaves. But such passages cannot he ‘late, even though
later than some other parts of the poems; for if interpolation had been practised
in late times, we should have the use of coined money, signets, and alphabetic
writing, colonies in Asia Minor and Italy, and Dorians in Peloponnese, alluded to as
they are by the tragic poets when they treat of the Heroic Age.
3. The Greelis themselves thought that Mykene and Tiryns were built before
the Achveans entered Peloponnese, and by the Pelasgians. The Greek historians
declared that Attica was never inhabited by any other race than the Pelasgians,
and as Mykenzean remains have been found in abundancein Attica, the conclusion
is that it was the same race who made similar monuments in Peloponnese.
There is no need to cut Homer to pieces to fit the Mykenean Age. The
Acheans came into Peloponnese marrying the heiresses of the kings of the older
race—e.g., Menelaos married the daughter of Tyndaros.
The Mykenzean culture is that of the Bronze period, which was supplanted by
the Iron Age, which was introduced by the Achzans into Greece.
2. Preclassical Chronology in Italy and Greece.”
By Dr. Oscar Monve.ivs.
For chronological purposes, Italy and Greece must be taken together, because
their early culture has a large common element, and because whereas Greek
evidence supplies the more accurate date-marks, Italy affords a vastly larger mass
of material hitherto, owing to the more scientific manner in which the content of
each tomb has been registered in recent Italian excavations.
The author’s examination of the extant evidence enables him to construct a
relative chronology of short intervals, which divides the Bronze Age into seven
periods, and the lron Age in Central Italy, down to the end of the VIth century,
B.C., into stv’ more.
During the Bronze Age the evolution was the same in Northern and in
Central Italy; but from the beginning of the Iron Age the development in
Etruria, south of the Apennines, is quite distinct from that in Northern Italy.
The typological analysis shows evolution within each period; the periods them-
selves, therefore, must have been of considerable length, each period of the Iron
Age in Central Italy being of the approximate length of a century
The absolute chronology is fixed by the occurrence of a series of exactly
dateable objects imported from Greece in the eighth to fifth centuries B.c., and
associated in Italian tombs with objects characteristic of successive periods in the
lower part of the series. The result of the Author’s analysis is to raise to the
ninth century B.c. certain tombs (the Regulini-Galassi tomb at Cervetri, &c.) com-
' Homerische Waffen. Wien, 1895.
2 The Paper will be published in full in Journ. Anthr. Inst., Feb. 1897.
934 REPORT—1896.
monly assigned to the time about 600 3.c., and to expand the whole series upwards
in proportion. The fifth period of the Italian Bronze Age is proved by fibule,
Greek pottery, and Egyptian scarabs to be contemporaneous with Amenhotep IIL,
of the XVIIIth Egyptian Dynasty, who lived in the X Vth century, B.c.
3. Pillar and Tree Worship in Mycenean Greece.
By Anrtuur J. Evans, M.A., F.S.A.
New evidence, supplied by finds in Crete and the Peloponnese, is brought for-
ward to show the great part played in the Mycenzan religion by the worship of
deities in aniconic shape as stone pillars or as trees. On a gold ring obtained by
Mr. Evans from the site of Knésos in Crete, and dating from the early Mycenzean
period (about 1500 3.c.), a dual cult of a male and female divinity in their pillar
shape is illustrated, and an armed Sun-god is being brought down on to his obelisk
or ‘Beth-el’ by ritual incantation. Parallels to this dual cult of deities in a
columnar form are cited from Cypriote cylinders of Mycenzean date, and the later
cone of Aphrodite at Paphos is shown to be a survival of a cult once common to
prehistoric Greece, and of ‘ Aigean’ rather than Semitic importation into Cyprus.
Various religious designs on signets recently discovered by Dr. Tsountas at My-
cenae are described for the first time, which throw additional light on the cult of
Mycenzan deities in the shape of pillars and trees enclosed in small shrines, and
the column of the Lion’s Gate at Mycense is identified with the aniconic idol of the
Phrygian goddess Kybelé, whose anthropomorphic image later supplants the pillar
form in the same position between the lion supporters. It is pointed out that a
confusion seems at times to have taken place between the pillar form of the divi-
nity and the tombstone of the god himself, or some allied hero who is really his
double ; and reasons are adduced for identifying the traditional ‘Tomb of Zeus’
in Crete with the remains of a prehistoric sanctuary visited by Mr. Evans on
Mount Juktas. Attention is further called to a low-walled building in the great
Mycenan city of Goulas, in the same island, as probably actually representing
one of the small shrines which contained a sacred tree. An interesting fragment
of a Mycenzan steatite vase also obtained by the author from the site of Knésos
is described, in which an altar appears in front of a stone enclosure containing a
sacred fig tree, and the cult of this tree, illustrated by other Mycenzan relies, is
compared with that of the ficws ruminalis in Ancient Rome, where (as in Cyprus)
the traditional Arcadians represent a Mycenzean influence. The early sanctity of
the dove is also seen associated throughout Mycenzan Greece with this primitive
worship, and new evidence is adduced as to the part played by it in the religion of
prehistoric Crete. Finally, the pillar and tree worship of Mycenzean Greece is
seen largely to survive in the rustic cult of classical Greece at a time when in the
more civilised centres the images of the gods had been mainly anthropomorphised.
This is illustrated by the rural sanctuaries with their sacred trees and stones so
well represented on the Pompeian frescoes.
4. The Ornament of N. E. Europe. By G. Corrry.
5. Manx Crosses as Illustrations of Celtic and Scandinavian Art.'
By P. M. C. Kermope.
Nearly a hundred crosses and inscribed stones have been found in the Isle of
Man, dating from the beginning of the sixth to the first quarter of the thirteenth
century.
1 Cumming, Runic Remains, 1854 (poor figures of about forty examples); other
examples in Trans. Cambrian Society (passim) ; Kermode, Catalogue of Manx Crosses
(the second edition gives eighty-five examples; a larger, fully illustrated work is in
preparation).
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 935
The earlier Ce/tic examples are mostly undecorated ; the Calf of Man crucifix
is an unique, elaborately-carved specimen of the early ninth century. Celtic
erosses are also found of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.
The Scandinavian crosses are dated by style and inscriptions to the eleventh
and following centuries. The style gradually becomes bolder, though it lacks
accuracy, and later fails through over-elaboration. Celtic geometrical patterns
and ‘tendril’ and ‘loop’ forms of ‘ twist’ are developed with much artistic skill,
and the characteristic Scandinavian ‘ vertebral ’ motive is introduced. The absence
of foliage, of panel arrangement, and of diagonal and spiral patterns, and the
characteristic type of zoomorphism, are also derived from the Celtic prototypes.
An analysis of Manx decorative art—Geometric, Zoomorphic, and Pictorial—
indicates, as peculiar features: (1) the ‘tendril’ variety of ‘twist’; (2) the treat-
ment of the head of the cross; (3) the representation of Pagan mythological
scenes from the Norse Sagas, especially from the Volsungsaga.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
The following Papers were read :—
1. An Ethnological Storehouse.
By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perris, D.C.L.
MermoRsNDUM ON PRoPosED REPOSITORY FOR PRESERVING ANTHROPOLOGICAL
oR oTHER Oxsects. (Drawn up by Professor FLrInDERS PETRIE, for the
use of a Committee of the Council.)
NecEsstty.—The impossibility of preserving more than a small portion of the
material for anthropology in the very limited area of London or town museums
leaves only the alternatives of—(1) the destruction of materials which can never
be replaced, illustrating modern races that are fast disappearing, and ancient races
as revealed by excavation; or (2) the storing of such materials accessibly in a
locality and a manner which shall yield the greatest possible storage space for a
given expenditure.
Scopr.—Such a repository might be solely anthropological, including an example
of every variety of object of human work of all ages. Or it might be extended to
zoology, mineralogy, geology, &c. Here we only consider the human side.
The minimum use of such a place would be only to store the surplus objects
which cannot find place in existing museums.
The maximum development of it would be to form a systematic scientific
collection of man’s works, ancient and modern, reserving to existing museums such
objects as illustrate the subject best to the general public, and such as need the
protection due to their market value. All such exhibition objects could be
properly replaced in the repository collection by photographs.
If fully developed such a repository would become a centre for study and
higher education; a reference library would then be needed; but the value of
land would be so enhanced that further expenditure would be covered by rents
of adjacent ground.
Form.—tThe conditions of such a repository are so wholly different from
those of existing museums that the proportions of expenditure are entirely
changed. The essential and primary condition is that space shall be of minimum
value ; and therefore wages and the cost of moving objects and arranging them
will be a far larger item in proportion. It is therefore needful that changes shall
not be necessitated by any amount of expansion.
The type of structure must therefore be along gallery, with lateral expan-
sions to be built as any section increases. ‘The galleries must be sufficiently apart
to allow of any likely increase, irregularly distributed.
The type of gallery which would seem most economical would be about 54
936 REPORT—1896.
feet wide, divided into a nave and two aisles across the breadth, and into bays of
16 feet along the length. A blocked doorway in each bay would allow of opening
laterally, into added buildings, for expansion of any section. It should be well
lighted, about one-fourth of the roof to be of glass. The walls should be low—
say 10 feet—so that the area of lighting would be near the objects.
The essence of the scheme is that the site shall be ordinary agricultural or
wooded land, so that a space far larger than is likely to be wanted can be utilised
for irregular expansion as any section grows ; while all that is not actually in use
for galleries will continue to be productive, as before, Thus every possible need
of the future can be accommodated without incurring more immediate expense
than is now requisite, and without any loss of interest on capital not utilised.
For this purpose it would not be unreasonable to secure abont 500 acres, in view
also of the probable rise in the value of land for building as such an institution
grew. On this land galleries of 54 feet wide, built in blocks of 100 bays or 1,600
feet length at once, should be placed at about a furlong apart. This would allow
of each gallery expanding on either side for about 250 feet of outbuilding.
Each gallery should have in the middle of its length a policeman’s cottage
(fire-proof), with its windows looking along the inside of the gallery.
Srrp.—tThe site should be within about half an hour's journey from London.
Flat, for view along the galleries. Healthy for residence. Fairly dry, and sandy
if possible. Wooded, so that belts of trees should occupy the spaces between
the galleries, and thus reduce the effect of wind and rain. Near a railway ;
but, for cheapness, far from a station, as the institution would soon claim a
station for its own use. A siding for goods should be provided.
Firrines.—No glass cases would he required, except for a few objects that
needed to be kept dry by lime. There would be little dust in a wooded country,
without any internal heating, and with air all filtered on passing in. Where glass
was desirable, large loose sheets could be laid over boxes or shelves ; cost about a
tenth of the price of the cheapest cases. Thus specimens could be put out of
reach by having strips screwed down to secure the glass.
REGISTRATION.—Perhaps a system of photographic registration would be
cheapest, as it would be worked on large groups of objects, continuously in a fixed
place and in routine. Such register photographs should he to one of two or three
definite scales; and they should he sold, thereby helping the cost of the registration.
Constitution.—A body of Trustees would be supreme. One possible system
would be for one Trustee to be nominated by each of the following persons :—The
Principal Librarian of the British Museum, the Director of the Natural History
Museum, the Director of the South Kensington Museum, the Presidents of the
British Association, the Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, and the
Anthropological Institute. Such nominees to hold office for seven years each,
retiring in rotation, but capable of re-nomination. Active men with snfficient
time to attend to the work might thus be obtained to represent the various interests
involved.
The Keeper should be solely an administrator and organiser, and not a specialist
in any line.
Acquisitions.—Any object might be refused by the Keeper, subject to an
appeal to the Trustees.
Objects might be deposited by any public body or private person, the legality
of their removal to the Repository being provided in the constituting Act.
All objects deposited for over thirty years, without claim and re-deposit,
should become the property of the Trust.
Unless depositors make conditions, any duplicates may be lent to any public
museum by the Keeper, sanctioned by the Trustees.
No responsibility will attach to the Trustees for the safety or condition of any
object deposited.
Presented objects may be kept together in any system required by the donor
for thirty years.
Objects found together, or required to illustrate each other, shall be perma-
nently inseparable.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 937
Cost.—The site would continue to be productive except where actually built
over. For every 100 bays, or 1,600 feet of gallery, a clearance 75 feet wide would
be needed, or an area of 22 acres. Capital value (say) 1007. The estimate for the
gallery is 200/. per bay of 16 feet length, or for 1,600 feet 20,0007. For cottage
and ends (say) 500/.
For comparison it may be stated that the whole exhibition floor-area of the
British Museum for antiquities and ethnology is about equal to 3,200 feet length
of such galleries, or two galleries such as above described, which would cost about
42,0007.
Thus the exhibiting space of the British Museum might be reduplicated
at a prime cost equal to three or four months’ maintenance of the existing
Museum.
If the repository were started with one gallery, equal to half the British
Museum exhibiting area, and if a full allowance of ground were secured for future
expansion, the cost might be estimated as follows :—
Prime Cost per
Cost. Annum.
500 acres at (say) £40. R ; 5 . =£20,000 at 24% £500
[Any increase in the cost of the land above this amount
might be balanced by the produce of the land, the loss
remaining at £500. |
Building 100 bays of gallery . : : ; £20,000 at 22% £500
Repairs and renewals (say) : : : : . : 4 250
Shelving and glass (say) . - ; - : 2 : : : 200
Keeper and house. : : ; : 3 : ; “ - 500
Policeman, carpenter, and labourers ‘ ‘ 4 i s - 600
Total cost perannum . ° . : ‘ - £2,450
for a building equal to half the British Museum exhibiting area, and the
securing of space for future building up to 50 or 100 times the present ex-
hibiting area. This amounts to 14 per cent. on the present annual grant of the
British Museum at Bloomsbury.
The foregoing memorandum was submitted for criticism by the Committee of
the Council to several distinguished men of science, and the remarks received in
reply show what points of the scheme should be discussed more fully and modified
and what points need further explanation. I therefore beg to suggest the follow-
ing amendments and additions to the memorandum :—
The scope in one opinion should be restricted to anthropology. As the utility
. of such space for other subjects was only hinted at, and does not enter into the
proposals, this limitation may be accepted without altering any point.
In form the use of such long low galleries is said to be ‘simply impossible, on
account of its extreme ugliness.’ As part of the original proposal is to entirely
screen the buildings with trees outside, and divide them by stands and cases
inside, the zsthetic consideration need hardly compel extra expense, for the
building would not be seen.
Another proposal is to add a second story or provide for such. As the extra
building work would be more than double the proposed, and the added floor equal
in cost to a roof, there would only be saved the value of land and a concrete floor.
Against this the lighting would be so bad in a low wide gallery with only side
windows that the space gained would be worth far less than if all were top-
lighted. As the essence of the scheme is cheap space, there does not seem to be
much gained by a second story.
In the question of fire, insurance is stated by one authority to be essential.
If, however, there be nothing inflammable in the construction (for the building
itself may be absolutely incombustible), and if there is only the risk of detached
stands and cases being set on fire, the risk is so very minute that even if insured
1896. 3P
938 REPORT—1896.
the cost would be only nominal. A system of dividing the groups of cases into
bays by brick and slate shelvings at intervals would still further reduce any
possibility of combustion.
Regarding fittings, one opinion is that glass cases to protect smaller specimens
would be necessary. It was already proposed to cover such things by large
sheets of glass screwed down; and such covering would be effective, and cost
little more than the glass at 3d. a square foot. Where a permanent fitted case
was required such can be thoroughly well made and finished at 1s. 4d. a cubic
foot. ‘The amount already provided in the estimate for shelving and glass would
allow of adding 3,000 cubic feet of glass cases yearly if such were required.
Another opinion is that dust would be so serious that a great part of the
things ‘must be placed in good cases.’ It is already proposed to filter all-the air
passing into the building, which would be quite practicable in a place where no
crowds would assemble and but little change of air was wanted. And the use of
sheets of glass laid over boxes and shelves may be made quite as dust-tight as the
best made cases if a line of cotton wool be laid to bed the glass upon. It must
be considered that the conditions of exhibiting would be very different from those
in a crowded city museum. ,
Regarding registration, the difficulty and time involved in photographic regis-
tration seems to be overestimated by those only accustomed to the tedious work
of arranging objects on a screen in an ordinary room. By having two fixed scales
of reduction (say $ and ;4,) the need of focussing and time required for that
would be abolished, for with the rapid plates now used a very small stop is
enough, and differences due to thickness of objects would entirely disappear. The
proposal is to have a glass table (say), 80 x 100 inches, with white ground below,
on which to lay out objects for 4, scale, avoiding all the delay of fixing on
screens and all the shadows; a second glass shelf (say), 16 x 20 inches, at a high
level for small things on } scale, the camera fixed looking down vertically on the
tables, and two slides for plates according to which table was in use. This
would give suitable scales on whole plate size. The lighting should be quickly
adjustable by strips of blind round three sides of the room. With such a routine
arrangement a man at labourer’s wages would be quite capable of working it for
all ordinary instances.
In the matter of constitution two opinions are that such a repository should
belong to one definite existing museum only. This would be very well for that
one museum; but there are many museums which require such an addition; and
it would tie down what is essentially required to be a very elastic and experi-
mental institution to the existing routine of one body whose ideas are all based on
a very different order of things. To expect any one body with the traditions and
system which are requisite for a very different institution to adopt and work
flexibly in an entirely changed set of conditions is hardly promising. The reason
for hinting at a combined representation of many bodies on the management is
that no one set of traditions would prevail, and an energetic Keeper might have a
chance of a free policy. In any case the constitution is by no means an essential
Deak and I merely express the difficulty that I see in keeping new wine in old
skins.
On the subject of allowing a donor the privilege of making conditions about his
donations for (say) thirty years, one opinion is that no such conditions should be
allowed. That is purely a matter of experience, and of no essential importance.
If people will give things as freely when they are not allowed any voice as to their
disposal times have changed. The past history has been that too many collections
have been bound by a name, not for thirty years only, but far longer.
On the very important question of site two opinions are against the requisite
cheap land being within half an hour of London. It is very probable that it might
be requisite to go further out, an hour from London. The speed varies much on
different lines, any line east of Aldershot being much slower than others. The
half-hour from London by good trains reaches to Harold Wood, Hatfield, Watford,
Slough, and Aldershot. The hour circle touches Witham, Hitchin, Leighton,
Reading, and nearly Basingstoke; that is, half Essex, most of Hertfordshire, half
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 989
Buckinghamshire, part of Berks, and Hants. If land were to be purchased within
this distance it seems that some reasonably cheap part might be found. But as
we can afford to wait for opportunities, if the scheme be otherwise well formulated,
it seems not chimerical to hope for the chance of an appropriation of open land for
such a public purpose out of some of the numerous downs, commons, and heaths
within the hour's distance.
There remain some other questions that have been raised outside of the memo-
randum :-—
1. That the plan is impracticable for want of funds. The amount suggested is
2,500/. a year. Supposing even that this was doubled, that would be 5,000U. a
year. Now the British Museum alone has increased its budget by 100,000/. per
annum within fifty or sixty years. Is, then, an increase of 5,0002. more not to be
thought of for twenty or thirty years to come? Or, looking at’ capital expense,
the cost of the small increase of room in the White Wing and Mausoleum Room
has been much more than the capital cost of a space equal to half the museum.
It may be safely said that long before we can hope to see this economical system in
working order the British Museum budget will have increased by many times the
amount required for this.
2. The cost of packing and carriage of things from existing institutions would
of course be met by those places which had the benefit of the relief of valuable
space. For other cases of private donation 10 per cent. extra on the estimate would
probably quite provide. In any case this cannot make the scheme unworkable.
3. The proposal to avoid acquiring things that are not worth the most expen-
sive accommodation in the city museums is fatal to scientific study. And equally
fatal would be the idea of leaving all preservation to local museums, for the main
purpose of this is not local English, but mankind in general—the colonies and
other lands—as no student could be expected to visit Dakota, Brazil, Uganda, and
Mongolia to collect the information he might need, even if there was a uniform
appreciation in every country of the desirability of preserving history.
The broad view remains untouched by all these minor details. We cannot at
present preserve large quantities of irreplaceable antiquities and ethnographic
specimens, owing to the existing costliness of museum accommodation, and which
come from countries where no local museums are possible. By the time every
country came up to the level of England in local museums there would be nothing
left to preserve. And yet, making every allowance for the unexpected, and even
tripling all the presumed costs, a space equal to the whole British Museum can be
provided for less than the average increase in Government grants for museums
during four or five years. So that if this repository should not be realised in less
than twenty years hence—as I quite expect—the cost of it will have been spent
many times over in increased grants, which will only provide an invisible fraction
of the space that might thus be had.
It is not proposed as an additional expense, but as a vastly more economical
mode of spending the normal increase which is always being made on the existing
lines. The real question is not whether money can be found—money is certain to
be found during the next twenty years for fresh museum space. The real question
is whether we shall have a small increase in our present London museums which
cripple our study, or a great increase in another form which shall give a new life
altogether to our study of man.
2. The Duk Duk and other Customs as Forms of Expression of the
Intellectual Life of the Melanesians. By Grar von Pret.
The European who has a sufficiently prolonged experience of the natives of the
Bismarck Archipelago is particularly struck by their very apparent desire towards
physical and psychical seclusion. Left to themselves, the natives confine their
intercourse to members of their own village and at most to those of immediately
neighbouring villages. The fact is that twenty years’ intercourse with White Men
has failed to win the natives to any of the ways of civilisation; they care more for
the tobacco brought by the White Man than for anything else he brings them.
3P2
940 REPORT—1896.
The natives hate the foreigners, and distrust even their fellow-countrymen. This
seclusive disposition is taken as a key with which to open, to some extent at least,
the mysteries with which the Melanesian loves to surround his actions.
A lengthly description of the Duk Duk is not given, as it is fairly well known.
It is here viewed psychologically. The ceremony apparently serves two purposes:
(a) The first is to propitiate evil-disposed spirits—and there is no doubt that this
part still represents some of the original traits of worship of the departed. It is,
however, next to impossible to gain sufficient insight into the ceremony to establish
a plausible theory. (6) The other purpose is a very materialistic one, as it is
nothing but a clever system of levying black-mail from the women who may not
be, and from the men who are not, members of the Duk Duk.
The ZEineth ceremony is celebrated at irregular intervals, Within a dense
hedge square huts are built, on the white clay plaster of which curious figures of
birds, crocodiles, &c., are painted. On surrounding trees other figures, such as
snakes, the sting-ray, &c., are drawn, and two shapeless figures, which are
stated to be the spirits of deceased people. Only members of the Duk Duk can
enter the enclosure. Amongst other ceremonies observed is that of placing a
‘tambu’ on certain articles of food as well as on certain actions and words,
During this period of tambu the participators meet at intervals and perform simple
dances,
The Marawot is celebrated only at very long intervals, A platform, 15 feet
square and 50 to 60 feet high, is erected, and entirely covered with leaves; on this
a sort of war dance is held. The meaning of this was not discovered.
It is important—nay more, it is necessary—to clear up all the affected mysti-
cism connected with the Duk Duk and the customs related to it before it is too
late. The people themselves are forgetting their customs, because the Europeans,
to whose trading interests they form an impediment, sneer them into derision, and
the Duk Duk begins to retire into remoter parts. It is only through the study
of the habits of people who, like the Kanakas, still live in a primeval state, that
the development and history of our own race can ever be thoroughly understood.
3. An Ancient British Interment. By F. T. Exiworrny.
The author exhibited photographs of an ancient British interment discovered on
August 29, 1896, by men in quarrying on the top of Culbone Hill, Somersetshire,
close to the road from Porlock to Lynton. The kist is still 2 situ, but will have
to be removed as the quarry advances. It is at about 5 feet from the surface of
the soil; there is no appearance of there ever having been a cairn or barrow above
it. The direction of the grave is due north and south, it measures 3 feet 6 inches
long by 1 foot 10 inches by 1 foot Ginches high. It is constructed with four upright
slabs of light-blue Devonian slate, of which plenty is to be found eight or nine
miles off, but it is totally different from the Old Red Sandstone immediately
beneath the interment.
In the kist were found a yery perfect skull, together with several bones of the
skeleton, of which photographs in three positions were shown. Alongside the
skull at the north end of the kist was found an urn of yery early pottery, measur-
ing 62 in. high x 5 in, diam. There were no weapons or other objects found.
The find was on the property of Earl Lovelace, and it is hoped that on his
return from abroad he will grant the request of the County Society, that the entire
interment may be placed in their Museum at Taunton.
Some sketches in oil by Mr. Whyte Holdich showing the general surroundings
were also exhibited.
The interment was pronounced by Dr. Montelius, Mr. Coffey, Dr. Munro, Sir
John Evans and the President, to be certainly of the early Bronze Age, not later
than the second millenium, B.c,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 941
4. On the Aboriginal Stick and Bone Writing of Australia.
By Dr. Grorce Hartery, /.R.S.
The Australian aborigines use a script of straight incised lines or notches, which
resemble Ogam characters, except that they are written without a stem line.
They are arranged in groups, across a perpendicular column, sometimes on one
side, sometimes on the other, and occasionally across the centre. Sometimes the
perpendicular columns are two or more in number. Different sizes of characters
are used in the same communication; and an emphatic form occurs with longer
lines, more widely spaced. Inscriptions on bone are found in Australia, as in
Ireland, in the Ogam script; and the Australians, like the old Scandinavians, tie
hair, human or other, to their letters.
Similar straight line scripts are found among the Gilas in Central America, and
among the Samoyeds, and are all written in the same way. The question
remains open whether these are independent inventions, or derived from a common
source,
5. The Straw Goblin. By C. G. LELAND.
6. Marks on Ancient Monuments. By C. G. Letanp,
942 REPORT—1896.
Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExperimenraL PatHoioey and
EXPERIMENTAL PsycHOLOGyY).
PRESIDENT OF THE SectTion.—W. H. GasKELL, M.D., LL.D., M.A.,
E.R.S.
The PresrpenT delivered the following Address on Monday, September 21.
WueEn I received the honour of an invitation to preside at the Physiological
Section of the British Association, my thoughts naturally turned to the subject of
the Presidential Address, and it seemed to me that the traditions of the British
Association, as well as the fact that a Physiological Section was a comparatively
new thing, both pointed to the choice of a subject of general biological interest
rather than a special physiological topic ; and I was the more encouraged to choose
such a subject because I look upon the growing separation of physiology from
morphology as a serious evil, and detrimental to both scientific subjects. I was
further encouraged to do so by the thought that, after all, a large amount of the
work done in physiological laboratories is anatomical—either minute anatomy or
topographical anatomy, such as the tracing out of the course of nerve-fibre tracts
in the central and peripheral nervous system by physiological methods. Such
methods require to be supplemented by the morphological method of inquiry. If
we can trace up step by step the increasing complexity of the vertebrate central
nervous system ; if we can unravel its complex nature, and determine the original
simpler paths of its conducting fibres, and the original constitution of the special
nerve centres, then it is clear that the method of comparative anatomy would be
of immense assistance to the study of the physiology of the central nervous system
of the higher vertebrates. So also with numbers of other physiological problems,
such as, for instance, the question whether all muscular substances are supplied
with inhibitory as well as motor nerves; to which is closely allied the question of
the nature of the mechanism by which antagonistic muscles work harmoniously
together. Such questions receive their explanation in the researches of Biedermann
on the nerves of the opening and closing muscles of the claw of the crayfish, as
soon as it has been shown that a genetic relationship exists between the nervous
system and muscles of the crayfish and those of the vertebrate.
Take another question of great interest in the present day, viz. the function
of such ductless glands as the thyroid and the pituitary glands. The explanation
of such function must depend upon the original function of these glands, and
cannot, therefore, be satisfactory until it has been shown by the study of compara-
tive anatomy how these glands have arisen. The nature of the leucocytes of the
blood and lymph spaces, the chemical problems involved in the assigning of carti-
lage into its proper group of mucin compounds, and a number of other questions
of physiological chemistry, will all advance a step nearer solution as soon as we
definitely know from what group of invertebrates the vertebrate has arisen.
I have therefore determined to choose as the subject of my address ‘The
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 9493
Origin of Vertebrates,’ feeling sure that the evidence which has appealed to me as
a physiologist will be of interest to the Physiological Section; while at the same
time, as I have invited also the Sections of Zoology and Anthropology to be
present, I request that this address may be considered as opening a discussion on
the subject of the origin of vertebrates. I do not desire to speak ex cathedrd,
and to suppress discussion, but, on the contrary, I desire to have the matter
threshed out to its uttermost limit, so that if I am labouring under a delusion the
nature of that delusion may be clearly pointed out to me.
The central pivot on which the whole of my theory turns is the central nervous
system, especially the brain region. There is the ego of each animal; there is the
master-organ, to which all the other parts of the body are subservient. It is to my;
mind inconceivable to imagine any upward evolution to be associated with a
degradation of the brain portion of the nervous system, The striking factor of
the ascent within the vertebrate phylum from the lowest fish to man is the steady
increase of the size of the central nervous system, especially of the brain region.
However much other parts may suffer change or degradation, the brain remains
intact, steadily increasing in power and complexity. If we turn to the inverte-
brate kingdom, we find the same necessary law: when the metamorphosis of an
insect tales place, when the larval organs are broken up by a process of histolysis,
and new ones formed, the central nervous system remains essentially intact, and
the brain of the imago differs from that of the larva only in its increased growth
and complexity.
A striking instance of the same necessary law is seen in the case of the
transformation of the larval lamprey, or Ammoccetes, into the adult lamprey, or
Petromyzon; here also, by a process of histolysis, most of the organs of the head
region of the animal undergo dissolution and re-formation, while the brain remains
intact, increasing in size by the addition of new elements, without any sign of
preliminary dissolution. On the other hand, when, as is the case in the Tunicates,
the transformation process is accompanied with a degradation of the central nervous
system, we find the adult animal so hopelessly degraded that it is impossible to
imagine any upward evolution from such a type.
It is to my mind perfectly clear that, in searching among the Invertebrata for
the immediate ancestor of the Vertebrata, the most important condition which such
ancestor must fulfil is to possess a central nervous system, the anterior part of
which is closely comparable with the brain region of the lowest vertebrate. It is
also clear on every principle of evolution that such hypothetical ancestor must
resemble the lowest vertebrate much more closely than any of the higher vertebrates,
and therefore a complete study of the lowest true vertebrate must give the best
chance of discovering the homologous parts of the vertebrate and the invertebrate.
For this purpose I have chosen for study the Ammoccetes, or larval form of the
lamprey, rather than Amphioxus or the Tunicates, for several reasons.
n the first place, all the different organs and parts of the higher vertebrates
can be traced directly into the corresponding parts of Petromyzon, and therefore of
Ammoceetes. Thus, every part of the brain and organs of special sense—all the
cranial nerves, the cranial skeleton, the muscular system, &c., of the higher
vertebrates can all be traced directly into the corresponding parts of the lamprey.
So direct a comparison cannot be made in the case of Amphioxus or the
Tunicates.
Secondly, Petromyzon, together with its larval form, Ammoccetes, constitutes an
ideal animal for the tracing of the vertebrate ancestry, in that in Ammoccetes we
have the most favourable condition for such investigations, viz. a prolonged larval
stage, followed by a metamorphosis, and the consequent production of the imago or
Petromyzon—a transformation which does not, as in the case of the Tunicates, lead
to a degenerate condition, but, on the contrary, leads to an animal of a distinctly
higher vertebrate type than the Ammoccetes form. As we shall see, the Ammo-
ccetes is so full of invertebrate characteristics that we can compare organ for
organ, structure for structure, with the corresponding parts of Limulus and its
allies. Then comes that marvellous transformation scene during which, by a
process of histolysis, almost all the invertebrate characteristics are destroyed or
944. REPORT—1896.
changed, and there emerges a higher animal, the Petromyzon, which can now be
compared organ for organ, structure for structure, with the larval form of the
Amphibian ; and so through the medium of these larval forms we can trace upwards
without a break the evolution of the vertebrate from the ancient king-crab form.
On the other hand, Amphioxus and the Tunicates are distinctly degenerate ; it is
easier to look upon either of them as a degenerate Ammocete than as giving a
clue to the ancestor of the Ammoccete. It is to my mind surprising how difficult
it appears to be to get rid of preconceived opinions, for one still hears, in the
assertion that Petromyzon as well as Amphioxus is degenerate, the echoes of the
ancient myth that the Elasmobranchs are the lowest fishes, and the Cyclostomata
their degenerated descendants,
The characteristic of the vertebrate central nervous system is its tubular
character ; and it is this very fact of its formation as a tube which has led to the
disguising of its segmental character, and to the whole difficulty of connecting
vertebrates with other groups of animals. The explanation of the tubular
character of the central nervous system is the keystone to the whole of my theory
of the origin of vertebrates. The explanation which I have given differs from all
others, in that I consider the nervous system to be composed of two parts—an
internal epithelial tube, surrounded to a greater or less extent by a segmented
nervous system ; and I explain the existence of these two parts by the hypothesis
that the internal epithelial tube was originally the alimentary canal of an
arthropod animal, such as Limulus or Eurypterus, which has become surrounded
to a greater or less extent by the nervous system.
Any hypothesis which deals with the origin of one group of animals from
another must satisfy three conditions :—
1. It must be in accordance with the phylogenetic history of each group. It
must therefore give a consistent explanation of all the organs and tissues of the
higher group which can be clearly shown not to have originated within the group
itself. At the same time, the variations which have occurred on the hypothesis
must be in harmony with the direction of variation in the lower group, if not
actually foreshadowed in that group.
This condition may be called the Phylogenetic test.
2. The anatomical relation of parts must be the same in the two groups, not
only with respect to coincidence of topographical arrangement, but also with
respect to similarity of structure, and, to a large extent, also of function.
This condition may be called the Anatomical test.
3. The peculiarities of the ontogeny or embryological development of the higher
group must receive an adequate explanation by means of the hypothesis, while at
the same time they must help to illustrate the truth of the hypothesis.
This condition may be called the Ontogenetic test.
I hope to convince you that all these three conditions are satisfied by my
hypothesis as far as the head region of the vertebrate is concerned. I speak only
of the head region at present, because that is the part which I have especially
studied up to the present time, and also because it is natural and convenient to
consider the cranial and spinal nerves separately ; and I hope to demonstrate to you
that not only the nervous system and alimentary canal of such a group of animals
as the Gigantostraca—i.e. Limulus and its allied forms—is to be found in the head
region of Ammoceetes, but also, as must logically follow, that every part of the
head region of Ammoccetes has its homologous part in the prosomatic and
mesosomatic regions of Limulus and its allies. I hope to convince you that our
brain is hollow because it has grown round the old cephalic stomach; that our
skeleton arose from the modifications of chitinous ingrowths ; that the nerves of
the medulla oblongata—z.e. the facial, glosso-pharyngeal, and vagus nerves—arose
from the mesosomatic nerves to the branchial and opercular appendages of
Limulus, while the nerves of the hind brain are derived from the nerves of the
prosomatic region of Limulus ; that our cerebral hemispheres are but modifications
of the supra-cesophageal ganglia of a scorpion, while our eyes and nose are the
direct descendants of its eyes and olfactory organs.
In the first place, I will give you shortly the reasons why the central nervous
$45
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I
Fig. 1.—Comparison of Vertebrate Brain from Mammalia to Ammoccetes.
(Epithelial parts represented by dotted lines.)
AMPHIBLA,
MAMMALIA,
Me
es
sects rene
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Z | 7
<
Z ,
f fe
F/
3
i
AMMOCETIS. ;
TELEOsT,
946 » REPORT—-1896. |
system of the vertebrate must be considered as derived from the conjoined central
nervous system and alimentary canal of an arthropod.
Comparison of the Central Nervous System of Ammocetes with the
Conjoined Central Nervous System and Alimentary Canal of an
Arthropod Animal such as Limulus.
1. The phylogenetic test proves that the tube of the central nervous system was
originally an epithelial tube, surrounded to a certain extent by nervous material.
The anatomical test then proves that this epithelial tube corresponds in its
topographical relations to the nervous material exactly with the alimentary canal
of an arthropod in its relations to the central nervous system ; and, further, that the
topographical relations, structure, and function of the corresponding parts of this
nervous material are identical in the Ammocecetes and in the arthropod.
We see from these diagrams, taken from Edinger, how the greater simplicity of
the brain region as we descend the vertebrate phylum is attained by the reduction
Fig. 2.— Dorsal and Lateral view of the Brain of Ammoccetes.
of the nervous material more and more to the ventral side of the central tube, with
the result that the dorsal side becomes more and more epithelial, until at last, as is
seen in Ammoceetes, the roof of the epichordal portion of the brain consists
entirely of fold upon fold of a simple epithelial membrane, interrupted only in one
place by the crossing of the [Vth nerve and commencement of the cerebellum.
In the prechordal part of the brain this simple epithelial portion of the tube is
continued on in the middle line as the first choroid plexus of Ahlborn, and the
lamina terminalis round to the ventral side; where, again, in the infundibular
region, the epithelial saccus vasculosus, which has been becoming more and more
7
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 947
conspicuous in the lower vertebrates, together with the median tube of the
infundibulum, testifies to the withdrawal of the nervous material from this part of
the brain, as well as from the dorsal region. Further, as already mentioned in my
previous papers, the invasion of this epithelial tube by nervous material during the
upward development of the vertebrate is beautifully shown by the commencing
development of the cerebellar hemispheres in the dogtish; by the dorsal growth of
nervous material to form the optic lobes in the Petromyzon ; by the occlusion of
_ the ventral part of the tube in the epichordal region to form the raphé, as seen in its
commencement in Ammoccetes. Finally, evidence of another kind in favour of
_ the tubular formation being due to an original non-nervous epithelial tube is given
by the frequent occurrence of cystic tumours, and also by the formation of the
sinus rhomboidalis in birds.
The phylogenetic history of the brain of vertebrates, in fact, is in complete
harmony with the theory that the tubular nervous system of the vertebrate
originally consisted of two parts—viz. an epithelial tube and a nervous system
outside that tube, which has grown over it more and more, and gives not only no
support whatever, but is in direct opposition, to the view that the whole tube was
originally nervous, and that the epithelial portions, such as the choroid plexuses
and roof of the fourth ventricle, are thinned-down portions of that nerve tube.
Passing now to
2. The anatomical test, we see immediately why this epithelial tube comes out
so much more prominently in the lowest vertebrates, for, as can be seen from the
diagrams, and is more fully pointed out in my previous papers,' every part of the
central tube of the vertebrate nervous system corresponds absolutely, both in
position and structure, with the corresponding part of the alimentary canal of the
arthropod, and the nervous material which is arranged round this epithelial tube
is identically the same in topographical position, in structure, and in function as
_ the corresponding parts of the central nervous system of an arthropod.
Especially noteworthy is it to tind that the pineal eye (PN), with its large
optic ganglion, the ganglion habenule (GHR), falls into its right and appropriate
place as the right median eye of such an animal as Limulus or Eurypterus. In
the following table I will shortly group together the evidence of the anatomical
test.
A. Coincidence of Topographical Position.
LIMULUS AND ITS ALLIES. AMMOC@®TES AND VERTEBRATES.
Alimentary Canal :—
1. Cephalic stomach.
2. Straight intestine, ending in anus.
Ventricles of the brain.
Spinal canal, ending by means of the
neurenteric canal in the anus.
Median infundibular tube and saccus
vasculosus.
3. Gsophageal tube.
Nervous System :—
1. Supra-cesophageal ganglia. Brain proper, or cerebral hemispheres.
2. Olfactory ganglia. Olfactory lobe.
3. Optic ganglia of the lateral eyes. Optic ganglia of the lateral eyes.
4. Optic gangliaof the median eyes. Ganglia habenule.
5. Median eyes. Pineal eyes.
6. Gsophageal commissures. Crura cerebri.
7. Infra-cesophageal or prosomatic Hind brain, giving origin to the I[IIrd,
ganglia, giving origin to the IVth, and Vth cranial nerves. i
prosomatic nerves.
8. Mesosomatic ganglia, giving origin Medulla oblongata, giving origin to the
to the mesosomatic nerves.
9. Metasomatic ganglia.
VIlIth, [Xth, and Xth cranial nerves.
Spinal cord.
| ' Gaskell, Journ. of Anat. and Physiol. vol. xxiii. 1888; Journ. of Physiol.
vol. x. 1889; Brain, vol. xii. 1889; Q. J. of Mier. Scr. 1890.
a
948 REPORT—1896.
B. Coincidence of Structure and Physiological Function.
1. The simple non-glandular epithelium of the nerve tube coincides with the
simple non-glandular epithelium of the alimentary canal, ciliated as it is in
Daphnia.!
2. The structure and function of the cerebral hemispheres, olfactory lobes, and
optic ganglia closely resemble the corresponding parts of the supra-cesophageal
ganglia.
© 3, The structure of the right pineal eye, with its nerve end-cells and rhabdites,
is of the same nature as that of a median arthropod eye.
4, The structure of the right ganglion habenule is the same as that of the
optic ganglion of the median eye.
5. The region of the hind brain, like the region of the infra-cesophageal ganglia,
is concerned with the co-ordination of movements.
6. The region of the medulla oblongata, like the mesosomatic region of
Limulus and its allies, is concerned especially with the movements of respiration.
7. The centres for the segmental cranial nerves resemble closely in their
groups of motor cells and plexus substance the centres for the prosomatic and
mesosomatic nerves, with their groups of motor cells and reticulated substance
(Punkt-Substanz).
3. The third test is the ontogenetic test. The theory must be in harmony with,
and be illustrated by, the embryonic development of the central nervous system.
Such is the case, for we see that the nerve tube arises as a simple straight tube
opening by the neurenteric canal into the anus, the anterior part of the tube, ze.
the cephalic stomach region, being remarkably dilated ; the anterior opening of this
tube, or anterior neuropore, is considered by most authors to have been situated in
the infundibular region,
Next comes the formation of the cerebral vesicles, indicating embryologically
the constricting growth of nervous material outside the cephalic stomach. First,
the formation of two cerebral vesicles by the growth of nervous material in the
position of the ganglia habenulz, posterior commissure, and Meynert’s bundle, 2.e.
the constricting influence of commissures between the optic part of the supra-ceso-
phageal ganglia and the infra-cesophageal ganglia; then the formation of the third
cerebral vesicle by the constricting influence of the [Vth nerve and commencing
cerebellum. Subsequently the first cerebral vesicle is divided into two parts by
another nerve commissure—the anterior commissure, z.e. by nerve material joining
the supra-cesophageal ganglia. Further, the embryological evidence shows that in
the spinal cord region the nerve masses are at first most conspicuous ventrally and
laterally to the original tube, such ventral masses being early connected together
with the strands of the anterior commissure; ultimately, by the growth of nervous
material dorsalwards, the dorsal portion of the tube is compressed to form the
posterior fissure and the substantia Rolandi, the original large lumen of the old
intestine being thus reduced to the small central canal of the adult nervous system.
Finally, this nerve tube is formed at a remarkably early stage, just as ought to be
the case if it represented an ancient alimentary caval.
The ontogenetic test appears to fail in two points :—
1. That the nerve tube of vertebrates is an epiblastic tube, whereas if it repre-
sented the old invertebrate gut it ought to be largely hypoblastic.
2. The nerve tube of vertebrates is formed from the dorsal surface of the
embryo, while the central nervous system of arthropods is formed from the
ventral surface.
With respect to the first objection, it might be argued, with a good deal of
plausibility, that the term hypoblast is used to denote that surface which is known
by its later development to form the alimentary canal; that in fact, as Heymons?
has pointed out, the theory of the germinal layers is not sufficiently well esta-
blished to give it any phylogenetic value. It is, however, unnecessary to discuss
* Hardy and McDougall, Proc. Camb. Philos. Soc. vol. viii. 1893.
* Heymons, Die Embryonalentwichl. v. Dermapteren wu. Orthopteren, Jena, 1895.
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 949
this question, seeing that Heymons has shown that the whole alimentary tract in
such arthropods as the earwig, cockroach, and mole cricket, is, like the nerve tube
of vertebrates, formed from epiblast.
The second objection appears to me more apparent than real. The nerve layer,
in the vertebrate, as soon as it can be distinguished, is always found to lie ventrally
to the layer of epiblast which forms the central canal. In the middle line of the
body, owing to the absence of the mesoblast layer, the cells which form the noto-
chord and those which form the central nervous system form a mass of cells which
cannot be separated in the earlier stages. The nerve layer in the arthropod lies
between the ventral epiblast and the gut; the nerve layer in the vertebrate lies
between the so-called hypoblast (7.e. the ventral epiblast of the arthropod) and
the neural canal (7.e. the old gut of the arthropod). The new ventral surface of
_ the vertebrate in the head region is not formed until the head fold is completed.
- Before this time, when we watch the vertebrate embryo lying on the yolk, with its
nervous system, central canal, and lateral pee of mesoblast, we are watching the
embryonic representation of the original Limulus-like animal; then, when the
lateral plates of mesoblast have grown round, and met in the middle line to assist
in forming the new ventral surface, and the head fold is completed, we are watching
the embryonic representation of the transformation of the Limulus-like animal into
the scorpion-like ancestor of the vertebrates.
In the Arthropoda, the simple epithelial tube which forms the stomach and
intestine is not a glandular organ, and we find that the digestive part of the ali-
mentary tract is found in the large organ, the so-called liver. This organ, together
with the generative glands, forms an enormous mass of glandular substance, which,
in Limulus, is tightly packed round the whole of the central nervous system and
alimentary canal, along the whole length of the animal (represented in fig. 4 by
the dark dotted substance). The remains of this glandular mass are seen in
Ammoceetes in the peculiar so-called packing tissue around the brain and spinal
cord (represented in fig. 6 by the dark dotted substance), It satisfies the three
tests to the following extent :—
1. The phylogenetic test.—As we descend the vertebrate phylum, we find that
the brain fills up the brain-case to a less and less extent, until finally in Ammoccetes
a considerable space is left between brain and brain-case, filled up with a peculiar
glandular-looking material, interspersed with pigment, which is not fat tissue, and
is most marked in the lowest vertebrates. The natural interpretation of this
phylogenetic history is that the cranial cavity is too large for the brain in the
lowest vertebrates, and is filled up with a peculiar glandular substance because
that glandular substance pre-existed as a functional organ or organs, and not
because it was necessary to surround the brain with packing material in order to
keep it steady, owing to the unfortunate mistake having been made of forming a
_ brain much too small for its case. :
2. The anatomical test shows that this glandular and pigmented material is in
the same position with respect to the central nervous system of Ammoccetes as the
generative and liver material with respect to the central nervous system and
alimentary canal of Limulus.
3. The ontogenetic test remains to be worked out. Ido not know the orgin of
this tissue in Ammoccetes ; the evidence has not yet been given by Kuppfer.t. He
has, however, shown that the neural ridge gives origin to a mass of mesoblastic
cells, the further fate of which is not worked out. The whole story is very sugges-
tive from the point of view of my theory, but incomprehensible on the view that
the neural ridge is altogether nervous.
Finally, we ought to find in the invertebrate group in question indica-
tions of the commencement of the enclosure of the alimentary canal by the
central nervous system; such is, in fact, the case. In the scorpion group a
marked process of cephalisation has gone on, so that the separate ganglia,
both of the prosomatic and mesosomatic region, have fused together, and fused
‘ Kuppfer, Studien 2. vergleich. Entwicklungsgesch. d. Kopfes der Kranioten
2. Heft, Miinchen u. Leipzig, 1894.
950 REPORT— 1896.
also with the large supra-cesophageal mass. In the middle of this large brain
mass a small canal is seen closely surrounded and compressed with nervous
matter, as is shown in this specimen of Thelyphonus; this canal is the alimentary
canal. Again, Hardy, in his work on the nervous system of Crustacea, has sections
through the brain of Branchipus which demonstrate so close an attachment between
the nervous matter of the optic ganglion and the anterior diverticulum of the gut
that uo line of demarcation is visible between the cells of the gut wall and the
cells of the optic ganglion.
For all these reasons I consider that the tubular nature of the vertebrate
central nervous system is explained by my hypothesis much more satisfactorily
and fully than by any other as yet put forward; it further follows that if this
hypothesis enables us to homologise all the other parts of the head region of the
vertebrate with similar parts in the arthropod, then it ceases to be an hypothesis,
but rises to the dignity of the most probable theory of the origin of vertebrates.
Origin of Segmental Cranial Nerves.
1. The phylogenetic test.—It follows from the close resemblance of the brain
region of the central nervous systems in the two groups of animals that the cranial
nerves of the vertebrate must be homologous with the foremost nerves of such an
animal as Limulus, and must therefore supply bomologous organs. Leaving out
of consideration for the present the nerves of special sense, it follows that the seg-
mental cranial nerves must be divisible into two groups corresponding to two sets
of segmental muscles, viz. a group supplying structures homologous to the appen-
dages of Limulus and its allies, and a group supplying the somatic or body muscles ;
in other words, we must find precisely what is the most marked characteristic of
the vertebrate cranial nerves, viz. that they are divisible into two sets correspond-
ing to a double segmentation in the head region. The one set, consisting of the
Vth, VIIth, [Xth, and Xth nerves, supply the muscles of the branchial or
visceral segments; the other set, consisting of the IlIrd, IVth, Vith, and XIfth
nerves, the muscles of the somatic segments. Further, we see that the nerves
supplying the branchial segments, like the nerves supplying the appendages in
Limulus, are mixed motor and sensory, while the nerves supplying the somatic
segments are all purely motor, the corresponding sensory nerves running separately
as the ascending root of the fifth nerve; so also in Limulus, the nerves supplying
the powerful body muscles arise separately from those supplying the appendages,
and also are quite separate from the purely sensory or epimeral (Milne Edwards) ’
nerves which supply the surfaces of the carapace in the prosomatic and mesoso-
matic regions. Finally, the researches of Hardy* have shown that the motor portion
of these appendage nerves, just like the nerves of the branchial segmentation in
vertebrates, 7.e. the motor part of the trigeminal, of the facial, of the glosso-pharyngeal,
and of the vagus, arise from nerve centres or nuclei quite separate from those
which give origin to the motor nerves of the somatic muscles. The phylogenetic
history, then, of the cranial nerves points directly to the conclusion that the Vth,
Vilth, [Xth, and Xth nerves originally innervated structures of the nature of
arthropod appendages.
We can, however, go further than this, for we find, as we trace downwards
throughout the vertebrate kingdom the structures supplied by these nerves, that
they are divisible into two well-marked groups, especially well seen in Ammo-
coetes, viz. :-—
1. A posterior group, viz. the VIIth, IXth, and Xth nerves, which arise
from oe medulla oblongata and supply all the structures within a branchial
chamber.
2. An anterior group, viz. the Vth nerves, which arise from the hind brain
and supply all the structures within an oral chamber.
1 Milne Edwards, ‘Recherches sur l’Anatomie des Limulus,’ Ann. des Sc. Nat.,
5th ser.
2 Hardy, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1894.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 951
The reason for this grouping is seen when we turn to Limulus and its allies, for
we find that the body is always divided into a prosoma and mesosoma, and that
the appendage nerves are divisible into two corresponding well-marked groups,
viz. -—
1. A posterior or mesosomatic group, which arise from the mesosomatic ganglia
and supply the operculum and branchial appendages.
Fi@. 3.—Head Region of Ammoceetes, split longitudinally into a ventral
and dorsal half. (Ventral Half.)
= =
=| =
= =|
= =
yy 3 SE =\
Appendages § Nerves (2 =)
TENTACULAR |= =
v™ 1-4 ff
VELAR Jie
yu 5 i
OPERCULAR fff CILIATED
Vile GROOVE
BRANCHIAL
Ist BRANCAHIAL — = | OPENINGS
Ix
2nd BRANCHIAL
xt -2
3rd BRANCHIAL fe he a es a —— 3
! All=ank: 3
= THYROID
ORIFICE
4th BRANCHIAL
x3
5th BRANCHIA
xi
6th BRANCHIAL
x5
7th BRANCHIAL
xe
2. An anterior or prosomatic group, which arise from the prosomatic ganglia
and supply the oral or locomotor appendages.
952 REPORT—1896.
Comparison of the Branchial Appendages of Limulus, Eurypterus, &c.,
with the Branchial Appendages of Ammocetes. Meaning of the 1Xth
and Xth Nerves.
We will first consider the posterior group—the VIIth, IXth, and Xth nerves—
and of these I will take the [Xth and Xth nerves together, and discuss the VIIth
separately. These nerves are always described as supplying in the fishes the
Vig. 3.—Head Region of Ammoceetes, split longitudinally into a ventral
and dorsal half. (Dorsal Half.)
Appendages 5 Nerves
TENTACULAR
ym i-a
TRABECULZ
PITUITARY BODY
‘OLD GSOPHAGUS
HRRATED EDGE
CILIATED GROOVE
yu 5
OPERCULAR
Wit
ist BRANCHIAL
Ix
2nd BRANCHIAL jf
"il ATTA —==
COT. em
1 ? = "
3rd BRANCHIAL Hy
x?
Ei
4th BRANCHIA
5th BRANCHIAL is
x4 |
6th BRANCHIAL |i
x*
SOMATIC MUSCLE
7th BRANCHIAL SPLANCHNIC MUSCLE
xs
CARTILAGE
MUCO-CARTILAGE
muscles and other tissues in the walls of a series of gill-pouches, so that the respi-
ratory chamber is considered to consist of a series of pouches, which open on the
one hand into the alimentary canal, and on the other to the exterior. Sucha
description is possible even as low down as Petromyzon, but when we pass to the
Ammoccetes we find the arrangement of the branchial chamber has become so
different that it is no longer possible to describe it in terms of gill-pouches, The
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 953
Fic. 4.—Limulus. Nerves of Appendages and Cartilages.
CHILARIA (M)
JFLABELLUM
yyy
BRANCHIAL
CARTILAGES
ENTAPOPHYSIAL
CARTILAGINOUS
LIGAMENTS
Fig. 56.—Eurypterus.
1896. 3
954 REPORT—1896,
Fic. 6.—Ammoceetes, Nerves of Visceral Segments and Cartilages.
PROSOMA
a!
‘
ZZ) /
NY
MESOSOMA ¥
SUBCHORDAL BRANCHIAL
CARTILAGINOUS CARTILAGES
LIGAMENTS
In all three Figures v,—v,=Prosomatice appendages and nerves ; vii=1st mesosoniatic ap-
pendage or opercular appendage and nerves; ix, x,... = remaining mesosomatic
appendages and nerves; M = Chilaria in Limulus, metastoma in Eurypterus.
nature of the branchial chamber is seen in fig. 3, which demonstrates clearly
that the [Xth and Xth nerves supply a series of separate gill-bearing struc-
tures or appendages, which hang freely into a common respiratory chamber;
each one of these appendages is moved by its own separate group of branchial
muscles, and possesses an external branchial bar of cartilage, which, by its
union with its fellows, contributes to form the extra-branchial basket-work so
characteristic of this primitive respiratory chamber. The segmental branchial unit
is clearly in this case, as Rathke originally pointed out, each one of these suspended
gills, or rather gill-bearing appendages; it is absolutely unnatural, as Nestler!
attempts to do, to take a portion of the space between two consecutive gills and
call that a gill-pouch. It is, to my mind, one of the most extraordinary and con-
fusing conceptions of the current morphology to describe an animal in terms of
the spaces between organs, rather than in terms of the organs by which those
spaces are formed. We might as well speak of a net as a number of holes tied
together with string. Another most striking advantage is obtained by considering
the segmental unit to be represented by each of these separate branchial append-
ages—viz. that we can continue the series in the most natural manner (as seen in
fig. 3) in front of the limits of the IXth and Xth nerves, and so find a series
of appendages in the oral chamber serially homologous with the branchial append-
ages. The uppermost of the respiratory appendages is the hyo-brancbial, supplied
1 Nestler, Archiv f. Naturgeschich. 56, vol. i.
Pee, eS
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, 955
by the VIIth nerve, then, passing into the oral chamber, we find a series of non-
branchial appendages, viz. the velar and tentacular appendages, supplied by branches
of the Vth nerve. In fact, by simply considering the tissue between the so-called
gill-pouches as the segmental unit, we no longer get lost in a maze of hypothetical
gill-pouches in front of the branchial region, but find that the resemblances between
the oral and branchial regions, which have led to the endless search for gill-slits
and gill-pouches, really mean that the oral chamber contains appendages just as
the branchial chamber, but that the former were not gill-bearing.
The study of Ammocetes, then, leads directly to the conclusion that the ancestor
of the vertebrate possessed an oral or prosomatic chamber, which contained a series
of non-branchial, tactile and masticatory appendages, which were innervated from
the fused prosomatic ganglia or hind brain, and a branchial or mesosomatic
chamber, which contained a series of branchial appendages which were innervated
from the fused mesosomatic ganglia or medulla oblongata. These two chambers
did not originally communicate with each other, for the embryological evidence
shows that they are separated at first by the septum of the stomatodeum, and
also that the oral chamber is formed by the forward growth of the lower lip.
The phylogenetic test on the side of Limulus and its congeners agrees in a
remarkable manner with the conclusions derived from the study of Ammoceetes,
for we see that the variation which has occurred in the formation of Eurypterus
from Limulus is exactly of the kind necessary to form the oral and branchial
chambers of the Ammoccetes. Thus, we find with respect to the mesosomatic
appendages that the free, many-jointed appendages of the crustacean become con-
verted into the plate-like appendages of Limulus, in which the separate joints are
still visible, but insignificant in comparison with the large branchis-bearing lamella ;
then comes the in-sinking of these appendages, as described by Macleod,! to form the
branchial lamellz, or so-called lung-books of Thelyphonus, and the branchise of
Eurypterus, in which all semblance of jointed and free appendages disappears and
the branchiz project into a series of chambers or gill-pouches, each pair of which
in Thelyphonus open freely into communication. In this way we see already
the commencement of the formation of a branchial chamber similar to that of
Ammoceetes.
So also with the innervation of these mesosomatic appendages, originally a series
of separate mesosomatic ganglia, each of which innervates a separate appendage ;
then a process of cephalisation takes place, in consequence of which, in the first
place, a single ganglion, the opercular ganglion, fuses with the already fused proso-
matic ganglia, as is seen in the stage of Limulus; then, as pointed out by Lankester,
in the different groups of scorpions more and more of the mesosomatic ganglia fuse
together, and so we find the upward variation in this group is distinctly in the
direction of the formation of the medulla oblongata coincidently with the formation
of a branchial chamber.
In a precisely similar way, we find the variation which has occurred in the
prosomatic appendages leads directly to the formation of the oral chamber and oral
appendages of Ammoccetes ; for the original chelate and locomotor appendages of
Limulus become converted into the tactile non-chelate appendages of Eurypterus
(cf. figs. 4 and 5), and the small chilaria (M) of Limulus, according to Lankester,
fuse in the middle line and grow forward to form the metastoma of Eurypterus,
thus forming an oral chamber, into which the short tactile appendages could be
withdrawn, closely similar in its formation to the oral chamber of Ammoccetes.
The prosomatic ganglia supplying these oral appendages have already, in Limulus
(see fig. 4), been fused together to form the infra-cesophageal ganglia or hind brain.
The phylogenetic test, then, both on the side of the vertebrate and of the inver-
tebrate, points direct to the conclusion that the peculiarities of the trigeminal and
vagus groups of nerves are due to their origin from nerves supplying prosomatic
and mesosomatic appendages respectively.
2. The anatomical test confirms aud emphasises this conclusion in a most
striking manner, for we find not only coincidence of topographical arrangement, as
1 Macleod, Archiv. de Biologie, vol. v. 1884.
Q2
956 REPORT—1896.
already mentioned, but also similarity of structure ; thus we see that the blood in
the gill lamellee and velar appendages of Ammoccetes does not circulate in distinct
capillaries, but, as in the arthropod appendages, in lacunar spaces, which by the
fubdivizion of the surface of the appendage to form gill lamellee become narrow
channels; that also certain of the branchial muscles and of the muscles of the velar
appendages are of the invertebrate type of so-called tubular muscles. These inver-
tebrate muscles are not found in higher vertebrates, but only in Ammoccetes, and
moreover disappear entirely at transformation.
Origin of the Vertebrate Cartilaginous Skeleton.
Perhaps, however, the most startling evidence in favour of the homology
between the branchial segments of Ammoccetes and the branchial appendages of
Limulus is found in the fact that a cartilaginous bar external to the branchie
exists in each one of the branchial appendages of Limulus, to which some of the
branchial muscles are attached in precisely the same way as in Ammoceetes. The
branchial cartilages of Limulus (see fig. 4) spring from the entapophyses and form
strong cartilaginous bars which are extra-branchial in position, just as in Ammo-
coetes, in addition to each branchial bar, a cartilaginous ligament passes from one
entapophysis to another, so as to form a longitudinal or entapophysial ligament,
more or less cartilaginous, which extends on each side along the length of the
mesosoma. In precisely the same way the branchial bars of Ammoccetes are
joined together along each side of the notochord by a ligamentous band of more
or less continuous cartilaginous tissue, forming a subchordal or parachordal carti-
laginous ligament.
Further, we see that this cartilage of Limulus is of a very striking structure,
quite different from that of vertebrate cartilage, and that it is formed in a fibro-
massive tissue which, like the matrix of the cartilage, gives a deep purple stain
with thionin, thus showing the presence of some form of chondro-mucoid. This
fibro-massive tissue is closely connected with the chitinogenous cells of the entapo-
hyses.
arene is it to find that the branchial cartilages of Ammoccetes possess
identically the same structure as the cartilages of Limulus; that the branchial
cartilages are formed in a fibro-massive tissue which, like the matrix of the cartilage,
gives a deep purple stain with thionin, and that this fibro-massive tissue, to which
Schneider! gives the name of muco-cartilage, or Vorknorpel, entirely disappears at
transformation.
Further, according to Shipley,” the cartilaginous skeleton of the Ammoccetes
when first formed consists simply of a series of straight branchial bars, springing
from a series of cartilaginous pieces arranged bilaterally along the notochord.
The formation of the trabecule, of the auditory capsules, of the crossbars to
form the branchial basket-work, all occur subsequently, so that exactly those parts
which alone exist in Limulus are those parts which alone exist at an early stage in
Ammoceetes. Another distinction is manifest between these branchial cartilages
and those of the trabecule and auditory capsules, in that the latter do not stain in
the same manner; whereas the matrix of the branchial cartilages stains red with
picro-carmine, that of the trabeculze and auditory capsules stains deep yellow, so
that the junction between the trabecule and the first branchial bar is well marked
by the transition from the one to the other kind of staining. The difference cor-
responds to Parker’s * soft and hard cartilage.
The new cartilages which are formed at transformation, either in places where
muco-cartilage exists before or by the invasion of the fibrous tissue of the brain-
case by chondroblasts, are all of the hard cartilage variety.
The phylogenetic, anatomical, and ontogenetic history of the formation of the
1 Schneider, Betirdge z. Anat. u. Entnicklungsgesch. der Wirbelthiere. Berliv.
1879.
2 Shipley, Quart. Journ. of Micr. Sci. 1887.
8 Parker, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1883.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, 957
vertebrate skeleton all show how the bony skeleton is formed from the cartilaginous,
and how the cartilaginous skeleton can be traced back to that found in Petromyzon,
and so to the still simpler form found in Ammoccetes ; from this, again, we can pass
directly to the cartilaginous skeleton of Limulus, and so finally trace back the
cranial skeleton of the vertebrate to its commencement in the modified chitinous
ingrowths connected with the entapophyses of Limulus. A similar explanation of
the origin of cartilage from modifications of the chitinous ingrowths of Limulus
was suggested by Gegenbauer! so long ago as 1858, in consideration of the near
chemical resemblances between the chitin and mucin groups of substances.
Comparison of the Thyroid and Hyo-branchial Appendage of Ammocetes
with the Opercular Appendage of Eurypterus, Thelyphonus, ée.
Meaning of the VIIth Nerve.
Seeing, then, how easily the IXth and Xth nerves in Ammoccetes correspond
to the mesosomatic nerves to the branchial appendages in Limulus, and therefore
to the corresponding nerves in such an animal as Eurypterus, we may with con-
fidence proceed to the consideration of the VIIth nerve, and anticipate that it will
be found to innervate a mesosomatic appendage in front of the branchial appendages,
and yet belonging to the branchial group; in other words, if the VIIth nerve is to
fit into the scheme, it ought to innervate a structure or structures corresponding
to the operculum of Limulus or of Thelyphonus, &c. Now we see in figs. 5 and8
the nature of the operculum in Eurypterus and in Thelyphonus, Phrynus, &c. It is
in reality composed of two parts, a median and anterior portion which bears on its
under surface the external genital organs, and a posterior part which bears branchie ;
so that the operculum of these animals may be considered as a genital operculum
fused to a branchial appendage, and therefore double. It is absolutely startling to
find that the branchial segment immediately in front of the glosso-pharyngeal seg-
ment in Ammoceetes (fig. 3) consists of two parts, of which the posterior, the
hyo-branchial, is gill-bearing, while the anterior carries on its under surface the
pseudo-branchial groove of Dohrn, which continues as a ciliated groove up to the
opening of the thyroid gland.
Again, the comparison of the ventral surfaces of Kurypterus and Ammoccetes
(of. fig. 8) brings to light a complete coincidence of position between the
median tongue of the operculum in the one animal and the median plate of muco-
cartilage in the other animal, which separates in so remarkable a manner the
cartilaginous basket-work of each side, and bears on its under surface the thyroid
gland. Finally, Miss Alcock has shown that not only the hyo-branchial, but also
the thyroid part of this segment, is innervated by the VIIth nerve; so that every
argument which has forced us to the conclusion that the elosso-pharyngeal and
vagus nerves are the nerves which originally supplied branchial appendages equally
points to the conclusion that the facial nerve originally supplied the opercular
appendage—an appendage which closed the branchial chamber in front, which con-
sisted of two parts, a branchial and a genital, probably indicating the fusion of
two segments ; and that the thyroid gland belonged to the genital operculum, just as
the branchize belonged to the branchial operculum. This interpretation of the parts
supplied by the facial nerve immediately explains why Dohrn is so anxious to make
a thyroid segment in front of the branchial segments, and why a controversy is still
going on as to whether the facial supplies two segments or one.
What, then, is the thyroid gland? Of all the organs found in the vertebrate,
with perhaps the single exception of the pineal eye, there is no one which so
clearly is a relic of the invertebrate ancestor as the thyroid gland. This gland,
important as it is known to be in the higher vertebrates, remains of much the
same type of structure down to the fishes, and even to Petromyzon; suddenly,
when we pass to the Ammoceetes, to that larval condition so pregnant with inver-
tebrate surprises, we find that the thyroid has become a large and important organ,
1 Gegenbauer, ‘ Anat. Untersuch. eines Limulus,’ Abhandl. dex Naturf. Gesclisey.
an Halle, 1858.
958 ; REPORT—1896,
totally different in structure from the thyroid of all other vertebrates, though
resembling the endostyl of the Tunicates.
The thyroid of Ammoccetes may be described as a long tube, curled up at its
posterior end, which contains in its wall, along the whole of its length, a peculiar
glandular structure, confined to a small portion of its wall.
A section through this tube is given in fig. 7, and shows how this glandular
structure possesses no alveoli, no ducts, but consists of a column of elongated cells
arranged in a wedge-shaped manner, the apex of the wedge being in the lumen
of the tube; each cell contains a spherical nucleus, situated at the very extreme
MUCO-CARTILAGE OPERCULUM
BRANCHIAL Zs
Thyroid (Ammoccetes). Thyroid (Scorpion),
end of the cell, farthest away from the lumen of the tube. Such a structure is
different form that of any other vertebrate gland. Its secretion is not in any way
evident. It certainly does not secrete mucus or take part in digestion, and for a
long time I was unable to find any structure which resembled it in the least
degree, apart, of course, from the endostyl of the Tunicates.
Guided, however, by the considerations already put forward, and feeling
therefore convinced that in Eurypterus there must have been a structure re-
sembling the thyroid gland underneath the median projection of the operculum,
I proceeded to investigate the nature of the terminal genital apparatus under-
lying the operculum in the different members of the scorpion family, and reproduce
here (fig. 8) the figures given by Blanchard ! of the appearance of the terminal male
genital organs in Phrynus and Thelyphonus. Emboldened by the striking appear-
ance of these figures, I proceeded to cut sections through the operculum ot the
European scorpion, and found that that part of the genital duct which underlies
the operculum, and that part only, contains within its walls a glandular structure
which resembles the thyroid gland of Ammoccetesin a remarkable degree. A section
is represented in fig. 7, and we see that under the operculum in the middle line is
situated a tube, the walls of which in one part on each side are thickened by the
formation of a gland with long cells of the same kind as those of the thyroid; the
nucleus is spherical, and situated at the farther end of the cell, and the cells are
arranged in wedges, so that the extremities of each group of cells come to a point
on the surface of the inner lining of the tube. This point is marked by a small
round opening in the internal chitinous lining of the tube. ‘These cells form a
column along the whole length of the tube, just as in the thyroid gland, so that
the chitinous lining along that column is perforated by numbers of small round
1 Blanchard, L’ Organisation du Régne Animal.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 959
Fig. 8 —Comparison of the Ventral Surface of the Branchial Region.
THELYPHONUS. EURYPTERUS,
960 REPORT—1896.
AMMOCGTESs,
In all figures the opereular appendage is marked out by its dotted appearance.
holes, This glandular structure is not confined to the male scorpion, but is found
also in the female, though not so well developed.
So characteristic is the structure, so different from anything else, that I have no
hesitation in saying that the thyroid of Ammoccetes is the same structurally as the
thyroid of the scorpion, and that, therefore, in all probability the median projection
of the operculum in the old forms of scorpions, such as Kurypterus, Pterygotus,
Slimonia, &c., covered a glandular tube of the same nature as the thyroid of
Ammoceetes,
We see, then, that the structures innervated by the VIIth, IXth, and Xth
nerves are absolutely concordant with the view that the primitive vertebrate
respiratory chamber was formed from the mesosomatic appendages of such a form
as Limulus by a slight modification of the method by which the respiratory
apparatus of Thelyphonus and other Arachnids has been formed, according to
acleod. The anterior limit of this chamber was formed by the operculum, the
basal part of which formed a septum which originally separated the branchial from
the oral chamber.
Comparison of the Oral Chamber of Ammoceetes with that of Burypterus.
Meaning of the Vth Nerve.
Passing now to the oral chamber—zi.. to the visceral structures innervated by
the Vth nerve—we find, as already suggested, distinct evidence in Ammoceetes of
the presence of the modified prosomatic appendages of the original Eurypterus-
like form. The large velar appendage is the least modified, possessing as it does
the arthropod tubular muscles, a blood system of lacunar blood-spaces, and a
surface covered with a regular scale-like pattern, formed by cuticular nodosities,
similar to that found on the surface of Eurypterus and other scorpions. The
velar appendages show, further, that they are serially homologous with the re-
spiratory appendages, in that they have been utilised to assist in respiration, their
movements being synchronous with the respiratory movements.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 961
The separate part of the Vth nerve which supplies the velar appendage passes
within it from the dorsal to the ventral part of the animal, and then, as Miss
Alcock has shown, turns abruptly forward to supply the large median tentacle.
This extraordinary course leads directly to the conclusion that this median
tentacle, which is in reality double, constitutes, with the velum of each side, the
true velar appendages.
Again, on each side of the middle line there are in Ammoceetes four large
tentacles, each of which possesses a system of muscles, muco-cartilage, and blood-
spaces, precisely similar to the median ventral tentacle already mentioned. Each
of these is supplied, as Miss Alcock has shown, by a separate branch of the
motor part of the Vth nerve (see fig. 6), and each branch is comparable with the
branch supplying the large velar appendage.
That such tentacles are not mere sensory papillz surrounding the mouth, but
have a distinct and important morphological meaning, is shown by the fact that
they are transformed in the adult Petromyzon into the remarkable tongue and
suctorial apparatus: a modification of oral appendages into a suctorial apparatus
which is abundantly common among Arthropods.
Finally, the Vth nerve innervates the visceral muscles of the lower and
upper lips of Ammoccetes. In order, then, for the story to be complete, the
homologues of the lower and upper lips must also be found in the system of
prosomatic appendages of forms like Limulus and Eurypterus. The lower lip,
like the opercular or thyroid appendage, possesses a plate of muco-cartilage, and,
as already mentioned, falls into its natural place as the metastoma of the old
Eurypterus-like form, by the enlargement and forward growth of which the oral
chamber of Ammoccetes was formed. The meaning of the upper lip will be con-
sidered with the consideration of the old mouth tube. The comparison of the
metastoma of Eurypterus with the lower lip of Ammoccetes demonstrates the
close resemblance between the oral chambers of Eurypterus and Ammoccetes. In
order to obtain the condition of affairs in Ammoccetes from that in Eurypterus, it
is only necessary that the metastoma should increase in size, and that the last
oral appendage, the large oar-appendage, should follow the example of the other
oral appendages, and be withdrawn into the oral cavity, and so form the velar
appendage.
Thus we see that, just as the mesosomatic appendages of Limulus can be traced
into the branchial and thyroid appendages of Ammoccetes through the inter-
mediate stage of forms similar to Eurypterus, so also the prosomatic appendages
and chilaria of Limulus can be traced into the velar and tentacular appendages
and lower lip of Ammoccetes through the intermediate stage of forms similar to
Eurypterus.
3. Lastly comes the ontogenetic test. The concordant interpretation of the
origin of the motor part of the Vth, of the VIIth, IXth, and Xth nerves giver by
the anatomical and phylogenetic tests must explain and be illustrated by the facts
of the development of Ammoccetes.
We see :—
1. The oral chamber of Ammoccetes is known in its early stage by the name ot
the stomatodeum, and we find, as might be anticipated, that it is completely
separated at first from the branchial chamber by the septum of the stomatodzum.
2. This septum is the embryological representative of the basal part of the
operculum, and demonstrates that originally the operculum separated the oral and
branchial chambers,
3. Subsequently these two chambers are put into communication by the break-
ing through of this septum, illustrating the communication between the two
chambers by the separation of the median basal parts of the operculum.
4, The velar appendages, the tentacular appendages, the lower lip, all form as
out-buddings, just as the homologous locomotor appendages are formed in arthropods.
5. The branchial bars are not formed by a series of inpouchings in a tube of
uniform thickness, but, as Shipley! has pointed out, by a series of ingrowths at
» Loe. cit.
962 - REPORT—1896.
regular intervals ; in other words, the embryological history represents a series of
buddings—?.e. appendages within the branchial chamber similar to the buddings
within the oral chamber—and does not indicate the formation of gill-pouches by
the thinning of an original thick tube at definite intervals.
6. The communication of the branchial chamber with the exterior by the
formation of the gill-slits represents a stage in the ancestral history which is con-
ceivable, but cannot at present be explained with the same certainty as most of the
embryological facts of vertebrate development. I can only say that Striibel? has
pointed out, and I can confirm him, that after the young Thelyphonus has left the
ege, and is on its mother’s back, before the moult which gives it the same form as
the adult, the gills and gill-pouches are fully formed, but do not as yet communi-
cate with the exterior.
7. The branchial cartilages in the Ammoccetes are formed distinctly before the
auditory capsules and trabeculee, illustrative of the fact that they alone are formed
in Limulus.
Comparison of the Auditory Apparatus of Ammocetes with the Flabellum
of Limulus. Meaning of the VILIth Nerve.
The correctness of a theory is tested in two ways:—(1) It must explain all
known facts; and (2) it ought to bring to light what is as yet unknown, and the
more it leads to the discovery of new facts, the more certain is it that the theory
is true. So far, we see that the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of the body in
Limulus and the scorpions are comparable with the corresponding regions of
Ammocecetes as far as their locomotor and branchial appendages are concerned, and
that, therefore, a satisfactory explanation is given of the peculiarities of the Vth,
VIilth, 1Xth, and Xth nerves. In all vertebrates, however, there is invariably
found a special nerve, the VIIIth nerve, entirely confined to the innervation of the
special sense-organs of the auditory apparatus. It follows, therefore, that if my
theory is true the VIIIth nerve must be found in such forms as Limulus and its
allies, and that, therefore, a special sense-organ, probably auditory in nature, must
exist between the prosomatic and mesosomatic appendages, at the very base of the
last prosomatic appendage. At present we know nothing about the nature or
locality of the hearing apparatus of Limulus. It is, therefore, all the more in-
teresting to find that in the very position demanded by the theory, at the base of
the last prosomatic appendage, is found a large hemispherical organ, to which a
movable spatula-like process is attached, known by the name of the flabellum.
This organ is confined to the base of this limb; it is undoubtedly a special sense-
organ, being composed mainly of nerves, in connection with an elaborate arrange-
ment of cells and innumerable fine hairs, which are thickly imbedded in the chitin
of the upper surface of the spatula. The arrangement of these cells and hairs is
somewhat similar to that of various sense-organs described by Gaubert,? and
supposed to be auditory. When the animal is at rest this sensory surface projects
upwards and backwards into the crack between the prosomatic and mesosomatic
carapaces, so that while the eyes only permit a look-out forwards and sidewards,
and the whole animal is lying half buried in the sand, any vibrations in the water
around can still pass through this open crevice, and so reach the sensory surface of
this organ.
Finally, the most striking and complete evidence that this sense-organ of
Limulus is homologous with the auditory capsule of Ammoccetes is found in the
fact that m each case the nerve is accompanied into the capsule by a diverticulum
of the liver and generative organs. (See dotted substance in figs, 4 and 6.) In
Limulus the liver and generative organs, which surround the central nervous system
from one end of the body to the other, do not penetrate into any of the appendages,
with the single exception of the flabellum.
In Ammoceetes the peculiar glandular and pigmented tissue which surrounds
' Striibel, Zool. Anzeiger, vol. xv. 1892.
* Gaubert, Ann. d. Sci. Nat., Zool., Tth ser., tome 13, 1892.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 963
the brain and spinal cord, and has already been recognised as the remains of the
liver and generative organs, does not penetrate into the velar or other appendages,
but is found only in the auditory capsule, where it enters with and partly surrounds
the auditory nerve.
The coincidence is so startling and unexpected as to bring conviction to my
mind that in the flabel/um of Limulus we are observing the origin of the vertebrate
auditory apparatus ; and it is, to say the least of it, suggestive that in Galeodes the
last locomotor appendage should carry the extraordinary racquet-shaped organs
which Gaubert has shown to be sense-organs of a special character, and that in the
scorpion a large special sense-organ of a corresponding character, viz. the pecten,
should be found which, from its innervation, as given by Patten,! appears to belong
to the segment immediately anterior to the operculum, rather than to that imme-
diately posterior to it.
Comparison of the Olfactory Organ of Ammocetes with the Camerostome of
Thelyphonus. Meaning of the Ist Nerve. Also comparison of the
Hypophysis with the Mouth-tube of Thelyphonus.
In precisely the same way as the theory has led to the discovery of a special
sense-organ in Limulus and its allies which may well be auditory, so also it must
lead to the discovery of the olfactory apparatus of the same group, for here also, just
as in the case of the auditory apparatus, we are at present entirely in the dark.
The olfactory organ in such an animal as Thelyphonus ought to be innervated
from the supra-cesophageal ganglia, and ought to be situated in the middle line, in
front of the mouth. The mouth is at the anterior end in these animals, the lower
lip or hypostoma (see fig. 9) being formed by the median projecting flanges of the
basal joints of the two pedipalpi; above, in the middle line, is a peculiar median
appendage called the camerostome. Still more dorsal we find in the median line
the rostrum, with the median eyes near its extremity, and laterally on each side of
the camerostome, and dorsal to it, are situated the powerful chelicerze, which are
considered by some authorities to represent antennze. Of these parts the camero-
stome is certainly innervated from the supra-cesophageal ganglia, and upon cutting
sagittal and transverse sections in a very young Thelyphonus we find that the
surface is remarkably covered with very fine sense-hairs, arranged with great regu-
larity and connected with a conspicuous mass of large cells. Upon making trans-
verse sections through this region we see that the camerostome projects into the
orifice of the mouth, and that its sense-epithelium forms, together with a similar
epithelium on the lower lip, a closed cavity surrounded by a thick hedge of fine
hairs. Here, then, in the camerostome of Thelyphonus 1s a special sense-organ
which, from its position and its innervation, may well be olfactory in function, or at
all events subserve the function of taste.
Upon comparing this organ with the olfactory organ of Ammoccetes we see a
most striking resemblance in general arrangement and structure.
Just as the mouth tube of Thelyphonus is formed of two parts, the pedipalp and
camerostome, so, according to Kuppfer, the nasal tube of Ammoccetes is composed
of two parts, the upper lip and the olfactery protuberance. Of these two parts
we see that the upper lip, or hood, like the pedipalp, is innervated by the Vth nerve,
or nerve of the prosomatic appendages, while the olfactory protuberance, like the
camerostome, is innervated by the Ist nerve. Kuppfer’s investigations show us
further (fig. 9) how the olfactory protuberance is at first free, is directed
ventralwards, and lies at the opening of the hypophysial tube ; how afterwards, by
the forward and upward growth of the upper lip to form the hood, the nasal tube
is formed, with the result that the nasal opening lies on the dorsal surface just in
front of the pineal eye. Kuppfer, like Dohrn and Beard, looks upon this hypo-
physial tube as indicating the paleeostoma, or original mouth of the vertebrate, a
view which harmonises absolutely with my theory, and receives the simplest of
explanations from it, for, as you see on the screen, sections through the mouth tuhe
' Patten, Quart. Jown. of Mier. Sci. vol. xxxi. 1890.
964 REPORT—1896.
of Thelyphonus correspond absolutely with sections through the nasal tube of
Ammoceetes; here in the one section is the projecting camerostome, there is the
corresponding projection of the olfactory protuberance, here is the sense-epithelium
of the lower lip or hypostoma, there is the sense-epithelium of the upper lip or
hood. Here, as fig. 9 shows, the mouth tube passes in the ventral middle
line to where it turns dorsalwards into the middle of the conjoined nervous mass
Fie. 9.
JOTOCHORD
NOTOCHORD —S
Oral Cuma
tee ec
A.—Median sagittal section through head of young Thelyphonus.
B— ,, 5. a Pe a ES Ammoceete (after Kuppfer).
C- 4, A t, ig » full-grown Ammoccete (after Kuppfer.)
of the supra- and infra-cesophageal ganglia. There the nasal tube ends blindly at
the spot where the infundibular tube lies on the surface of the brain.
Further, the topography of corresponding parts is absolutely the same in the
two animals: in the dorsal middle line the rostrum, with the two median eyes near
its extremity ; in the corresponding position the two pineal eyes ; below this, in the
middle line, the camerostome: corresponding to it in the Ammoceetes the olfactory
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 965
protuberance; then the modification of the median projections of the foremost
ventral appendages—the pedipalpi—to form the hypostoma, in the corresponding
position the upper lip or hood of Ammoccetes, which forms the hypostoma as far
as the hypophysial tube or palzostoma is concerned, but an upper lip as far as the
new mouth is concerned. The muscles of this upper lip belong all to the splanch-
nic and not to the somatic group, and are innervated by the appropriate nerve of
the prosomatic appendages, viz. the motor part of the Vth. Ventral to the pedi-
palpi in Thelyphonus there is nothing, ventral to the corresponding lip in the
Ammoceetes is the lower lip, and we have seen that, although such a structure is
absent in the land scorpions of the present day, it was present in the sea scorpions
of old time, was known as the metastoma, and is supposed to be a forward growth
which started at the junction of the prosoma with the mesosoma. Precisely corre-
sponding to this we see from Kuppfer that the lower lip of Ammoccetes is a forward
growth from the junction of the stomatodeum with the respiratory chamber.
We see then, so far, that the comparison of the vertebrate nervous system
with the conjoined central nervous system and alimentary canal of the arthropod
has led to a perfectly consistent explanation of almost all the peculiarities of the
head region of Ammoccetes. We have solved the segmentation of the skull and the
mysteries of the cranial nerves, for we have found that the cranial segmentation of
the vertebrate can be reduced to the segmentation of the prosomatic and mesoso-
matic regions of the Limulus, that the cranial skeleton arose from the modified
internal chitinous skeleton of the Limulus, that the new mouth was formed by the
forward growth of the metastoma, leading to the formation of an oral chamber,
while the old mouth remained as the hypophysial tube, guarded by its olfactory
and taste organs.
Search as we may in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of scorpion-like
animals, there are but few points left for elucidation; among these the most
important are, 1, the fate of the coelomic cavities and coxal gland ; 2, the fate of
the heart ; 3, the fate of the external chitinous covering.
Comparison of the Head Cavities of the Vertebrate with the Prosomatic
and Mesosomatic Celomic Spaces of Limulus.
A recent paper by Kishinouye ' on the development of Limulus enables us to
compare the coelomic cavities in the head region of a vertebrate with those of the
prosomatic and mesosomatic segments of Limulus, and we see that the comparison is
wonderfully close ; for whereas each mesosomatic segment possesses a coelomic cavity,
just as each of the segments of the branchial chamber supplied by the vagus, glosso-
pharyngeal, and facial nerves possesses a coelomic cavity, this is not the case with the
prosomatic segments. In these latter the first coelomic cavity isa large preeoral one,
common to the segment of the first appendage and all the segments in front of it;
the segments belonging to the second, third, and fourth appendages have no coelomic
cavities formed in them, the second ccelomic cavity belongs to the segment of the
fifth appendage. Similarly in the vertebrate in the region corresponding to the
prosoma there are only two head cavities recognised, viz. the Ist przoral head
cavity of Balfour and V. Wijhe ; and 2nd or mandibular head cavity, associated
especially with the Vth nerve. According to my view the motor part of the Vth
nerve represents the locomotor prosomatic appendages of Limulus, and we see
that already in Limulus the three foremost of these appendages do not form
cceelomic cavities.
In fact, the agreement in the formation and position of the ccelomic cavities in
the head region of the vertebrate and in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions
of Limulus could not well be more exact; further, these cavities agree in this, that
in neither case are they permanent; both in the vertebrate and in the arthropod
they are supplanted by vascular spaces.
1 Kishinouye, Jowrn. of Coll. of Sci. Tokio, vol. v. 1891.
966 REPORT—1896,
Comparison of the Pituitary Gland with the Coxal Gland of Limulus.
In connection with the second ccelomic cavity in Limulus is found an ancient
gland, partially degenerated according to some views, which was probably excretory
in function and has been considered as homologous to the crustacean green glands.
In a precisely corresponding position, and presenting a structure fairly similar to
that of the coxal gland of Limulus, we find in Ammoccetes and in other vertebrates
the pituitary gland. How far this gland tissue is developed in connection with
the mandibular head cavity I do not know, but I venture to suggest that the
complete evidence of its homology with the coxal gland will be found in its
developmental connection with the walls of the 2nd or mandibular head
cavity.
Comparison of the Vertebrate Heart and Ventral Aorta with the Ventral
Longitudinal Branchial Sinuses of Limulus and its Allies.
The heart of the vertebrate presents two striking peculiarities, which make it
different from all invertebrate hearts: first, its developmental history is different;
and, secondly, it is at first essentially a branchial rather than a systemic heart.
The researches of Paul Mayer ! have shown that the subintestinal vein, from which
in the fishes the heart and ventral aorta arise, is in its origin double, so that in all
vertebrates the heart and ventral aorta arise from two long veins which are
originally situated on each side of the middle line. By the formation of the head
fold these come together ventrally, coalesce into a single tube to form the
subintestinal vein and heart, still remaining double as the two ventral aortz
with their branchial branches into each gill, as is well shown in the case of
Ammoceetes.
It is a striking coincidence that in Limulus and the Scorpions two large
venous collecting sinuses are found situated in the same ventral position, for the
same purpose of sending blood to the branchiw, as already described for the
vertebrate ; still more striking is it to find, according to the researches of Milne
Edwards and Blanchard, that these longitudinal sinuses have already begun to
function as branchial hearts, for they are connected with the pericardium by a system
of transparent muscles, described by Milne Edwards and named by Lankester veno-
pericardiac muscles. These muscles are hollow, both near the vein and near the
pericardium, so that the blood in each case fills the cavity, and, as they contract
with the heart, that part of them in connection with the venous collecting sinus
already functions, as pointed out by Milne Edwards and Blanchard, as a branchial
heart.
By this theory, then, even the formation of the vertebrate heart is prevised in
Limulus, and I venture to think that in Ammoccetes we see the remnant of the
old dorsal single heart of the arthropod in the form of that peculiar elongated
organ composed of fattily degenerated tissue which lies between the spinal cord
and the dorsal median skin.
Comparison of the Cuticular and Laminated Layers of the Skin of
Ammocetes with Chitinous Layers.
The external epithelial cells of Ammoccetes possess a remarkably thick cuticular
layer. The striated appearance of this layer is due to a number of pores through
which the glandular contents of the cells are poured when the surface is made to
secrete. That this striated appearance is due to true porous canals, just as in
chitin, and not to a series of rods, is easily seen by the inspection of sections, and
also by watching the secretion through them of rose-coloured granules when the
living cell is stained with methylene blue. The surface layer of this cuticular
layer, according to Wolff, resists reagents in the same manner as chitin.
» Mayer, Mitth. a. d. Zool. St. zu Neapel, vol. vii.
2 Wolff, Jen. Zeitsehr. vol. xxiii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 967
Internal to the epithelial cells of the skin of Ammoccetes is a remarkable
layer of tissue, generally called connective tissue. It resembles, however, histo-
logically, in the Ammoccetes, a section through chitin most closely ; the layers
are perfectly regular and parallel; cells are found in it with great sparseness, and
it is not until after transformation, when it is altered and invaded by new cell
elements, that it can be looked upon as at all resembling connective tissue. It
resembles chitin in its reaction to hypochlorite of soda. In order to completely
dissect off this laminated layer from an Ammoceetes, all that is necessary is to
place the animal in a weak solution of hypochlorite of soda, and in a short time it
entirely disappears, bringing to view the muscles, branchial cartilages, pigment,
front dorsal part of the central nervous system, &c., in a most striking manner.
At present I am puzzled that so manifest a chitinous covering should lie internal
to the epithelial cells of the surface; such a position is not, however, unknown
among invertebrates, and may be accounted for in various ways.
For the sake of clearness I will sum up before you in the form of a table the
corresponding parts in Ammoccetes and in Limulus and its allies, as far as I have
discussed them up to the present, from which you will see that there is not a
single organ which is present in the prosomatic and mesosomatic regions of
Limulus and its allies which is not found in the corresponding situation and of
corresponding structure in Ammoccetes.
Table of Coincidences between Limulus and its Allies, and between
Ammocetes and Vertebrates.
LIMULUS AND ITS ALLIES. AMMOC@TES AND VERTEBRATES.
Central Nervous System.
Supra-cesophageal ganglia. . Cevebral hemispheres.
Optic part. ; H . Optic thalami, ganglia habenule, &c.
Olfactory part é : . Olfactory l»bes.
(Esophageal commissures . - Crura cerebri.
Infra-cesophageal ganglia. . Epichordal brain.
Prosomatic ganglia P - Hind brain, cerebellum, post-corp. quadrig.
Mesosomatic ganglia, - Medulla oblongata.
Ventral chain.
Metasomatic ganglia. - Spinal cord.
Alimentary Canal.
Cephalic stomach , ° ° . Ventricular cavities of brain.
Straight intestine e : - Central canal of spinal cord.
Terminal part 2 : . Neurenteric canal.
Qsophagus . : 5 : . Infundibular tube and saccus vasculosus.
Mouth tube . F : ‘ . Hypophysial tube, later nasal canal.
Liver . . Part of subarachnoideal glandular tissue.
Appendages and Appendage Nerves.
Prosomatic or locomotor append-
ages . Pp : “ . Appendages of oral chamber or stoma-
todzum.
Foremost appendages . - Upper lip and tentacles.
Last appendages , - - Velar appendage and median ventral
tentacle.
Metastoma . : : - Lower lip.
Nerves of prosomatic appendages. Various branches of Vth nerve.
Mesosomatic or branchial append-
ages . A - : . Appendages of branchial chamber.
Opercular appendages . . Appendage innervated by VIIth nerve.
Genital part . : . ‘Thyroid glandand pseudo-branchial groove.
Branch. part . i - Hyobranchial.
Basal part - : . Septum of stomatodzum.
Branchial appendages Branchial appendages innervated by IXth
and Xth nerves.
Speciai Sense Organs and Nerves.
Lateral eyes and optic nerves . Lateral eyes and optic nerves.
Median eyes and nerves j . Pineal eyes and nerves.
968
Camerostoma and olfactory nerves
Flabellum and nerve
REPORT—1896.
Olfactory organ and Ist nerve.
Auditory organ and VIIIth nerve.
Epimeral nerves to surface of pro-
soma and mesosoma >
Internal and External Skeleton.
Internal skeleton.
Branchial cartilages .
Entapophysial cartilaginous
ligaments
Fibro-massive tissue (fore-
runner of cartilage or
‘ Vorknorpel’).
External skeleton.
Chitinous layer
Sensory part of Vth nerve.
Branchial cartilages.
Subchordal cartilaginous ligaments.
Muco-cartilage or ‘ Vorknorpel.’
Cuticular layer on surface of body and
subepithelial laminated layer.
Excretory Organs and Calomic
Cavities.
Coxal gland .
Ist head cavity, preoral
2nd head cavity. Cavity of pro-
somatic segments
Cavities to each mesosomatic
segment. : .
Heart and Vascular System.
Dorsal heart . ;
Longitudinal venous sinuses | ‘
Lacunar blood spaces of ap-
pendages . . : ‘
Pituitary gland.
Ist head cavity, proral.
2nd head cavity, mandibular.
Cavities of hyoid and branchial segments.
Column of fatty tissue dorsal to spinal cord.
Heart and ventral aorte.
Lacunar blood spaces in velar and
branchial appendages.
The Possible Meaning of the Notochord.
Although we can say that every structure and organ in the prosomatic and
mesosomatic regions of Limulus, &c., is to be found in the head region of Ammo-
coetes, we cannot assert the reverse proposition, that every organ in the head region
of Ammocecetes is to be found in Limulus, &c., for we find a notable exception in
the case of the notochord, a structure which is par excellence a vertebrate structure,
and has in consequence given the current name to the group. Such a structure is
clearly not to be found in Limulus and its allies; it has evidently arisen in connec-
tion with the formation of the vertebrate alimentary canal from the oral and
branchial chambers, and it evidently at one time possessed a functional significance,
for the lower we descend in the vertebrate scale the more conspicuous it becomes.
Unfortunately we know nothing of the condition of the notochord in the early
extinct fishes, so that we are reduced to the embryological method of enquiry in our
endeavours to find out the meaning of this organ. This method appears to point
to the origin of the notochord from a tube connected with the alimentary canal,
originally “therefore an accessory digestive tube; the reasons why such a view has
been put forward are, first, the origin of the notochord from hypoblast ; secondly,
the evidence that it is to a certain extent tubular; and thirdly, that it is an
unsegmented tube extending from the oral to the anal regions of the body.
Another argument, to my mind stronger than any other, is based on the principle
that nature repeats herself, and if, therefore, we find the same proliferation of
cells in the same place forming a series of solid notochordal rods, we may fairly
argue that we are observing a series of repetitions of the same process for the same
object. Now the formation of the head region of Petromyzon shows that at first
a median proliferation of hypoblastic cells occurs to form the notochord, which
then separates off from the hypoblast; later on a similar proliferation takes place
to form the subnotochordal rod, which similarly separates off from the hypoblast ;
later still, at the time of transformation, a third median proliferation of the cells of
the hypoblast takes place, to form a solid rod of cells. This solid rod then com-
mences to hollow out at the end nearest the intestine, and the hollowing out
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 969
process extends gradually to the oral end, until a hollow tube is formed connecting
the mouth with the intestine. In this way the new gut of the adult Petromyzon
is formed from a solid median rod of cells closely resembling in its formation the
original notochord.
I put it forward therefore as a suggestion, that in the ancient times when the
Merostomata were lords of creation and the competition was keen among these
ancient arthropod forms, in which the nervous system was so arranged that
increase of brain substance tended more and more to compress the food channel,
and therefore to compel to the suction of liquid food instead of the mastication
of solid, accessory digestive apparatuses were formed, partly in connection
with the formation of the oral and respiratory chambers, and partly by means of
the formation of the notochord. Of these accessory methods of digestion the
former became permanent, while the latter becoming filled up with the peculiar
notochordal tissue became a supporting structure, still showing by its unsegmented
character its original function. That a tube formed from the external surface
either as notochord or as the respiratory portion of the alimentary canal in
Ammoccetes should be capable of acting as a digestive tube is clear from the
researches of Miss Alcock,’ for she has shown that the secretion of the skin of
Ammoceetes easily digests fibrin in the presence of acid. Such a secretion, like the
similar secretion of the carapace of Daphnia and other crustaceans, was originally
for the purpose of keeping the skin clean.
The evidence which I have put before you is in agreement with the conclusion
that the fore gut of the vertebrate arose gradually from a chamber formed by the
lamellar branchial appendages, which functioned also as a digestive chamber. By
the growth of the lower lip, or metastoma, and the modification of the basal portion
of the last locomotor appendage, which basal part was inside the lower lip, into a
valvular arrangement like the velum, the animal was able to close the opening into
the respiratory chamber and feed as blood-sucker in the way of the rest of its kind,
or, when living food was scarce, keep itself alive by the organic material taken into
its respiratory chamber with the muddy water in which it lived.
The Possible Formation of the Vertebrate Spinal Region.
It remains to briefly indicate the evidence as to the formation of the rest of the
alimentary canal and the spinal region of the body.
The problems connected with the formation of this region are of a different
nature from those already considered in connection with the cranial region.
In the cranial region the variation that has taken place within the verte-
brate group and in the course of the formation of the vertebrate is, on the
whole, of the nature called by Bateson substantive, ze. increase or suppression
ef parts, while throughout the parts remain constant in their relations to each
other. It matters not whether it is frog, fish, bird, or mammal we are considering ;
we always find the same cranial nerves supplying the same segments. When we
consider the spinal cord and its immediate junction with the cranial region, this
is no longer so; here we find a repetition of similar segments, with great variation
in the amount of that repetition ; here we find the characteristic feature is meristic
variation rather than substantive, and so indetermined is the vertebrate in this
respect that even now the same species of animal varies in the number of its
segments and in the arrangement of its nerves. In this part of the vertebrate
body this repetition is seen not only in the central nervous system and its nerves,
but also in the excretory organs, so that embryology teaches us that the vertebrate
body has grown in length by a series of repetitions of similar segments formed
between the head end and the tail end; such lengthening by repetition of segments
has been accompanied by the elongation of the unsegmented gut, of the unsegmented
notochord, and of the unsegmented neural canal,
To put it shortly, all the evidence points to and confirms the view so strongly
urged by Gegenbauer, that the head region is the oldest part and the spinal
: ' Alcock, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. vii. 1891,
1896. 3R
970 REPORT—1896.
region an afterthought, that the attempt so often made to find vertebre and spinal
nerves in the cranial region is an attempt to put the cart in front of the horse—to
obtain youth from old age. Wemay, it seems to me, fairly argue from the sequence
of events in the embryology of: vertebrates that the primitive vertebrate form was
chiefly composed of the head region, and that between the head and the tail was a
short body region. In other words, the respiratory chamber and the cloacal region
were originally close together, just as would be the casein Limulus if the branchial
appendages formed a closed chamber. According, then, to my view, there would
be no difficulty in the respiratory chamber opening originally into the cloacal
region, z.c. the same cloacal yegion into which the neurenteric canal already
opened. The short junction tube thus formed would naturally elongate with the
elongation of the body, and, as it originally was part of the respiratory chamber,
it equally naturally is innervated by the vagus nerve. This, then, is the explana-
tion of that most extraordinary fact, viz. that a nerve essentially branchial should
innervate the whole of the intestine except the cloacal region. Whether this is the
true explanation of the formation of the mid-gut of the vertebrate cannot be tested
directly, but certain corollaries ought to follow: we ought to find, on the ground
that the sequence of the phylogenetic history is repeated in the embryo, that,
1, the growth in length of the embryo takes place between the cranial and sacral
regions by the addition of new segments from the cranial end; 2, the formation
of the fore-gut and hind-eut ought to be completed while the mid-gut is still an
undifferentiated mass of yolk cells; 3. the cloacal region ought to be innervated
from the sacral nerves, while the stomach, mid-gut and its appendages, liver and
pancreas, ought to be innervated from the vagus.
The first proposition is a well-known embryological fact. The second pro-
position is also well known for all vertebrates, and is especially well exemplified in
the embryological development of Ammoccetes, according to Shipley. The third
proposition is also well known, and has received valuable enlargement in the recent
researches of Langley and Anderson.! Further, we see that in this part of the
body the ancestor of the vertebrate must have had a ccelomic cavity the walls of
which were innervated, not from the mesosomatic nerves or respiratory nerves, but
from the metasomatic group of nerves; and in connection with this body cavity
there must have existed a kidney apparatus, also innervated by the metasomatic
nerves; with the repetition of segments by which the elongation of the animal was
brought about the body cavity was elongated, and the kidney increased by the
repetition of similar excretory organs. All, then, that is required in the original
ancestor in order to obtain the permanent body cavity and urinary organs charac-
teristic of the vertebrate is to postulate the presence of a permanent body cavity in
connection with a single pair of urinary tubes in the metasomatic region of the
body. As yet I have not worked out this part of my theory, and am therefore
strongly disinclined to make any assertions on the subject. I should like, however,
to point out that, according to Kishinouye,”? a permanent body cavity does exist in
this part of the body in spiders, known by the name of the stercoral pocket; into
this coelomic cavity the excretory Malphigian tubes open.
The Paleontological Evidence,
It is clear, from what has already been said, that the paleeontological evidence
ought to show, first, that the vertebrates appeared when the waters of the ocean
were peopled with the forefathers of the Crustacea and Arachnida, and, secondly,
the earliest fish-like forms ought to be characterised by the presence of a large
cephalic part to which is attached an insignificant body and tail.
Such was manifestly the case, for the earliest fish-like forms appear in
the midst of and succeed to the great era of strange proto-crustacean animals,
when the sea swarmed with Trilobites, Eurypterus, Slimonia, Limulus,
Pterygotus, Ceratiocaris, and a number of other semi-crustacean, semi-arachnid
1 Langley and Anderson, Journ. of Physiology, vols. xviii. xix.
2 Kishinouye, Journ. of Coll. of Sci, Tokio, vol. iv. 1890, vol. vi. 1894,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 971
creatures. When we examine these ancient fishes we find such forms as Pteraspis,
Pterichthys, Astrolepis, Bothriolepis, Cephalaspis, all characterised by the enormous
disproportion between the extent of the head region and that of the body. Such
forms would have but small power of locomotion, and further evolution consisted
in gaining greater rapidity and freedom of movements by the elongation of the
abdominal and tail regions, with the result that the head region became less and
less prominent, until finally the ordinary fish-like form was evolved, in which the
head and gills represent the original head and branchial chamber, and the flexible
body, with its lateral line nerve and intestine innervated by the vagus nerve,
represents the original small tail-like body of such a form as Pterichthys.
Nay, more, the very form of Pterichthys and the nature of its two large oar-like-
appendages, which, according to Traquair, are hollow, like the legs of insects, sug-
gest a form like Eurypterus, in which the remaining locomotor appendages had
shrunk to tentacles, as in Ammoccetes, while the large oar-like appendages still
remained, coming out between the upper and lower lips and assisting locomotion.
The Ammoccetes-like forms which in all probability existed between the time of
Eurypterus and the time of Pterichthys have not yet been found, owing possibly
to the absence of chitin and of bone in these transition forms, unless we may
count among them the recent find by Traquair of Paleeospondylus Gunni.
The evidence of paleontology, as far as it goes, confirms absolutely the evi-
dence of anatomy, physiology, phylogeny, and embryology, and assists in forming
a perfectly consistent and harmonious account of the origin of vertebrates, the
whole evidence showing how Nature made a great mistake, how excellently she
rectified it, and thereby formed the new and mighty kingdom of the Vertebrata.
Consideration of Rival Theories.
Tn conclusion I would ask, What are the alternative theories of the origin of
vertebrates? It is a strange and striking fact how often, when a comparative
anatomist studies a particular invertebrate group, he is sure to find the vertebrate
at the end of it: it matters not whether it is the Nemertines, the Capitellide,
Balanoglossus, the Helminths, Annelids, or Echinoderms ; the ancestor of the verte-
brate is bound to be in that particular group. Verily I believe the Mollusca alone
have not yet found a champion. On the whole I imagine that two views are
most prominent at the present day—(1) to derive vertebrates from a group of
animals in which the alimentary canal has always been ventral to the nervous
system; and (2) to derive vertebrates from the appendiculate group of animals,
especially annelids, by the supposition that the dorsal gut of the latter has become
the ventral gut of the former by reversion of surfaces. Upon this latter theory,
whether it is Dohrn or van Beneden or Patten who attempts to homologise similar
parts, it is highly amusing to see the hopeless confusion into which they one and
all get, and the extraordinary hypotheses put forward to explain the fact that the
gut no longer pierces the brain. One favourite method is to cut off the most
important part of the animal, viz. his supra-cesophageal ganglia, then let the mouth
open at the anterior end of the body, turn the animal over, so that the gut is now
ventral, and let a new brain, with new eyes, new olfactory organs, grow forward
from the infra-cesophageal ganglia. Another ingenious method is to separate the
two supra-cesophageal ganglia, let the mouth tube sling round through the separated
ganglia from ventral to dorsal side, then join up the ganglia and reverse the
animal, The old attempts of Owen and Dohrn to pierce the dorsal part of the
brain with the gut tube either in the region of the pineal eye or of the fourth
ventricle have been given up as hopeless. Still the annelid theory, with its
reversal of surfaces, lingers on, even though the fact of the median pineal eye is.
sufficient alone to show its absolute worthlessness.
Then, as to the other view, what a demand does that make upon our credulity!
We are to suppose that a whole series of animals has existed on the earth, the
development of which has run parallel with that of the great group of appendiculate
animals, but throughout the group the nervous system has always been dorsal to
the alimentary canal. Of this great group no trace remains, either alive at the
3R2
972 REPORT—1896.
present day or in the record of the rocks, except one or two aberrant, doubtful
forms, and the group of Tunicates and Amphioxus, both of which are to be looked
upon as degenerate vertebrates, and indeed are more nearly allied to the Ammo-
ccetes than to any other animal. This hypothetical group does not attempt to
explain any of the peculiarities of the central nervous system of vertebrates; its
advocates, in the words of Lankester, regard the tubular condition of the central
nervous system as in its origin a purely developmental feature, possessing no
phylogenetic importance. Strange power of mimicry in nature, that a tube so
formed should mimic, in its terminations, in its swellings, in the whole of its topo-
graphical relations to the nervous masses surrounding it, the alimentary canal of
the other great group of segmented animals so closely as to enable me to put before
you so large a number of coincidences.
Just imagine to yourselves what we are required to believe! We are to
suppose that two groups of animals have diverged from a common stock some-
where in the region of the Ccelenterata, that each group has become segmented and
elongated, but that throughout their evolution the one group has possessed a
ventral mouth, with a ventral nervous system end a dorsal gut, while in the
other—the hypothetical group—the mouth and gut have throughout been ventral
and the nervous system dorsal. Then we are further to suppose that, without
being able to trace the steps of the process, the central nervous system in the final
members of this hypothetical group has taken on a tubular form of so striking a
character that every part of this dorsal nerye-tube can be compared to the dorsal
alimentary tube of the other great group of segmented animals. The plain,
straightforward interpretation of the facts is what I have put before you, and
those who oppose this interpretation and hold to the inviolability of the alimentary
canal are, it seems to me, bound to give asatisfactory explanation of the vertebrate
nervous system and pineal eye. The time is coming, and indeed has come, when
the fetish-worship of the hypoblast will give way to the acknowledgment that the
soul of every individual is to be found in the brain, and not in the stomach, and
that the true principle of evolution, without which no upward progress is possible,
consists in the steady upward development of the central nervous system.
In conclusion, I would like to quote a portion of the last letter which I ever
received from Professor Huxley ; his words, in reference to this very subject, were
as follows: ‘Go on and prosper, there is nothing in the world of science half so
good as an earthquake hypothesis, if it only serve to show the firmness of the
foundations on which we build.’ I have given you the earthquake hypothesis ; it
is for those of you who oppose my conclusions to prove the firmness of your
foundations.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Genesis of Vowels. By R. J. Luoyn, D.Lit., A.
After a general description of the vocal organs, the author classified vocal
sounds according to origin as follows :—
1. Glotial (originating from the glottis).
2. Stomatic (originating from the stoma, or voice-passage),
3. Glotto-stomatic (originating from both simultaneously).
Class 2 may also be called toneless; but the others always either possess tone or
are whispered. Class 2 cannot, strictly speaking, be either intoned or whispered.
The movable units of speech (corresponding roughly to the letters of the
alpbabet) are called phones, Phones are either vowels or consonants. The
received division is somewhat arbitrary. Any phone which is the most sonorous
phone in a syllable is the vowel of that syllable. There is hardly any phone
which does not function in some locution of some language asa vowel. In the
English words able, bitten, paddled, hadn't, 1 and n are yowels, but we are afraid
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 973
to call them so, because the Zatin grammar forbids it. It is clear from their
function that the best phones for vowels must always be the strongest phones.
The strongest phones all belong to Class 1, because here only does the larynx
vibrate with perfect freedom. But there are wide differences within this class.
The sounds of m, n, and 2g, issuing only through the nostrils, are obstructed by
insufficiency of exit, and the same applies to the sounds of J, untrilled 7, conso-
nantaly, and w, Thus good vowels are limited to glottal phones possessing a
sufficient exit.
There is still a further limitation. The number of possible vocalic articulations
is infinite. The number of articulations which produce vowels possessing a definite
individuality of timbre is very few. These are the useful vowels, the cardinal
vowels of human speech [Diagrams of the articulations of English long vowels
were here exhibited]. Vowels produced in other positions are much more feebly
differentiated to the ear. In a paper read at the Cardiff meeting in 1891, the
author laid down as the first law of vowel-production Like articulations produce
itke vowels in all organisms, great or small. He now discussed the converse pro-
position, and showed its limitations: (1) in different individuals, (2) in the same
individual on different occasions. He then discussed the differences between
sung and spoken vowels, and concluded by pointing out the occasional effects of
the uvula, the nose, and the trachea on vowels.
2. The Interpretation of the Phonograms of Vowels.
By R. J. Luoyp, D.Lit., WA.
Following up his papers ‘On the Analysis of Vowel-Sounds,’ read at Cardiff in
1891, and ‘On the Genesis of Vowels,’ read at the present Meeting, the author
proceeded to discuss the phonographic evidence which has become accessible in the
last five years, and the right principles of its interpretation. Their general result
is to confirm the theory then advanced by the author, that a given vowel is
essentially distinguished by the interval or ratio between its resonances and not
by their actual pitch. Detailed results were exhibited in a table. The figures of
actual pitch therein given are true only of full-sized male organisms, articulating
widely, as in singing. In actual speech the air-spaces are more or less compressed
and the resonances are higher. This is especially true of the middle members,
marked c in the series. This letter c (=circa) indicates also in the same vowels
a resonance which spreads some distance both ways from the value given. The
identification of the 8-resonances with those of the mouth is fairly certain; that of
the a-resonances with those of the pharynx is more tentative, and subject to
certain qualifications, especially in the latter half of the table. The y-resonance
seems special to the a vowels, and is perhaps due to the trachea,
3. Report on Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.
See Reports, p. 669.
4. On a New Method of Distingwishing between Organic and Inorganic
Compounds of Iron in the Tissues.
By Professor A. B. Macatium, V.B., Ph.D., Toronto.
The reagents hitherto at the service of the physiologist for distinguishing
between organic and inorganic iron compounds have not enabled the investigator to
determine whether iron compounds in the foetal liver, the placenta and spleen,
which react almost immediately with ammonium sulphide, are of inorganic or
organic nature. An additional reagent is to be found in an absolutely pure
aqueous solution of hematoxylin, which gives a yellow colour to all preparations of
tissues, but when inorganic iron compounds are present these change the colour
to blue or bluish-black. Organic iron compounds have no effect on the reagent,
974. REPORT—1896.
5. On the Different Forms of the Respiration in Man.
By W. Marcet, .D., LBS.
The different forms may be thus stated :—-
1. Normal, automatic (unconscious) breathing.
2. Forced breathing
8. Breathing in exercise.
4, Breathing under the influence of a strong effort of volition.
Forced breathing.—If a succession of deep inspirations be taken, the tracing
rises much more steeply than normal, a pause (apnoea) follows, and then breathing
returns increased beyond normal, after which the line returns parallel to normal.
Forced breathing includes sneezing, and sighing, and yawning.
Exercise breathing.—In exercise such as stepping, the line rises more steeply
than normal, there is no pause or cessation of exercise, but the line continues
steeper than normal for some time and gradually returns parallel to normal.
Volition breathing.—If the volition be exercised strongly towards muscular
work of some kind, though with the musclesat rest, the volume of the air inspired is
increased beyond the normal. On dropping the effort of volition a respiratory pause
follows, and then increased breathing and gradual return to normal, the tracing
taking much the same direction as in forced breathing. If, however, the volition
be directed towards the respiration there is no pause, but the line returns parallel to
normal almost directly. Volition for any kind of muscular exercise produces the
pause, but when the attention is directed towards the respiration there is no
apnoea.
; Even when exercise such as stepping or gyrating the arms is taken, when the
volition is exerted as strongly as possible towards the exercise,on dropping the
effort of volition, even though the exercise be continued, the pause is still strongly
marked.
The only possible explanation of the occurrence of the pause is that when the
attention is directed towards the respiration only one brain centre is concerned,
and hence when the effort of volition is dropped no time is lost before the centre
of respiration asserts itself; whereas when the volition is exerted towards some
form of exercise, two brain centres are concerned, and on dropping the effort of
volition, some time (a few seconds) is lost before the centre of respiration has
shaken off the influence of the centre of locomotion; and it is to this that the
pause must be due, and not any excess of oxygen in the blood, as the automatic
respiration of 50 per cent. oxygen produces no pause.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Occurrence of Lever in Mice.
By Professor J. Lorrain Suiru, IA., ILD., Queen’s College, Belfast,
and F. F. Wesproox, JZ.D., Minneapolis, U.S.A.
Krehl’s investigation on the production of fever in various species of animals
has proved that a great difference exists in the extent to which some of the smaller
mammals react to fever-producing substances. It is comparatively easy, he found,
to produce fever in rabbits. Guinea-pigs and dogs were more resistent, and in the
case of the hedgehog it was impossible, so far as his research was carried, to pro-
duce the condition at all. Similar results were obtained with pigeons and chickens.
The present research attempts to discover whether in the case of mice the same
difficulty in the production of fever exists; and, if so, whether thereis at the same
me an absence of the changes in metabolism which in other animals accompany
ever.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 975
A variety of microbes were used, including B. pyocyancus, B. anthracis,
B. murisepticus, and hay infusion. These were used in various degrees of virulence,
but whether the rapidly fatal form or that which was more attenuated was
inoculated, in no case did the effects include a rise in temperature. In three of the
mice the respiratory exchange, and in five others the respiratory and nitrogenous
exchanges, were observed. The temperature of the mouse varies from 35° C. to
39-2° C., and the average of seventy observations on normal mice, living in ordinary
conditions, was 37°6° C. The highest temperature we obtained in inoculated mice
was 40° C., and this we observed only once.
’ The variations in respiratory exchange were never so great as to be compared
with those which can be obtained by giving food, or especially those due to vary-
ing the temperature of the surrounding air. As regards nitrogen it is possible in
the case of mice to approximate very closely to balance in the normal condition.
In the case of infected mice there was never obtained any increase in the excretion
of nitrogen sufficient to warrant us in inferring that the metabolism had been
disturbed.
The food supplied to the mice was dog biscuit, and with this the amount of
nitrogen consumed per kilo was somewhere about twenty times as great as that
taken by man per kilo (19°58 per kilo being the average).
This result is important, inasmuch as the gaseous exchange in the two cases
shows an almost similar ratio. Since the demands for heat production in the
economy of the mouse must be enormously greater than those in man this result
throws some doubt on any attempt to regard the oxidation of carbon, &c., as
exclusively concerned in heat production.
The conclusion involves the severance between fever and the infectious process
in some of the most susceptible animals, and indicates anew the necessity of study-
ing the occurrence of this condition in the separate species.
2. The Physiological Effects of ‘ Peptone’ when Injected into the Circulation.
By Professor W. H. Tuompson, I.D., Queen’s College, Belfast.
This communication dealt with two of the effects of Witte’s ‘ peptone ’ when
introduced into the system of the dog by intravenous injection, viz. (1) Its
influence on the rapidity of blood coagulation, and (2) the manner in which this
substance brings about its well known vascular dilatation.
The animals were anesthetised in the first place by a hypodermic injection
of morphine and atropine, and subsequently, when necessary, by chloroform or a
mixture of chloroform and ether. Curare was administered in certain cases,
A solution of Witte’s ‘peptone’ in 0°7 per cent. sodium chloride was then
rapidly injected into the femoral vein, blood-pressure being recorded from the
carotid artery.
The results obtained were :—
1. That Witte’s peptone in doses below two centigrammes per kilo hastens
blood-coagulation, while in larger doses retardation of this process is caused, as
other observers have found.
2. That this substance produces a fall of blood-pressure in doses as low as
fifteen or even ten milligrammes per kilo. Differences between these results and
those of others, in regard to the magnitude of the dose, probably depend on differ-
ences in the rate of injection employed. When slowly injected considerable
quantities may be introduced without affecting blood-pressure.
5. That the fall of blood-pressure produced by this substance is due to a
peripheral dilating influence on the blood-vessels. No ‘central’ influence has so
far been proved.
4. That the vascular dilatation is not confined to the splanchnic area, but
extends to other blood-vessels as well.
5. Thatethe peripheral dilating influence is brought about by depressing the
irritability of the neuro-muscular apparatus of the blood-vessels, rendering it
‘irresponsive to vaso-constricting impulses,
976 : REPORT—1896.
G. It is probable that the depression of irritability is chiefly limited to the
nervous segment of the neuro-muscular couple,
In arriving at the above results the following series of experiments were per-
formed :—
Series a, in which the effects of small doses on blood-coagulation and blood-
pressure were observed.
Series 4, in which the effects of ‘peptone’ on blood-pressure after section of the
spinal cord were observed.
Series c, in which its effects on blood-pressure during excitation of the spinal
cord (after section) were studied.
Series d, in which its influence on blood-pressure during excitation of the great
splanchnics (after section) was noted.
Series e, in which its effects on blood-pressure were recorded, the great
splanchnics being severed and the spinal cord excited (after section) during and
subsequent to the injection.
The research was carried out in Monsieur Dastre’s laboratory at the Sorbonne,
Paris.
3. On the Nerves of the Intestine and the Effects of Small Doses of Nicotine
upon them. By J. L. Buncn, ILD., BSc. (From the Physiological
Laboratory, University College, London.)
1. Description of method adopted in the research for recording movements of
the intestine,
2. When means are taken to eliminate its action on the heart, stimulation of
the peripheral cut end of the vagus is found not to influence the intestinal
movements (Dog, Cat).
* 3. The splanchnics probably contain fibres causing both contraction and
dilatation of the intestine. Stimulation of the peripheral cut end usually causes
contraction ; rarely dilatation, never simple inhibition of movements.
4. The nerve roots which cause the maximum effect on the intestine when
electrically stimulated are the 8th to 13th post-cervical.
5. Intravenous injection of small doses of nicotine puts the nerve roots out of
action before the splanchnics; there is probably, therefore, a cell station for these
fibres in the ganglia of the chain.
4. On the Effect of Peritonitis on Peristalsis. By A. S. Grinbaum,
M.A., MB. (Cantab.), M_R.C.P.
Peritonitis was excited in rabbits by the injection of turpentine and other
substances into the peritoneal cavity. The peristalsis was examined in the first
instance through the shaved abdominal wall, and subsequently, by opening the
abdomen with the animal immersed in normal saline solution at 38° to 39° C.
In the first twenty-four hours the peristalsis of both large and small intestine
was increased; it then gradually diminished until complete paralysis resulted in
about four days. The large intestine became paralysed before the small intestine.
5. The Glucoside Constitution of Proteid Matter.
By ¥F. W. Pavy, 1D., LL.D., FR.S.
Glucosides have long been known to chemists as a class of bodies which by the
agency of ferments, or by the action of acids and alkalies, and even to a slight
extent of water at elevated temperatures, undergo a cleavage or disruption with a
carbohydrate as one of the products.
Until recently it is only in connection with the vegetable kingdom that these
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 977
bodies have been recognised as existing, but it can now be said that it will probably
be found that they play an important part as constituents of the animal economy,
They are met with as bodies presenting all grades of complexity of composition,
In some, of which salicin may be adduced as an example, only the three elements,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are present. In others, of which amygdalin is an
example, the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, exist. In
myronie acid, a glucoside obtainable from the seed of the black mustard, we have
the four elements that have been named, with the addition of sulphur. ‘hese are
bodies of comparatively simple composition, and from them advance can be made
to the complex bodies forming the basis of living matter. Mucin, found not only
in mucus, but forming also a constituent of connective tissue, was a short time ago
shown by Landwehr to fall in the category of glucosides. In my ‘ Physiology of
the Carbohydrates,’ published in 1894, p. 27 ct seq., I supplied evidence showing
that proteid matter generally, alike of the animal and vegetable kingdoms of
nature, is in constitution a glucoside.
As mentioned in the work referred to, I was led to this discovery in the
course of my quantitative examination of the various structures of the body for
glycogen, ‘lhe process I had for many years adopted consisted of dissolving by
boiling with potash, pouring into alcohol, collecting the precipitate, converting
into glucose with sulphuric acid, and titrating with the copper test. I had been
regarding the product derived from the structures as consisting of glycogen, but
I subsequently learnt that it was influenced in quantity by duration of the
exposure in contact with potash, and by the strength of the potash solution
employed.
If glycogen only had constituted the source of the product obtained, the cir-
cumstances ought to have been otherwise. The treatment with potash should
have produced no eflect beyond dissolving the associated nitrogenous matter and
placing it in a position to be separable by the agency of the alcohol, and no
difference in the amount of product obtained should have resulted from varying
the strength of the alkali or the length of time of contact. The conclusion became
inevitable that there must be something besides glycogen to give rise to the result,
and the only feasible conclusion was that an amylose carbohydrate was derived
from a cleavage of the proteid molecule.
Having found that from a variety of proteids drawn from both animal and
vegetable sources I could obtain carbohydrate, evidently derivable from a breaking-
up of the proteid, and it is to be said in no insignificant amount, I took purified
egg albumen as a material for the further study of the subject.
Summarily, it may be stated, as the result of this study, that by the agency of
potash an amylose carbohydrate, corresponding with Landwehr’s animal gum, is
procurable, which is convertible by sulphuric acid into a body giving the various
characteristic reactions of sugar.
By the direct action of sulphuric acid sugar at once is yielded, and the same
occurs as a result of pepsin digestion.
Details are given in full upon these points in my work, to which I have already
referred; and in my ‘ Epicriticism’ (Churchill, 1895) analytical evidence is sup-
plied from the laboratory of Mr. Ling, affording conclusive proof that the osazone
obtainable from the product is a sugar osazone.
Since the publication of my results I have found that they are to the fullest
extent corroborated by analytical experiments performed by the distinguished
chemist Schiitzenberger upwards of twenty years ago. Schiitzenberger studied the
products arising from the breaking-up of egg albumen by strong chemical agents,
and his paper on the subject is contained in the ‘ Bull. de la Soc, Chim. de Paris,’
vol. xxiii. (1875), p. 161.
Speaking of the products derived from the treatment with sulphuric acid, he
mentions a non-azotised body which energetically reduced Fehling’s solution, was
precipitable by the ammoniated acetate of lead solution, and which, in his own
words, ‘ parait étre de Ja glucose ou un corps analogue.’
Again, after exposing egg albumen with baryta to 100°C. for 120 hours, he
obtained a non-azotised body, insoluble in alcohol, precipitable by the ammoniated
978 REPORT—1896.
acetate of lead, not reducing Fehling’s solution, but transformable by boiling with
sulphuric acid into a body which does so. Its elementary composition was found
to be very close to that of dextrose, with which, remarks Schiitzenberger, it pre-
sents the greatest analogy. Evidently, he continues, there is a connection between
the body obtained in the experiments with baryta and the cupric oxide reducing
substance obtained in the experiments with sulphuric acid.
My own experiments were started upon grounds totally different from those
which suggested the purely chemical investigation of Schiitzenberger. Sulphuric
acid was used in common by us, but baryta took the place of the potash used by
me. It is interesting to note the strict conformity traceable in the results, but
persons have failed to see the importance of Schiitzenberger’s work, for till now all
the attention it has received is a passing allusion here and there to the bare facts
observed.
That proteid matter, however, should thus constitute a glucoside is, I consider,
a point of the deepest physiological interest, and that such should be its nature
simply stands in harmony with what is to be learnt with respect to its formation.
For instance, taking Pasteur’s experiments on the growth of yeast, irrefutable
evidence is afforded that carbohydrate matter is appropriated in the construction
of proteid. Pasteur showed that yeast cells freely multiply in a medium consisting
of sugar, ammonium tartrate, the ash of yeast, and water. The growth that takes
place implies a growth of cell protoplasm, and with it a corresponding formation
of proteid matter. The ammonium nitrate, which contains no carbon, may be sub-
stituted for the ammonium tartrate, and then absolutely the only source for the
carbon of the proteid is the sugar that is present.
Incorporated during its construction, the carbohydrate can be withdrawn, as I
have shown, from proteid matter by the cleaving power of chemical and ferment
action. The position we are thus placed in is this. The carbohydrate of our food
is in part applied to the construction of proteid matter, and in this locked-up state
may be conveyed to the tissues for their growth and renovation without running
off as waste material through the kidney, as could not do otherwise than occur if it
were conveyed as sugar in a free form, From the proteid of the tissues it may be
cleaved off by ferment agency, and probably this is the source of the carbohydrate
found to be present to a certain extent in a free state in connection with the
various components of the body. There is no doubt that in the grave form of
diabetes the sugar eliminated is derived, not only from the food, but also from the
tissues, and the glucoside constitution of proteid matter fits in with and affords a
ready explanation of the state of things, all that is wanted being the existence of
the requisite ferment agency.
6. The Discharge of a Single Nerve Cell. By Professor F. Gotcu, /.A.S.
The electrical organ of Malapterwrus electricus is innervated on each side by
the axis-cylinder branches of a simple nerve cell. The response of the organ to
stimulation presents characteristics which can only be explained on the assump-
tion that it is the change in the nerve endings of these axis-cylinder branches, In
consequence of these two facts, the time relations of the organ response to reflex
stimulation afford grounds for deductions as to those of the single nerve cell dis-
charge by which the response is evoked. These time relations may be divided
into two classes: (1) The propagation time through the cell and its connections,
ze. central delay ; (2) the periodicity of the excitatory changes issuing from the
cell, z.e. reflex rhythm.
1, Experiments show with regard to the central delay, that it has a minimum
of ‘01 second. ‘This delay is, in the opinion of the author, due to the character of
the structural path, which in the central mechanism consists of (a) fine axis-
cylinder branches of both afferent nerves and cell processes; (6) an unknown
field of conjunction ; (c) the body of the nerve cell.
In the efferent nerve branches a delay of ‘003 second exists both in muscles
and in electrical organs, which is termed the nerve ending excitatory delay, If
such delay, due to retarded propagation, is present in the central fine nerve
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 979
endings, then ‘006 second of the total time would be accounted for ; the remaining
time would then be distributed over the other structures.
2. The rhythm of the electrical reflex responses is a slow one in Malapterurus
with a maximal rate of 12 per second. Superimposed on this rhythm is a rapid
peripheral organ rhythm due to self-excitation, and in no way due to central
nervous discharge.
. The rate of 12 per second is not often met with, and a series of this type has
very few members, at most two or three. The most frequent rate is one of 4 per
second.
The number of members of even this slower type is limited to from two to six.
The experiments thus show that the single nerve cell discharge can occur at
12 per second, but that it generally occurs at slower intervals, and in all cases
rapidly fails.
The contrast offered by these results to those of Torpedo, in which the central
rhythm varies from 100 to 30 per second, suggests that the latter owes its rapid
periodicity to the large number of nerve cells which innervate the Torpedo organ,
and which are thrown into successive activity.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Principles of Microtome Construction. By Cuar.es 8. Minot,
Professor at the Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
With the advance of biology, particularly in the domains of embryology and
cytology, we have passed during the last twenty-five years through a complete
revolution of methods, with the result that the microtome has become as indispen-
sable as the microscope, and hence the construction of microtomes may fittingly
eccupy the attention of the Physiological Section of this Association.
_ The first object of a microtome is to make sections of even and known thickness ;
the second object is to make sections in large numbers of uniform thickness ; the
third object is to make sections rapidly. Finally, in recent years, there has been
a growing and justified demand for microtomes to make good sections of great
thinness, if possible not over one five-hundredth of a millimeter or two microns
(0:002 mm.). Now, sections which vary more than one-tenth from their supposed
thickness, can in the case of stained animal tissues be readily recognised by the
naked eye as uneven, hence, it is obvious that the thinner the section the less
must be the amount of absolute error in the cutting. For example, an error of 0:002
mm. is the maximum admissible for sections of 0:002 mm. (500 to a millimeter),
though a much greater error would not be noticeable in sections of 0:01 mm.
Applied to the microtome this means that a roughly made instrument is sufficient
for thick sections, but the most perfect construction is necessary to secure a micro-
tome for fine cutting.
In the automatic microtome, worked by a revolving wheel, which I have
devised, and which is now made in England, Germany and France, as well as in
America, the attempt is made to secure mechanical perfection, and so far success-
fully that sections of 1/300 mm. may be made with it. The microtome is, how-
ever, adapted only to cutting objects imbedded in paraffin. The model shown is
the latest American pattern, and has certain minor improvements which have
increased the accuracy and precision of the instrument.
A second microtome was also shown, which is novel in construction, and is
suited for both paraffin and celloidine cutting. In designing this microtome
precision was made the first object. The usual sources of error are—(1) in the
bending of the knife; (2) the yielding of the object to be cut, chiefly because it is
borne on an arm, which acts as a lever; (3) the ‘jumping’ of the sliding gear.
All these defects are at their maximum in the Rivet type of microtome, of which
980 REPORT— 1896,
the best known form is the Heidelberg or Thoma-Jung microtome. To obviate
these errors we have :—
1, Arranged to clamp the knife at both ends, either placed transversely
(paraffin cutting), or obliquely (celloidine cutting); also the knife is made very
heavy and of the chisel type, not of the razor type. It is known that the razor is
a worthless type for fine microtome knives, because the elasticity of the thin
blade introduces a gross error, except of course with very small and soft objects.
2. We have provided a support for the object to be cut immediately under
the object itself, and this support is very wide, thus reducing the possible tilting to
an extreme minimum.
3. To prevent jumping, the knife is kept immovable, the object alone moves,
and is clamped in the securest manner in the object-holder, while movable gibs
fasten the carriage to the ways.
The apparatus includes two forms of movement, one of which is entirely
automatic, for raising the object. There are also simple devices for removing the
alcohol, when that is used for cutting, without any of the liquid falling on the
working gear. Other details need not be described, as they are mainly for con-
venience in use. In working out the construction of the microtome, I have had
the constant co-operation of Mr. Edward Bausch. His suggestions proved essential
to the success achieved.
The microtome has been placed upon the market by Messrs. Bausch & Lomb,
of Rochester, New York. The price will probably be seventy to eighty dollars.
2. Fragments from the Autobiography of a Nerve.
By A.W. Watter, JD., F.R.S.
Principle of method.—The isolated living nerve is stimulated at regular
intervals and the series of electrical responses graphically recorded; various
chemical reagents alter the character of the response. The nerve is practically
submitted to question and answer at regular short intervals, the question being
constant and the answer varying with the state of the nerve.
The method lends itself to a large range of inquiries, such as the action of
anesthetics, narcotics, sedatives, stimulants, &c. Nerve-records were presented
exhibiting that—
1. Chloroform is more toxic than ether.
2. Carbon dioxide is typically an anesthetic.
3. Nitrous oxide is inert.
4, The basic is more effective than the acid moiety of a neutral salt. (1llus-
trated by records of potassium bromide, sodium bromide, potassium chloride.)
5. Illustrations of the action of alkaloids—morphine, atropine, aconitine,
aconine, veratrine, curarine, digitaline.
3. Structure of Nerve Cells as Shown by Wax Models.
By Gustav Mann, ID. Edin.
General Method of Making Wax Models.—(1) Fix in picro-corrosive fluid
(sp. gr. 1:020), take through alcohol and paraffin. (2) Make a complete series of
sections of known thickness. (8) Multiply the thickness by the magnifying
power used to ascertain the thickness of each wax plate to be used, e.g., thickness
of sections=5 micromillimeters, the magnification = 1,000, therefore each section
to be represented by a wax plate 5,000 micromillimeters or 5 millimeters. (4) The
wax plates 1-2} mm. thick, and for fine processes paper or cardboard soaked in
wax. (5) With camera lucida make accurate outlines of all portions of cell and
and all processes whether of same cell to be represented or others. (6) The trans-
ferring paper for tracing outlines on the wax plates. (7) With sharp pointed knife
cut out cell and its processes, if the latter are detached from the body of the cell
leave them joined by strips of wax, which must be removed after fitting the various
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 981
sections together. (8) Adjust wax plates in pairs, fix to one another by piercing
with hot tools and continue this till cell built up. (9) Smooth outlines with hot
brass instruments and give final touches with a knife, controlling each touch by
carefully focussing in the microscope the level of the proximal and distal ends of
each process.
Some New Observations Obtained by this Method.—(1) The unipolar cells of
spinal ganglia and multipolar cells of sympathetic ganglia are spherical or oval in
the central parts of the ganglion and flattened parallel to the surface at the
periphery of the ganglion. (2) The distal process of the bipolar cells from the
spinal ganglion of the guinea-pig is thinner than the proximal process. (3) The
cells from Clarks Column are frequently essentially bipolar, 7.e., one axis cylinder
passes upwards and another downwards, while the dendritic processes are com-
paratively very few and insignificant. (4)-The motor cells in the spinal cord have
winglike processes. (5) In Malapterurus the cell body appears much broken up,
because of the great development of the dendritic processes. Fritsch’s idea of a
‘ Bodenplatte’ from which the axis cylinder is supposed to spring is erroneous.
This method of studying series of sections through the same cell has definitely
shown tliat sensory, motor, and sympathetic nerve cells all possess an essential
fibrillar structure, with chromatic granules lying between the fibrils.
4. Cell Granulations under Normal and Abnormal Conditions, with special
reference to the Leucocytes. By R. A. M. Bucuanan, JL.D., Liverpool.
Classification of granules :—
1, Normal cells with granules.
2. Granules of ingestion.
3. Granulation associated with the life-history of the cell.
(a) Pigment granules.
(6) Secretion granules,
(ec) Abnormal granules of degeneration.
(d) Specific granules of doubtful significance.
Kanthack and Hardy’s classification of leucocytes was used as a foundation.
There is considerable evidence to show that the granules of leucocytes are of
definite formation, and analogous to secretion granules,
They are not structural internodal points.
In certain diseased conditions the granulation of one type of cell may so alter
as to simulate another.
Abnormal granulations may occur in the way of increase or decrease in amount
or size, and histo-chemical reaction.
Leucocytes may be classified according to the histo-chemical reactions of their
granules into two main groups—(1) Oxyphile, and (2) Basophile.
In the oxyphile group are included—
(a) Finely granular oxyphile leucocytes.
(6) Coarsely granular oxyphile leucocytes.
(c) Myelocytes questionably.
In the basophile group are included—
(a) Lymphocytes :
(6) Hyaline eeantal Leaded Siero
(c) Finely granular basophile cells.
(d) Coarsely granular basophile cells.
Though definite distinctions exist in many ways between the members of each
main group there is evidence to show that they are closely interdependent, and
probably derivations from one definite ancestral group; the differences arising
from environment, &c.
982 REPORT—1896.
In certain abnormal conditions either group may be affected separately or
together.
Under abnormal conditions leucocytes are found exhibiting both oxyphile and
basophile granulation at one time.
5, Some Points of Interest in Dental Histology.
By F. Paur, £.R.C.S., Liverpool.
The author sketched the development of teeth, and referred more in detail to
various unsolved points. In regard to the enamel organ he explained the cavities
or spaces frequently met with near the dentine as due to uncalcified processes of
dentine matrix. All spaces or tubes in enamel were between and never within the
prisms, and were due to imperfect calcification or absence of intercellular
substance. In regard to calcification of dentine and enamel, he thought that the
question of ‘conversion or secretion’ had caused the essential difference in the
process as occurring in the two tissues to be overlooked. In enamel the change
occurred in connection with the cells, whilst in dentine, as in other connective
tissues, the change was effected by the cells on the intercellular matrix. He
believed tubular enamel to be more common than was supposed, since in appear-
ance it resembled dentine, though its tubular structure was due to a totally
different reason ; indeed, tubular enamel was a negative picture of tubular dentine,
the tubes being represented by the intercellular matter in enamel and by the cells
in dentine.
Another point which has been raised in regard to the enamel organ was the
presence of blood-vessels in the enamel jelly. Professors Howes and Poulson have
stated that this structure in the rat was vascular. The author had never yet seen
a vessel inside the enamel organ. He believed the contrary cbservation was a
mistake, and showed slides to explain how it might have originated. In some
animals the stellate-celled connective tissue of the sac is almost indistinguishable
from the stellate cells of the enamel organ, whilst the condensed tissue of the
outer limit of the sac might easily be mistaken in small animals for the atrophying
external enamel epithelium. This connective tissue is, of course, highly vascular,
and if assumed to be the enamel jelly would lead to the error.
The structure of Nasmyth’s membrane was another moot point. It was, how-
eyer, readily shown to be an epithelial tissue if unworn fresh teeth were placed
in a decalcifying phloroglucin solution for a few minutes, washed, stained in
Ehrlich’s acid heematoxylin and washed again. On now peeling off and mounting
the loose bits of membrane in Farrant’s solution they would be found to show
epithelium with the nuclei well stained. Nasmyth’s membrane was without
doubt a remnant of the external enamel epithelium,
6. The Effect of the Destruction of the Semicircular Canals upon the
Movement of the Hyes. By Epcar Stevenson, JfD., Liverpool.
The semicircular canals were destroyed on both sides in a small dog, an
interval of some weeks being made between the operations on each side. Com-
parison of the eye movements before and after one ear had been operated on
showed a very marked difference in the mobility of the eyes. The right ear was
first treated, and it was found that the right eye lost about three-quarters of its -
power of movement in any direction, the permanent position of the eye being a
divergent squint, showing only very slight concomitant movements with the other
eye. The results after the left ear had been operated on were even more
striking, for now both eyes lost almost altogether the power of movement, the
muscles supplied by the third nerve seeming to suffer most, a double divergent
squint being now produced. The movements before and after operation were
tested both by observation—the dog’s head being held fast and food being passed
in front of him in various directions—and also graphically by means of Professor
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 983
Knoll’s ingenious apparatus, by which he recorded the eye movements in brain
anemia. These observations may have some practical significance from the fact
that there are some cases on record of impairment of the movements of the eyes
in middle ear disease, and also from the fact that certain ophthalmic surgeons hold
that Meniére’s disease, or auditory vertigo, is not due to a primary ear lesion, but
to defective balance of the extrinsic muscular innervation of the eye.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
The President’s Address (see p. 942) was delivered, and was followed
by a discussion on the ‘ Ancestry of the Vertebrata’ at a joint meeting of
Sections D, H, and I.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Photometry and Purkinje’s Phenomena.
By Professor J, B. HAycrarr,
2. The Physical Basis of Life. By Professor F, J, Atuen, ID, Cantab,
The most prominent function of living matter is what may be called Trading
in Energy—i.e., the occlusion of radiant energy, storage thereof in the potential
form, and subsequent dispersion in the form of heat, mechanical work, &c.
The explanation of this function is to be sought in the peculiar properties of
nitrogen. The most salient feature of nitrogen compounds is their liability to
change their constitution under slight variations in the energy equilibrium of their
surroundings, So wavering is the state of nitrogen under the conditions present
on our planet, that it may be called the Critical Element.
The importance of carbon must not, however, be underrated. Its main function
is the storing of energy. In this function it is largely assisted by hydrogen.
Oxygen is the medium of exchange between the three other elements just
mentioned,
The elements N, O, C, and H may be called the dynamic elements, because
they are the chief agents in the trade in energy; but their action may be
intimately dependent on the assistance of other elements present in living matter.
The properties of living matter seem to indicate that—
1, Every vital phenomenon is due to a change in a nitrogenous compound, and _
indeed zm the nitrogen atoms of that compound.
2, There is no vital action without transfer of oxygen, and the transfer is per-
formed by nitrogen (often assisted by iron).
3. In the anabolic action of light on plants, the nitrogen compounds are affected
primarily and the CO, and water secondarily.
4, In the living and active molecule the nitrogen is centrally situated and often
in the pentad state. In the dead molecule it is usually peripheral and in the triad
state.
5. The oxygen store of the living molecule is more or less united with the
nitrogen, but passes to some other element at death.
6. The nitrogen of the living molecule is combined in a compiex and perhaps
changeable manner, the compound resembling in some respects the cyanogen
compounds, in other respects the explosives such as nitroglycerine ; other analogies
are also traceable,
984 REPORT—1896.
In accounting for the first origin of life on this earth, the nitrogen theory does
not require that the planet should have been at a former period, as Pfliiger
suggests, ‘a glowing fire-ball.” The author prefers to believe that the circum-
stances which support life would also favour its origin.
The theory may, however, be extended to the whole universe. For, even if
there be no other world where nitrogen is the critical element, yet other elements
may be in the critical state on the moon, or Mars, or the sun, or even in unknown
and unimagined regions of the universe.
3. The Réle of Osmosis in Physiological Processes.
By Dr. Lazarus Bartow.
4. The Organisation of Bacteriological Research in Connection with Public
Health. By Sims Woopnean, M.D., Director of the Conjoint Labora-
tories of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons and Physicians, London.
Dr. Woodhead pointed out that it was not an easy matter to define accurately
where pure science ends and applied science begins, but he maintained that Pasteur,
Lister, and Koch had all proved to demonstration that the most notable advances
in our knowledge of the causes, prevention, and treatment of disease are extremely
closely bound up with the increase in our knowledge of bacteriology, and he
maintained that the practical needs in connection with the treatment and pre-
vention of disease had been the prime moving forces in determining the lines on
which great scientific advances had been made in the subject of bacteriology.
Anyone who had followed the work of Pasteur, Koch, and such investigators
would be struck by the fact that in every instance the work carried on and the
results obtained were the outcome of a desire to find a means of removing some
specific evil which was either commercially or through the public health crippling
some section of the community. In the same way the development of the great
principle of the antiseptic treatment of surgical wounds was the direct outcome
of a desire on the part of Sir Joseph Lister to remedy those evils which had for
so long a period crippled surgery, especially in our large hospitals. Turning to
the value of bacteriological research in public health questions, he spoke of the
work that had been done abroad in connection with the treatment of diphtheria,
tetanus, rabies, snake-bite, and numerous other diseases, and pointed out what
admirable work was being done in Government and municipally-supported foreign
laboratories. In this country we have numerous laboratories in all our large
Universities and University Colleges, but all are crippled by want of funds.
Speaking of the work that had been done in this country, he mentioned the
pathological laboratories of University College, Liverpool, Owens College, Man-
chester, the British Institute of Preventive Medicine and the Laboratories of the
‘Conjoint Board of the Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, London, where large
numbers of investigations had been going on, and at the same time numerous
questions concerning the public health, often raised by medical officers of health,
had been worked out. In the University Colleges investigations on cholera, on
‘typhoid, diphtheria, tuberculosis, and similar subjects had been carried on; in the
British Institute of Preventive Medicine similar work had been done, and various
antitoxic serums had been prepared and distributed to medical men, and several
most important questions connected with the bacteriology of water and sewage
had been investigated with most satisfactory results. In the laboratories of the
‘Conjoint Board, with the work of which he was of course more specially ac-
quainted, they had examined for the Metropolitan Asylums Board during last
year 11,500 specimens from the throats of patients suspected to be suffering from
diphtheria, while they had already examined nearly 11,000 specimens during the
current year. They had prepared antitoxine for the treatment of these patients with
such satisfactory results that he was now in a position to state that, since the figures
given by their President in his opening address were published, in one hospital
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 985
during the first six months of the year, and in one other, and probably two, during
the first eight months of the year, several hundreds of cases of post-scarlatinal
diphtheria had been treated without the occurrence of a single death, the early
diagnosis and the serum treatment combined bringing about this satisfactory
result. Dr. Woodhead proceeded to say that bacteriological laboratories were
hampered by want of funds, and were thus prevented from attaining their full
value to the community. Where assistance had been given from public authori-
ties, as in the case of the Royal Commission on tuberculosis, valuable results had
been achieved. Taking the laboratories of the University College, Liverpool, and
others, such as Owens College, Manchester, was not the cry there, ‘Oh, that they
had funds with which they might assist or endow the men they had trained, and
who they knew were capable of turning out really good work?’ On the other
hand, public health authorities were dependent in many respects upon the work of
such laboratories. Had not the time arrived for the two sets of authorities to
agree on some concerted line of action? Bacteriological laboratories existed for
the public good ; scientific men used them for the benetit of the community, but
the community had not realised the immense possibilities of the work. He
suggested that County and City Councils should become patrons of research, as
they had in many cases become patrons of teaching, For a certain sum per
annuum, sufficient to cover expenses and pay salaries, they should have the right,
through their medical officers, official veterinary surgeons, or other officials or
committees, to submit for bacteriological examination material from hospitals, food
stuffs, milk, water, oysters, the carcasses of, or discharges from, animals suffering
from infectious diseases ; in fact, to call in for consultation the director and obtain
from him reports on any subject in which bacteriological examination might be
deemed necessary. He would go even further than this, as he maintained that in
the present state of the antitoxine question, taking that as an example of the work
that had been done for the benefit of the community, it was absolutely necessary that
addition to large central laboratories which should be devoted to the testing of the
various antitoxic serums offered for sale, there should be facilities in all bacterio-
logical laboratories for the examination of any of the serums that had already been
distributed. This opened up a very large question, but it was one which had to
be faced, and the sooner that this was recognised the better for all concerned.
5. Bacteria and Food. By A. A. Kantuack, ID.
The author stated that—(1) The quantitative bacteriological analysis is inade-
quate, since sound food frequently, if not generally, contains as many micro-
organisms as suspected or condemned food. This is well illustrated by the results
obtained from an examination of milk, sandwiches, oysters, and ice-creams. (2)
The qualitative examination of food is also of comparatively little value, since in
sound food all the species of bacteria may be found which occur in suspected or
in unsound food. Two organisms which have been specially singled out as proof
against the soundness or integrity of food are the Bacteriwm coli commune and
roteus forms, The significance of these microbes is more fully discussed, and the
view that the Bacterium coli implies feecal or sewage contamination is assailed.
These two organisms occur in food, because their distribution is almost ubiquitous.
The Bacterwm coli is present in the intestines and in feces because it is ubiquitous,
and it is illogical to assume that its presence outside the digestive track signifies
direct fecal or filth contamination. (8) Lastly, the question of obligatory and
facultative symbiosis is touched upon, and the question of adaptation between man
and bacteria is raised. Many plants do not thrive in sterile surroundings; it is
possible that Pasteur’s opinion, expressed in 1885, that animals would do badly
without the assistance of bacteria, may prove to be correct.
It is well that we should know the bacterial flora of good and unsuspected food,
and become familiarised with the idea that many articles of food generally
consumed teem with bacteria, described by many bacteriologista as characteristic
of fecal or decomposing matter.
1896. 38
986 REPORT—1896.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Minute Structure of the Cerebellum.
By ALEXANDER Huu, M.D.
The relations between the various cell-layers were pointed out, and the probable
nath of the nervous impulses indicated, ‘The final ramifications, under the micro-
scope, appeared to be in anatomical contact, thus getting over the difficulty of
physiological action at a distance. Certain new cells were described, and an
explanation given of certain granules, seen long ago by Dr. Hill in the molecular
layer by the aid of Golgi's method.
2 The Basis of the Bacteriological Theory, founded upon Observations
upon the Fermentation of Milk. By Professor A. P, Fokker.
_ The author described a previously unrecorded albuminous substance, occurring
in the filtrate of sour milk, which takes part in the fermentation of the milk. He
also described the quantity of the bacteria present in this filtrate, and discussed the
question of their origin.
3. Report on Oysters under Normal and Abnormal Environments.
See Reports, p. 663.
4. The Presence of Iron and of Copper in Green and in White Oysters.
By Cuartes A. Konn, Ph.D., BSc.
The object of the experiments undertaken is to show whether the green colour
of the gills of certain types of French oysters (Huztres des Marennes) is due to iron,
which Chatin and Muntz regard as the cause of the colouration. Electrolytic
methods of analysis were employed, as these offer special advantages for the deter-
mination of minute quantities of metals when derived from organic matter. The
results show that white oysters contain quite as much iron, both in their gills and
in the rest of their bodies, as green oysters ; and, further, that the quantity of iron
present in the gills of green oysters is not proportionately sufficient to attribute
the colouration to its presence. The total quantity of iron foundin French, Dutch,
and American oysters varied from 1:8 to 4:0 milligrammes per six oysters.
Copper is also a normal constituent of both green and of white oysters, but
the amount present in the gills of the former is quite insufficient to account for
their colour, Although iron may be a constituent of the green colouring matter,
it is certainly not the cause of the colouration— a conclusion confirmed by Professor
erdman’s experiments, in which he showed that no colouration was produced by
crowing oysters in very dilute saline solutions of iron salts.
5. Experiments on the Action of Glycerine upon the Growth of Bacteria.
By S. Moncxton Copeman, J.A., M.D. (Cantab.), M.R.C.P.; and
Frank R. Briaxan, M.D. (Lond.), D.P.H.
(From the Bacteriological Laboratory of the Westminster Hospital
Medical School.)
The paper forms a preliminary account of a series of experiments which are
being carried out as an extension of earlier work on the bacteriology of small-pox
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 987
and vaccinia, and, as an outcome of this, on the questionof the purification and
preservation of vaccine lymph. i
Vaccine lymph as ordinarily obtained and stored is apt to contain, in addition
to the specific veins, certain microbes, of which some, when inoculated in the act
of vaccination, are liable to be productive of dangerous complications. It was
shown, however, in the Transactions of the Congress of Hygiene for 1891, that this
difficulty could be avoided by the admixture with the lymph material of an equal
quantity of a 50 per cent. solution of pure glycerine in water, prior to storage in
capillary tubes. When this process is adopted, and the tubes kept protected from
the light for a period of from two to six weeks, it is found, after this lapse of time,
that gelatine plates made from such tubes remain absolutely sterile. The lymph,
however, is still perfectly active as vaccine, the specific virus being able to with-
stand the action of the glycerine.
In view of the publication of the Report of the Royal Commission on Vaccina-
tion, it appeared to be desirable to investigate more accurately the action of glyce-
rine on various micro-organisms of a pathogenic or non-pathogenic nature respec-
tively.
‘Method.—This has been done by the addition of known quantities of glycerine
to tubes of beef-peptone broth, which are subsequently inoculated with equal
quantities of pure cultivations, and incubated at blood-heat and at the room tem-
perature respectively. Control inoculations in ordinary beef broth have also
invariably been employed. Subsequently an inoculation is made from the broth-
tubes on to solid media, at varying intervals of time, in order to see whether the
particular microbe is still capable of growth, or not. In all, some hundreds of
inoculations have been made thus far, and the paper includes a table in which are
given the maximum limits of substance attained in the different series, Practi-
éally, the results of each similar series were found to agree very closely.
The micro-organisms employed for the inoculations comprised Staphylococcus
pyogenes aureus, S. pyogenes albus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus pyocyaneus, B.
subtilis, B. coli communis, B. diphtheria and B. tuberculosis, Small-pox and vac-
cine material in the form of ‘crusts’ and lymph was also employed.
Results.—1. No visible development of the micro-organisms employed takes
place in the presence of more than 30 per cent. of glycerine.
2. All the micro-organisms experimented with are killed out in less than a
month in the presence of from 30 per cent. to 40 per cent. glycerine, with the ex-
ception of B. coli communis and B, subtilis, when kept in the cold.
3. B. coli communis, unlike B. typhosus, resists the action of 50 per cent.
elycerine, in the cold, for a considerable period, a fact which is likely to prove a
valuable addition to our present methods of differentiating these microbes from one
another.
4, Small-pox and vaccine material, whether as ‘crusts’ or lymph, are sterilised
completely, so far as extraneous microbes are concerned, in a week by the presence
of glycerine to the extent of 40 per cent. in the broth-tubes.
6. Some Points in the Mechanism of Reaction to Peritoneal ? Infections.
By Hersert E. Duruan, Gull Research Student, Bacteriological
Laboratory, Guy’s Hospital.
Shortly after intra-peritoneal injections of various substances (guinea-pigs),
there is a remarkable disappearance of the wandering cells normally present in the
peritoneal fluid. ‘I'hree kinds of wander cells, or leucocytes, are found in normal
peritoneal fluid—viz., hyaline cells, coarsely granular oxyphil, or ‘megoxyphil’
cells as it is proposed to call them, and lymphocytes. The above disappearance
affects the hyaline and megoxyphil cells; the lymphocytes remain.
For the period of the paucity of cells in the fluid, the term leucopenia or
leucopenic stage, proposed by Léwit, may be pace
The onset of leucopenia is described to be instantaneous by Kanthack, and
Hardy, and by Issaeff. The author's observations in more than 200 instances
282
988 REPORT—1896.
(guinea-pigs) show that the onset is never less than 5 minutes after injection.
The time of onset varies somewhat according to the nature and temperature of the
injected fluid.
Metschnikoff, and Kanthack, and Hardy attribute the leucopenia to a sudden
destruction of the cells. Metschnikoff considers that this solution of cells (‘ pha-
golyse’) imbues the peritoneal fluid with increased bactericidal power.
The author does not agree with these statements; first, because the cells may
be found again during the leucopenic stage, and secondly because. when inert
resistance substances (e.g., carbon particles) are introduced, they disappear in
considerable proportion at the same time as the cells. His observations are con-
sequently in accordance with those of Mesnil on the leucopenia which occurs after
intra-vascular injections ; this observer has shown that the cells are stopped by
adhesion to capillary walls—more particularly in the liver. At the beginning of
the year (Wiener klin. Wochenschr Nos. 11 and 12, 1896), it was shown by Prof.
Gruber, and the author, that large numbers of the cells become deposited upon the
omentum, though some become adherent to other parts of the peritoneal lining
after intra-peritoneal injections.
The mechanism of this deposit appears to be as follows: the hyaline and
megoxyphil cells adhere together into masses or ‘ balls’; these ‘balls’ are driven
by the peristaltic, and other abdominal movements, to the omentum and upper
region of the cavity, where they become adherent. In animals killed at recent
periods after intra~peritoneal injection, the peristaltic movements are exceptionally
active.
At the same time numbers of bacteria, in the case of infections, also become
deposited on the omentum, etc. ; especially if some serum having a ‘clumping’
action has been mixed with the bacterial emulsion. By the use of indian ink the
phenomenon may be demonstrated to the naked eye by removing samples with
capillary tubes. By the action of the abdominal movements the omentum becomes
rolled up; it is also intensely injected in acute infections. Soluble substances
such as carmine, or potassium ferrocyanide solutions, have a predilection fur the
omentum apparently independently of the leucocytes. It is suggested that possibly
bacterial toxins may be dealt with to some extent in this manner.
The leucopenic stage lasts about an hour, when a cell normally foreign to the
peritoneal cavity (the finely granular oxyphil (K. and H.) or ‘microxyphil’ cell,
or polynuclear leucocyte) makes its appearance. The period of leucopenia has been
called a ‘ period of negative chemiotaxis’ by Issaeff; however, especially with
microbes of a comparatively low degree of virulence, very active phagocytosis is
established by the hyaline cells; these cells ingest the microbes without any pre-
liminary intervention on the part of the megoxyphil cells; the microbes attached
to the hyaline cells may be almost countless, whilst many of the megoxyphil
cells are free from or at any rate only have a few attached microbes. One indu-
bitable instance of phagocytosis by megoxycytes has been observed.
Metschnikoff states that ‘ phagolyse’ does not occur after injections during the
leucocytotic condition induced by an injection (e.g., pepton-broth) given twenty-four
hours previously, The author does not agree with this statement, for he finds that
the cells then present (microxyphil cells and macrophages) ‘dail’ together, and
disappear by adhesion to the peritoneal linings, in a manner similar to that which
occurs in normal (previously untreated) animals. This has been demonstrated to
the naked eye by giving coloured injections (e.7., indian ink, or carmine granules)
during the leucocytotic period, and seeing the disappearance of the coloured
material from capillary samples; also by marking the cells by previous injections
(e.g., peptonate of iron, carmine, etc.), and watching their disappearance. The
disappearance can also be traced by care after bacterial inoculations; but owing to
the abundance of cells, only a proportion of which disappear, the observation is
less readily made than when coloured materials are used. The ‘ncreased re-
sistance’ first identified by Issaeff, obtained by producing a leucocytosis by means
of simple injections, is suggestive of being of great practical value in the treat-
ment of peritoneal cases in man, where there is some risk of infection (perityphilitic,
pelvic abscesses, &c.), if operation is undertaken: these points will be more fully
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 989
discussed elsewhere in conjunction with a number of observations on peritonitis in
man.
Another factor in the production of leucopenia remains to be discussed—the
action of the lymph paths. The lymph paths from the peritoneal cavity have
received scant attention in the past: recently Starling has observed that the
lymph vessels in the anterior mediastinum become filled with coloured material at
remote periods after injection of similar material into the peritoneal cavity. The
first observation of the author was made in December 1894. It was found that
carbon particles began to reach the lymph glands, situated in the first intercostal
space (guinea-pigs and rabbits), in eight minutes after injection. Solutions (car-
mine, pot. ferrocyanide) pass up more rapidly, and these upper glands were filled
in three minutes. Though absorption may take place in other regions of the
‘peritoneal lining, and other lymph paths may be utilised, the course through
diaphragmatic lymphatics to the vessels and glands of the anterior mediastinum,
and so to the blood-vessels, is par ea:cellence the route of peritoneal lymph absorp-
tion. Bacteria, and cells are carried along these paths from the peritoneal cavity.
Bacteria have been seen in the lymph vessels of the diaphragm, and falciform
ligament six minutes after injection. Bacteria have been found in the blood
capillaries of the Jiver within half an hour of intra-peritoneal injection. The
process is therefore both rapid and early. In man the same lymph paths have
been found affected in acute and in chronic (tuberculous, malignant) peritonitis ;
they should always be evamined in peritonitic cases. Ina case of ruptured tubal
gestation these lymphatics were beautifully injected with blood, and could readily
be traced into the root of the neck.
Though microxyphil cells do not become free in the peritoneal fluid till about
an hour after experimental injections, they begin to make invasion much earlier.
Mm animals killed six to eight minutes after injection the capillaries of the mesen-
tery (especially) are becoming blocked with microxycytes. These cells wander
out of the vessels, and eventually through the peritoneal endothelium. Their
invasion is associated with an increase in the amount of peritoneal fluid, followed
(about sixteen to twenty hours) by diminution of fluid in recovering cases.
The megoxyphil cells do not invade the cavity in significant numbers; they
may be almost absent, and are variable and inconstant in numbers.
The microxyphil cells, and macrophages, on the other hand, come in such
Jarge numbers in all recovering cases that they must be considered of much signi-
ficance, in the question of the battle against the microbes.
The presence of microxycytes (and macrophages) in the peritoneal fluid is
associated with an increase of bactericidal power of the fluid (vide Hahn’s similar
observations with pleural fluid), apart from phagocytosis. A combination ot
cellular and humoral theories is necessary for the explanation of the processes of
reaction in peritoneal infection.
The rapidity with which the lymph paths are brought into action, and with
which intra-vascular changes commence, is an argument against a too rigid theory
of coelomic and hzemal white corpuscles.
There would appear to be a definite peritoneal circulation of cells and fluid
from (especially the mesenteric) blood-vessels to the anterior mediastinal lymph-
vessels, almost from the moment after intraperitoneal injection, until the normal
condition has been re-established.
The observations upon which these statements are based, were made in Pro-
freon Cons laboratory in Vienna, and the Bacteriological Laboratory of Guy’s
ospital.
7. On the Agglutinating Action of Human Serum on certain Pathogenic
Micro-organisms (particularly on the Typhoid Bacillus). By ALBERT
S. Grinpaum, J.A., MB. (Cantabd.), MRCP.
The serum of an animal immunised against the typhoid bacillus or other motile
pathogenic micro-organism has a peculiar action on an emulsion (in bouillon) of
the bacillus of the corresponding disease. If a drop of serum and a drop of
990 REPORT—1896,
‘emulsion be mixed, and examined under the microscope, the bacilli will be seen
to collect together in clumps, and to lose their motility. This reaction is nearly
specific, and can be used to differentiate or identify certain bacteria. The pheno-
menon, although noticed by Bordet, was first thoroughly studied and its import-
ance recognised by Durham and Gruber. The latter termed the active conglome-
rating substances ‘agglutinines,’ and they seem to play an important part in
immunisation.
The serum of normal guinea pigs or rabbits does not, as a rule, cause any reac-
tion. Human serum is very different in this respect. In a comparatively large
percentage of individuals (particularly those affected with jaundice) the serum has
a very distinct agglutinating action on the cholera, coli, and typhoid bacilli,
generally more on one than on the other. But the action is so little specific that,
in normal individuals, it may be equal on any two or on allthree. This does not
occur with the serum of immunised animals.
But the strength of action is incomparably smaller with human serum. That
of ahighly immunised animal can be diluted to one in a thousand or more, and
still show a clumping effect, that of man hardly ever more than one in eight.
Only in cases of typhoid fever (and the action is here much more specific) does
tt react in a dilution of one to sixteen (or more). Hence the reaction can be used for
purposes of diagnosis, The agglutination is sometimes more marked with the
diluted than with the pure serum, possibly through there being separate substances
for the inhibition of movement and the agglutination. Individuals who have
had typhoid fever do not, apparently, preserve any excess of typhoid ‘ agglutinines’
in their serum for any great length of time.
Agglutinines present in the maternal blood are not necessarily present in the
child’s blood (at birth); the former may react strongly, and the latter not at all.
But in this case, and generally in man, the immunising power seems to be only
very partly dependent on the agglutinating power of the serum.
8. The Detection of Lead in Organic Fluids. By Joun Hitt Asram,
M.D. (Lond), M.R.C.P., and Prosper H. Marspen, /.C.S.
[From the Pathological Laboratory, Univ. Coll., Liverpool. ]
In the usual methods adopted for the detection of lead in organic fluids, the
organic matter is destroyed by means of hydrochloric acid and chlorate of potash,
and the solutions or precipitates obtained are then subjected to the ordinary tests,
or preferably, as Dr. Kohn has shown, to electrolysis.
With regard to the organic fluids (urine, vomit), with which we (the writers)
have more particularly to deal, Dr. Kohn states that the destruction of the organic
matter by HCl and KCl1O, may be omitted, as the quantity thereof in urine, &c.,
is small, this is a great gain, and electrolysis is both delicate and accurate.
One of us whilst reading von Jaksch’s book on Clinical Diagnosis, was struck
by a simple method there described. It is not there claimed by von Jaksch, nor
is any reference given, and so far no reference to the process has been discovered
us.
Von Jaksch states that to detect lead the fluid should be partially evaporated
on the water bath and the organic matter decomposed, thus apparently not
relying on the method to be described.
The details given are as follows:—‘A strip of magnesium, free from lead, is
placed in the fluid, when metallic lead will be deposited upon it, and can then be
dissolved in nitric acid and confirmatory tests applied to the solution.’
We have modified the test slightly by adding ammonium oxalate in the
proportion of 1 grm. to 150 e.c. of fluid, and by using acetic acid as the solvent.
We have found the addition of the oxalate to be a great advantage, and we have
to thank Dr. Kohn for the suggestion.
Coloration is seen on the magnesium within an hour, but we have usually
allowed the strip to remain for 24 hours. The magnesium is then taken out,
washed with distilled water, and the following confirmatory tests applied :—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 991
1. The slip is warmed gently with a crystal of iodine, when the yellow iodide
of lead is formed.
2. The lead is dissolved off with acetic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen passed
through the solution.
The magnesium strips can of course be used repeatedly, after carefully washing
with acid and distilled water. The method is at bottom an electrolytic one, but
its simplicity, and so far as our experiments go, its accuracy strongly recommend
it to clinicians.
There is no necessity for any special apparatus, and the actual working time
may be safely put as less than one hour.
In aqueous solution we have obtained results when lead has been present in
the proportion of 1 part in 50,000.
The results have been equally good in urine. Clinically we have found lead
in the urine of two cases under the care of one of us in the Royal Infirmary, and
in the vomit from one case.
992 REPORT—1896.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SectIon.—D. H. Scort, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Honorary
Keeper of the Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Gardens, Kew,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER li.
The PresIDENT delivered the following Address :—
Present Position of Morphological Botany.
TH object of modern morphological botany (the branch of our science to which
I propose to limit my remarks) is the accurate comparison of plants, both living
and extinct, with the object of tracing their real relationships with one another,
and thus of ultimately constructing a genealogical tree of the vegetable king-
dom. The problem is thus a purely historical one, and is perfectly distinct
from any of the questions with which physiology has to do.
Yet there is a close relation between these two branches of biology; at any
rate, to those who maintain the Darwinian position. For from that point of view
we see that all the characters which the morphologist has to compare are, or
have been, adaptive. Hence it is impossible for the morphologist to ignore the
functions of those organs of which he is studying the homologies, To those
who accept the origin of species by variation and natural selection there are no
such things as morphological characters pure and simple. There are not two
distinct categories of characters—a morphological and a physiological category—
for all characters alike are physiological. ‘ According to that theory, every
organ, every part, colour, and peculiarity of an organism must either be of benefit
to an organism itself, or have been so to its ancestors. . . . Necessarily, according
to the theory of natural selection, structures either are present because they are
selected as useful, or because they are still inherited from ancestors to whom they
were useful, though no longer useful to the existing representatives of those ancestors.’ !
The useful characters may have become fixed in comparatively recent times, or
a long way back in the past. In the latter case the character in question may
have become the property of a large group, and thus, as we say, may have become
morphologically important,
For instance, parasitic characters, such as the suppression of chlorophyll, are
equally adaptive in Dodder and in the Fungi. In Dodder, however, such cha-
racters are of recent origin and of little morphological importance, not hinder-
ing us from placing the genus in the natural order Conyolvulacee; while in
Fungi equally adaptive characters have become the common property of a great
class of plants.
Then, again, the existence of a definite sporophyte generation, which is the
great character of all the higher plants, is in certain Fungi inconstant, even among
members of the same species,
Although there is no essential difference between adaptive and morphological
' Lankester, Advancement of Science, p. 307.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 993
characters, there is a great difference in the morphologist’s and the physiologist’s
way of looking at them. ‘The physiologist is interested in the question how
organs work ; the morphologist asks, what is their history ?
The morphologist may well feel discouraged at the vastness of the work before
him. The origin of the great groups of plants is perhaps, after all, an insoluble
problem, for the question is not accessible either to observation or experiment.
All that we can directly observe or experiment upon is the occurrence of varia-
tions—perhaps the most important line of research in biology, for it was the study
of variation that led Darwin and Wallace to their grand generalisation. Many
observers are working to-day in the spirit of the great masters, and it is certain
that their work will be fruitful in results. It is evident, however, that such
investigations can at most only throw a side light on the historical question of the
origin of the existing orders and classes of living things. The morphologist has
to attack such questions by other methods of research.
The embryological method has so far scarcely received justice from botanists.
A great deal of what is called embryology in botany is not embryology at all,
but relates to pre-fertilisation changes. Of real embryology—that is to say, the
development of the young plant from the fertilised ovum—there is much less than
we might expect. Thus no comparative investigation of the embryology of either
Dicotyledons or Monocotyledons has ever been carried out, our knowledge being
entirely based on a few isolated examples.
In the cases which have been investigated perhaps excessive attention has been
devoted to the first divisions of the ovum, the importance of which, as Sachs long
ago showed, has been overrated, while the later stages, when the differentiation
of organs and tissues is actually in progress, have been comparatively neglected.
The law of recapitulation (or repetition of phylogeny in ontogeny) has been
very inadequately tested in the vegetable kingdom. Whatever its value may be,
it is certainly desirable that the development of plants as well as animals should
be considered from this point of view ; and this has so far been done in but very
few cases. M. Massart, of Brussels, has made some investigations with this object
on the development of seedlings and of individual leaves. He is led to the con-
clusion that examples of recapitulation are rare among plants.’
So far, at least, embryological research has only yielded certain proof of re-
capitulation in a few cases, as in the well-known example of the phyllode-bearing
acacias, in which the first leaves of the seedling are normal, while the later formed
ones gradually assume the reduced phyllode form.
A less familiar example is afforded by Gunnera. Here, as is well known, the
mature stem has a structure totally different from that of ordinary Dicotyledons,
and much resembling that characteristic of most Ferns. In most species of
Gunnera there are a number of distinct vascular cylinders in the stem, instead of
one only, and there is never the slightest trace, so far as the adult plant is con-
cerned, of the growth by means of cambium, which is otherwise so general in the
class. The seedling stem, however, is not only monostelic below the cotyledons,
but in this region, though nowhere else, shows distinct secondary growth. Thus,
if we were in any doubt as to the general affinities of Gwnnera, owing to its
extraordinary mature structure, we should at once be put on the right track by the
study of the embryonic stem, which alone retains the characteristic dicotyledonous
mode of growth.
It is only in a few cases, however, and for narrow ranges of affinity, that the
doctrine of recapitulation has at present helped in the determination of relationships
among plants. Beyond this, conclusions based on embryology alone tend to
become merely conjectural and subjective. In fact, all comparative work, in so
far as it is limited to plants now living, suffers under the same weakness
that it can never yield certain results, for the question whether given characters
are relatively primitive or recently acquired is one upon which each naturalist is
left to form his own opinion, as the origin of the characters cannot be observed.
La Récapitulation et l’Innovation en Embryologie Végétale,’ Bull. de la Soc.
roy. de Bot. de Belgique, vol, xxxiii., 1894,
994, REPORT—1896,
To determine the blood-relationships of organisms it is necessary to decipher
their past history, and the best evidence we can have (when we can get it) is from
the ancient organisms themselves. The problem of the morphologist is an
historical one, and contemporary documentary evidence is necessarily the best. It
is paleontology alone which can give us the real historical facts.
ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.
In judging of the affinities of fossil plants we are often compelled to make
great use of vegetative characters, and more particularly of characters drawn
from anatomical structure. It is true that in many cases we do so because we
cannot help ourselves, such anatomical features being the only characters available
in many of the specimens as at present known. But the value of the method has
been amply proved in other cases where the reproductive structures have also
been discovered, and are found to fully confirm the conelusions based on anatomy.
I need only mention the great groups of the Lepidodendrew and the Calamites, in
- each of which the anatomical characters, when accurately known, put us at once
on the right track, and lead to results which are only confirmed by the study of
the reproductive organs
In this matter fossil botany is likely to react in a beneficial way on the study
of recent plants, calling attention to points of structure which have been passed
over, and showing us the value of characters of a kind to which systematists had
until recently paid but little attention, At present, owing to the work of
Radlkofer, Vesque, and others, anatomical characters are gradually coming into
use in the classification of the higher plants, and in some quarters thore may even
be a tendency to over-estimate their importance. Such exaggeration, however, is
only a temporary fault. incident to the introduction of a comparatively new
method. In the long run nothing but good can result from the effort to place our
classification on a broader basis. In most cases the employment of additional
characters will doubtless serve only to further confirm the affinities already
detected by the acumen of the older taxonomists. There are plenty of doubtful
points, however, where new light is much needed ; and even where the classifica-
tion is not affected it will be a great scientific gain to know that its divisions are
based on a comparison of the whole structure, and not merely on that of particular
organs.
e The fact that anatomical characters are adaptive is undeniable, but this applies
to all characters, such difference as there is being merely one of degree. Cases
are not wanting where the vegetative tissues show greater constancy than the
organs of reproduction, as, for example, in the Marattiacew, where there is a
great uniformity in anatomical structure throughout the family, while the
sporangia show the important differences on which the distinction of the genera is
based. It is in fact a mistake to suppose that anatomical characters are neces-
sarily the expression of recent adaptations. On the contrary, it is easy to cite
examples of marked anatomical peculiarities which have become the common
property of large groups of plants.
For instance, to take a case in which I happen to have been specially interested,
the presence of bast to the inside as well as to the outside of the woody zone is.a
modification of dicotyledonous structure which is in many groups, at least of
ordinal value. The peculiarity is constant throughout the orders Onagraces, Ly-
thracez, Myrtacez, Solanacexz, Asclepiadacew, and Apocynacee, not to mention
some less important groups. In other families, such as the Cucurbitaces and the
Gentianee, it is nearly constant throughout the order, but subject to some exceptions.
Among the Composite a similar, if not identical, peculiarity appears in some of
the sub-order Cichoriaceze, but is here not of more than generic value. In Campa-
nula the systematic importance of internal phloém is even less, for it appears in some
species and not in others. Lastly, there are cases in which a similar character
actually appears as an individual variation, as in Carum Carvi, and, under abnor-
mal conditions, in Phaseolus multiflorus,
These latter cases seem to me worthy of special study, for in them we cau
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 995
trace, under our very eyes, the first rise of anatomical characters which have else-
where become of high taxonomic importance. A comparative study of the anatomy
of any group of British plants, taking the same species growing under different
conditions, would be sure to yield interesting results if any one had the patience to
undertake it.
Enough has been said to show that a given anatomical character may be of a
high degree of constancy in one group while extremely variable in another, a fact
which is already perfectly familiar as regards the ordinary morphological charac-
ters. For example, nothing is more important in phanerogamic classification than
the arrangement of the floral organs as shown in ground-plan or floral diagram.
Yet Professor Trail’s observations, which he has been good enough to communicate
to me, show that in one and the same species, or even individual, of Polygonum,
almost every conceivable variation of the floral diagram may be found.
There is, in fact, no ‘royal road’ to the estimation of the relative importance
of characters ; the same character which is of the greatest value in one group may
be trivial in another; and this holds good equally whether the character be drawn
from the external morphology or from the internal structure.
Our knowledge of the comparative anatomy of plants, from this point of view,
is still very backward, and it is quite possible that the introduction of such charac-
ters into the ordinary work of the Herbarium may be premature ; certainly it must
be conducted with the greatest judgment and caution. We have not yet got our
data, but every encouragement should be given to the collection of such data, so
that our classification in the future may rest on the broad foundation of a com-
parison of the entire structure of plants.
In estimating the relative importance of characters of different kinds we must
not forget that characters are often most constant when most adaptive. Thus, as
Professor Trail informs me, the immense variability of the flowers of Polygonum
goes together with their simple method of self-fertilisation. The exact arrange-
ment is of little importance to the plant, and so variation goes on unchecked. In
flowers with accurate adaptation to fertilisation by insects such variability is not
found, for any change which would disturb the perfection of the mechanism is at
once eliminated by natural selection.
HisrToLoey.
I propose to say but little on questions of minute histology, a subject which
lies on the borderland between morphology and physiology, and which will be
dealt with next Tuesday far more competently than I could hope to treat it. Last
year my predecessor in the presidency of this Section spoke of a histological dis-
covery (that of the nucleus, by Robert Brown) as ‘the most epoch-making of
events’ in the modern history of botany. The histological questions before us at the
present day may be of no less importance, but we cannot as yet see them in proper
perspective. The centrosomes, those mysterious protoplasmic particles which have
been supposed to preside over the division of the nucleus, and thus to determine
the plane of segmentation, if really permanent organs of the cell, would have to
rank as co-equal with the nucleus itself. If, on the other hand, as some think,
they are not constant morphological entities, but at most temporary structures
differentiated ad hoc, then we are brought face to face with the question whether
the causes of nuclear division lie in the nucleus itself or in the surrounding
protoplasm.
Nothing can be more fascinating than such problems, and nothing more difficult.
We have, at any rate, reason to congratulate ourselves that English botanists are
no longer neglecting the study of the nucleus and its relation to the cell. Fora
long time little was done in these subjects in our country, or at least little was
published, and botanists were penealle content to take their information from
abroad, not going beyond a mere verification of other men’s results. Now we
have changed all that, as the communications to this Section sufficiently testify.
Nothing is more remarkable in histology than the detailed agreement in the
structure and behaviour of the nucleus in the higher plants and the: higher
996 REPORT—1896.
animals, an agreement which is conspicuously manifest in those special divisions
which take place during the maturation of the sexual cells. Is this striking agree-
ment the product of inheritance from common ancestors, or is the parallelism
dependent solely on similar physical conditions in the cells? This is one of the
great questions upon which we may hope for new light from the histological dis-
cussion next week,
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS,
We have known ever since the great discoveries of Hofmeister that the develop-
ment of a large part of the vegetable kingdom involves a regular alternation of
two distinct generations, the one, which is sexual, being constantly succeeded—so far
as the normal cycle is concerned—by the other which is asexual. This alternation
is most marked in the mosses and ferns, taking these words in their widest sense, —
as used by Professor Campbell in his recent excellent book. In the Bryophyta,
the ordinary moss or liverwort plant is the sexual generation, producing the ovum,
which, when fertilised, gives rise to the moss-fruit, which here alone represents the
asexual stage. The latter forms spores from which the sexual plant is again
developed.
In the Pteridophyta the alternation is equally regular, but the relative develop-
ment of the two generations is totally different, the sexual form being the insigni-
ficant prothallus, while the whole fern-plant, as we ordinarily know it, is the
asexual generation.
The thallus of some of the lower Bryophyta is quite comparable with the pro-
thallus of a fern, so as regards the sexual generation there is no difficulty in seeing
the relation of the two classes; but when we come to the asexual generation or
sporophyte the case is totally different. There is no appreciable resemblance
between the fruit of any of the Bryophyta and the plant of any vascular
Cryptogam,
There is thus a great gap within the Archegoniate ; there is another at the
base of the series, for the regular alternation of the Bryophyta is missing in the
Algz and Fungi, and the question as to what corresponds among these lower
groups to the sporophyte and odphyte of the higher Cryptogams is still disputed.
Now as reyards this life-cycle, which is characteristic of all plants higher than |
Alge and Fungi, there are two great questions at present open. The one is
general: are the two generations, the sporophyte and the odphyte, homologous
with one another, or is the sporophyte a new formation intercalated in the life-
history, and not comparable to the sexual plant? The former kind of alternation
has been called homologous, the latter antithetic. This question involves the
origin of alternation; its solution would help us to bridge over the gap between
the Archegoniatz and the lower plants. ‘The second problem is more special :
has the sporophyte of the Pteridophyta, which always appears as a complete plant,
been derived from the simple and totally different sporophyte of the Bryophyta, or
are the two of distinct origin ?
At present it is usual, at any rate in England, to assume the antithetic theory
of alternation. Professor Bower, its chief exponent, says:1 ‘It will also be
assumed that, whatever may have been the circumstances which led to it, anti-
thetic alternation was brought about by elaboration of the zygote [2.e. the fertilised
ovum] so as to form a new generation (the sporophyte) interpolated between suc-
cessive gametophytes, and that the neutral generation is not in any sense the result
of modification or metamorphosis of the sexual, but a new product having a distinct
phylogenetic history of its own.’ In his essay on ‘ Antithetic as distinguished from
Homologous Alternation of Generations in Plants,’ the author describes the hy po-
thetical first appearance of the sporophyte as follows: ‘Once fertilised, a zygote
might in these plants [the first land plants] divide up into a number of portions
ceamposperers each of which would then serve as a starting-point of a new indi-
vidual.
1 «Spore-producing Members,’ Phil. Trans. vol. clxxxv. B. (1894) p, 473.
2 Annals of Botany, vol. iv. (1890), p. 362.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 997
On this view, tke sporophyte first appeared as a mere group of spores formed
by the division of the fertilised ovum. Consequently the inference is drawn that
ail the vegetative parts of the sporophyte have arisen by the ‘sterilisation of
potentially sporogenous tissue.’ That is to say, there was nothing but a mass of
spores to start with, so whatever other tissues and organs the sporophyte may form
must be derived from the conversion of spore-forming cells into vegetative cells.
Professor Bower has worked out this view most thoroughly, and as the result he
is not only giving us the most complete account of the development of sporangia
which we have ever had, but he has also done much to clear up our ideas, and to
show us what the course of evolution ought to have been if the assumptions
required by the antithetic theory were justified.
Without entering into any detailed criticism of this important contribution to
morphology, which is still in progress, I wish to point that we are not, after all,
bound to accept the assumption on which the theory rests. There is another view
in the field, for which, in my opinion, much is to be said. The antithetic theory is
receiving a most severe test at the friendly hands of its chief advocate. Should it
break down under the strain we need not despair, for another hypothesis remains
which I think quite equally worthy of verification.
This is the theory of Pringsheim, according to which the two generations are
homologous one with another, the odphyte corresponding to a sexual individual
among Thallophytes, the sporophyte to an asexual individual. To quote Prings-
heim’s own words:! ‘The alternation of generations in mosses is immediately
related to those phenomena of the succession of free generations in Thallophytes,
of which the one represents the neutral, the other the sexual plant.’ Further on*
he illustrates this by saying: ‘The moss sporogonium stands in about the same
relation to the moss plant as the sporangium-bearing specimens of Saprolegnia
stand to those which bear odgonia, or as, among the Floridex, the specimens with
tetraspores are related to those with cystocarps.’ This gets rid of the intercalation
of a new generation altogether; we only require the modification of the already
existing sexual and asexual forms of the Thallophytes.
The sudden appearance of something completely new in the life-history, as
required by the antithetic theory, has, to my mind, a certain improbability. Ha
nthilo nihil fit. We are not accustomed in natural history to see brand-new
structures appearing, like morphological Melchizedeks, without father or mother.
Nature is conservative, and when a new organ is to be formed it is, as every one
knows, almost always fashioned out of some pre-existing organ. Hence I feel a
certain difficulty in accepting the doctrine of the appearance of an intercalated
sporophyte by a kind of special creation.
We can have no direct knowledge of the origin of the sporophyte in the Bryo-
hyta themselves, for the stages, whatever they may have been, are hopelessly lost.
n some of the Algze, however, we find what most botanists recognise,as at least a
parallel development, even if not phylogenetically identical. In Gidogonium, for
example, the odspore does not at once germinate into a new plant, but divides up
into four active zoospores, which swim about and then germinate. In Coleochete
the odspore actually becomes partitioned up by cell-walls into a little mass of
tissue, each cell of which then gives rise to a zoospore.
In both these genera (and many more might be added) the cell-formation in
the germinating odspore has heen generally regarded as representing the formation
of a rudimentary sporophyte generation. If we are to apply the antithetic theory
of alternation to these cases, we must assume that the zoospores produced on ger-
mination are a new formation, intercalated at this point of the life-cycle. But is
this assumption borne out by the facts? I think not. In reality nothing new is
intercalated at all. The ‘ zoospores’ formed from the odspore on germination are
identical with the so-called ‘ zoogonidia,’ formed on the ordinary vegetative plant at
all stages of its growth.
In science, as in every subject, we too easily become the slaves of language.
1 Gesammelte Abhandlungen, II. p. 370. 2 Ibid, p. 371.
3 See Bower, Antithetic Alternation, p. 361.
998 REPORT—1896.
By giving things different names we do not prove that the things themselves are
different. In this case, for example, the multiplication of terms serves, in my
opinion, merely to diseuise the facts. The reproductive cells produced by the
ordinary plant of an CEdogonium are identical in development, structure, behaviour,
and germination with those produced by the odspore. The term ‘zoogonidia’ applied
to the former is a ‘question-begging epithet,’ for it assumes that they are not
homologous with the ‘ zoospores 4 produced by the latter. I prefer to keep the old
name zoospore for both, as they are identical bodies.
To my mind the point seems to be this. An Cdogonium (to keep to this
example) can form zoospores at any stage of its development ; there is one particu-
lar stage, however, at which they are always formed—namely, on the germination
of the odspore. Nothing new is intercalated, but the irregular and indefinite
succession of sexual and asexual acts of reproduction is here tending to become
regular and definite. rt
In Spheroplea, as was well pointed out by the late Mr. Vaizey,' though his
view of alternation was very different from that which I am now putting forward,
the alternation is as definite as in a moss, for here, so far as we know, zoospores
are only formed on the germination of the fertilised ovum. If Spheroplea stood
alone we might believe in the intercalation of these zoospores, as a new stage, but
the comparison with Ulothrix, Gidogonium, Bulbochete and Coleochete shows, I
think, where they came from. :
The body formed from the odspore is called by Pringsheim the first neutral
generation. In Gidogonium this has no vegetative development, for the first thing
that the odspore does is to form the asexual zoospores, and it is completely used up
in the process. In other cases it is not in quite such a hurry, and here the first
neutral generation has time to show itself as an actual plant. This is soin Ulothrix,
a much more primitive form than Gdogonium, for its sexuality is not yet com-
pletely fixed. Here the zygospore actually germinates, forming a dwarf plant, and
in this stage passes through the dull season, producing zoospores when the weather
becomes more favourable. On Pringsheim’s view the dwarf plant is not a new
creation, but just a rudimentary Ulothrix, which soon passes on to spore-formation.
So, too, with the cellular body formed on the germination of the odspore
of Coleochete; this also is looked upon as a reduced form of thallus, On any
view this genus is especially interesting, for the sporophyte remains enclosed by
the tissue of the sexual generation, thus offering a striking analogy with the
Bryophyta.
In the Phycomycetous Fungi—plants which have lost their chlorophyll, but
which otherwise in many cases scarcely differ from Algze—the odspore in one and
the same species may either form a normal mycelium, or a rudimentary mycelium
bearing a sporangium, or may itself turn at once into a sporangium (producing
zoospores) without any vegetative development. Here it seems certain that
Pringsheim’s view is the right one, for all stages in the reduction of the first neutral
generation lie before our eyes. Nowhere, either here or among the green Algiv,
do I see any evidence for the intercalation of a new generation or a new form of
spore on the germination of the fertilised ovum.
Pringsheim extends the same view to the higher plants. The sporogonium
of a moss is for him the highly modified first neutral generation, homologous with
the vegetative plant, but here specially adapted for spore-formation. I have
elsewhere pointed out* that this view has great advantages, for not only does it
harmonise exactly with the actual facts observed in the green Algze and their allies,
but it also helps us to understand the astoundingly different forms which the
archegoniate sporophyte may assume.
Tt seems to me that Pringsheim was right in regarding the fruit-formation of
Floride as totally different from the sporophyte-formation of Coleochete or the
Bryophyta. The cystocarp bears none of the marks ofa distinct generation, for
throughout its whole development it remains in the most complete organic connec-
1 Annals of Botany, vol. iv., p. 373.
2 Nature, February 21, 1895.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 999
tion with the thallus that bears it. The whole Floridean process, often so com-
plicated, appears to be an arrangement for effecting the fertilisation of many
female cells as the result of an original impregnation by a single sperm-cell.
There is here still a great field for future research; but in the light of our present
knowledge there seems to be no real parallelism with the formation of a sporophyte
in the higher plants.
The gap between the Bryophyta and the Algm remains, unfortunately, a wide
and deep one, and it is not probable that any Algs at present known to us lie at
all near the line of descent of the higher Cryptegams. Riccia is often compared
with Coleochete, but it is by no means evident that Riccia is a specially primitive
form. In Anthoceros, which bears some marks of an archaic character, the sporo-
phyte is relatively well developed. To those who do not accept the theory of
intercalation it is not necessary to assume that the most primitive Bryophyta must
have the most rudimentary sporophyte.
Apart from other differences, Bryophyta differ from most green Algze in the
fact that asexual spores are only found in the generation succeeding fertilisation.
The spores moreover are themselyes quite different from anything in Alge, and
- the constancy of their formation in fours among all the higher plants from the
liverworts upwards, is a fact which requires explanation. I should like to sug-
gest to some energetic histologist a comparison of the details of spore-formation
m the lower liverworts and in the various groups of Algz, especially those of the
green series. It is possible that some light might be thus thrown on the origin of
tetrad-spore-formation, a subject as to which Professor Farmer has already gained
some very remarkable results, On Pringsheim’s view some indications of homo-
logy between bryophytic and algal spore-formation might be expected, and any-
how the tetrads require some explanation.
The peculiarities of ths sporophyte in the Archegoniatz, as compared with any
algal structures, depend, no doubt, on the acquirement of a terrestrial habit, while
the odphyte by its mode of fertilisation remains ‘ tied down to a semi-aquatic life.’ 1
Professor Bower's phrase ‘ amphibious alternation ’ expresses this view of the case
very happily, and indeed his whole account of the rise of the sporophyte is of the
highest value, even though we may not accept his assumption as to its origin
de novo.
I attach special weight to Professor Bower's treatment of this subject,
because he has shown how the most important of all morphological phenomena
in plants, namely the alternation of generations in Archegoniatz, may be explained
as purely adaptive in origin. All Darwinians owe him a debt of gratitude for
this demonstration, which holds good even if we believe the sporophyte to be the
modification of a pre-existing body, and not a new formation.
APOSPORY AND APOGAMY,
We must remember that the theory of homologous alternation has twice
received the strongest confirmation of which a scientific hypothesis is susceptible—
that of verified prediction. In both cases Pringsheim was the happy prophet,
Convinced on structural grounds of the homology of the two generations in
mosses, he undertook his experiments on the moss-fruits, in thehope,as he says,” that
he would succeed in producing protonema from the subdivided seta of the mosses,
and thus prove the morphological agreement of seta and moss-stem. His experi-
ment, as everybody knows, was completely succcessful, and resulted in the first
observed cases of apospory, i.e. the direct outgrowth of the sexual from the asexual
generation.
Here he furnished his own verification ; in the second case it has come from
other hands. In the paper of 1877, so often referred to, he says (p. 391): ‘ Here,
however [7.e. in the ferns], the act of generation, that is, the formation of sexual
organs and the origin of an embryo, is undoubtedly bound up with the existence
of the spore, wntil those future ferns are found which I indicated as conceivable in
' Bower, Antithetic Alternation.
* Ges. Abh. II. p. 407.
1000 REPORT—1896.
my preliminary notice, in which the prothallus will sprout forth directly from the
ond.’
‘ It is unnecessary to remind English botanists that Pringsheim’s hypothetical
aposporous ferns are now perfectly well known in the flesh; such cases having
been first observed by Mr. Druery and then fully investigated by Professor
Bower.
A very remarkable case of direct origin of the odphyte from the sporophyte has
lately been described by Mr. E. J. Lowe, in a variety of Scolopendrium vulyare.
Here the young fern-plant produced prothalli bearing archegonia as direct out-
growths from its second or third frond. The specimen had a remarkable history,
for the young plants were produced from portions of a prothallus which had been
kept alive and repeatedly subdivided during a period of no less than eight years.
I cannot go into the interesting details here, they will be published elsewhere ;
but I wish to call attention to the fact that in this case the production of the sexual
from the asexual generation, occurring so early in life, has no obvious relation to
suppressed spore-formation, and so appears to differ essentially from the cases first
described, which occurred on mature plants. I believe Mr. Lowe’s case is not an
altogether isolated one.
The converse phenomenon—that of apogamy—or the direct origin of an asexual
plant from the prothallus without the intervention of sexual organs, has now been
observed in a considerable number of ferns, the examples already known belonging
to no less than four distinct families: Polypodiacez, Parkeriaceze, Osmundacez,
and Hymenophyllacee. In Trichomanes alatum Professor Bower found that
apospory and apogamy co-exist in the same plant, the sporophyte directly giving
rise to a prothallus, which again directly grows out into a sporophyte ; the life-
cycle is thus completed without the aid either of spores or of sexual organs. Dr.
W. H. Lang who has recently made many interesting observations on apogamy,
will, I am glad to say, read a paper on the subject before this section, so I need say
no more.
Imust, however, express my own conviction that the facility with which, inferns,
the one generation may pass over into the other by vegetative growth, and that in
both directions, is a most significant fact. It shows that there is no such hard and
fast distinction between the generations as the antithetic theory would appear to
demand, and in my opinion weighs heavily on the side of the homology of sporo-
phyteand odphyte. I cannot but think that the phenomena deserve greater attention
from this point of view than they have yet received.
A mode of growth which affords a perfectly efficient means of abundant propa-
gation cannot, I think, be dismissed as merely teratological.
Since the foregoing paragraph was first written Dr. Lang has made the remark-
able discovery (already communicated to the Royal Society) that in a Lustrea
sporangia of normal structure are produced on the prothallus itself, side by side
with normal archegonia and antheridia. I cannot forbear mentioning this striking
observation, of which we shall hear an account from the discoverer himself.
The strongest advocate of the homology of the prothallus with the fern plant
could scarcely have ventured to anticipate such a discovery.
RELATION BETWEEN MossEs AND FERNS.
Goebel said, in 1882: ‘The gap between the Bryophyta and the Pteridophyta is
the deepest known to us in the vegetable kingdom, We must seek the starting-
point of the Pteridophyta elsewhere than among the Muscinez : among forms which
may have been similar to liverworts, but in which the asexual generations entered
from the first on a different course of development.’! I cannot help feeling that
all the work which has been done since goes to confirm this wise conclusion.
Attempts have been made in the most sportsmanlike manner (to adopt a phrase of
Professor Bower's) to effect a passage over the gulf, but the gulf is still unbridged.
I cannot see anywhere the slightest indication of anything like an intermediate
form between the spore-bearing plant of the Pteridophyta and the spore-bearing
1 Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik, vol. ii. p. 401.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1001
fruit of the Bryophyta. The plant of the Pteridophyta is sometimes small and
pels, but the smallest and simplest seem just as unlike a bryophytic sporogonium
as the largest and most complex. On the side of the moss group, Anthoceros has
been often cited as a form showing a certain approach towards the Pteridophytes,
and Professor Campbell in particular has developed this idea with remarkable in-
genuity. An unprejudiced comparison, however, seems to me to show nothing more
here than a very remote parallelism, not suggestive of affinity. ‘
There is no reason to believe that the Bryophyta, as we know them, were the
precursors of the vascular Oryptogams at all. There is a remarkable paucity of
evidence for the geological antiquity of Bryophyta, though mary of the mosses at
any rate would seem likely to have been preserved if they existed. Brongniart
said, in 1849, ‘ The rarity of fossil mosses, and their complete absence up to now
in the ancient strata, are among the most singular facts in geological botany ;’*
and since that time it is wonderful how little has been added. Things seem to
point to both Pteridophyta and Bryophyta having had their origin far back
among some unknown tribes of the Alge. If we accept the homologous theory
of alternation, we may fairly suppose that the sporophyte of the earliest Pterido-
phyta always possessed vegetative organs of some kind. The resemblance between
the young sporophyte and the prothallus in some lycopods indicates that at some
remote period the two generations may not have been very dissimilar. At least
some such idea gives more satisfaction to my mind than the attempt to conceive
of a fern-plant as derived from a sterilised group of potential spores.
The Bryophyta may have had from the first a more reduced sporophyte, the
first neutral generation having, in their ancestors, become more exclusively adapted
to spore-producing functions. I must not omit to mention the idea that the
Bryophyta, or at any rate the true mosses, are degenerate descendants of higher
forms. The presence of typical stomata on the capsule in some cases, and of
somewhat reduced stomata in others, has been urged in support of this view. It
is possible ; but if so, from what have these plants been reduced ?
Few people, perhaps, fully realise how absolutely insoluble such a problem as
we have been discussing really is. I say nothing as to the mosses, which may
have arisen relatively late in geological history. ‘he Pteridophyta, at any rate,
are known to be of inconceivable antiquity. Not only did they exist in greater
development than at present in the far-off Devonian period, but at that time they
were already accompanied by highly organised gymnospermous flowering-plants.
Probably we are all agreed that Gymnosperms arose somehow from the vascular
‘Cryptogams. Hence, in the Devonian epoch, there had already been time not only
for the Pteridophyta themselves to attain their full development, but for certain
e#mong them to become modified into complex Phanerogams. It would not be a
rash assumption that the origin of the Pteridophyta took place as long before the
period represented by the plant-bearing Devonian strata as that period is before
our own day. Can we hope that a mystery buried so far back in the dumb past
will be revealed P
It will be understood that I do not wish to assume the réle of partisan for the
homologous theory of alternation. Possibly the whole question lies beyond human
ken, and partisanship would be ridiculous. But I do wish to raise a protest
against anything like a dogmatic statement that alternation of generations must
have been the result of the interpolation of a new stage in the life-history. Let
us, in the presence of the greatest mystery in the morphology of plants, at least
keep an open mind, and not tie ourselves down to assumptions, though we may
use them as working hypotheses.
HistoLocicaL CHARACTERS OF THE TWO GENERATIONS.
There is one histological question upon which I must briefly touch, because it
bears directly on the subject which we have been considering. I shall say very
little, however, in view of the discussion next, Tuesday.
' Tableau des Genres,de Végétaux Fossiles, ps 13.
1896. 37
1002 REPORT—1896,
It is now well known that in animals and in the higher plants a remarkable
numerical change takes place in the constituents of the nucleus shortly before the
act of fertilisation. The change consists in the halving of the number of chromo-
somes, those rod-like bodies which form the essential part of the nucleus, and are
regarded by Weismann and most biologists as the bearers of hereditary qualities.
Thus in the lily the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of vegetative cells is
twenty-four ; in the sexual nuclei, those of the male generative cell and of the ovum,
the number is twelve. When the sexual act is accomplished the two nuclei unite,
and so the full number is restored and persists throughout the vegetative life of
the next generation. The absolute figures are of course of no importance; the
point is, the reduction to one half during the maturation of the sexual cells, and
the subsequent restoration of the full number when their union takes place. I say
nothing as to the details or the significance of the process, points which have
been fully dealt with elsewhere, votably in an elaborate recent paper by Miss E.
Sargant.
Now, in animals (so far as I am aware) and in angiospermous plants the reduc-
tion of the chromosomes takes place very shortly before the differentiation of the
sexual cells. Thus in a lily the reduction takes place on the male side immediately
prior to the first division of the pollen mother-cell, so that four cell-divisions in all
intervene between the reduction and the final differentiation of the male generative
cells. On the female side the reduction in the same plant takes place in the
primary nucleus of the embryo-sac, so that here there are three divisions between
the reduction and the formation of the ovum. I believe these facts agree very
closely with those observed in the animal kingdom, and so far there is no par-
ticular difficulty, for we can easily understand that if the number of chromosomes
is to be kept constant from one generation to another, then the doubling involved
in sexual fusion must necessarily be balanced by a halving.
There are, however, a certain number of observations on Gymnosperms and
archegoniate Cryptogams which appear to put the matter in a different light.
Overton ! first showed that in a Cycad, Ceratozamia, the nuclei of the prothallus or
endosperm all have the half-number of chromosomes. Here then the reduction
takes place in the embryo sac (or rather its mother-cell), but a great number of
cell-generations intervene between the reduction and the maturation of the ovum.
In fact the whole female odphyte shows the reduced number, while the sporophyte
has the full number. The reduction takes place also in the pollen mother-cell.
Further observations have extended this conclusion to some other Gymnosperms.
In Osmunda among the ferns there is evidence to show that reduction takes
place in the spore mother-cell, and that the sexual generation has the half-number
throughout. Professor Farmer has found the same thing in various liverworts,
and shown that the reduction of chromosomes takes place in the spore mother-cell ;
and his observations of cell-division in the two generations have afforded some
direct evidence that the odphyte has the half-number and the sporophyte the full
number throughout. Professor Strasburger fully discussed this subject before
Section D at Oxford,? and came to the conclusion that the difference in number
of chromosomes is a difference between the two generations as such, the sexual
generation being characterised by the half-number, the asexual by the full number.
The importance of this conception for the morphologist is that an actual
histological difference appears to be established between the two generations; a
fact which would appear to militate against their homology. Some botanists even
xo. so far as to propose making the number of chromosomes the criterion by which
the two generations are to be distinguished. Considering that the whole theory
rests at present on but few observations, I venture to think this both premature
and objectionable ; for nothing can be worse for the true progress of science than
to rush hastily to deductive reasoning from imperfectly established premises.
The facts are certainly very difficult to interpret. Those who accept the
antithetie theory of alternation suppose the sexual generation to be the older, and
1 Annals of Botany, vol. vii. p. 139.
2 See Annals of Botany, vol. viii. p. 281
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1008
that in Thallophytes the plant is always an oéphyte, whether ‘actual’ or ‘ potential.’
Hence they believe that in Thallophytes the plant should show throughout
the reduced number of chromosomes, reduction hypothetically taking place
immediately upon the germination of the odspore. If this were true it would lend
some support to the idea of the intercalation of the sporophyte, but at present there
is not the slightest evidence for these assumptions. On the contrary, in the only
Thallophyte in which chromosome-counting has been successfully accomplished
(Fucus) Professor Farmer and Mr. Williams find exactly the reverse; the plant
has throughout the fw// number of chromosomes; reduction first takes place in the
odgonium, immediately before the maturation of the ova, and on sexual fusion the
full number is restored, to persist throughout the vegetative life of the plant.
Fucus is, no doubt, a long way off the direct line of descent of Archegoniatz, but
still it is a striking fact that the only direct evidence we have goes dead against
the idea that the sexual generation (and who could call a Fucus-plant anything
else but sexual?) necessarily has the reduced number of chromosomes. This fact
is indeed a rude rebuff to deductive morphology.
I am disposed to regard the different number of chromosomes in the two
generations observed in certain cases among Archegoniate not as a primitive but
as an acquired phenomenon, perhaps correlated with the definiteness of alternation
in the Archegoniatz as contrasted with its indefiniteness in Thallophytes. In
Fucus, in flowering plants, and in animals the soma or vegetative body has the full
number of chromosomes. With these the sporophyte of the Archegoniate agrees ;
it is the odphyte which appears to be peculiar in possessing the half-number,
so that if the evidence points to intercalation at all, it would seem to suggest that
the odphyte is the intercalated generation—obviously a reductio ad absurdum.
I do not think we are as yet ina position to draw any morphological conclusions
from these minute histological differences, interesting as they are.
The question how the number of chromosomes is kept right in cases of
apospory and of apogamy is obviously one of great interest, and I am glad to say
that it is receiving attention from competent observers.
SEXUALITY OF FUNGI,
Only a few years ago De Bary’s opinion that the fruit of the ascus-bearing
Fungi is normally the result of an act of fertilisation was almost universally
accepted, especially in this country, Although the presence of sexual organs had
only been recorded in comparatively few cases, and the evidence for their functional
activity was even more limited, yet the conviction prevailed that the ascocarp is at
least the homologue of a sexually produced fruit. The organ giving rise to the
ascus or asci was looked upon as homologous with the odgonium of the
Peronosporex, the supposed fertilising organ either taking the form of an
antheridial branch as in that group, or, as observed by Stahl in the lichen Codlema,
giving rise to distinct male cells, or spermatia. More recently there has been
a complete revolution of opinion on this point, and a year ago or less most
botanists probably agreed that the question of the sexuality of the Ascomycetes
had been settled in a negative sense. This change was due, in the first place, to
the influence of Brefeld, who showed, in a great number of laborious investigations,
that the ascus-fruit may develop without the presence of anything like sexual
organs; while Mdller proved that the supposed male cells of lichens are in a
multitude of cases nothing but conidia, capable of independent germination.
The view thus gained ground that all the higher Fungi are asexual plants,
fertilisation only occurring in the lower forms, such as the Peronospore and
Mucorinez, which have not diverged far from the algal stock. The ascus, in
particular, is regarded by this school as homologous with the asexual sporangium of
a Mucor. This theory has been brilliantly expounded in a remarkable book by
Von Tavel, which we cannot but admire as a model of clear morphological
reasoning, whether its conclusions be ultimately adopted or not.
Still, it must be admitted that the Brefeld school were rather apt to ignore
34 2
1004 REPORT—1896.
such pieces of evidence as militated against their views, and consequently their
position was insecure so long as these hostile posts were left uncaptured.
Quite recently the whole question has been reopened by the striking observa-
tions of Mr. Harper, an American botanist working at Bonn.
Zopf, in 1890,! pointed out th it up to that time it had not been possible in any
Ascomycete to demonstrate a true process of fertilisation by strictly scientific
evidence, namely, by observing the fusion of the nuclei of the male and female
elements. Exactly the proof demanded has now been afforded by Mr. Harper’s
observations, for in a simple Ascomycete, Spherotheca castagnet, the parasite
causing the hop-mildew, he has demonstrated in a manner which appears to be
conclusive the fusion of the nucleus of the antheridium with that of the ascogo-
nium.? It is impossible to evade the force of this evidence, for the fungus in
question is a perfectly typical Ascomycete, though exceptionally simple, in so far as
only a single ascus is normally produced from the ascogonium. It is unnecessary
to point out how important it is that Mr. Harper’s observations should be con-
firmed and extended to other and more complex members of the order. In the
mean time the few who (unlike your President) had not bowed the knee to Brefeld
may rejoice !
It is impossible to pursue the various questions which press upon one’s mind in
considering the morphology of the Fungi. The occurrence not only of cell-fusion,
but of nuclear fusion, apart from any- definite sexual process, now recorded in
several groups of Fungi, urgently demands further inquiry. Such unions of nuclei
have been observed in the basidia of Agarics, the teleutospores of Uredinex, and
even in the asci of the Ascomycetes. That such a fusion is not necessarily, as
Dangeard * has supposed, of a sexual nature, seems to be proved by the fact that
it occurs in the young ascus of Spherotheca long after the true act of fertilisation
has been accomplished. It is possible, however, that these phenomena may throw
an important side-light on the significance of the sexual act itself.
Another question which is obviously opened up by the new results is that of
the homologies of the ascus. The observations of Lagerheim + on Dipodascus point
to the sexual origin of a many-spored sporangium not definitely characterised as
an ascus, On the other hand, not only sporangia, but true asci are known to arise
in a multitude of cases direct from the mycelium. It is of course possible that as
regards the asci these are cases of reduction or apogamy ; on the other hand, it is
not wholly impossible that the asci may turn out to be really homologous with a
sexual sporangia, even though their development may often have become associated
with the occurrence of a sexual act. However this may be, there is at present no
reason to doubt that a very large proportion of the Fungi are, at least functionally,
sexless plants.
CHALAZOGAMY.
Among the most striking results of recent years bearing on the morphology of
the higher plants, Treub’s discovery of the structure of the ovule and the mode of
fertilisation in Casuarina must undoubtedly be reckoned. The fact that the
pollen-tube in this genus does not enter the micropyle, but travels through the
tissues of the ovary to the chalaza, thus reaching the base of the embryo-sac, was
remarkable enough in itself, and when considered in connection with the presence
of a large sporogenous tissue producing numerous embryo-sacs, appeared to justify
the separation of this order from other angiosperms. Then came the work of Miss
Benson in England, and of Nawaschin in Russia, showing that these remarkable
peculiarities are by no means confined to Casuarina, but extend also in various
modifications to several genera of the Cupuliferze and Ulmacew. They are not,
however, constant throughout these families, so that we are no longer able to
attach to these characters the same fundamental systematic importance which
their first discoverer attributed to them. It is remarkable, however, that these
‘Die Pilze,’ Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik, Bd. iv. p. 341.
Berichte der deutschen bot. Gesellschaft, vol. xiii., January 29, 1896
Le Botaniste, vols. iv. and v.
Pringsheim’s Jahrbu *».f. Wiss. Bot. 1892.
1
2
3
4
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1005
departures from the ordinary course of angiospermous development occur in
families some of which haye been believed on other grounds to be among the most
primitive Dicotyledons.
EVIDENCE OF DescENT DERIVED FROM FossiL Botany.
At the beginning of this Address I spoke of the importance of the comparatively
direct evidence afforded by fossil remains as to the past history of plants. It may
be of interest if I endeavour to indicate the directions in which such evidence
seems at present to point.
It was Brongniart who in 1828 first arrived at the great generalisation that
‘nearly all of the plants living at the most ancient geological epochs were
Cryptogams,’! a discovery of unsurpassed importance for the theory of evolution,
though one which is now so familiar that we almost take it for granted. Those
paleozoic plants which are not Cryptogams are Gymnosperms, for the angiospermous
flowering plants only make their appearance high up in the secondary rocks.
Even the Wealden flora, recently so carefully described by Mr. Seward, one of
the secretaries to this section, has as yet yielded no remains referable to Angio-
sperms, though this is about the horizon at which we may expect their earliest
trace to be found.
Attention has already been called to the enormous antiquity of the higher
Cryptogams—the Pteridophyta—and to the striking fact that they are accompanied,
in the earliest strata in which they have been demonstrated with certainty, by
well-characterised Gymnosperms. The Devonian flora, so far as we know it,
though an early, was by no means a primitive one, and the same statement applies
still more strongly to the plants of the succeeding Carboniferous epoch. The
palzozoic Cryptogams, as is now well known, being the dominant plants of their
time, were in many ways far more highly developed than those of our own age;
and this is true of all the three existing stocks of Pteridophyta, Ferns, Lycopods,
and Equisetinez.
We cannot, therefore, expect any direct evidence as to the origin of these groups
from the paleeozoic remains at present known to us, though it is, of course, quite
possible that the plants in question have sometimes retained certain primitive
characters, while reaching in other respects a high development. For example, the
general type of anatomical structure in the young stems of the Lepidodendrex was
simpler than that of most Lycopods at the present day, though in the older trunks
the secondary growth, correlated with arborescent habit, produced a high degree of
complexity. On the whole, however, the interest of the paleozoic Cryptogams
does not consist in the revelation of their primitive ancestral forms, but rather in
their enabling us to trace certain lines of evolution further upward than in recent
plants. From the Carboniferous rocks we first learn what Cryptogams are capable
of. In descending to the early strata we do not necessarily trace the trunk of the
genealogical tree to its base; on the contrary, we often light on the ultimate twigs
of extensive branches which died out long before our own period.
In a lecture which I had the honour of giving last May before the Liverpool
Biological Society, I pointed out how futile the search for ‘ missing links’ among
fossil plants is likely to be. The lines of descent must have been so infinitely
complex in their ramification that the chances are almost hopelessly great against
our happening upon the direct ancestors of living forms. Among the collateral
lines, however, we may find invaluable indications of the course of descent.
Fossil botany has revealed to us the existence in the Carboniferous epoch of a
fourth phylum of vascular Cryptogams quite distinct from the three which have
come down—more or less reduced—to our own day. This is the group of
Sphenophyllez, plants with slender ribbed stems, superposed whorls of more or less
wedge-shaped leaves, and very complex strobili with stalked sporangia. The
group to a certain extent combines the characters of Lycopods and Horsetails,
resembling the former in the primary anatomy, and the latter, though remotely, in
external habit and fructification. Like so many of the early Cryptogams, Spheno-
1 Williamson, Remétniscences of a Yorkshire Nataralist, 1896, p. 198.
1006 REPORT—1896.
phylum possessed well-marked cambial growth. One may hazard the guess that
this interesting group may have been derived from some unknown form lying at
the root of both Calamites and Lycopods. The existence of the Sphenophyllez
certainly suggests the probability of a common origin for these two series.
In few respects is the progress made recently in fossil botany more marked
than in our knowledge of the affinities of the Calamarieze. ven so recently as
the publication of Count Solms-Laubach’s unrivalled introduction to ‘ Fossil
Botany,’ the relation of this family to the Horsetails was still so doubtful that the
author dealt with the two groups in quite different parts of his book. This is
never likely to happen again. The study of vegetative anatomy and morphology
on the one hand, and of the perfectly preserved fructifications on the other, can
leave no doubt that the fossil Calamariez and the recent Equiseta belong to one
and the same great family, of which the paleozoic representatives are, generally
speaking, by far the more highly organised. This is not only true of their
anatomy, which is characterised by secondary growth in thickness just like that of
a Gymnosperm, but also applies to the reproductive organs, some of which are
distinctly heterosporous. In the genus Calamostachys we are,I think, able to trace
the first rise of this phenomenon.
The external morphology of the cones is also more varied and usually more
complex than that of recent Equiseta, though in some Carboniferous forms, as
in the so-called Calamostachys tenuissima of Grand’ Fury, we find an exactly
Equisetum-like arrangement.
The position of the Sigillaria as true members of the Lycopod group is now
well established. The work of Williamson proved that there is no fundamental
distinction between the vegetative structure of Lepidodendron, which has always
been recognised as lycopodiaceous, and that of Stgillaria. Secondary growth in
thickness, the character which here, as in the case of the Calamodendrez, misled
Brongniart, is the common property of both genera. Then came Zeiller’s dis-
covery of the cones of Sigillaria, settling beyond a doubt that they are hetero-
sporous Cryptogams. A great deal still remains to be done, more especially as to
the relation of Stigmaria to the various types of lycopodiaceous stem, At present
we are perhaps too facile in accepting Stigmaria jicoides as representing the
underground organs of almost any carboniferous Lycopod.
We are now in possession of a magnificent mass of data for the morphology
of the paleeozoic lycopods, and have perhaps hardly yet realised the richness of
our material. I refer more especially to specimens with structure, on which, here
as elsewhere, the scientific knowledge of fossil plants primarily depends.
It is scarcely necessary to repeat what has been said so often elsewhere, that
the now almost universal recognition of the cryptogamic nature of Calamodendreve
and Sigillarie is a splendid triumph fur the opinions of the late Professor
Williamson, which he gallantly maintained through a quarter of a century of
controversy.
Perhaps, however, the keenest interest now centres in the Ferns and fern-like
plants of the carboniferous epoch. No fossil remains of plants are more abundant,
or more familiar to collectors, than the beautiful and varied fern-fronds from the
older strata. The mere form, and even the venation of these fronds, however,
really tell us little, for we know how deceptive such characters may be among
recent plants. In a certain number of cases, discovery of the fructification has
come to our aid, and where sori are found we can have no more doubt as to the
specimens belonging to true Ferns. The work of Stur and Zeiller has been
especially valuable in this direction, and has revealed the interesting fact that a
great many of these early Ferns showed forms of fructification now limited to the
small order Marattiacee. I think perhaps the predominance of this group has
heen somewhat exaggerated, but at least there is no doubt that the marattiaceous
type was much more important then than now, though it by no means stood
alone. In certain cases the whole fern-plant can be built up. Thus Zeiller and
Renault have shown that the great stems known as Psaronius, the structure of
which is perfectly preserved, bore fronds of the Pecopteris form, and that similar
Pecopteris fronds produced the fructification of Asterotheca, which is of a marat-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1007
traceous character. Hence, for a good many Carboniferous and Permian forms
there is not the slightest doubt as to their fern-nature, and we can even form an
idea of the particular group of Ferns to which the affinity is closest.
I will say nothing more as to the true Ferns, though they present innumerable
points of interest, but will pass on at once to certain forms of even greater import-
ance to the comparative morphologist.
A considerable number of paleozoic plants are now known which present
characters intermediate between those of Ferns and Cycadee. I say present inter-
mediate characters, because that is a safe statement; we cannot go further than
this at present, for we do not yet know the reproductive organs of the forms in
question.
In Lyginodendron, the vegetative organs of which are now completely known,
the stem has on the whole a cycadean structure ; the anatomy, which is preserved
with astonishing perfection, presents some remarkable peculiarities, the most
striking being that the vascular bundles of the stem have precisely the same
arrangement of their elements as is found in the leaves of existing Cycads, but
nowhere else among living plants. The roots also, though not unlike those of
certain ferns in their primary organisation, grew in thickness by means of
cambium, like those of a Gymmnosperm. On the other hand, the leaves of
Lyginodendron are typical fern-fronds, having the form characteristic of the
genus Sphenopteris, and being probably identical with the species S. Haninghaust.
Their minute structure is also exactly that of a fern-Srond, so that no botanist
would doubt that he had to do with a Fern if the leaves alone were before him.
This plant thus presents an unmistakable combination of cycadean and fern-
like characters. Another and more ancient genus, Heterangiwm, agrees in many
details with Lyginodendron, but stands nearer the ferns, the stem in its primary
structure resembling that of a Gleichenia, though it grows in thickness like a
eycad. These intermediate characters led Professor Williamson and myself to
the conclusion that these two genera were derived from an ancient stock of Ferns,
combining the characters of several of the existing families, and that they had
already considerably diverged from this stock in a cycadean direction. I believe
that recent investigations, of which I hope we shall hear more from Mr. Seward,
tend to supply a link between Lyginodendron and the more distinctly cycadean
stem known as Cycadoxylon.
Heterangium first appears in the Burntisland beds, at the base of the carboni-
ferous system; from a similar horizon in Silesia, Count Solms-Laubach has de-
scribed another fossil, Protopitys Bucheana, the vegetative structure of which also
shows, though in a different form, a striking union of the characters of Ferns and
Gymnosperms. Count Solms shows that this genus cannot well be included amone
the Lyginodendrez, but must be placed in a family of its own, which, to use his own
words, ‘ increases the number of extinct types which show a transition between the
characters of Filicine: and of Gymnosperms, and which thus might represent the
. descendants in different directions of a primitive group common to both.’ ?
Another intermediate group, quite different from either of the foregoing, is
that of the Medulloseze, fossils most frequent in the Upper Carboniferous and Per-
mian strata. The stems have a remarkably complicated structure, built up of a
number of distinct rings of wood and bast, each growing by its own cambium.
Whether these rings represent so many separate primary cylinders, like those of an
ordinary polystelic Fern, or are entirely the product of anomalous secondary
growth, is still an open question, on which we may expect more light from the
investigations of Count Solms. In any case, these curious stems (which certainly
suggest in themselves some relation to Cycadex) are known to have borne the
_ halal as Myeloxylon which have precisely the structure of cycadean
petioles.
Renault has further brought forward convincing evidence that these Myeloxy.«n
petioles terminated in distinctly fern-like foliage, referable to the form-genera
' Bot. Zeitung, 1893, p. 207.
2 Seward, Annals of Botany, vol. vii. p. 1.
1008 REPORT—1896.
Alethopteris and Neuropteris. Hence it is evident that the fronds of these types,
like some specimens of Sphenopteris, cannot be accepted as true Ferns, but may
be strongly suspected of belonging to intermediate groups between Ferns and
Cycads.
: It is not likely (as has been repeatedly pointed out elsewhere) that any of these
intermediate forms are really direct ancestors of our existing Cycads, which
certainly constitute only a small and insignificant remnant of what was once a
great class, derived, as I think the evidence shows, from fern-like ancestors,
probably by several lines of descent.
One of the greatest discoveries in fossil botany was undoubtedly that of the
Cordaitesee—a fourth family of Gymnosperms, quite distinct from the three now
existing, though having certain points in common with all of them. They are
much the most ancient of the four stocks, extending back far into the Devonian.
Nearly all the wood of Carboniferous age, formerly referred to Conifers under the
name of Dadozylon or Araucarioxylon, belonged to these plants. Thanks chiefly
to the brilliant researches of Renault and Grand’ Eury, the structure of these’ fine
trees is now known with great completeness. The roots and stems have a coniferous
character, but the latter contain a large, chambered pith different from anything in
that order. The great simple lanceolate or spatulate leaves, sometimes a yard
long, were traversed by a number of parallel vascular bundles, each of which has
the exact structure of a foliar bundlé in existing Cycadez. This type of vascular
bundle is evidently one of the most ancient and persistent of characters. Both
the male and female flowers (Cordaianthus) are well preserved in some cases. The
morphology of the former has not yet been cleared up, but the stamen, consisting
of an upright filament bearing 2-4 long pollen-sacs at the top, is quite unlike
anything in Cycades ; a comparison is possible either with Gingko or with the
Gnetacez.
In the female flowers—small cones—the axillary ovules appear to have two
integuments, a character which resembles Gnetaces rather than any other Gymno-
sperms. Renault’s famous discovery of the prothallus in the pollen-grains of
Cordaites indicates the persistence of a cryptogamic character; but it cannot be
said that the group as a whole bears the impress of primitive simplicity, though it
certainly combines in a remarkable way the characters of the three existing orders
of the Gymnosperms.
There is one genus, Poroxylon, fully and admirably investigated by Messrs.
Bertrand and Renault, which from its perfectly preserved vegetative structure (and
at present nothing else is known) appears to occupy an intermediate position
between the Lyginodendrex and the Cordaiter. The anatomy of the stem is
almost exactly that of Lyginodendron, the resemblance extending to the minutest
details, while the leaves seem to closely approach those of Cordaites. Poroxylon
is at present known only from the Upper Carboniferous, so we cannot regard it as
in any way representing the ancestors of the far more ancient Cordaitew. The
genus suggests, however, the possibility that the Cordaitee and the Cycadex
(taking the latter term in its wide sense) may have had a common origin among
forms belonging to the filicinean stock. It is also possible that the Cordaitex, or
plants allied to them, may in their turn have given rise to both Conifers and
Gnetacez.
It is unfortunate that at present we do not know the fructification of any ot
the fossil plants which appear to be intermediate between ferns and Gymnosperms.
Sooner or later the discovery will doubtless be made in some of these forms, and
most interesting it will be. M. Renault’s Cycadospadix from Autun appears ‘to
show that very cycad-like fructifications already existed in the later Carboniferous
period, and numerous isolated seeds point in the same direction, but we do not
know to what plants they belonged.
I think we may say that such definite evidence as we already possess decidedly
points in the direction of the origin of the Gymnosperms generally from plants of
the Fern series rather than from a lycopodiaceous stock.
I must say a few words before concluding on the cycad-like fossils which are
so strikine a feature of mesozoic rocks, although I feel that this is a subject with
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 1009
which my friend Mr. Seward is far more competent to deal. Both leaves and
trunks of an unmistakably cycadean character are exceedingly common in many
mesozoic strata, from the Lias up to the Lower Cretaceous. In some cases the
structure of the stem is preserved, and then it appears that the anatomy as well
as the external morphology is, on the whole, cycadean, though simpler, as regards
the course of the vascular bundles, than that of recent representatives of the
group.
3 eae to say, however, it is only in the rarest cases that fructifications of a
truly cycadean type have been found in association with these leaves and stems, In
most cases, when the fructification is accurately known, it has turned out to be of a
type totally different from that of the true Cycadez, and much more highly organ-
ised. This is the form of fructification characteristic of Bennettites, a most remark-
able group, the organisation of which was first revealed by the researches of
Carruthers, afterwards extended by those of Solms-Laubach and Lignier. The
genus evidently had a great geological range, extending from the Middle Oilite (or
perhaps even older strata) to the Lower Greensand. Probably, all botanists are
agreed in attributing cycadean affinities to the Bennettitee, and no doubt they
are justified in this. Yet the cycadean characters are entirely vegetative and anato-
mical ; the fructification is as different as possible from that of any existing cycad,
or, for that matter, of any existing Gymnosperm. At present, only the female
flower is accurately known, though Count Solms has found some indications of-
anthers in certain Italian specimens. The fructification of the typical species, B.
Gibsonianus, which is preserved in marvellous perfection in the classical specimens
from the Isle of Wight, terminates a short branch inserted between the leaf-bases,
and consists of a fleshy receptacle bearing a great number of seeds seated ona long
pedicel with barren scales between them. The whole mass of seeds and inter-
mediate scales is closely packed into a head, and is enclosed by a kind of pericarp
formed of coherent scales, and pierced by the micropylar terminations of the erect
seeds. Outside the pericarp, again, is an envelope of bracts which have precisely
the structure of scale-leaves in cycads. The internal structure of the seeds is per-
fectly preserved, and strange to say, they are nearly, if not quite, exalbuminous,
practically the whole cavity being occupied by a large dicotyledonous embryo.
This extraordinary fructification is entirely different from that of any other
known group of plants, recent or fossil, and characterises the Bennettitez, as a
family perfectly distinct from the Cycadex, though probably, as Count Solms-
Laubach suggests, having a common origin with them at some remote period. The-
Bennettitex, while approaching Angiosperms in the complexity of their fruit,.
retain a filicinean character in their ramenta, which are quite like those of ferns,
and different from any other form of hair found in recent Cycadexe. Probably the
bennettitean and cycadean series diverged from each other at a point not far re-
moved from the filicinean stock common to both.
I hope that the hasty sketch which I have attempted of some of the indications
of descent afforded by modern work on fossil plants may have served to illustrate-
the importance of the questions involved and to bring home to botanists the fact
that phylogenetic problems can no longer be adequately dealt with without taking
into account the historical evidence which the rocks aftord us.
Before leaving this subject I desire to express the great regret which all
botanists musi feel at the recent loss of one of the few men in England who have
carried on original work in fossil botany. At the last meeting of the Association
we had to lament the death, at a ripe old age, of a great leader in this branch of
science, Professor W. C. Williamson. Only a few weeks ago we heard of the
premature decease of Thomas Hick, for many years his demonstrator and
colleague. Mr. Hick profited by his association with his distinguished chief, and
made many valuable original contributions to paleobotany (not to mention other
parts of botanical science), among which I may especially recall his work, in
conjunction with Mr. Cash, on <Astromyelon (now known to be the root of
Calamites), on the leaves and on the primary structure of the stem in Calamites, on
the structure of Calamostachys, on the root of Lyginodendron, and on a new fossil
probably allied to Stigmaria. His loss will leave a gap in the too thin ranks of
£1010 : REPORT— 1896, 7
fossil-botanists ; but we may hope that the subject, now that its importance is
beginning to be appreciated, will be taken up by a new generation of enthusiastic
investigators.
CoNncLuUsIon.
To my mind there is a wonderful fascination in the records of the far-distant
past in which our own origin, like that of our distant cousins the plants, lies
hidden. If any fact is brought home to us by the investigations of modern
biology, it is the conviction that all life is one: that, as Nigeli said, the distance
from man to the lowest bacterium is less than the distance from the lowest bac-
terium to non-living matter.
In all studies which bear on the origin and past history of living things there
is an element of human interest—
‘ Hence, in a season of calm weather,
Though inland far we be,
Our souls have sight of that immortal sea
Which brought us hither,’
The problems of descent, though strictly speaking they may often prove insoluble,
will never lose their attraction for the scientifically guided imagination.
The following Report and Papers were read :-——
1. Report on Methods of Preparing Vegetable Specimens for Museums.
See Reports, p. 684.
2. On some Species of the Chytridiaceous Genus Urophlyctis.
By P. Macnus, Professor of Botany in the University of Berlin.
The author maintains the genus Urophilyctis, established by J. Schroeter, in
opposition to the opinion cf Alfred Fischer. He describes the development of the
species Urophlyctis Kriegeriana, occurring in Carwm carvi, established by him
some years ago, and shows that its spores are formed by the conjugation of two
cells, arising from different filaments, and that the development of the fungus
takes place within a single cell of the host, namely, the central cell of the gall
produced by it, which is of limited growth. The author proves that the fungus
observed by Trabut in Algiers, which causes large swellings on beetroots, also
belongs to this genus Urophlyctis. It was described by Trabat and also by
Saccardo and Mattirolo as one of the Ustilaginese, Gtdomyces leproides (Trab.).
The author proves that its spores are likewise formed by the conjugation of two
cells, arising from different filaments, exactly as in Urophlyctis. While these
observers state that the fungus developes in individual cells of the tumours caused
by it, the author shows that the cells containing the fungus are connected with
one another by canals of variable length and width, and that hence the cells con-
taining the fungus are only outgrowths and branches of one and the same cell.
The species only differs from Urophlyctis Kriegeriana in the unlimited growth of the
eae which corresponds to the continued ramification of the cell attacked by the
fungus.
Finally, the author deals with the development of the gall of Urophlyctis
pulposa, which difiers from that of the species already described.
3. A Parasitic Disease of Pellia epiphylla.
By W. G. P. Evuts, WA., Cambridge.
A disease extending over a pan of Pedlia epiphylia at the University Botanic
Garden, Cambridge, during May and June, 1896, was found to be caused by a
—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1011
Mould allied to, if not identical with, Ascotricha, which has become endoparasitic.
The fungus was isdlated, cultivated in hanging drops, gelatine tubes and flasks ;
and conidia from a pure culture when applied to fresh Pellia plants reproduced
the disease. ‘The germ tube from the conidia was traced into the superficial cells,
whose walls were browned in the neighbourhood of the germinating spores ;or
their germ tubes.
4, On Corallorhiza innata R. Br. and its associated Fungi. By
A. Vaucuan Jennines, /.L.S., F.G.S., Demonstrator of Botany and
Geology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
The orchid genus Corallorhiza has long been of interest to botanists on account
of the peculiar rhizome from which it derives its name, the absence of roots, and
that loss of chlorophyll associated with a saprophytic habit which it shares with
such forms as Epipogon and Monotropa. During recent years considerable modifi-
cation of the views of botanists as to the nutrition of saprophytes, as well as of
other plants, has taken place owing to their frequently observed connection with
fungoid elements; and from this point of view any additional information as to
the habit of so specialised a type as Corallorhiza may prove of value.
The writer has had some growing plants of this species under observation
during July and August in the pine-woods near Davos Platz, and the results may
be roughly stated as follows :—
1. The parenchymatous tissue of the rhizome contains numerous hyphz of a
‘Mycorhiza.’ These may be colourless, yellow, or brown, are distinctly septate,
.and show the character of the mycelium of the higher fungi, not of the ‘ moulds,’
&c. Though most abundant in the middle cortex, the hyphe are present in all
layers external to this, and their distribution is often correlated with the presence
of a large quantity of starch.
2. The rhizome of the growing plant is invariably surrounded by a web of
white, yellow, and brown hyphz, which spread out for a long distance into the
surrounding soil. These hyphe present the same characters under the microscope
as those of the mycorhiza in the tissue cells.
3. Though in hurriedly gathered specimens the rhizome seems to separate readily
from the soil and its mycelium, a careful examination shows that the growing
shoots bear small papillae crowned with tufts of long hairs, which serve for the
collection and transmission of the fungous hyphe. The latter may be traced in
great numbers from the surrounding mycelium down the hairs and through the
epidermal cells into the ground tissue.
4, The presence of these specialised hairs seems to indicate that, whatever may
be the case in other plants, the mycorhiza has here a distinct physiological value to
the orchid, and is not a merely tolerated symbiote.
5. Attempts to discover whether the mycelium forming the mycorhiza can be
referred to any one species of fungus have not as yet proved conclusive, but the
following observations may be noted :—
(a) The general and microscopic characters of the hyphe point to the Basidio-
mycetes as the group to which the fungus belongs.
(4) Several young agaricoid sporophores have been found growing from the
mycelium round the rhizome. These refused to develop further in cultivation,
but comparison with the early stages of Clitocybe infundibuliformis Sch., found a
few feet distant, indicates that this is the species to which they belong.
(ce) In another locality Tricholoma ionides Bull. was found growing from the
hole from which a plant of Corallorhiza had been removed three days before.
(d) In a third case a subterranean hymenomycete, probably a species of
Hymenogaster, was found between the lobes of the rhizome with its mycelium
spreading over the branches,
So far, then, as this district is concerned, it seems that the ‘mycorhiza’ of
‘Corallorhiza is a hymenomycete, and commonly an agaric; and that the species of
Tricholoma and Clitocybe mentioned above are those commonly observed. The
1012 REPORT—1896,
only other forms yet noted in proximity to Corallorhiza are Cortearius subfer-
rugineus Batsch. and Mycena umbellifera Sch., but further evidence with regard to:
these is at present wanting.
5. On a New Genus of Schizomycetes, showing Longitudinal Fission.
(Astrobacter Jonesii.) By A. Vaucuan Jennines, F.LS., 7.GS.,
Demonstrator of Geology and Botany in the Royal College of Science,
Dublin.
The great section of lower fungoid organisms known as the Schizomycetes is.
characterised by the predominance of reproduction by the simple method of fission.
In almost all cases the direction of division is transverse to the longer axis of the
cell, and this is, in fact, commonly regarded as constant throughout the group.
One exception has, however, been described by Metschnikoff in the form named
by him Pasteuria ramosa, a pear-shaped organism in which longitudinal division.
produces more or less radiate groups of pyriform cells.
The object of the present note is to record the existence of a second genus, in
which longitudinal fission results in the formation of a still more distinctly stellate:
structure.
The organism in question was found by Mr. A. Coppen Jones, F.L.S., in fresh
water in the neighbourhood of Tiibingen, associated with large quantities of
Spirillum undula. It was, in fact, only after staining the material to demonstrate:
the cilia in the latter that it was first observed, unfortunately too late for investi-
gation in the living condition.
Simple rod-like forms may be found, but more frequently V-shaped or
Y-shaped cells resulting from their longitudinal fission. After division the new
segments become more and more widely separated at the ends till regular three- or
four-rayed stars are produced. In later ‘stages symmetrical six- and eight-rayed
stars are formed, but older individuals with ten or more rays are less regular in
structure. There is no tendency to the pear-shaped swelling seen in Pasteuria,
and no spores have been observed. Owing to the intensity of the staining, little-
can be said at present as to their internal structure, and details as to the life-
history await further investigation.
There is no doubt, however, that the organism is allied to the bacteria, and.
that its peculiar shape is the result of longitudinal division. It may in future be
desirable to divide the Schizomycetes into two sections, those in which the divi-—
sion is transverse (Diaschize), and those in which it is longitudinal (Paraschize).
The generic name proposed is at once suggested by its form; the specific name
is in honour of the discoverer, whose valuable work on the tubercle bacillus is now
being recognised by all bacteriologists.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Arrangement of the Vascular Bundles in certain Nympheacex-
by D. T. Gwynnr-Vaucauan, B.A. Cantab.
One of the most remarkable characteristics of this order is the very extensive.
prevalence of the astelic system in the arrangement of the vascular bundles of
their stems; however, during an examination into the structure of various
members of the order, the fact that other systems of arrangement also are present
came to light. Thus in Nymphea flava aud N. tuberosa the plants produce small
tubers at the ends of stalks or stolons of greater or less length, and in these stalks.
or stolons the vascular bundles are not arranged in an astelic manner, but are
grouped around three to five different centres, forming thus so many separate
steles, or at least so many groups possessing all the characteristics of definite
steles. Each of these is surrounded by its own endodermis, and is composed of
three to four vascular bundles with very distinct and prominent phloéms, while a
small canal in the centre of the stele represents their disintegrated xylems.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1013
The tubers formed at the end of these stolons bear buds which grow out into
resh rhizomes, the first internodes of which are very narrow and much elongated ;
in these, again, the vascular bundles (four to seven in number) exhibit a different
arrangement, for they present none of the confusion found in the mature rhizome,
but run perfectly longitudinally ; either they all keep separate, or a varying number
of them may be united to form pairs. Whensix ofthem are present and these are
arranged in three pairs, the section presents a remarkable resemblance to that of
the floral peduncle of Cabomba aquatica.
Again, in the rhizome itself the arrangement is not altogether astelic, for by
the aggregation of the separated bundles of the stem a number of steles are
formed, one in the region below the point of insertion of each leaf. These groups
_ of bundles appear to be set apart for the especial purpose of bearing the adventi-
tious roots, and they are to be found in varying degrees of perfection throughout
the order. I found Victoria regia and certain species of Mymphea to possess the
most perfect root-bearing steles; they are composed of ten to twenty bundles
arranged in a ring, and are perfectly distinct and well defined. On the other
hand, in other species of Nymphea and in Nuphar the bundles set apart for bearing
the adventitious roots are not arranged in a sufficiently regular manner to be con-
sidered as a stele, or are only laterally fused together to form an arc of greater or
less extent.
2. The Influence of Habitat upon Plant-Habit.
By G. F. Scort Enntot, B.Se., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
W The paper is an attempt to tabulate and compare the habits and habitats of
the Ranunculacee, Papaveraceze, and Crucifere in the Kew and British Museum
Herbaria, or those from the European and Mediterranean floras practically.
There were only 230 plants in which such tabulation of both habit and habitat was
possible. The author’s tables are given below, and the paper is explanatory of
them, giving the result of recent literature and experiment so far as it illustrates
or explains the tables. The dependence of habit upon habitat is shown to be very
clear throughout. In conclusion, the author anticipates the objections of those
who hold the original hypothesis of Professor Weismann (that acquired characters
can by no means be inherited) by pointing to the most recent publication of this
writer, wherein use-inheritance of a kind is admitted. In any case the corre-
spondence must be explained by those who deny any relation between ‘habit and
habitat on purely theoretical grounds.
TABLE I.— Rosette Plants.
‘Cerastium macranthum . Rocks Algiers Alyssum, 5, 6,7 . F . Atnens
a scaposum . Rocks Crete | Diplotaxis 3, 5, 6 (only if
4 campanulatum. Sand Naples | grown in ° . . Exposed places)
Iberis 19. ri F . Dry places | Fy 10 5 5 + Sandy waysides
Lychnis alpina . - .« Rocks? | 11 Su is - Seaside
Thlaspi 6,’ 8, 10, 20, 21,23. Rocks 9 13 - Midian desert
Sisymbrium 32 . 6 - Desert | Sinapis10 . : . Calcaire aride
Arabis 6, 10, 21, 12, 13. .« Rocks | Brassica 24 , : : . Algeria
Oardamine 13, 14,15 . . Alpine rocks | Lepid*um 21, 22, 23 Stony mounta. s
TaslLeE Il.—Rock Plants.
Farsetia,1,2,3. . . Very woolly plants | Euromodendron . . An ericoid shrub
Sinapis 4 . : . . More hairy than usual Matthiola 7 < . Very woody
Fumaria27 . Fleshy leaves | Turritis Near water in sheltered
Iberis 18 . . . Fleshy leaves | Arakis 1, 2, 3, 4,5 } { elens
Tas.e ITI.—Downy, Hairy, or Woolly Plants.
Ranunculus § (variety) - at Alyssum 5, 6, 7 - Athens
hinium 14 z . Dese > ; : DI Eee
i. ” 7 - ‘. Greece | Sisymbrium 32 4 eae ele!
op nanum. . Stony places Malcolmia 9, 10 + . Spain, Algiers
Matthiola5 . . . Desert / % ll. . . Maritime sands
Vella i * 4 . Mom. calear., Spain Cerastium latifolium . Alpine
Farsetial,2,3. . . Dry rocks | ” tomentosum . Mountains, Greece
Aubrietia . - « Syria, arid places { a pedunculatum i
” »
1 The numbers correspond to those in Nyman’s Cox: pectus,
1014 REPORT—1896.
Taste 1V.—Vypes of Sonchus spinosus or Zilla myagroides.
Lepidium 15. p . Palestine Sisymbrium 17 A . Australia
Matthiolall . : . Greece and arid coun- Zilla . “1 5 . Egyptian desert
tries | Delphinium 10 4 . Waste places, Darda-
Oudneya . A . . Algerian deserts nelles
Farsetia linearis. . Egyptian desert + antheroidenm Dry sandy places
co zegyptiaca > » t
TasLeE V.—The Aptosimum Type.
Sisymbrium 20,21 . . Spain, Syria Matthiola humilis , 4 Egyptian desert
Alyssum 26,27 . : . Sunny places, Orient Fumaria 20 . . s Greece
Matthiola acaulis . . lgyptian desert
TasLeE V1.—Small-leaved or Retama-like Plants.
Delphinium 14 . : . Leaves reduced . 2 . Desert
es nanum . 5 a 5 ; : . Stony places
Za Balas . s > absent . 5 . Desert
ae virgatun " » itew 4 5 . Sandy waysides
a Sal tr 5 : » very few 5 - Desert
Lepidium 15 F : ; - - 5 ‘ . Palestine
Parsetia linearis A : » reduced . Bi . Egyptian desert
bs eegyptiaca = “A an . . a “A
Cardamine 12. : : - an 5 4 . Plaines marceageuses
Sisymbrium 3 é A Bem, = = . Syria
= 9,11 ; . Rigid virgate shrub . . Spain
tS 25 4 - “i » s ; . Arabia, Palestine
Iberis, 25 ‘ : . Nearly leafless variety . Caleareous soil in hot countries
3. A Discussion on the Movement of Water in Plants was opened by
Mr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S. Mr. Darwin’s Paper was ordered by
the General Committee to be printed in eatenso. See Reports, p. 674.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Changes in the Tentacle of Drosera rotundifolia, produced by Feeding
with Egg Albumen. By Lity H. Huis, Physiol. Labor., Oxford.
{Communicated by Dr. Gustay Mann. ]
In unfed leaves fixed in watery picro-corrosive (sp. gr. 1020) and stained with
Eosin-Toluidin blue, the apical and lateral glands of the first or outer layer and
also all the cells of the second or middle layer show a deep-blue cytoplasm, with
nuclei possessing little chromatin proper, but large nucleoli and a granular nucleo-
plasm. Within one minute after feeding the blue cytoplasm becomes purple ;
after one hour it is greatly vacuolated and reddish purple ; after twenty-four hours
the blue material has disappeared, and only a few strands of a pink cytoplasm are
to be seen. The nucleus after feeding loses the granular cytoplasm, the nuclear
chromatin segments enlarge enormously, reminding one of the early stages of
mitosis. The nucleolus has lost its red chromatin, and is not easy to see.
Recuperation of the cytoplasm is the result of nuclear activity, for the chromo-
somes enlarge during the period preceding the appearance of the granular nucleo-
plasm, which latter in every respect resembles the granular deposit of cytoplasm
in immediate contact with the outer surface of the nuclear membrane. The
cytoplasm is at first purple in colour, but becomes blue after 6-7 days. After the
‘secretion’ of the cytoplasm the nuclear chromatin segments diminish in size,
while the nucleoli become more and more evident, and the nucleoplasm has the
same appearance as in a leaf which has never beenfed. The third layer of gland-
cells, perhaps concerned in the secretion of mucus, also shows marked changes ;
for the long spindle-shaped nuclei of the resting condition shorten within one
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1015.
minute, after ten minutes they are more or less globular, then pass through changes
similar to those described above, and after some days resume their spindle shape—an
indication of rest.
2.. On the so-called Tubercle Bacillus. By A. Coreen Jones, F.L.S.
(Communicated by A. VAUGHAN JENNINGS, F.L.8., F.G.S., &c.]
Since the demonstration by Robert Koch in 1882 of a specific micro-organism
constantly associated with and capable of producing tuberculous disease, the
Bacillus tuberculosis has been the object of a great amount of investigation, which
has resulted in a vast accumulation of literature. The minute rod-like organism
which bears the name is better known to pathologists than any other pathogenic
fungus, and may be easily diagnosed by the characteristic and unique appearance
of its pure cultures on solid media, by the difficulty of staining it with the ordi-
nary aniline dyes, and by the resistance it offers when stained to the decolorising
action even of mineral acids.
Its claim to be regarded as a true bacillus has only very recently been ques-
tioned, but there are several considerations which tend to modify our views with
respect to its biological status ; and the following observations, made during the
last few years, and continued up to the present time, are, from this point of view,
not without interest :—
1, While the well-known simple rod-like form is by far the commonest, and,
n fact, the only form to be found in the vast majority oi cases, whether in the
tissues, in sputum, or in cavity contents, there may be observed, not infrequently,
elongated examples which develop lateral outgrowths, twigs, or incipient branching.
2. In rarer cases this process results in the formation of definite threads or
hyphee, which exhibit true branching, and often contain one or more spores,
forming oval, highly refracting, deeply stained swellings on the course of the
filaments. It is to be particularly noted, first, that these spores have far more
resemblance to the chlamydospores of the true filamentous fungi than to the
typical endospores of bacteria ; and, secondly, that they must on no account be
confounded with the unstained intervals on the course of the rods or filaments of
the tubercle organism. These were formerly described by Koch as spores, but are
really vacuoles in the cell contents, or, in some cases, spaces caused by the plasmo-
lytic shrinkage of the protoplasm. Occasionally, in cavity contents, densely
matted mycelial growths have been observed.
3. When old cultures are examined by means of sections it is found that the
growth does not consist of separated rod-like forms, isolated from one another and
lying at all angles, but of strands of parallel filaments, frequently showing
dichotomous branching
4. These facts indicate that the so-called ‘tubercle bacillus’ is! really a stage
in the life-history of some higher form of fungus with a definite mycelial growth.
From a systematic point of view, it cannut be regarded as coming within any
definition of the genus Bacillus, and it is suggested that a more appropriate name
would be Tuberculomyces.
Pathologists, who for the most part believe strongly in the constancy of form
of the species of bacteria, may not be inclined at first to accept these conclusions.
Bearing in mind the controversies of the past on the specific distinctness of micro-
organisms and the many erroneous observations which have led to false statements
as to polymorphism, such scepticism is both natural and desirable; but in the
present case the tracing of all stages between the short rods and the branched
hyphal filaments, their identical behaviour towards reagents, and the occurrence of
all these forms in pure cultures, place their genetic relationship beyond a doubt.
Brefeld has proved that a number of the higher thallus-forming fungi may,
under certain conditions, multiply for innumerable generations as mere unicellular
rods or spheres (‘oidia,’ &c.), and yet retain the power of again forming, when
placed under suitable conditions, the mycelium from which they arose. It is
1016 REPORT —1896.
therefore no far-fetched supposition to regard the rod-like form of the tubercle
parasite as an adaptive modification of some higher fungus, existing perhaps as a
saprophyte outside the animal body. Further support for such a view may be seen
in the fact that the tubercle fungus occupies a unique position among the patho-
genic micro-organisms resembling only the well-known hyphomycete Actinomyces.
The resemban22 of these two forms was pointed out in 1892 by Fischel, and the
present writer has been able to show that the tubercle organism is accompanied in
a large proportion of cases by club-shaped growths identical with those so
characteristic of Actinomycosis. Now it has been placed beyond a doubt that
Actinomyces is primarily a parasite saprophytic on cereal plants, and that its
occurrence as an animal parasite can only be regarded as secondary and accidental.
Whether the change in our view as to the real nature of the tubercle fungus
will in the future be of any diagnostic value it is impossible to say, as compara-
tively few cases showing the filamentous growth have yet been observed; but
there is some evidence in support of the idea that the hyphal type may be
correlated with more chronic stages of the disease, where actual tissue destruction
is relatively slight.
3.1 Preliminary Notes on Florali\Deviations in sone Species oy { Poly-
gonum. Sy J. W. H.\ Tram, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the
Oniversity of Aberdeen.
The genus has long beent known to show considerable departures from the
arrangement and number of parts accepted as most typical (Per. 5. St. 5+3, C. 3),
such as is found in P. convolvulus. Lichler’s ‘ Bliithendiagramme,’ for example,
shows diagrams of several species as if characterised by constant differences of
structures. Observation shows that in some species (e.g. Convolvulus) variations
are comparatively infrequent and slight, but that in most (e.g. Perstcaria and
aviculare) they are extremely frequent, and lead to very great changes in floral
structure. Often it is scarcely possible in such species to find two flowers alike on
the same branch, or even on the same plant. Within a species individual plants
show wide differences in the frequency and extent of variations.
A comparison of different species shows that while each varies, so as in the
more variable species to cover almost the whole range observed in the genus,
each shows a tendency to certain lines of variation. These tendencies are more
alike usually in the more nearly allied species, so as to correspond in the main with
the groups based on habit, and they lead from group to group.
The modes of variation commonly observed include almost all the recognised
modes of departure from floral, symmetry. They affect all the whoris. The
perianth in some species is very constant. In others it habitually shows cohesion
of two or more segments, or abortion in different degrees, or suppression of one or
two (usually the inner) segments. Chorisis of a segment is less frequent.
Enations from one or more segments are frequent in certain species, rare or
absent in others. The outer stamens often show cohesion of the two in each pair,
varying from the slightest union of the bases of the filaments to absolute union of
even the anthers. Abortion (in all degrees to complete suppression) of one or
more stamens is not rare, frequently reducing this whorl to 3 (less often to 2) in
aviculare. Chorisis is not rare, especially of the unpaired stamen. The inner
stamens seldom show cohesion (except in aviculare and its allies) with stamens of
the outer whorl. Abortion (in all degrees to complete suppression) is very fre-
quent, and in certain species (amphibiwm) this whorl has completely disappeared.
In aveulare and allied species the inner whorl shows abortion less than the outer.
Chorisis in the inner whorl most frequently shows itself in the posterior stamen.
Adhesions of stamens to perianth segments and petalody of stamens are not
frequent.
(In P. amphibium the land form near Aberdeen very generally has the anthers
very small or abortive, and the stamens hidden within the perianth, while the form
growing in water has the anthers well developed, and some or all exserted; neither
form appears to seed habitually.)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1017
The pisti in some species is very constant, while in others it shows all stages
of cohesion and reduction to two carpels, this being the almost invariable number
in certain species. Abortion is less frequent, and complete suppression cannot be
distinguished from complete cohesion. Chorisis is very frequent in aviculare and
some other species, in all degrees from a mere enlargement of one or more stigmas
to an increase in number (up to seven), with corresponding modifications in
structure in the ovary. Only one ovule has been observed in each ovary,
Markedly teratological forms have been met with, but are not included in this
summary.
No very definite relation has been traced between the position of a flower on
the axis and deviations in structure, though pressure tends to abortion or suppres-
sion of parts, especially of the sexual organs, (The flowers examined have chiefly
been those sufficiently open to allow the natural arrangement to be noted without
manipulation, to avoid displacement of parts, hence cleistogamous flowers are
scarcely included.) The variability appears rather to express the result of an
innate tendency to vary where not subject to the check of loss of fertility, the
variations in Polygonum not leading to this loss.
The same number of parts in a whorl may be due to very different causes, and
still more may the same number of stamens express very different arrangements in
the flower; hence such a statement in a specific description as ‘stamens usually
six’ is insufficient.
4, On the Singular Effect produced on certain Animals in the West Indies
by feeding on the Young Shoots, Leaves, Pods, and Seeds of the Wild
Tamarind or Jumbai Plant (Leucena glauca, Benth.). By D. Morris,
C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.LS., Assistant Director of the Royal Gardens,
Kew.
The seeds of many species of Leguminosee are well known to be poisonous.
The most striking instance is the Calabar bean of West Tropical Africa (Physo-
stigma venenosum). This plant closely resembles a Phaseolus, but the poisonous
character of the seeds is so well recognised that it has been long used by the people
of West Africa as an ordeal in state trials. The seeds of Abrus precatorius,
popularly called Crab’s Eyes, are harmless when eaten, but rapidly produce fatal
effects when introduced beneath the skin in very small quantity. Even the seeds
of the common Laburnum (Laburnum vulgare) are responsible for more than one
death amongst children in this country every summer; and recently ten cattle
were poisoned in Mid-Lothian by eating the leaves of this plant. The most
remarkable effects are produced on horses in the Western States of America by feed-
ing on species of Astragalus and Oxytropis, locally known as Crazy or Loco plants.
The animals pass through a stage of temporary intoxication and act as if attacked
with blind staggers, and ultimately die. Lastly, there is paralysis of the hinder
extremities produced in horses (also in human beings) by feeding on the seeds of
the Bitter Vetch (Zathyrus sativus), This has occurred very widely in India.
The condition so induced is known as ‘lathyrismus.’
The subject of this note is a plant that has received little or no attention. As
far as I am aware, its singular properties have not been placed on record in this
country. The Wild Tamarind of Jamaica and the Jumbai or Jumbie of the
Bahamas (Leucena glauca, Benth.) is commonly found along roadsides and in
waste places in Tropical America. It presents the appearance of a weedy-looking
Acacia, and belongs to the tribe Ewmimosee of the N. O. Leguminosae. The plant
is now so widely distributed in tropical countries that its native habitat, according
to Bentham, is unknown. There is, however, no doubt of its American origin.
The extensive distribution of so unattractive a plant is probably due: (1) to the
facility with which the small flat seeds are carried about by man or animals;
(2) to the use to which the seeds are put in making ornamental articles such as
artificial flowers, bracelets, brooches, baskets, &c. A set of these is shown in the
Kew Museums. The following is a brief description of the species :—
Leucena glauca, Benth, in ‘Hook, Journ, Bot.’ IV. 1842, 416, A small
1896. 3U
1018 REPORT—1896.
unarmed tree or shrub, extremities, young leaves, and inflorescence puberulous.
Pinne 3-6-jugate, occasionally a sessile gland between the lowest pair; leaflets
linear, glaucous beneath, often sub-falcate, acute, 3-3 inch long. Heads globose,
white, 2 inch in diameter, on peduncles of #1} inch from the upperaxils, Legume
flat, thinly coriaceous 4-6 inches long, 3-{ inch broad, narrowed at the base into
the stipes 3-3 inch. Acacia glauca, Willd., A. leucocephala, Link.
Distribution :—West Indies, Bahamas, Demerara; Brazil, Peru; gardens of
S. Europe and North Africa ; widely found in tropical Africa, East Indies, Ceylon,
Mauritius, Java, and China. Probably introduced into Africa and Asia.
Thirteen years ago I drew attention to the properties of this plant in a few
words that appeared in the ‘ Report of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, 1883,
p- 19, as follows: Wild Tamarind. Mr. Robert Russell, of St. Ann’s, informs
me that horses feeding on the leaves of this plant completely lose the hair from
their manes and tails. He adds, “ Horses from Llandovery, Richmond, and that
side of the parish where the Wild Tamarind abounds, are frequently to be seen
tail-less and mane-less.”’ This statement was supported by the testimony of so
many people acquainted with the facts that there was no reason to doubt it.
Many years afterwards (in December 1895) I renewed my acquaintance with the
plant in the Bahamas. The plant was much more plentiful there than in
Jamaica; it was, in fact, distinctly encouraged in the former islands as a fodder
plant. The people were fully aware of the singular effect it produced on horses,
and added that it also affected mules and donkeys. Its effect on pigs was still
more marked. These animals assumed a completely naked condition, and appeared
without a single hair on their body. Horses badly affected by Jumbai were
occasionally seen in the streets of Nassau, where they were known as ‘ cigar-tails.’
Such depilated animals, although apparently healthy, were considerably depreciated
in value. They were said to recover when fed exclusively on corn and grass.
The new hair was, however, of a different colour and texture, ‘so the animals were
neyer quite the same.’ One animal was cited as having lost its hoofs as well, and
in consequence it had to be kept in slings until they grew again and hardened. The
effects of the Jumbai on horses, mules, donkeys, and pigs were regarded as accidental—
due to neglect or ignorance. The plant was really encouraged to supply food for
cattle, sheep, and goats. The latter greedily devoured it and were not perceptibly
affected byit. It will be noticed that the animals affected were non-ruminants, while
those not affected were ruminants. The probable explanation is that the ruminants,
by thoroughly mixing the food with saliva and slowly digesting it, were enabled
to neutralise the action of the poison and escape injury. The seeds probably
contain the deleterious principle in a greater degree than any other part of the
plant. It was a common experience that animals introduced from other localities
suffered more than the native animals. The latter were either immune or had
learnt to avoid the plant as noxious to them. The active principle in Leucena
glauca has not yet been investigated. There is abundant material at hand for this
purpose in almost every part of the world. It is probable that the active principle
may consist of a volatile alkaloid somewhat similar to that found in Lathyrus
sativus. A certain amount of parallelism is to be noticed in the effects produced
by these two plants. In ‘lathyrismus’ (ignoring the effect on man) the chief
sufferer is undoubtedly the horse. The effect on mules and donkeys is not given,
but is probably the same. Although pigs fatten on Lathyrus, they lose the use of
their hinder extremities, as in the horse. Hence the non-ruminating animals as a
class suffer from Lathyrus as they do from Leucena. The similarity in ruminants
is also very close. For instance, cattle are reported to grow lean if fed exclusively
on Lathyrus, but are not otherwise affected. Sheep are not affected at all.
I am not disposed to attach much importance to the parallelism here noticed.
It is possible that ruminants generally are less susceptible to the action of certain
poisons than non-ruminants. It is evident, however, that in Leucena glauca we
possess a plant with singular properties. It is a vegetable depilatory of a very
decided character. No other plant appears to produce exactly identical results.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1019
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 21.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Number of Spores in Sporangia.
By Professor F. O. Bower, /.2.S.
2. The Polymorphism of the Green Alge, and the Principles of their Evolu-
tion. By R. Cuopat, Professor of Botany in the University of Geneva.
The paper treats of the following subjects: Primitive and Nodal Types; Pre-
ponderance of Fluctuating Characters in the different Series; Specialisation of
Characters and their Fixation; Sexuality: its Origin and Tendencies; supposed
Relations with the Archegoniate.
3. On some Peculiar Cases of Apogamous Reproduction in Ferns. By
Wituiam H. Lane, IB., B.Sc., Robert Donaldson Scholar, Glasgow
Unwwersity.
In order to ascertain to what extent apogamy in Nephrodium filiz-mas, Desv.,
is correlated with the cresting of the fern plant, from which the spores were de-
rived, cultures of normal and crested forms were made. Of the three cultures of
normal forms one was unsuccessful ; one of the others was exclusively apogamous,
while the other has, as yet, reproduced in the ordinary way. Seven crested varie-
ties were sown ; five of these were apogamous and the other two normal. Three
of the crested varieties were known with certainty to be wild finds; two of these
were apogamous. From these results it appears that apogamy in WN. filiz-mas
stands in no definite relation to cresting. When the ferns sown were divided into
Wollaston’s species, NV. filix mas, N. pseudo-mas, and N. propinquwm, it was found
that all the varieties of the two former were apogamous, while both normal and
crested forms of NV. propinguum were normally reproduced. The basis of observa-
tion is, however, too limited to allow of any generai conclusion being drawn as to
the constancy of this difference.
Cultures were also made of crested varieties of other species. In all in which
young plants were produced their development was at first normal. After the
cultures had continued for nine months young plants, developed apogamously,
were found in Scolopendrium vulgare, Athyrium filix feemina and Aspidium aculea-
tum, var. angulare. It is impossible at present to decide how far the result can be
ascribed to cresting of the parent plant. Possibly the prolonged cultivation of
unfertilised prothalli is the more important factor in these cases, the cresting aiding
as a predisposing cause.
Unfertilised prothalli of Scolopendrium vulgare formed a cylindrical, fleshy
prolongation of the midrib, the tip of which became in time covered with ramenta,
and was continued directly as the axis of the young sporophyte. Archegonia were
present just below the ramenta.
In some prothalli of a fern from Mr. Druery’s collection, which was labelled
Lastrea dilatata, vay. cristato-gracilis, a similar prolongation of the median region
was found. Upon this sporangia were borne, sometimes singly, in other cases
grouped together so as to resemble a sorus. The sporangia had a well-developed
annulus which sometimes showed the characteristic reddish-brown thickenings of
the wall. The prolongation on which the spcrangia were situated bore archegonia
and antheridia which sometimes intervened between two groups of sporangia. Its
prothallial nature was, therefore, beyond doubt. The sporangia were borne on
prothalli on which no trace of a young sporophyte could be detected.
1020 REPORT—1896.
Consideration of the theoretical bearings of these facts is deferred until they
have been investigated in detail.
4, A Lecture on the Geographical Distribution of Plants was delivered
by Mr. W. T. TutsEvton-Dyer, F:R.S., C.M.G., C.I.E., Director of
the Royal Gardens, Kew.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 22.
The following Papers were read :—
1, A Discussion on the Cell was opened by the reading of the following
“Paper :—
Some Current Problems connected with Cell-Division.
By Professor J. BRETLAND FARMER.
The great mass of information concerning the phenomena of cell-structure
forms the excuse for attempting to test some of the leading hypotheses and theories
as to the meaning of the observed facts.
And firstly, it is necessary to exercise great care in laying the foundations of
our knowledge, since these depend so much on material which has been subjected
to an elaborate technical treatment before it can be appropriately examined.
Secondly, there is a widespread tendency to generalise from a study, exhaustive
it may be, of a few types. But there is so much variety, that, save in the broadest
outlines, it is hardly possible to speak of a type at all.
This is illustrated by the present position of the centrosome question. Fev
people are agreed as to what its very nature actually is, and perhaps still fewer as
to the part which it plays in the cell. Some regard it as the active agent in
bringing about nuclear division, whilst others believe it to be a transient structure,
called into existence by the forces which are at work during karyokinesis. The
occurrence and behaviour of centrosomes during karyokinesis (nutosis) require a
comparative treatment. Whilst it is quite possible that in the cells of some
organisms the centrosome may possess a marked individuality, it does not there-
fore necessarily follow that it must occur universally, or that it is concerned, as a
principal, with the process; and this latter remark applies even to those instances
in which it appears most prominently. Post hoc does not always imply
propter hoc.
The present position of the question as to the origin and nature of the achro-
matic spindle, also, is a very uncertain one. Does the spindle arise as the result of
an onward development of a pre-existing rudiment, or is it a new formation in the
protoplasm? In the answer to this question, no less than in the conclusion to
which we arrive as to the nature of the centrosome, an important principle is
involved. It is, doubtless, simpler to admit a variety of ‘organs’ in the cell, but
does such an admission bring us any nearer to understanding the actual processes
of cell life ?
Again, the chromosomes themselves present abundant difficulties, when one
tries to arrive at a rational account which shall embrace the facts which even yet
have been ascertained respecting them. If individuality be conceded to the chro-
mosomes, how can this be reconciled with the facts of reduction and fertilisation ?
It would seem that the reduction can be effected in various and radically different
ways. But this touches very nearly their claims to the possession of that compli-
cated structure which has been regarded as probable by some writers, and which is
supposed by them to be intimately associated with different hereditary properties.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1021
2. On the Heterotype Divisions of Lilium Martagon, By Erne Sarcanr.
There are two series of nuclear divisions in the life-history of Lilium Martagon
which exhibit twelve chromosomes in place of twenty-four.
I. Spermatogenesis :—
1. First division of pollen mother-cell nucleus.
2. Second division of pollen mother-cell nucleus.
3. Division of pollen-grain nucleus into vegetative and generative nuclei.
4. Division of generative nucleus in pollen-tube.
IT, Odgenesis :—
1. Division of primary embryo-sac nucleus into micropylar and chalazal
nuclei.
2. Division of micropylar daughter nucleus.
3. Division of both daughter nuclei of the micropylar nucleus.
My preparations include the whole odgenetic series and the first three divisions
of the spermatogenetic series. The second and third divisions in both are precisely
similar to vegetative nuclear divisions except in possessing only half the number of
chromosomes. They are called homotype.
The first nuclear division on either side is called heterotype, because the process
of karyokinesis differs from that of the vegetative nucleus. The chief points which
distinguish it are :—
1. The resting nucleus, after some increase in size, passes into a contracted state
called synapsis.
2. The chromatic ribbon of the spirem is not homogeneous, but is composed of
an erythrophilous ribbon bearing a double row of cyanophilous dots.
3. Longitudinal fission appears in the spirem ribbon before its division into
chromosomes.
4, A second longitudinal fission appears in each segment of the immature
chromosomes.
5. The segments of each chromosome are tightly twisted on each other, and
separate from near the middle or fromeither end. The untwisting of the segments
from each other as they separate gives a contorted appearance to each chromosome
of the nuclear plate, and adjacent chromosomes are otten of totally different shape.
The appearance of the heterotype spindle is therefore much less regular than that
of the homotype spindle.
6, The chromosomes of the diaster stage are usually V-shaped.
3. On the Cells of the Cyanophycee. By Professor E. Zacwartas.
My recent researches on the Cyanophycee have confirmed and extended my
former statements. Cell protoplasm, containing the coloured matter, surrounds a
central body which is colourless. This body is not homogeneous in the living state ;
when treated with reagents, it shows apparently a spongy structure ; in its sur-
face, in eertain cases outside of it, are distributed granules of different shape and
size, becoming deeply stained, when treated with methylen-blue. These granules
(‘Centralsubstanz,’ as I have named them formally) agree, as stated some years
ago, in their reactions with the chromatin of the nucleus of other organisms.
However, I recently found slight differences, which, combined with certain con-
siderations, render it doubtful whether the ‘Centralsubstanz’ contains nuclein like
the Chromosomes or not.
Iodine reactions observed in Gloiotrichia pisum render it probable that the
central body of the spore and of those cells immediately above it contains glycogen.
The cell protoplasm contains in different stages of cell-life different quantities of
granules, which are chemically different from the central substance. Both kinds of
granules are stored in the spores of Gloiotrichia.
By certain methods of culture the granulations can be made to vanish entirely
out of the cells.
1022 REPORT—1896.
The whole of my experiments lead me to suppose that the granules in the cell-
protoplasm are increased in size and number when the cells are able to assimilate
carbon, although under conditions that do not allow them to grow.
The cell-division takes place, as I have stated previously, without showing
karyokinetic processes. Sometimes the disposition of the constituents of the central
body may remind one of karyokinetic stages ; nevertheless this disposition is entirely
variable and without rule.
Reviewing the facts which we know at the present time, we are obliged to
admit that the central body of the Cyanophycee differs in important points from
the nucleus of other organisms. It is highly remarkable that often nuclein has not
been found in the dividing cells of Cyanophycee, while in other organisms, as far as
we know, the nuclein augments when the cells begin to divide.
In connection with the previous statements, I wish to add some words on
micro-chemical methods. A mixture of methylen-blue and fuchsin 8. may be used
with great advantage to study the distribution of nuclein in the cell. If one treats
tissues of different origin with diluted hydrochloric acid and afterwards adds the
said mixture, the constituents of the cell which contain nuclein are stained deeply
blue, the parts without that substance being red. Sperm cells of the Rhine-
salmon were treated by me with diluted hydrochloric acid to remove protamin.
Afterwards I stained them with the methylen-blue fuchsin S. mixture. Instantly
the envelopes of the heads which contain the nucleic acid were beautifully dyed
bright blue, the inner part ofthe heads seemed to be colourless, the tails were dyed.
red. Similarly treated, the chromatin bodies of all the nuclei, which as yet have
been examined, are stained blue, the rest of the nuclei and the cell protoplasms red.
That the chromatin bodies contain nuclein had also been proved by their other
reactions. However, it is easily understood, but often not sufficiently attended to,
that it is necessary to treat the tissues quite similarly if one wishes to obtain com-
parable results. Lilienfeld states that white of an egg coagulated by alcohol can-
not be stained, and removes the colour from the dye-mixture. I, on the contrary,
have stated that white of anegg coagulated by alcohol is stained red by the above-
mentioned mixture. I recently made out that this difference of results must have
been caused by the different ways in which Lilienfeld and I have obtained the
coagulated white of an egg. If one squeezes some white of an egg through a
cloth, and then adds just enough alcohol to coagulate it, the substance thus obtained
cannot be stained red, but removes the colour from the dye-mixture. But if
the coagulate is washed with water, it can now be stained reddish blue, and after
washing if) with alcohol, pure red. The water used for washing has an alkaline
reaction, and removes the colour from the dye-mixture.
4. Ona New Hybrid Passion Flower. By Dr. J. Witson.
5. Observations on the Loranthacece of Ceylon.
By ¥F. W. Keesre, B.A. Cantab.
I. Emergences on the.Embryo of Loranthus neelgherensis.—The hypocotyl of
the fully developed embryo is densely covered with green columnar emergences,
whose cortical cells contain chlorophyll, starch, tannin, and a substance giving
the reactions of a fat. Irregular masses of a similarly reacting material are fre-
quently found covering the cuticle.
A single stoma occurs on the free surface of each emergence, and in the
embryo of this species stomata are confined to the emergences.
The cuticle covering the general epidermis is continuous over the guard-cells of
each stoma, except for a small oval slit which allows of communication between
the intercellular space and the air. The stomata thus suggest either a xerophytic
habit for the plant or an abnormal function for themselves.
The emergences flourish during the germinating (epiphytic) stage, and later,
when semi-parasitism is achieved, cease to be functional.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1028
IT, Mode of penetration into the host of L. neelgherensis— Unlike many species,
L. neelgherensis develops no well-marked organ of attachment (suctorial disc) at
the free end of its hypocotyl.
Where much resistance to the entry of the sucker is offered by the host, there
are formed at the edges of the attached surface of the hypocotyl a series of
acropetally arising, hair-bearing cortical ridges. The later-formed ridges, wedging
themselves in between the older ones and the bark, force these older ridges away.
The firmly attached hairs of each ridge so forced away tear off masses of the
bark, and thus the softer tissues, through which the sucker readily and cleanly
bores, are exposed by instalments. Where the sucker comes in contact with
lignified structures, dissolution is more gradual, and stages of disintegration
(erosion figures) are to be observed.
In Z. loniceroides, where a well-marked suctorial disc is formed, attachment
occurs once for all. This attachment is maintained (1) by the growth of the
edge of the disc hard against the bark; (2) by the outgrowing hairs forming a
matted sclerotic mass firmly fixed into the outer layers of the host.
6. Specimens of Recent and Fossil Plants were demonstrated in the
Zoological Laboratory by Dr. D. H. Scorr, Professor Maenus, Pro-
fessor ZACHARIAS, Miss E. Sarcant, Mr. A. C. Sewarp, Mr. W. H.
Lane, and others.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER. 23.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Latent Life in Seeds. By M. Casimir DE CANDOLLE.
In this paper M. de Candolle gave an account of some experiments which he
has recently carried out on the power of germination of seeds exposed for different
periods to low temperatures, He also recorded striking instances of the develop-
ment of normal seedlings from seeds which have been kept for a great number of
years. From seeds of Nelumbium speciosum, more than a hundred years old,
Robert Brown obtained perfect seedlings, Similar results were recorded from
experiments made on very old seeds in the Tournefort Herbarium, Paris. Plants
buried under rubbish-heaps collected by the Greeks have been found to grow and
develop flowers from seeds which must have been at least 1,500 years old. To test
the condition of a dormant seed, M. de Candolle exposed the seeds of several
plants to a temperature too low to admit of the continuance of the process of
respiration. Seeds of corn, oats, Feniculum officinale, Mimosa pudica, Gloxinia,
and other plants were exposed for 118 days to a temperature of 40°F. below zero.
The means of carrying out these experiments was afforded by refrigerating machines
placed at the disposal of M. de Candolle by a Liverpool firm of meat importers.
The machines worked about eight hours a day, and during that time the tempe-
rature often fell considerably below 40°F. below zero. Nearly all the seeds of
corn, oat, and Feniculum germinated, and a great many in the case of Mimosa.
The Gloxinias did not develop, but-there is reason to suppose that they were not
good seeds, as others from the same lot did not germinate freely even under normal
conditions. The conclusion to be drawn from the experiments seems to be this:
In resting seeds the protoplasm is not actually living, but has reached a stage of
inaction in which, although not dead, it is endowed with potential life. In other
words, protoplasm in resting seeds is not analogous to a smouldering fire, but
rather to those chemical mixtures made up of bodies capable of combining when
certain conditions of temperature and illumination are realised. .A good example
of this condition is afforded by a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, which can be
preserved indefinitely without combining if kept in the dark, but under the
influence of certain rays of light combine with explosive violence.
1024 REPORT—1896.
2. On some Carboniferous Fossils referred to Lepidostrobus.
By D. H. Scort, IA., Ph.D., PRS.
1. The specimens described by the late Professor W. C. Williamson under the
name of Lepidodendron Spenceri' consist entirely of pedunculate strobili, and
therefore, if their Lepidodendroid affinities were established, would be placed in the
genus Lepidostrobus. Under the name Z. Spencert two distinct species are in-
cluded, differing in the dimensions of the axis, the arrangement of the sporophylls,
and the size, arrangement, and forms of the spores.
The smaller kind, which is the more frequent, is alone figured in Williamson’s
memoirs, and must retain the specific name of Spenceri. The structure is pre-
served with great perfection. The anatomy of the peduncle and axis is consistent
with the attribution of the species to Lepidostrobus; but in several points, notably
the form of the sporophylls and the insertion of the sporangia, the cone differs
from all known Lepidostrob:. It agrees most nearly with a form described by
M. Zeiller as Siyillartostrobus Crepini.?. If the latter be a true Sigillario-
strobus then L. Spencert should also be placed in that genus. In that case it
would be the first fructification of Sigillaria discovered with structure preserved.
The second and larger species appears to be co-generic with the former. :
2. A fragment of stem from the Burntisland beds at the base of the Car-
boniferous formation was described by Williamson in 1872° as possibly forming
part of the axis of the Zepzdostrobus found in the same deposits. A renewed
examination of the specimen has shown that it differs in many respects from any
Lepidodendroid axis, as shown by the pitted, as distinguished from scalariform
tracheides, by the di- or trichotomous leaf-traces, and by the presence of a ventral
lobe on the leaf. The specimen represents a new type of stem, having some points
in common with Sphenophyllum, but so far of uncertain affinity.
3. A New Cycad from the Isle of Portland.
By A. C. Sewarp, J/.4., F.GS.
Dr. Woodward lately obtained an exceedingly fine specimen of a cycadean
stem from the Purbeck beds of Portland, which is now in the fossil plant gallery of
the British Museum. The stem, which is probably the largest known, has a height of
1m, 185 cm., and measures 1 m. 7 cm. in girth at the broadest part. A striking
feature of the specimen is the conical apical bud enclosed by tapered bud scales,
bearing numerous ramental outgrowths on the exposed surface. The surface of
the stem presents the appearance of a prominent reticulum of projecting ridges, of
which the meshes were originally occupied by the persistent petiole bases. The
substance of theleafstalks has for the most part disappeared, while the interpetiolar
ramental tissue has been mineralised and so preserved as a projecting framework.
In structure the ramenta are practically identical with those of Bennettites, as
described by Carruthers and other writers. The petiole bases also agree very closely
with those of Bennettites, consisting of a mass of parenchymatous tissue traversed
by numerous vascular bundles and secretory canals, with a distinct band of cork at
the periphery. No trace of any inflorescence has been found. It is proposed to
name the plant Cycadeowdea gigantea. ’
4. Note on a Large Specimen of Lyginodendron.
By A. C. Sewarp, JILA., £.G.S8.
The specimens on which this description is based are in the Botanical Depart-
ment of the British Museum and in the recently acquired Williamson Collection.
1 «Organization of the Fossil Plants of the Coal-measures,’ parts ix., x., XVi.,
and xix., 1878-93, Phil. Trans.
2 Flore fossile du Bassin Houiller de Valenciennes, pl. Ixxvii. fig. 3.
3 « Organization,’ &c, part iii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1025
The block, from which several sections have been prepared, is a striking example
of the preservation of the minute structure of a Coal Measure plant on a large
scale; it consists of a mass of wood at least 6 cm. thick in a radial direction, and a
pith about 3 cm. in diameter, but without any trace of cortical tissue. Sections
obtained from this block, and included in the Williamson Collection, were described
at some length in the recently published memoir by Williamson and Scott on
Lyginodendron and Heterangium. The examination of additional specimens has
led to a somewhat fuller diagnosis of the structure and a more detailed comparison
with Lyginodendron Oldhamium and other plants. The main mass of the wood
possesses a structure practically identical with that of Lyginodendron Oldhamium
and recent cycadean stems; internal to the centrifugally developed secondary wood
there is a fairly complete and narrow ring of centripetally developed xylem, In
the pith there are numerous secretory canals and nests of dark-coloured sclerous
cells. No definite traces of primary xylem like that of Lyginodendron Oldhamiuni
have been detected. As a matter of convenience the specimen may be designated
Lyginodendron robustum.
5. A New Species of Albuca (A. prolifera, Wils.). By Dr. J. Wixson.
6. Observations on Hybrid Albucas. By Dr. J. Witson.
1896.
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INDEX.
References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper
where the paper is published in extenso.
BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXxvii.
List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1897, xxxvilii.
List of Trustees and General Officers,
1831-1897, 1.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, li.
List of evening lectures from 1842, lxix.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixxii.
Officers of Sections present at Liverpool,
lxxiii.
Officers and Council for 1896-97, Ixxv.
Treasurer’s account, Ixxvi.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, Ixxvii.
Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Liverpool, Ixxx.
Resolutions passed by the
Committee at Liverpool :
(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, lxxxiv.
(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, lxxxix.
(3) Papers ordered to be printed in
extenso, Xciil.
(4) Resolutions referred to the Coun-
cil for consideration, and ac-
tion if desirable, xciv.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes in 1896, xcv.
Places of meeting in 1897, 1898 and 1899,
xcvi.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, xcvii.
General meetings, exii.
Address by the President, Sir Joseph
Lister, Bart., D.C.L., Pres. R.S.,3.
General
ABBOTT (George) on District Unions of
Scientific Societies, 33.
ABERCROMBY (Hon. R.) on meteorvlogieal
observations on Ben Nevis, 166.
ABNEY (Capt. W. de W.) on the best
methods of recording the direct inten-
sity of solar radiation, 241.
on mave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 273.
on the action of light upon dyed
colours, 347.
ABRAM (Dr. J. Hill) and PRosprr H.
MARSDEN on the detection of lead in
organic fluids, 990.
Acetylene, limiting explosive proportions
of, and detection and measurement of
the gas in air, Prof. F. Clowes on, 746.
Aconcagua, a proposed ascent of, A. E.
Fitzgerald on, 862.
ADAMS (Prof. W. G.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 160.
—— on seismological investigation, 180.
—— on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 231.
Africa, the climatology of, Fourth re-
port on, 495.
—— South, fossil plants from, A. C.
Seward on some, 807.
African civilisations, the influence of
climate and vegetation on, G. F. Scott-
Elliot on, 856.
—— Lake fauna, Report on, 484.
Agriculture, the decay of British; its
causes and cure, C. Rintoul on, 879.
z in Greece and Italy, the growth of,
and its influence on early civilisation,
Rev. G. Hartwell Jones on, 929.
Air at different densities, measurements
of electric currents through, Lord
Kelvin, Dr. J. T. Bottomley, and Dr.
Magnus Maclean on, 710.
Alaska and British Columbia, the border-
land of, E. Odlum on, 865.
*Albuca, a new species of (A. prolifera,
Wils.), Dr. J. Wilson on, 1025.
3x 2
1028
*Albucas, hybrid, Dr. J. Wilson on, 1025.
Algwe, the polymorphism of the Green,and
the principles of their evolution, Prof.
R, Chodat on, 1019.
Algological notesfor the Plymouth district,
by George Brebner, 485.
ALLEN (Prof. ¥. J.) on the physical basis
of life, 983.
—— (J. Romilly) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 607.
Altcar, north of eshte a boring in
the Red Marl near, G. H . Morton. on,
780.
Altels avalanche, Dr. Tempest Anderson
on the, 851.
Amides of the alkali metals, and some of
their derivatives, A.W. Titherley on, 748.
Analysis of the results from the Kew
declination and horizontal force mag-
netographs during the selected ‘quiet’
days of the six years 1890-95, 231.
Ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest,
W. W. Watts on the, 795.
ANDERSON (E. W.) on electric cranes,
898.
(Dr. Joseph) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 607.
(Dr. Tempest). on the collection
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 357.
——— on the Altels avalanche, 851.
—— (Dr. W.) on the establishment of a
National Physicat Laboratory, 82.
ANDREWS (A. W.) on the teaching of
geography in relation to history, 864.
Anglesey, Central, E. Greenly on silli-
manite gneisses in, 783.
—— S. Eastern, E. Greenly on quartzite
enticles in the schists of, 783.
-——, crush-conglomerates in,
Geikie on some, 806.
‘Anthropological opportunities in British
New Guinea, Sidney H. Ray on, 928.
Anthropology, Address by A. J. Evans
to the Section of, 906.
—— of the Isle of Man, the physical, Dr.
John Beddoe and A. W. Moore on, 920.
Apogamous reproduction in Ferns, some
peculiar cases of, W. H. Lang on, 1019.
*Apus, the structure of the male, Dr.
Benham on, 837.
Argon, the discovery of, in the water of
an Austrian well, Prof. Max Bamberger
on, 757.
*Arithmetical machine of 1780,
Stanhope, Rev. R. Harley on, 728.
Armour and heavy ordnance; recent
developments and standards, Capt. W.
H. Jaques on, 900.
ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the in-
vestigation of isomeric naphthalene
derivatives, 265.
Sir A.
the
—— onthe teaching of science in elemen- |
tary schools, 268.
REPORT—1896.
ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the pro-
duction of haloids from pure materials,
347.
Aspirator, a new form of, Dr, C. A. Kohn
and T. Lewis Bailey on, 759.
Astronomical photography, a method of
allowing for the effect of atmospheric
refraction on the apparent diurnal
movement of the stars in, Prof. A. A.
Rambaut on, 726.
*Atlantic, marine research in the North,
H. N. Dickson on, 850.
Australia, the aboriginal stick and bone
writing of, Dr. G. Harley on, 941.
Avalanche, the Altels, Dr. Tempest
Anderson on, 851.
Aylesbury and Rugby, sections along the
new railway between, H. B. Woodward
on, 798.
Ayrshire, the discovery of marine shells
in the Drift series at high levels, John
Smith on, 799.
AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on the establish-
ment of a National Physical Labora-
tory, 82.
on practical electrical standards,
150.
Bacillus, the so-called tubercle, A.
Coppen Jones on, 1015.
Bacteria, and food, Dr. A. A. Kanthack
on, 985.
—— the action of glycerine upon the
growth of, Dr. G. M. Copeman and
Dr. F. R. Blaxall on, 986.
Bacteriological research, the organisation
of, in ccnnection with Public Health,
Dr. Sims Woodhead on, 984.
BAILEY (G,. Percy) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 244.
(I. Lewis) and Dr. C. A. KoHN on
a new form of aspirator, 759.
BALFOUR (Prof. I, Bayley) on the preser-
vation of plunts for exhibition, 684.
*BAMBERGER (Prof. Max) on excrescent
resins, 750.
—— on the discovery of argon in the
water of an Austrian well, 757.
*Banks in Germany, Raffeisen village,
Prof. W. B. Bottomley on, 879. °
*BARLOW (Dr. Lazarus) on the réle of
osmosis in physiological processes, 984.
(W.)on homogeneous structures and
the symmetrical partitioning of them,
with application to crystals, 731.
BARNES (C. K.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 244.
BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 451.
_ Barry (J. Wolfe), Description of the
general features and dimensions of the
Tower Bridge by, 897.
INDEX.
BATHER (F. A.) on the compilation of an
index generwm et specierum animalium,
489.
— on zoological bibliography and publi-
cation, 490.
*BAUER (Dr. L. A.) on the component
fields of the earth’s permanent mag-
netism, 713.
BAUERMAN (H.) on the proximate con-
stituents of coal, 340.
BHARE (Prof. T. H.) on the calibration
of instruments used in engineering
laboratories, 538.
BEASLEY (H.C.) on some of the foot-
prints from the Trias near Liverpool,
779.
*BEATTIE (R.), Prof. J. A. FLEMING, and
R. C. CLINKER, on the hysteresis of
iron in revolving magnetic fields, 899.
BEAuMONT (W. W.) on the cause of
fracture of railway rails, 896.
Becquerel rays, the relation between
kathode rays, Rontgen rays and, Prof.
8. P. Thompson on, 712, 713.
BEDDOE (Dr. John) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 607.
and A. W. Moore on the physical
anthropology of the Isle of Man, 925.
BEDELL (Frederick) on the division of
an alternating current in parallel cir-
cuits with mutual induction, 733.
BEDFORD (J. E.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 357.
— (Rev. W. K. R.) on the Weston
tapestry maps, 850.
BEDSON (Prof. P. P.) on the proximate
constituents of coal, 340.
*Beetle, Tiger, (Cicindela campestris),
F. Enock on, 831.
BELL (Alfred) on Tertiary deposits in
north Manxland, 783.
—— (Dugald) on the erratic blocks of the
British Tsles, 366.
— on the character of the high-
level shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre,
_ 378.
—— (Sir I. Lowthian) on the proximate
constituents of coal, 340.
*____ (J.) on wreck raising, 905.
Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
Report on, 166.
*BENHAM (Dr. W. B.) on the structure
of the male Apus, 837.
Bessel functions, Third report on tables of
the, 98.
Bibliography of spectroscopy, Highth
' (interim) report on the, 243.
zoological, and publication, Report
on, 490.
BINNIE (A. R.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 377.
*BINNS (Henry) on the course of average
general prices, 883. _
|
1029
Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, Report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 485.
| —— Station, the necessity for a British
fresh-water, D. J. Scourfield on, 831.
Bird migration in Great Britain and
Ireland, A digest of the observations on,
by W. Eagle Clarke, 451.
Birds the sailing flight of, G. H. Bryan
on, 726.
BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 377.
on the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 492.
BLAXALL (Dr. F. R.) and Dr. §. M.
COPEMAN, on the action of glycerine
upon the growth of bacteria, 986. :
BLUNDEN (G. H.) on the distribution and
incidence of rates and taxes; with
special reference to the transfer: of
charges from the former to the latter,
878.
Boas (Dr. Franz) on the Indians of
British Columbia, 569.
*Boat graves in Sweden, Dr. H. Stolpe
on, 931.
BONNEY (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 31.
—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 357.
on the ervatic blocks of the British ~
Isles, 366.
—— on the structure of a coral reef, 377.
BoseE (Prof. J. Chunder) on a complete |
apparatus for the study of the proper-
ties of electric waves, 725.
Botany, Address by Dr. D. H. Scott to
the Section of, 992.
Botany, geology, and zoology of the Frish
Sea, Pinal report on the, 417.
—— and zoology of the West India
Islands, Ninth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 493.
BOTHAMLEY (C. H.) on the production of
haloids from pure materials, 347,
BoTroMueEy (J.'T.) on practical electrical
standards, 150.
—— on seismological investigation, 180.
——, Lord .KELVIN, and Dr. MAGNUS
MACLEAN on measurements of electric
currents through air at different densi-
ties down to one five-millionth of the
density of ordinary air, 710.
Banks in Germany, 879.
BOURNE (G. C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
on investigations made at the
Marine Biological Association labora-
tory at Plymouth, 485.
on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the ee y of eceanic
islands, 487.
1030
BouRNnE (G. C.) on the possible infectivity
of the oyster, and on the green disease
im oysters, 663.
“Bower (Prof. F. O.) on the number
of spores in sporangia, 1019.
Boyck (Prof. Rubert B.) on the possible
infectivity of the oyster, and on the
green disease in oysters, 663.
BRABROOK (EH. W.) on the physical and
mental defects of children in schools, 592.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 607.
+—— on Kent in relation to the ethno-
graphical survey, 928.
BRADSHAW (T. BR.) on the behaviour of
litmus in amphoteric solutions, 752.
BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on seismological
investigation, 180.
on the B. A. screw gauge, 527.
BREBNER (George) Algological notes for
the Plymouth district by, 485.
British Columbia and Alaska, the border-
land of, Prof. E. Odlum on, 865.
*____ the Coast Indians of, Prof. E.
Odlum on, $29.
the Indians of, Dr. F. Boas on, 569.
British interment, an ancient, F, T.
Elworthy on, 940.
—— Isles, a proposed geographical
description of the, Dr. H. R. Mill on,
850.
‘ Brochs’ of Scotland, Miss C. Maclagan
on the, 924.
Bronze made with tin, the transition from
pure copper to, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on,
930.
Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 166.
BROWNE (Montagu) on Rhetic geology,
804,
BRYAN (G. H.) on the uniformity of size
of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica-
tions, 86.
—— on some difficulties connected with
the kinetic theory of gases, 717.
—— on the sailing flight of birds, 726.
BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 166.
BUCHANAN (Dr. R. A. M.) on cell granu-
lations under normal and abnormal
conditions, with special reference to
the:leucocytes, 981.
BUCKNEY (T.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
527.
BULLEID (A.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 656.
BurRBuRY (8. H.) on the stationary
motion of a system of equal elastic
spheres in a field of no forces when
their aggregate volume is not infinitely
small compared with the space in
which they move, 716.
Bu&KE (John) on absorption of rays and
fluorescence, 731,
REPORT—1896.
BuRTON (Dr. C. V.) on the uniformity of
size of pages of Scientific Societies’
publications, 86.
Busz (Prof. Karl) on the production of
corundum by contact metamorphism
on Dartmoor, 807.
*Calf Hole exploration, Interim report
on the, 804.
Calibration of instruments used in engi-
neering laboratories, Report onthe, 538.
CALLAWAY (C.) on the superficial depo-
sits of North Shropshire, 800.
Cambrian faunas, some features of the
early, G. F. Matthew on, 785.
See ‘ Pre-Cambrian.’
Canada, North-Western tribes of the Do-
minton of, Eleventh report on the, 569.
Siathreport on the Indians of British
Columbia, by Dr. F. Boas, 569.
*_____ and its gold discoveries, Sir James
Grant on, 858.
CANNAN (Edwin), that ability is not the
proper basis of taxation, by, 877.
CAPPER (Prof. D. 8.) on the calibration
of wmstruments used in engineering
laboratories, 538.
Carbohydrates of cereal straws, First
report on the, 262.
Carbon monoxide in air, the detection and
estimation of, Dr. J. Haldane on, 759.
—— monoxide in the air, the detection
and estimation of, by the flame-cap
test, Prof. F. Clowes on, 760.
Carbonic anhydride, the determination
of, a modified form of Schrdtter’s ap-
paratus for, Dr. C. A. Kohn on, 758.
Carboniferous fossils referred to Lepi-
dostrobus, Dr. D. H. Scott on, 1024.
—— Limestone of N. Wales, the range
of species in the, G.H. Morton on, 787.
—-- rocks, Report on the life-zones in the
British, 415.
CARRUTHERS (W.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 493.
CASEY (James) on a new spherical bal-
anced valve for all pressures, 901.
Cathode rays, and their probable con-
nection with Réntgen rays, Prof. P.
Lenard on, 709.
see ‘ Kathode.’
Cathodic rays, the photo-electric sensiti-
sation of salts by, Prof. J. A. Hlster
and Prof. H. Geitel on, 731.
CAVE (Henry W.) on the present con-
dition of the ruined cities of Ceylon,
862.
Caves, the Selangor, Preliminary report
on, 399.
Cell, one-volt standard, with small tem-
perature coefficient, W. Hibbert on a,
713.
Cell-division, multiple, compared with
INDEX.
bipartition as Herbert Spencer’s limit
of growth, Prof. Marcus Hartog on, 833.
——- some current problems connected
with, Prof. J. B. Farmer on, 1020.
Cell granulations under normal and ab-
normal conditions, with special refe-
rence to the leucocytes, Dr. R. A. M.
Buchanan on, 981.
*___ theory, Discussion on the, 832,
1020.
Cells of the Cyanophyceex, Prof. E.
Zacharias on the, 1021.
Celtic and Scandinavian art, Manx
crosses as illustrations of, P. M. C.
Kermode on, 934.
Cerebellum, the minute structure of the,
Dr. Alex. Hill on, 986.
*Cetiosaurus remains in the Oxford Mu-
seum, the investigation of the locality
of the, Interim report on the, 804.
Ceylon, ‘Coccide of, Report on the publi-
cation of B. FE. Green’s, 450.
the present condition of the ruined
cities of, Henry W. Cave on, 862.
— the Loranthacez of, F. W. Keeble
on the, 1022.
Chalk, Upper, the conditions of the de-
. position of the, P. F. Kendall on, 791.
Charitable or philanthropic trading,
. some economic issues in regard to,
C. 8. Loch on, 875.
Charnwood Forest, the ancient rocks of,
W. W. Watts on, 795.
Chemical action, the retardation of, from
diminution of space, Prof. Oscar Lie-
breich on, 748.
*___ education in England and Ger-
many, Sir H. E. Roscoe on, 761.
Chemistry, Address by Dr. Ludwig Mond
to the Section of, 734.
Children in schools, the physical and
mental defects of, Report on, 592.
CHISHOLM (G. G.) on the relativity of
geographical advantages, 860.
*Chlorine, the manufacture of, by means
of nitric acid, Dr. F. Hurter on, 758.
CHODAT (Prof. R.) on the polymorphism
of the Green Algz, and the principles
of their evolution, 1019.
CHREE (C.) on the comparison and re-
duction of magnetic observations. Non-
cyclic effects at Kew Observatory
during the selected ‘quiet’ days of the
' sia years, 1890-95, 231.
on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 241.
CHRISTIE (W. H. M.) on the comparison
and reduction of magnetic observations,
231.
CHRYSTAL (Prof. G.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 150.
—— on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 231.
Chytridiaceous genus Ulrophlyctis, some
1031
species of the, Prof. P. Magnus on,
1010.
Circulation, the physiological effect of
‘peptone’ when injected into the,
Prof. W. H. Thompson on, 975.
*Civilisation of the Mediterranean, the
early, Discussion on, 932.
Civilisations, African, the influence of
climate and vegetation on, G. F. Scott-
Elliot on, 856.
CLARKE (W. Eagle), A digest of the ob-
servations on the migration of birds in
Great Britain and Ireland by, 452.
Clava, Kintyre, Sc.,the high-level shell-
bearing deposits of, Report on, 378.
CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 172.
Clays, current bedding in, examples of,
Prof. H. G. Seeley on, 805.
CuirtTon (Prof. R. B.) on the establish-
ment of a National Physical Labora-
tory, 82.
Climate and vegetation, the influence of,
on African civilisations, G. F. Scott-
Elliot on, 856.
Climatology of Africa, Fifth report on the,
480
*CLINKER (R. C.), Prof. J. A. FLEMING,
and R. BEATTIE on the hysteresis of
iron in revolving magnetic fields, 899.
CLowes (Prof. F.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 244.
on the proximate constituents of coal,
340.
—— on limiting explosive proportions of
acetylene, and detection and measure-
ment of the gas in air, 746.
—— on the accurate determination of
oxygen by absorption with alkaline
pyrogallol solution, 747.
—— on the detection and estimation of
carbon monoxide in the air by the
flame-cap test, 760.
Clwyd, Vale of, the glacial phenomena
of the, J. Lomas and P. F. Kendall on,
801.
Coal, the proximate constituents of, Report
on, 340,
Coccide of Ceylon, Report on the publi-
cation of Mr. E. E. Green's life-history,
and economic relations of the, 450.
*CoFFEY (G.) on the ornament of N, E.
Europe, 934.
CoLEs (John) on photographic survey-
ing, 850.
Commercial crises, M. Clément Juglar
on, 876.
*ConpD (T.) on the development of the
art of printing in colours, 905.
*Conway (Sir W. Martin) on a journey
in Spitzbergen in 1896, 862.
CooKE (C. W.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
527.
1032
Cooper (H. §.) on a journey in Tripoli,
849.
COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 166.
CoPpEMAN (Dr. 8. Moncton) and Dr. F.
R. BLAXALL on the action of glycerine
upon the growth of bacteria, 986.
Copper, the transition from pure, to
bronze made with tin, Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone on, 930.
Coral reef, Interim report on the inves-
tigation of the structure of a, 377.
Corallorhiza innata, R. Br., and its asso-
ciated fungi, A. Vaughan Jennings on,
1011.
CORDEAUX (J.) on making a digest of the ob-
servations on the migration of birds, 451.
CORNISH (Vaughan) on the rippling of
sand, 794.
on sand dunes, 857.
Corresponding Societies Committee ;
Report, 31.
Conference at Liverpool, 32. :
List of Corresponding Societies, 42.
Papers published by Local Societies, 45.
Corundum, the production of, by contact
metamorphism on Dartmoor, Prof,
Karl Busz on, 807.
*COTTRELL (S. B.) on the Liverpool
Overhead Railway and the southern
extension of it, 898.
CouRTNEY (Rt. Hon. L.), Address to the
Section of Economic Science and Sta-
tistics by, 867.
Cranes, electric, E. W. Anderson on, 898.
CREAK (Capt.E.W.) onthe comparisonand
reduction of magnetic observations, 231.
CROMPTON (R. E.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 527.
Cross (C. F.) on the carbo-hydrates of
cereal straws, 262.
Crosses, Manx, as illustrations of Celtic
and Scandinavian Art, P. M. C. Ker-
mode on, 934.
Crush-conglomerates in Anglesey, Sir A.
Geikie on some, 806.
Crustacea, Decapod, the function of cer-
tain diagnostic characters of, W. Gar-
stang on, 828.
Crystals, homogeneous structures and
the symmetrical partitioning of them
with application to, W. Barlow on, 731.
CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. Allan) on tables
of the Bessel functions, 98.
on the connexion of quadratic
forms, 716.
(Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 607.
Curcumine or sun yellow. the constitu-
tion of, and allied colouring matters,
A. G. Green and André Wahl on, 753.
Currency question in the United States
and its bearing on British interests, |
* Arthur Lee on the, 883.
REPOR1T—1896.
Current bedding in clays, examples of,
Prof. H. G. Seeley, 805.
Cyanophycew, the cells of the, Prof, E.
Zacharias on, 1021.
Cycad, a new, from the Isle of Portland,
A. C. Seward on, 1024.
Cyprus and the Trade routes of S.E.
Europe, John L. Myres on, 929,
DANNEVIG (G. M.) on the hatchery for
marine fishes at Flodevigen, Norway,
831.
DARBISHIRE (B. V.) on a new popula-
tion map of the South Wales coal dis-
trict, 865.
Dartmoor, the production of corundum
by contact metamorphism on, Prof.
Karl Busz on, 807.
DARWIN (Francis) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
on the ascent of water in trees, 6T4.
(Prof. G. H.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 180.
on the structure of acoral reef, 37T.
——— on periodic orbits, 708.
—— (Horace) on seismological investi-
gation, 180.
—— on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 231.
— (Major L.) Address to the Section of
Geography by, 8388.
—— on the monetary standard, 885.
DAvipson (A.) and J. A. HARKER on
rheostene, a new resistance alloy, 714.
DAVISON (Dr. C.) on seismological inves-
tigation, 180.
on seismological instruments used in
Italy, 220.
DAWKINS (Prof. Boyd) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 357.
on the structure of a coral reef, 377.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 607.
——- on the lake village at Glastonbury,
656.
—— on the Geology of the Isle of Man,
776.
‘4 and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN on the
Dolmens of Brittany, 924.
DAWSON (Dr.G.M.)on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 569.
(Sir W.) on Pre-Cambrian fossils,
784.
DEACON (G. F.) on seismological investi-
gation, 180.
on the effect of wind and atmo-
spheric pressure on the tides, 503.
DE CANDOLLE (Casimir) on latent life in
seeds, 1023.
Deep-sea deposits, the bathymetric limit
of Pteropod ooze in, P. F. Kendall on
the cause of, 789.
INDEX,
1033
Dental histology, some points of interest , *Earthquakes and sea-waves, Prof. John
in, F. Paul on, 982.
Depths of the sea in past epochs, E. B.
Wethered on the, 793.
DE RANCE (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 366.
Deserts? Are there fossil, by Prof. J.
Walther, 795.
DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.
7 on low temperature research, 758.
Diademodon, the skull of the S. African
fossil reptile, Prof. H. G. Seeley on,
805.
Dickson (H. N.) on the climatology of
Africa, 495.
*____ on marine research in the North
Atlantic, 850.
Differential resolvents, results connected
with the theory of, Rev. R. Harley on,
714.
*Discussion on Neo-Lamarckism opened |
by Prof. Lloyd-Morgan, 830
*___on the ancestry of the Verte-
brata, 832, 983 [See ‘GASKELL (Dr.
W .H.)’).
*___on the cell, 832, 1020 [See ‘FARMER
(Prof. J. B.)’].
*___on early civilization of the Medi-
terranean, 932 [See ‘ RIDGEWAY (Prof.
' W.),’ ‘MoNTELIUS (Dr. O.),’ ‘ EVANS
(A. J.)’].
—— on the movement of water in
plants. 1014 [See ‘ DARWIN (Francis) ’]
Dixon (Prof. H. B.), E. H. STRANGE
and E. GRAHAM on reflected waves in
the explosion of gases, 746.
*Dolmens of Brittany, Prof. W. A. Herd-
man and Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on
the, 924.
Dravidian race, the North,(the Uranws),
linguistic and anthropological charac-
teristics of, Report on the, 659.
Drift series, marine shells in the, at high
levels in Ayrshire, John Smith on the
discovery of, 799.
Drosera retundifolia, changes in the
tentacle of, produced by feeding with
ege albumen, Lily H. Huie on, 1014.
DukDuk and other customs as forms of
expression of the intellectual life of
the Melanesians, Graf von Pfeil on,
939.
DUNSTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teach-
ing of science in elementary schools,
268.
on the production of haloids from
pure materials, 347.
DURHAM (Herbert E.) on some points in
the mechanism of reaction to peri-
toneal infections, 987.
Dyed colours, the action of light upon,
Report on, 347.
*
Milne on, 862.
See ‘ Seismological investigation.’
Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
dress to the Section of, by the Rt.
Hon. L. Courtney, 867.
EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on statistics of
wasps, 836.
Eel, the life-history of the, H. C. Wil-
liamson on, 478.
*Egyptian Sudan, Sir Charles W. Wilson
on the, 862.
Electric currents, measurements of,
through air at different densities, Lord
Kelvin, Dr. J. T. Bottomley, and Dr.
Magnus Maclean on, 710.
waves, a complete apparatus for the
study of the properties of, Prof. J-
Chunder Bose on, 725.
Electrical current in parallel circuits,
the division of an alternating, with
mutual induction, Frederick Bedell
on, 733.
—— measurements, experiments for im-
proving the construction of practical
standards for, Report on, 150.
Appendix :
I. Hatracts from letters dealing with
the question of the unit of heat, 154.
Il. Lhe capacity for heat of water fron:
10° to 20° C. referred to its capacity
at 10° C.as unity, 162.
Ill. Recalculation of the total heat of
mater from the experiments of Reg-
nault and of Rowland, by W. N.
Shan, 162.
* resistance, the measurement of,
E. H. Griffiths on, 729.
+—— submarine cables, disturbance in,
W. H. Preece on, 732.
—— waves, a magnetic detector of, E-
Rutherford on, 722.
Electricity, the communication of, from
electrified steam to air, Lord Kelvin,
Dr. Magnus Maclean, and Alex. Galt
on, 721.
, the laws of the conduction of,
through gases exposed to the Rontgen
rays, Prof. J. J. Thomson and E.
Rutherford on, 710,
Electrolysis and electro-chemistry, In-
terim report on, 230.
Electrolytic methods of quantitative ana-
lysis, Report on the, 244.
ELLs (William) on the comparison and
reduction of magnetic observations,
231, 238.
—— (W. G. P.) on a parasitic disease of
Pellia epiphylla, 1010.
ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.) on the B.A.
serem gauge, 527.
ELSTER (Prof. J.) and Prof. GEITEL on
the photo-electric sensitisation of salts
by cathodic rays, 731.
t
1034
*ELWORTHY (F. T.) on some pagan sur-
vivals, 927.
on an ancient British interment,
940.
Engineering laboratories, calibration of
instruments used in, Report on, 538.
laboratory apparatus, Prof. H. S.
Hele Shaw on, 902.
*ENOCK (F.) on the life-history of the
Tiger Beetle (Cicindela campestris),
831.
Erosion of the sea coast of Wirral, G. H.
Morton on the, 781.
Erratic blocks of the British Isles, Report
on the, 366.
ERRERA (Prof. L.) on the preservation of
plants for exhibition, 684, 686.
Ethnographical survey of the United King-
dom, Fourth report on an, 607.
Appendix : ;
I. The ethnographical survey of Ireland,
609. i
II. The ethnographical survey of Pem-
brokeshire, 610.
Ill. On folklore in Gallonay, by Rev.
Dr. Walter Gregor, 612.
IV. On the method of determining the
value of folklore as ethnological data,
by G. Laurence Gomme, 626.
+___Survey, Kent in relation to the, E.
W. Brabrook on, 928.
Ethnological Storehouse, Prof. W. M.
Flinders Petrie on an, 935.
Ethnology, an Imperial bureau of, C. H.
Read on, 928.
*Hurypterid-bearing deposits of the Pent-
land Hills, Interim report on the, 804.
EVANS (Arthur J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 607.
on the lake village at Glastonbury,
656.
Address to the Section of Anthro-
pology by, 906.
——on pillar and tree worship in Mycen-
zean Greece, 934.
(Sir John) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 31.
— on the relation of Paleolithic man to
the Glacial epoch, 400.
on the lake village at Glastonbury,
656.
EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 150.
Ewart (Prof. J. Cossar) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naptes, 478.
Ewine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 180.
on the calibration of instruments
used in engineering laboratories, 538.
*Hxpanded metal, H. B. Tarry on, 905.
Explosion of gases, reflected waves in
the, Prof. H. B. Dixon, E. H. Strange,
and E. Graham on, 746.
REPORT—1896.
Eyes, the movement of the, the effect of
the destruction of the semicircular
canals upon the, Dr. E. Stevenson on,
982.
FALK (H. J.) on trade combinations and
prices, 876.
Farm labour colonies and Poor Law
guardians, Harold EH. Moore on, 879.
FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on the preservation
of plants for exhibition, 684.
on some current problems connected
with cell-division, 1020.
FAWCETT (Hon. P.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
Feeding Drosera rotundifolia with egg
albumen, changes produced in its
tentacle by, Lily H. Huie on, 1014.
Femur, the Trinil, D. Hepburn on, 926.
Fermentation of milk, the basis of the
bacteriological theory founded upon
observations upon the, Prof. A. P.
Fokker on, 986.
Ferns, some peculiar cases of apogamous
reproduction in, W. H. Lang on, 1019.
Fever in mice, the occurrence of, Prof. J.
Lorrain Smith and Dr. F. F. Wesbrook
on, 974.
Fishes, the effects of pelagic spawning
habit on the life-histories of, A. T.
Masterman on, 837.
the Flodevigen hatchery for marine,
G. M. Dannevig on, 831.
FITZGERALD (A. E.) on the Southern
Alps of New Zealand ; and a proposed.
ascent of Aconcagua, 862.
FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on practical
electrical standards, 150.
FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 150.
on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,
230.
FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 150.
* R. BEATTIE, and R. C. CLINKER on
the hysteresis of iron in revolving
magnetic fields, 899.
FLETCHER (A. E.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 244.
~ (W. A. L.) on a journey towards
Llasa, 859.
Flight of birds, the sailing, G. H. Bryan
on, 726.
Flint implements of Ireland, the older,
W. J. Knowles on, 923.
Flodevigen hatchery for marine fishes,
G. M. Dannevig on the, 831.
Floral deviations in some species of
Polygonum, Prof. J. W. H. Trail on,
1016.
FLOWER (Sir W. H.) on the Selangor
caves, 399.
——on the necessity for the immediate
INDEX.
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 487.
—— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 489.
-——on zoological bibliography and pub-
lication, 490.
Fluorescence and the absorption of rays,
John Burke on, 731.
*FLUx (A. W.), Comparison of the age-
distribution of town and country popu-
lation in different lands by, 880.
FOKKER (Prof. A. P.) on the basis of the
bacteriological theory founded upon |
observations upon the fermentation of
milk, 986.
Folklore as ethnological data, the method
of determining the value of, G. Lau-
rence Gomme on, 626.
in Galloway, Rev. Dr. W. Gregor on,
612.
Food and bacteria, Dr. A. A. Kanthack
on, 985.
Foorp (A, H.) on life zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 415.
FoRBES (G.) on practical electrical |
standards, 150.
— (H. 0.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 377.
on the marine zoology, botany, and
geology of the Irish Sea, 417.
—— on Post Office regulations regarding
the carriage of Natural History
specimens to foreign countries, 477.
—— on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 487.
Ford, on the west of Bidston Hill, a
boring in the Red Marl at, G. H.
Morton on, 780.
Forsytu (Prof. A. R.) on the calculation
of the G (x, v)-integrals, 70.
Foster (A. de Neve) on the B.A. scren-
gauge, 527, 536.
— (Dr. C. Le Neve) on the structure
of a coral reef, 377.
—— (Prof. G. C.) on the establishment of
a National Physical Laboratory, 82.
—— on practical electrical standards,
150.
—— (Prof. M.) on the occupation of a
table atthe Zoological Station at Naples, |
478.
on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Association laboratory at |
Plymouth, 485.
FOWLER (William) on the standard of
value and price, 884.
Fox (Sir Douglas), Address to the
Section of Mechanical Science by, 886. |
Fracture of railway rails, W. W. Beau-
mont on the cause of, 896.
*Francis (Dr. F. E.) on abnormalities in
the behaviour of ortho-derivatives of
o-amido-and nitro-benzylamine, 756,
1035
| FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy) on the elec-
trolytic methods of
analysis, 244.
FRASER (James) on the character of the
high-level shell-bearing deposits at Kin-
tyre, 378.
Fresh-water biological station, the neces-
sity for a, D. J. Scourfield on, 831.
Fungi associated with Corallorhiza
innata, R.Br., A. Vaughan Jennings on,
1011.
‘Futures,’ mercantile markets for, E.
Helm on, 880.
—— grain, their effects and tendencies,
H. R. Rathbone on, 881.
_— cotton, what they are, and how they
operate in practice, C. Stewart on, 881.
—_—— the influence of business in, on trade
and agriculture, J. Silverberg on, 882.
quantitative
Galloway, Rev. Dr. W. Gregor on folk-
lore in, 612.
*GALT (Alex.) Lord KELVIN and Dr.
MAGNUS MACLEAN on the commu-
nication of electricity from electrified
steam to air, 721.
GALTON (Sir Douglas), on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
31.
on the establishment of a National
Physical Laboratory, 82.
on the physical and mental defects
of children in schools, 592.
(Francis) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 31.
on the establishment of a National
Physical Laboratory, 82.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 607.
GARDINER (W.) on the preservation of
plants for exhibition, 684.
GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 31.
—— onthe physical and mental defects
of children tn schools, 592.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 607.
on the proportions of the human
body, 927.
GARSTANG (Walter) on the function of
certain diagnostic characters of De-
capod Crustacea, 828.
GaArwoop (E. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 357.
on life-zones in the British Carbo-
niferous rocks, 415.
Gases, the kinetic theory of, some diffi-
culties connected with, G. H. Bryan
on, 721.
GASKELL (Dr. W. H.) Address to the
Section of Physiology by, 942.
Gauge for small screws, the British
Association. See‘ Serem Gauge.’
10856
GEIKIE (Sir Archibald) on the structure
of a coral reef, 377.
——on some crush-conglomerates in
Anglesey, 806.
(Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 357.
GEITEL (Prof. H.) and Prof. J. ELSTER
on the photo-electric sensitisation of
salts by cathodic rays, 731.
*Genyornis, Stirling, an extinct ra-
tite bird supposed to belong to the
order Megistanes, Prof. A. Newton on,
836.
Geographical advantages, the relativity
of, G. G. Chisholm on, 860.
— description of the British Isles, Dr.
H. R. Mill on a proposed, 850
*____ distribution of plants, W. T. Thisel-
ton-Dyer on the, 1020.
Geography, Address by Major Darwin
to the Section of, 838. 2
—- Interim report on the position of, in
the educational system of the country,
494.
in relation to history, A. W. An-
drews on the teaching of, 864.
— in Manchester, J. Howard Reed on
practical, 858.
Geological Sections along the new rail-
way between Rugby and Aylesbury,
Horace B. Woodward on, 798.
Geology, Address by J. E. Marr to the
Section of, 762.
, botany, and zoology of the Irish Sea,
Report on the, 417.
of the Isle of Man, Prof. W. Boyd
Dawkins on the, 776.
—— of Skomer Island, F. T. Howard
and E. W. Small on the, 797.
GiBBs (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.
Glacial epoch, the relation of Paleolithic
man to the, Report on, 400.
epoch, another possible cause of
the, Prof. E. Hull on, 803.
—— phenomena of the Vale of Clwyd,
J. Lomas and P. F. Kendall on the,
801.
Glaciers of the Vatna Jdékull, Iceland,
F. W. W. Howell on the Northern,
859.
GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 268,
(Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 268.
on the transition from pure copper
to bronze made with tin, 930.
—— and W. HIBBERT on the action of
metals and their salts on ordinary and
on Rontgen rays: a contrast, 746,
GLAISHER (J, W. L.) on the calculation
of the @ (a, v)-integrals, 70.
REPORT—1896.
GLAISHER (J. W. L.) on tables of the
Bessel functions, 98. ;
Glass, transparency of, to the Réntgen
rays, Prof. A, W. Riicker and W.
Watson on the, 710.
Glastonbury, the lake village at, Report
on, 656.
GLAZEBROOK (R. T.) on the establish-
ment of a National Physical Labora-
tory, 82.
on the uniformity of size of pages
of Scientific Societies’ publications, 86.
on practical electrical standards,
150.
*Glow lamps, tests of, W. H. Preece
on, 898.
Glucoside constitution of proteid matter,
Dr. F. W. Pavy on the, 976.
*Goblin, the straw, C. G. Leland on,
941,
GODMAN (F. Du C.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 493.
*Gold discoveries in Canada, Sir James
Grant on, 858.
GoMME (G. Laurence) on the method of
determining the value of folklore ag
ethnological data, 626.
GOODCHILD (J, G.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 357.
GoTCH (Prof. F.) on the discharge of a
single nerve cell, 978.
GRAHAM (E.), Prof. H. B. Drxon, and
E. H. STRANGE on reflected waves in
the explosion of gases, 746,
*GRANT (Sir James) on Canada and its
gold discoveries, 858.
GRAY (W.)on the collection of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 357.»
Great circle routes on a chart, the plot-
ting of, H. M. Taylor on, 716.
Greece and Italy, the Tyrrhenians in,
Dr. O. Montelius on, 931.
—— Preclassical chronology in, Dr. O.
Montelius on, 933.
GREEN (A. G.) and ANDRE WAHL on the
constitution of sun yellow or curcu-
mine, and allied colouring matters,
753.
(the late Prof. A. H.) on seismo-
logical investigation, 180.
on the Stonesfield slate, 356.
—— on the structure of a coral reef, 377.
—— (Mr. E. E.) Report on the publica-
tion of the life-history, and economic
relations of the Coccide of Ceylon by,
450.
(Prof. J. R.) on the preservation of
plants for exhibition, 684.
GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on tables of the
Bessel functions, 98.
GREENLY (Edward) on the occurrence
INDEX.
of sillimanite gneisses in Central
Anglesey, 783.
+— on quartzite lenticles in the schists
of South-Eastern Anglesey, 783.
GREGOR (Rev. Dr. W.) on folklore in
Galloway, 612.
GruGory (J. W.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 150.
* on the measurement of electrical
resistance, 729.
GROSSMANN (Karl) on the less-known
interior of Iceland, 859.
GRUNBAUM (A. S.) on the effect of peri-
tonitis on peristalsis, 976.
— on the agglutinating action of
human serum on certain pathogenic
micro-organisms (particularly on the
typhoid bacillus), 989.
Guiana, British, and Venezuela, the
various boundary lines between, attri-
buted to Sir R. H. Schomburgk, Ralph
Richardson on, 861.
GULLIVER (Dr. F. G.) on coast-forms of
Romney Marsh, 854.
Guns, heavy, and armour, recent develop-
ments and standards, Capt. W. H.
Jaques on, 900.
GUNTHER (Dr. A. C. L. G.) on the zoology
and botany of the West India Tslands,
493,
*____(R. T.) on the cultivation of the
oyster as practised by the Romans,
828.
Guppy (H.B.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 377.
GWYNNE-VAUGHAN (D. T.) on the
arrangement of the vascular bundles
in certain Vympheacee, 1012.
Habitat, the influence of, upon plant-
habit, G. F. Scott-Elliot on, 1013.
*Haddock, the life history of the, Prof.
W. C. M‘Intosh on, 837.
HADDON (Prof. A. C.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 377.
on the marine zoology, botany, and
geology of the Irish Sea, 417.
— on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 487.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 607.
on the linguistic and anthropological
characteristics of the North Dravidian
and Kolarian races—the Urdnws, 659.
HALDANE (Dr. J.) on the detection and
estimation of carbon monoxide in air,
759.
HALE (H.) on the North-Western tribes
of the Dominion of Canada, 569.
HALIBURTON (R. G.) on the North-
1037
Western tribes of the Dominion of
Canada, 569.
Hallstatt and the starting-point of the
Iron age in Europe, Prof. W. Ridgeway
on, 9380.
Haloids, the production of, from pure
materials, Interim report on, 347.
HAMPSON (Sir G. F.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 493.
HANITSCH (Dr. R.) on the Selangor caves,
399.
Harcourt (Prof. L. F. Vernon) on the
effect of wind and atmospheric pressure
on the tides, 503.
HARKER (J. A.) and A. DAVIDSON on
rheostene, a new resistance alloy,
714.
HARLEY (Dr. George) on the original
stick and bone writing of Australia,
941.
—— (Rev. R.) on the calculation of the
G (1, v)-integrals, 70. :
——0n results connected with the theory
of differential resolvents, 714.
* on the Stanhope arithmetical ma-
chine of 1780, 728.
HARRISON (Rev. 8. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 366.
HARTLAND (EH. Sidney) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
607.
—— onthe linguistic and anthropological
characteristics of the North Dravidian
and Kolarian races—the Urdnws, 659.
HARTLEY (Prof. W. N.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.
HART0OG (Prof. Marcus) on multiple cell-
division as compared with bipartition
as Herbert Spencer’s limit of growth,
833.
—— on the relation of the Rotifera to
the trochophore, 836.
HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 451.
Hatchery for marine fishes at Flodevigen,
Norway, G. M. Dannevig on, 831.
* Hausa, the land of the, Rev. J. OC.
Robinson on, 850.
HAWKSHAW (J. C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
* Haycrart (Prof. J. B.) on photometry
and Purkinje’s phenomena, 983.
Heat of water, Recalculation of the total,
from the experiments of Regnault and
of Rowland, by W. N. Shaw, 162.
—— The capacity of water for, from 10°
to 20° C. referred to its capacity at 10°
C. as unity, 162.
—— the unit of, Extracts from letters
dealing with the question of, 154.
*HEEN (Prof. P.de) on certain photo-
graphic effects, 731.
1088
HELE-SHAw (Prof. H. 8.) on engineer-
ing laboratory apparatus, 902.
*Helium, Prof. W. Ramsay on, 757.
HELM (Elijah) on mercantile markets
for ‘futures,’ 880.
HEPBURN (David) on the Trinil femur
(Pithecanthropus erectus) contrasted
with the femora of various savage and
civilised races, 926.
HERBERTSON (A. J.) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 494.
——— on world maps of mean monthly
rainfall, 857.
on an apparatus to illustrate map
projections, 865.
HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the marine
zoology, botany, and geology of the Irish
Sea, 417.
on African Lake fauna, 478.
— on zoological bibliography and publi-
cation, 490.
——— on the possible infectivity of the
oyster, and on the green disease in
oysters, 663.
ba and Prof. W. BoyD DAWKINS on
the dolmens of Brittany, 924.
Heterotype nuclear divisions of Ziliwm
Martagon, Ethel Sargant on the, 1021.
Hewitt (C. J.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
527.
HIBBERT (W.) on a one-volt standard
cell withsmall temperature co-efficient,
713.
——-and Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE on the
action of metals and their salts on
ordinary and on Rontgen rays: a con-
trast, 746.
Hicks (Dr. H.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
(Prof. W. M.) on tables of the Bessel
Junctions, 98.
Hickson (Prof. 8S. J.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 377.
on the occupation of a table at the
Zoological Station at Naples, 478.
on the present state of owr know-
ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Tslands, 492.
* High-level flint-driftatIghtham, Interim
report on the, 804.
Highwood mountains of Montana and
magmatic differentiation, H. J. John-
ston-Lavis on, 792.
Hitt (Dr. Alexander) on the minute
structure of the cerebellum, 986.
HILTON-PRICE (F. G.) on an _ ethno-
graphical survey of the United King-
dom, 607.
History, the teaching of geography in
relation to, A. W. Andrews on, 864.
Houmes (T. V.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
31.
REPORT—1896.
HOPKINSON (Dr. J.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 150.
(J.) on the work of the Correspona-
ing Societies Committee, 31.
on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 172.
HoRNE (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 366.
on the character of the high-level
shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, 378.
*Horseless road locomotion, A. R. Sen-
nett on, 905.
Howarp (¥.T.) and E. W. SMALL on
the geology of Skomer Island, 797.
HOWELL (F. W. W.) on the northern
glaciers of the Vatna Jokull, Iceland,
859.
HowEs (Prof. G. B.) on the marine xvo-
logy, botany, and geology of the Irish
Sea, 417.
——on Mr. E. E. Green’s ‘ Coccide of
Ceylon,’ 450.
on African Lake fauna, 478.
HowortH (Sir Henry) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
607.
Hoxne, the relation of Paleolithie man
to the Glacial epoch at, Report on, 400.
HOYLE (W. E.) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea, 417.
—— on zoological bibliography and publi-
cation, 490.
HvuGHEs (Prof. T. McK.) on the collection
of photographs of gevlogical interest in
the United Kingdom, 357.
Hutz (Lily H.) on changes in the
tentacle of Drosera rotundifolia pro-
duced by feeding with egg albumen,
1014.
HULL (Prof. E) on the proximate con-
stituents of coal, 340.
on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 366.
on another possible cause of the
Glacial epoch, 803.
Human body, the proportions of the,
Dr. J. G. Garson on, 927.
HUMMEL (Prof. J. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 347.
*HURTER (Dr. F.) on the manufacture
of chlorine by means of nitric acid,
758.
*HYNDMAN (H.H.F.) on the x-rays, 713.
Hyperphosphorescence, Prof. §. P.
Thompson on, 713.
Iceland, the less-known interior of, Karl
Grossmann on, 859.
—— the northern glaciers of the Vatna
Jokull, F. W. W. Howell on, 859.
*Tghtham, the high-level flint-drift at,
Interim report on, 804.
INDEX.
Imperial bureau of ethnology, C. H.
Read on an, 928.
Index generum et specierum animatium,
Report on the compilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 489.
Infections, the mechanism of reaction to
peritoneal, H. E. Durham on some
points in, 987.
Integrals, the G (x, v)-, Preliminary re-
port on the calculation of, 70.
Interment, an ancient British, F. T.
Elworthy on, 940.
Ireland, the older flint implements of,
W. J. Knowles on, 923.
Trish Sea, the marine zoology, botany, and
geology of the, Final report on, 417.
Tron in the tissues, a new method of
distinguishing organic and inorganic,
Prof. A. B. Macallum on, 973.
Tron-age in Europe, Hallstatt and the
starting-point of the, Prof. W. Ridge-
way on, 930.
Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, Tenth
report on the investigation of, 265.
Italy and Greece, the Tyrrhenians in,
Dr. O. Montelius on, 931.
—— —— Preclassical chronology in,
Dr. O. Montelius on, 933.
*Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition, last
year’s work of the, A. Montefiore-Brice
on, 855.
JAMIESON (T. F.) on the character of
the high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Kintyre, 378.
JAQUES (Capt. W. H.) on armour and
heavy ordnance—recent developments
and standards, 900.
JEFFS (O. W.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 357.
JENNINGS (A. Vaughan) on Corallorhiza
innata, R. Br., and its associated fungi,
1011.
— on a new genus of Schizomycetes
showing longitudinal fission (Ast70-
bacter Jonesit), 1012.
JOHNSTON-LAVIS(H. J.) on the Highwood
mountains of Montana and magmatic
differentiation : a criticism, 792.
JONES (A. Coppen) on the so-called
tubercle bacillus, 1015.
*____ (Rey. G. Hartwell) on the growth
of agriculture in Greece and Italy, and
its influence on early civilisation, 929.
——- (Prof. J. Viriamu) on practical elec-
trical standards, 150.
JUDD (Prof. J. W.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
JUGLAR (Clément) sur les crises com-
merciales, 876.
KANTHACK (Dr. A. A.) on bacteria and
food, 985.
1039
Kathode rays, Rontgen rays, and Bec-
querel rays, the relation between, Prof.
S. P. Thompson on, 712, 713.
see ‘Cathode’ and ‘ Roéntgen rays.’
KEEBLE (F. W.) on the Loranthacez of
Ceylon, 1022.
KEELER (James E.) on measurement by
means of the spectroscope of the
velocity of rotation of the Planets,
729.
KELTIE (J. Scott) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
this country, 494.
+ on Dr. Nansen and the results of
his recent Arctic expedition, 865.
KELVIN (Lord) on the establishment of a
National Physical Laboratory, 82.
on tables of the Bessel functions, 98.
on practical electrical standards,
150.
on seismological investigation, 180.
on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 231.
on the B.A. screw gauge, 527.
— on the molecular dynamics of hydro-
gen gas, oxygen gas, ozone, peroxide
of hydrogen, vapour of water, liquid
water, ice, and quartz crystal, 721.
Dr. J. T. BorTromMugEy, and- Dr.
MAGNUS MACLEAN, on measurements
of electric currents through air at
different densities down to one five-
millionth of the density of ordinary
air, 710.
| % Dr. MAGNUS MACLEAN, and ALEX.
GALT on the communication of elec-
tricity from electrified steam to air,
721.
KENDALL (P. F.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 366.
on the character of the high-level
shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, 378.
— on the cause of the bathymetric
limit of Pteropad ooze, 789.
—— on the conditions under which the
Upper Chalk was deposited, 791.
—on some Post-Pliocene changes of
physical geography in Yorkshire, 801.
—— and J. LomAs on the Glacial phe-
nomena of the Vale of Clwyd, 801.
KENNEDY (Prof. A. B. W.) on the cali-
bration of instruments used in engineer-
ing laboratories, 538.
+Kent in relation to the ethnographical
survey, E. W. Brabrook on, 928.
KERMODE (P. M. C.) on Manx crosses as
illustrations of Celtic and Scandinavian
art, 934.
Kerry, a prehistoric settlement in the
County of, R. A. S. Macalister on, 931.
Kew Observatory, non-cyclic effects at,
during the selected ‘quiet’ days of the
siz years 1890-95, C. Chree on, 231.
KIDSTON (R.) on the collection of photo-
1040
graphs of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 357.
Kinetic theory of gases, some difficulties
connected with the, G. H. Bryan on,
721
Kintyre, Report on the character of the
high-level shell-bearing deposits in, 378.
KIRK (Sir John) on the climatology of
Africa, 495.
Kwnotr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigation, 180.
—— on earthquake frequency, 220.
KNOWLES (W. J.) on the older flint
implements of Ireland, 923.
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 451.
Koun (Dr. C. A.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 244.
— on a modified form of Schrditter’s
apparatus for the determination of
carbonic anhydride, 758.
— on the presence of iron and of
copper in green and in white oysters,
986.
on a new
form of aspirator, 759.
Lake fauna, African, Report on, 484.
village at Glastonbury, Report on
the, 656.
LAMPLUGH (G.W.)on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea,
417.
Lamps, electric incandescent, street
lighting by, W. G. Walker on, 899.
LANG (W. H.) on some peculiar cases of
apogamous reproduction in ferns, 1019,
LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the oceu-
pation of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 478.
on African lake fauna, 484.
on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
485.
LAPWORTH (Prof. C.) on the structure of
a coral reef, 377.
Lava, the source of, J. Logan Lobley on,
788.
Lead, the detection of, in organic fluids,
Dr. J. Hill Abram and Prosper H.
Marsden on, 990.
LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on seismological
investigation, 180.
LEE (Arthur) on the currency question
in the United States, and its bearing
on British interests, 883.
*LELAND (C. G.) on the straw goblin,
941.
*____ on marks on ancient monuments,
941.
LENARD (Prof. Phillipp) on cathode
rays and their probable connection
with Roéntgen rays, 709.
REPORT—1896.
Lepidostrobus, some Carboniferous fossils
referred to, Dr. D. H. Scott on, 1024.
Leucocytes and cell granulations, Dr.
R. A. M. Buchanan on, 981.
LEwEs (Prof. Vivian B.) on the proximate
constituents of coal, 340.
Lewis (A. L.) on ancient measures in
prehistoric monuments, 924.
LIEBREICH (Prof. Oscar) on the retarda-
tion of chemical action from diminution
of space, 748.
Life, the physical basis of, Prof. F. J.
Allen on, 983.
_ Life-zones in the British Carboniferous
KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest |
rocks, Report on, 415.
Light, the action of, wpon dyed colours,
Report on, 347.
Lilium Martagon, the heterotype divi-
sions of, Ethel Sargant on, 1021.
Linguistic and anthropological character-
astics of the North Dravidian and
Kolarian races, the Urdnws, Report on
the, 659.
LISTER (Sir Joseph), Presidential Address
by, 3. :
Litmus, the behaviour of, in amphoteric
solutions, T. R. Bradshaw on, 752.
LIVEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 273.
Liverpool, footprints from the Trias near,
H. C. Beasley on, 779.
——- oscillations in the level of the land
near, T. Mellard Reade on, 782.
*____ Overhead Railway, S. B. Cottrell on
the, 898.
port of, the physical and engi-
neering features of the, G. F. Lyster
on, 548.
waterworks, J. Parry on the, 897.
*Llasa, a journey towards, W. A. L.
Fletcher on, 859. :
Luoyp (R. J.) on the genesis of vowels,
972.
—— on the interpretation of the phono--
grams of vowels, 973.
*LLOYD-MorRGAN (Prof.) opened a Dis-
cussion on Neo-Lamarckism, 830.
LoBLey (J. Logan) on the source of
Lava, 788.
——— on the Post-Cambrian shrinkage of
the globe, 789.
Locu (C. 8.) on some economic issues in
regard to charitable or philanthropic
trading, 875.
LockYER (J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 273.
LopGE (Prof. A.) on the calculation of
the G@ (1, v)-integrals, 70.
—— on tables of the Bessel functions, 98.
—— (Dr. O. J.) on the establishment of
a National Physical Laboratory, 82.
| —__on practical electrical standards, 150.
INDEX.
LomAs (J.) and P. F. KENDALL on the
Glacial phenomena of the Vale of
Clwyd, 801.
Loranthacee of Ceylon, F. W. Keeble
on the, 1022.
*Low temperature research, Prof. J
Dewar on, 758.
LuBebock (Sir John) on the teaching of
Science in elementary schools, 268.
Lyginodendron, a large specimen of, A. C.
Seward on, 1024.
LysTER (G. Fosberry) on the physical and
engineering features of the river Mersey
and port of Liverpool, 548.
MACALISTHR (R. A. S.) on a prehistoric
settlement in Co. Kerry, 931.
MACALLUM (Prof. A. B.) on anew method
of distinguishing organic and inorganic
iron in the tissues, 973.
MACBRIDE (E W.) on the present position
of morphology in zoological science,
833.
M‘InTosH (Prof. W. C.) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 478.
* on the life-history of the haddock,
837.
McKeEnprIcK (Prof. J. G.) on physio-
logical applications of the phonograph,
669.
—— (J. 5.) on physiological applications
of the phonograph, 669.
MACKINDER (H. J.) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 494.
McLACHLAN (R.)on Mr. EL. EH. Green’s
‘ Coccide of Ceylon, 450.
—— on Post Office regulations regarding
the carriage of natural history speci-
mens to foreign countries, 477.
MAcLAGAN (Miss C.) on the sculptured
stones of Scotland, 924.
— on the ‘Brochs’ of Scotland, 924.
McLaren (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 166.
MACLEAN (Dr. Magnus) and J. T.
BOTTOMLEY on measurements of
electric currents through air at differ-
ent densities 710.
*___, Lord KgLvIN, and ALEX. GALT
on the communication of electricity
from electrified steam to air, 721.
McLEoD (Prof. H.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiatiwn, 241.
— on the bibliography of spectroscopy,
243.
*MACLURE (J. H.) on improvements in
trawling apparatus, 832.
Macmanon (Prof. P. A.) on tables of the
Bessel functions, 98.
1896.
1041
MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 243.
*MAGINNIS (A. J.) on the present posi-
tion of the British North Atlantic
Mail service, 897.
Magmatic differentiation and the High-
wood mountains of Montana, H. J.
Johnston-Lavis on, 792.
Magnetic detector of electrical waves,
HK. Rutherford on a, 724.
instruments, Report on the com-
parison of, 87.
observations, Report on the compari-
son and reduction of, by C. Chree, 231.
* —_ permeability, an instrument for
measuring, W. M. Mordey on, 732.
*Magnetism, the earth’s permanent, the
component fields of, Dr. L. A. Bauer,
on, 713.
MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 268.
—— (Prof. P.) on some species of the
Chytridiaceous genus Urophlyctis, 1010.
*Mail service, the British North Atlantic,
A. J. Maginnis on the present position
of, 897.
Man, Isle of, Prof. Boyd Dawkins on the
geology of the, 776.
the physical anthropology of the,
Dr. John Beddoe and A. W. Moore on
925.
. Tertiary deposits in North Manx-
land, Alfred Bell on, 783.
Manchester, practical geography in, J.
Howard Reed on, 858.
MANN (Dr. Gustav) on the structure of
nerve-cells as shown by wax models,
980.
Manx crosses as illustrations of Celtic
and Scandinavian art, P. M. C. Ker-
mode on, 934.
Map projections, an apparatus to illus-
trate, A. J. Herbertson on, 865.
Maps of rainfall, mean monthly world,
A. J. Herbertson on, 857.
-—— the Weston tapestry, Rev. W. K. R.
Bedford on, 850.
MABCET (Dr. W.) on the different forms
of the respiratioa in man, 974.
Marine zoology, botany, and geology of the
Trish Sea, Final report on the, 417.
MArR (J. E.) on Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 415.
—— Address to the Section of Geology
by, 762.
MARSDEN (Prosper H.) and Dr. J. H1tu
ABRAM on the detection of lead in
organic fluids, 990.
MARSHALL (Dr. Hugh) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 244.
MASTERMAN (A. T.) on Phoronis, the
earliest ancestor of the Vertebrata, 837.
-——- on the effects of pelagic spawning
habit on the life-histories of fishes, 837.
3¥
1042
Mathematical and Physical Science,
Address by Prof. J. J. Thomson to
the Section of, 699.
Mathematical functions (Bessel's), Third
report on tables of, 98.
MatTrHew (G. F.) on some features of
the early Cambrian faunas, 785.
Measures in prehistoric monuments,
A. L. Lewis on ancient, 924.
Mechanical Science, Address by Sir
Douglas Fox to the Section of, 886.
*Megohms for high voltages, carbon,
W. M. Mordey on, 732.
Melanesians, the Duk Duk and other
customs as forms of expression of the
intellectual life of the, Graf von Pfeil
on, 939.
MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
31.
—— on the application of photography to
the elucidation of meteorological phe-
nomena, 172. .
on seismological investigation, 180.
on the action of light upon dyed
colours, 347.
on Mr. EB. E. Green's ‘Coccide of
Ceylon,’ 450.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 607.
Mental and physical defects of children
in schools, Report on the, 592.
Mersey, the physical and engineering
features of the river, G. F. Lyster on,
548.
Metamorphism, the production of
corundum on Dartmoor by contact-
Prof. Karl Busz on, 807.
Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
Report on, 166.
phenomena, the application of photo-
graphy to the elucidation of, Sixth
report on, 172.
Metric measures and our old system,
¥. Toms on, 880.
MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 366.
on Mr. E. E. Green’s ‘Coccide of
Ceylon,’ 450.
Mice, the occurrence of fever in, Prof.
J. Lorrain Smith and Dr. F. F. West-
brook on, 974.
Microtome construction, the principles
of, Prof. C. §. Minot on, 979.
Migration of birds, Report of the Com-
mittee for making a digest of the ob-
servations on the, 451; digest by W.
Eagle Clarke, 452.
Mruu (Dr. H. R.) on the position of geo-
graphy in the educational system of the
country, 494.
—— on the climatology of Africa, 495.
on a proposed geographical de-
scription of the British Isles, 850.
REPORT—18Y6.
MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gation, 180.
on earthquakes and sea-waves, 862.
Minor (Prof. C. 8.) on the theory of
panplasm, 832.
on the olfactory lobes, 836.
on the principles of microtome
construction, 979.
*Morr (J. W.) on the climate of Nyasa-
Jand, 858.
Molecular dynamics of hydrogen gas,
oxygen gas, ozone, peroxide of hydro-
gen, vapour of water, liquid water, ice,
and quartz crystals, Lord Kelvin on
the, 721.
Monp (Dr. Ludwig) on the proximate
constituents af coal, 340.
-_—. Address to the Section of Chemistry
by, 734.
*MONTEFIORE-BRICE (A.) on last year’s
work of the Jackson-Harmsworth Ex-
pedition, 855.
MoNTELIUS (Dr. Oscar) on the Tyrrheni-
ans in Greece and Italy, 931.
on Preclassical chronology in Italy
and Greece, 933.
*Monuments, marks on ancient, C. G.
Leland on, 941.
Moors (A. W.) and Dr. JOHN BEDDOE
on the physical anthropology of the
Isle of Man, 925.
—— (Harold E.) on farm labour colonies
and Poor Law Guardians, 879.
*MorpzEy (W. M.) on carbon megohms
for high voltages, 732.
“i on an instrument for measuring
magnetic permeability, 732.
* Moreseat, the age and relation of rocks
near, Interim report on, 807.
Morphology, the present position of, in
zoological science, E. W. Macbride on,
833.
Morris (Dr. D.) on the singular effects
produced on certain animals in the
West Indies by feeding on the Wild
Tamarind or Jumbai plant (Lewcena
Glauca, Benth.), 1017.
Morsk (Miss E.) on the relation of Pale-
olithie man to the Glacial epoch, 400.
MorTON (‘3. H.) on recent borings in the
Red Marl near Liverpool, 780.
——— on the erosion of the sea coast of
Wirral, 781.
— on the range of species in the
Carboniferous Limestone of N. Wales,
787.
Motion, the stationary, of a system of
equal elastic spheres in a field of no
forces, when their aggregate volume is
not infinitely small compared with the
space in which they move, 8. H. Bur-
bury on, 716.
MuIRHBAD (Dr. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 150.
*
INDEX.
Munro (Dr. Robert) on the lake village
at Glastonbury, 656.
Murray (George) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 493.
—— (Prof. G. G.) on physiological appli-
cations of the phonograph, 669.
—— (Dr. John) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 166.
—— on the structure of a coral reef, 377.
—— on African Lake fauna, 484.
—— on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 487.
Museums, Local, Prof. Flinders Petrie on
a Federal Staff for, 38.
Mycenzan Greece, Pillar and Tree Wor-
. ship in, A. J Evans on, 934.
Mykenzan?’ ‘ Who produced the object
called, Prof. W. Ridgeway on, 982.
Myrus (J. L.) on the linguistie and
anthropological characteristics of the
North Dravidian and Kolarian races,
the Urduws, 659.
on Cyprus and the trade routes of
§.E. Europe, 929.
*____ on _Sergi’s theory of a mediter-
ranean race, 931.
Nacuu (D. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 243.
—— on the electrolytic methods of quanti-
tative analysis, 244.
*Nansen and the results of his recent
Arctic Expedition, J. Scott Keltie on,
865.
Naphthalene derivatives, Tenth report on
the investigation of isomeric, 265.
Naples, Zoological Station at, Report on
the occupation of a table at, 478.
National Physical Laboratory, Report on
the establishment of a, 82.
Natural history specimens, Post Office
regulations regarding the carriage of,
to foreign countries, Report on, 477.
*Neo-Lamarckism, discussion on, opened
by Prof. Lloyd-Morgan, 830.
Nerve, fragments from the autobio-
graphy of a, Dr. A. W. Waller on, 980.
Nerve-cell, the discharge of a single,
Prof. F. Gotch on, 978.
Nerve-cells, the structure of, as shown
ny wax models, Dr. Gustav Mann on,
80.
New Guinea, British, anthropological
opportunities in, Sidney H. Ray on,
928.
New Zealand, the Southern Alps of, A. E.
Fitzgerald on, 862.
NEWSTEAD (R.) on Mr. HE. E. Green’s
‘Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450.
NEWTON | Prof. A.) on making a digest of
the observations on the migration of
birds, 451.
—— on the necessity for the immediate
1043
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 487.
Newton (Prof. A.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 492.
——on owr knowledge of the zoology
and botany of the West India Islands,
493.
* on Genyornis, Stirling, an extinct
ratite bird supposed to belong to the
order Megistanes, 836.
(W.) on nitrates: their occurrence
and manufacture, 756.
Nile, the Upper, and Uganda, Lieut.
C. F. S. Vandeleur on, 853.
Nitrates: their occurrence and manu-
facture, W. Newton on, 756.
North-Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada, Eleventh report on the, 569.
Siath report on the Indians of British
Columbia, by Dr. F. Boas, 569.
*Nyasaland, the climate of, J. W. Moir
on, 858.
Nympheacee, the arrangement of the
vascular bundles in certain, D. T.
Gwynne-Vaughan on, 1012.
Oceanic islands, Report on the necessity
for the immediate investigation of the
biology of, 487.
Op.LuM (Prof. E.) on the borderland of
British Columbia and Alaska, 865.
*____ on the Coast Indians of British
Columbia, 929.
Olfactory lobes, Prof. C. 8. Minot on the
836.
Orbits, periodic, Prof. G. H. Darwin on,
708.
Organic fluids, the detection of lead in,
Dr. J. Hill Abram and Prosper H.
Marsden on, 990.
*Ornament of N. E. Europe, G. Coffey
on, 934.
*Ortho-derivatives of o-amido and nitro-
benzylamine, abnormalities in the
behaviour of, Dr. F. E. Franci- on, 756.
Oscillations in the level of the land near
Liverpool, T. Mellard Reade on, 782.
*Osmosis, the role of, in physiological
processes, Dr. Lazarus Barlow on, 984.
Ova, pelagic teleostean, the absorption of
the yolk in, H. C. Williamson on, 478.
Oxygen, the accurate determination of,
by absorption with alkaline pyrogallol
solution, Prof. F. Clowes on. 747.
Oyster, the possible infectivity of the, and
upon the green disease in oysters, Report
on, 663.
= , the cultivation of the, by the
Romans, R. T. Giinther on, 828.
Oysters, the presence of iron and of
copper in green and in wh te, C. A.
Kobn on, 986.
3-Y 2
1044
Pages of Scientific Societies’ publications,
Report on the uniformity of size of, 86.
Paleolithic man, Report on the relation
of, to the Glacial epoch, 400.
—- spear- and arrow-heads, H. Stopes
on, 925.
Palzoliths derived and reworked, H.
Stopes on, 925.
* Paleospondylus
‘Traquair on, 832.
Panplasm, the theory of, Prof. C. S.
Minot on, 832.
Parry (J.) on the Liverpool waterworks,
897.
*Passion Flower, a new hybrid, Dr. J
Wilson on, 1022.
PAUL (F.) on some points of interest in
dental histology, 982.
Pavy (Dr. F. W.) on the glucoside con-
stitution of proteid matter, 976.
PEARSON (Prof. Karl) on the calculation
of the G (x, v)-integrals, 70.
PEEK (Cuthbert E.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 31.
on the North-Western Tribes of
Canada, 569.
Pelagic spawning habit, the effects of, on
the life-histories of fishes, A. T.
Masterman on, 837.
Pellia epiphylla, a parasitic disease of,
W. G. P. Ellis on, 1010.
*Pentland Hills, the eurypterid-bearing
deposits of the, Interim report on, 803.
‘Peptone,’ the physiological effect of,
when injected into the circulation,
Prof. W. H. Thompson on, 975.
Periodic orbits, Prof. G. H. Darwin on,
708.
Peristalsis, the effect of peritonitis on,
A. S. Griinbaum on, 976. ;
Peritoneal infections, some points in the
mechanism of reaction to, H. E. Dur-
ham on, 987.
Perit onitis, the effect of, on peristalsis,
A. S. Griinbaum on, 976.
PHuRKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 347.
Perey (Prof. John) on practical electrical
standards, 150.
on seismological investigation, 180.
—— on the Perry tromometer, 218.
PeTrig (Prof. W. M. Flinders) on a
Federal Staff for local museums, 38.
on an ethnological storehouse, 935.
Pret. (Graf von) on the Duk Duk and
other customs as forms of expression
of the intellectual life of the Mela-
nesians, 939.
Phonograph, Report on physiological
applications of the, 669.
Ph>ronis, the earliest ancestor of the
Vertebrata, A. T. Masterman on, 837.
Phospnorescence, hyper-, Professor S. P.
Thompson on, 713.
Gunni, Dr. B. H.
REPORT—1896.
Photo-electric sensitisation of salts by
cathodic rays, Prof. J. A. Elster and
Prof. H. Geitel on the, 731.
*Photographic effects, Prof. P. de Heen
on certain, 731.
Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, Seventh report on the
collection, preservation, and systematic
registration of, 357.
Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, Sixth report on, 172.
*Photometry and Purkinje’s phenomena,
Prof. J. B. Haycraft on, 983.
*Phyllopoda of the Paleozic rocks, In-
terim report on the, 804.
Physical Laboratory, Report on the esta-
blishment of a National, 82.
—— and Mathematical Science, Address
by Prof. J. J. Thomson to the Section
of, 699.
——- basis of life, Prof. F. J. Allen on
the, 983.
Physiology, Address by Dr. W. H. Gaskell
to the Section of, 942.
Pillar and Tree Worship in Mycenzan
Greece, A. J. Evans on, 934.
PirT-RiveRs' (Gen.) on an ethnogra-
phical survey of the United Kingdom,
607.
—— on the lake village at Glastonbury,
656.
Planets, velocity of rotation of the,
measurement by means of the spectro-
scope of the, J. E. Keeler on the,
729.
Plant-habit, the influence of habitat on,
G. F. Scott-Elliot on, 1013.
Plants for exhibition, preservation of,
Interim report on the, 684.
- fossil, from South Africa, A. C.
Seward on some, 807.
* recent and fossil, Demonstrations
of, by Dr. D. H. Scott, Prof. Magnus,
Prof. Zacharias, Miss EK. Sargant, Mr.
A.C. Seward, Mr. W. H. Lang, and
others, 1023.
Plymouth, Report on the occupation of a
table at the Marine Biological Labora-
tory, 485.
Polygonum, floral deviations in some
species of, Prof. J. W. H. Trail on,
1016.
Poor Law Guardians and farm labour
colonies, Harold E. Moore on, 879.
*Population, comparison of the age-dis-
tribution of town and country, in
different lands, A. W. Flux on, 880.
Population map of the South Wales
coal district, B. V. Darbishire on a
new, 865.
Porcelain, transparency of, to the Ront-
gen rays, Prof. A. W. Riicker and W,
Watson on the, 710.
INDEX.
Post Office regulations regarding the car-
riage of Natural History specimens to
foreign countries, Report on the, 477.
Post-Cambrian shrinkage of the globe,
J. Logan Lobley on the, 789.
Post-Pliocene changes of physical geo-
graphy in Yorkshire, P. F. Kendall on
some, 801.
Pouuton (Prof. E. B.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
31.
—— Address to the Section of Zoology
by, 808.
Poyntine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 180.
Pre-Cambrian fossils, Sir W. Dawson on,
784.
Preclassical chronology in Italy and
Greece, Dr. Oscar Montelius on, 933.
PREECE (W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 150.
— on the B.A. screw gauge, 527.
on disturbance in submarine
cables, 732.
*____ on tests of glow lamps, 898.
Prehistoric monuments, ancient measures
in, A. L. Lewis on, 924.
—— settlement in co. Kerry, R. A. S.
Macalister on a, 931.
PRENTICE (Manning) on the carbo-
hydrates of cereal straws, 262.
Presidential Address at Liverpool by Sir
Joseph Lister, 3.
PRICE (Prof. B.) on tables of the Bessel
Functions, 98.
—— (W. A.) on the B.A. scren gauge,
527, 537.
*Prices, the course of average general,
H. Binns on, 883.
*Printing in colours, the development of
the art of, T. Cond on, 905.
Proportions of the human body, Dr. J.
G. Garson on the, 927.
Proteid matter, the glucoside constitu-
tion of, Dr. F. W. Pavy on, 976.
Pteropod ooze, the bathymetric limit of,
P. F. Kendall on the cause of, 789.
Public health, the organisation of bac-
teriological research in connection
with, Dr. Sims Woodhead on, 984.
Publication, zoological, and bibliography,
Report on, 490.
Publications, Scientific Societies’, Report
on the uniformity of size of pages of, 86.
*Purkinje’s phenomena and photometry,
Prof. J. B. Haycraft on, 983.
‘Quadratic forms, connexion of, Lieut.-
Col. Allan Cunningham on the, 716.
Yuantitative analysis, the electrolytic
methods of, Report on, 244.
Quartzite lenticles in the schists of
South-eastern Anglesey, E. Greenly on,
783.
1045
*Railway, the Liverpool Overhead, and
the southern extension of it, S. B.
Cottrell on, 898.
——— rails, the cause of fracture of, W.
W. Beaumont on, 896.
Rainfall, mean monthly, A. J. Herbert-
son on world-maps of, 857.
RAMBAUT (Prof. A. A.) on the effect of
atmospheric refraction on the apparent
diurnal movement of stars, and a
method of allowing for it in astrono-
mical photography, 726.
*RAMSAY (Prof. W.) on helium, 757.
Rates and taxes, the distribution and
incidence of, G. H. Blunden on, 878.
RATHBONE (H. R.) on grain ‘futures,’
their effects and tendencies, 881.
Rating system, proposed modifications of
the, W. H. Smith on, 878.
RAVENSTEIN (EH. G.) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 494.
on the climatology of Africa, 495.
on an ethnographical survey of the
Onited Kingdom, 607.
RAWSON (Sir Rawson) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 31.
Ray (Sidney H.) on anthropological
opportunities in British New Guinea,
928.
RAYLEIGH (Lord) on the establishment
of a National Physical Laboratory, 82.
on tables of the Bessel functions, 98.
on practical electrical standards,
150.
RAYNBIRD (Hugh),junr., on the linguistic
and anthropological characteristics of
the North Dravidian and Kolarian
races,—The Urduws, 659.
Reaction (solidification, crystallisation,
&e.), the velocity of, before perfect
equilibrium takes place, Meyer Wilder-
mann on, 751.
READ (C. H.) on an Imperial Bureau of
Ethnology, 928.
READE (T. Mellard) on oscillations in
the level of the land, as shown by the
buried river valleys and later deposits
near Liverpool, 782.
Red Marl near Liverpool, G. H. Morton
on recent borings in the, 780.
REED (J. Howard) on practical geo-
graphy in Manchester, 858.
Refraction, the effect of atmospheric, on
the apparent diurnal movement of
stars, Prof. A. A. Rambavt on, 726.;
Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Berlin,
Financial statement about the, 86.
REID (A. 8.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 357.
— (Clement) on the Selangor caves, 399.
—— onthe relation of Paleolithic man
.. tothe Glacial epoch, 400.
1046
BEID (Clement) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea,
417.
RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical
standards, 150.
*Resins, excrescent, Prof. M. Bamberger
on, 750.
Resistance alloy, rheostene, a new, J. A.
Harker and A. Davidson on, 714.
Respiration in man, the different forms
of the, Dr. W. Marcet on, 974.
*Retzius, commemoration of the cen-
tenary of the birth of, 925.
REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on the
electrolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 244.
Rhetic geology, Montagu Browne on,
804.
Rheostene, a new resistance alloy, J. A.
Harker and A. Davidson on, 714.
RICHARDSON (Ralph) on the various
boundary lines between British Guiana
and Venezuela attributed to Sir R. H.
Schomburgk, 861.
RIDGEWAY (Prof. W.) on Hallstatt and
the starting-point of the Iron Age in
Europe, 930.
—— on ‘Who produced the object
called the Mykenzan 2’ 932.
RiIDuEY (E. P.) on the relation of Palao-
lithic man to the Glacial epoch, 400.
——(H M.) onthe Selangor caves, 399.
— on the relation of Paleolithic man
to the Glacial epoch, 400.
Rie@ (H.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
527.
RinTOUL (Charles) on the decay of
British agriculture: its causes and
cure, 879.
Rippling of sand, Vaughan Cornish on
the, 794.
ROBERTS (Dr. I.) on seismological investi-
gation, 180.
—— on the evolution of stellar systems,
707.
ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Prof. W. C.) on the
bibliography of spectroscopy, 243.
ROBERTSON (David) on the character of
the high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Kintyre, 378, 389.
*RORINSON (Rev. J. C.) on the land of
the Hausa, 850.
*Romans, the cultivation of the oyster
by the, R. T. Giinther on, 828.
Romney Marsh, coast-forms of, Dr. F. G.
Gulliver on, 854.
Rontgen rays, the action of metals and
their salts on ordinary and on, Dr. J. H.
Gladstone and W. Hibbert on, 746.
—— cathode rays and their probable
connection with, Prof. P. Lenard on,
709.
+—— the law
of electricity
of the conduction
through gases ex-
REPORT—1896.
posed to the, Prof. J. J. Thomson and
EK. Rutherford on, 710.
—— the transparency of glass and por-
celain to the, Prof. A. W. Riicker and
W. Watson on, 710.
——. the duration of x-radiation at each
spark, ¥. T. Trouton on, 711.
——. the relation between kathode rays,
x-rays, and Becquerel rays, Prof. 8. P.
Thompson on, 712, 713.
*_____ the x-rays, H. H. F. Hyndman
on, 713.
——. photo-electric sensitisation of
salts by cathode rays, Prof. Elster and
Prof. Geitel on, 731.
Roscoxk (Sir H. HE.) on the establishment
of a National Physical Laboratory,
82.
—— onthe best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 241.
on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 268.
on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 273.
* on chemical education in England
and Germany, 761.
Rotifera, the relation of the, to the tro-
chophore, Prof. Marcus Hartog on, 836.
RUCKER (Prof. A. W.) on the establish-
ment of a National Physical Labora-
tory, 82.
on the uniformity of size of pages of
Scientific Societies’ publications, 86.
on the comparison of magnetic instru-
ments, 87.
on practical electrical standards,
150.
on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 231.
and W. WATSON on the trans-
parency of glass and porcelain to the |
Roéntgen rays, 710.
Rugby and Aylesbury, sections along the
new railway between, H. B. Wood-
ward on, 798.
RUSSELL (Dr. W. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 347.
RUTHERFORD (H.) on a magnetic detec-
tor of electrical waves, 722.
+—— and Prof. J. J. THomson on the
laws of conduction of electricity
through gases exposed to the Rontgen
rays, 710.
SALVIN (0O.) on the zoology of the Sand-
nich Islands, 492.
Sand, the rippling of, Vaughan Cornish
on, 794.
Sand-dunes, Vaughan Cornish on, 857.
Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the, Fifth
report on, 492.
SARGANT (Ethel) on the heterotype
divisions of Liliwm Martagon, 1021.
INDEX.
Schizomycetes, a new genus of, showing
longitudinal _ fission (Astrobacter
Jonesii), A. Vaughan Jennings on,
1012.
Schools, the physical and mental defects of
children in, Report on, 592.
SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on the establishment
of a National Physical Laboratory, 82.
——on the comparison of magnetic instru-
ments, 87.
—— on practical electrical standards,
150.
on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observations, 231.
on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 241.
on wave-length tables af the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 273.
Science, the teaching of; in elementary
schools, Report on, 268.
—— in girls’ schools, L. Edna Walter
on, 761.
Scientific Societies, District Unions of,
George Abbott on, 33.
SCLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the occupation of
a table at the Zvological Station at
Naples, 478.
on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 489.
— on zoological bibliography and
publication, 490.
—— on the present state of our know-
ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 492.
—— on the zoology and botany of the West
India Islands, 493.
Scotland, the sculptured stones of, Miss
C. Maclagan on, 924.
—— the ‘Brochs’ of, Miss C. Maclagan
on, 924.
Scott (Dr. D. H.) on the preservation of
plants for exhibition, 684.
—— Address to the Section of Botany
by, 992.
—— on some Carboniferous fossils re-
ferred to Lepidostrobus, 1024.
Scort-ELLioT (G. F.) on the influence
of climate and vegetation on African
civilisations, 856.
— on the influence of habitat upon
plant-habit, 1013.
SCOURFIELD (D. J.) on the necessity for
a British fresh-water biological station,
831.
Serem gauge proposed in 1884, Report on
the means by which practical effect can
be given to the introduction of the, 527.
Sculptured stones of Scotland, Miss C.
Maclagan on the, 924.
Sea in past epochs, the depths of the,
E. B. Wethered on, 793.
*Sea waves and earthquakes, Prof, John
Milne on, 862.
1047
SEDGWICK (A.) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 478.
on zoological bibliography
publication, 490.
Seeds, latent life in, Casimirde Candolle
on, 1023.
SEELEY (Prof. H. G.) on the skull of the
8. African fossil reptile Diademodon,
805.
on examples of current bedding in
clays, 805.
Seismological investigation, First report
on, 180.
Selangor caves, Preliminary report on the,
399.
Semicircular canals, the effect of the
destruction of the, upon the movement
of the eyes, Dr. E. Stevenson on, 982.
*SENNETT (A. R.) on horseless road loco-
motion, 905. :
*Sergi’s theory of a Mediterranean race,
J. L. Myres on, 931.
Serum, the agglutinating action of hu-
man, on certain pathogenic micro-or-
ganisms, particularly the typhoid ba-
cillus, A. S. Griinbaum on, 989.
SETON-KARR (H. W.) on stone imple-
ments in Somaliland, 922.
SEWARD (A.C.) on some fossil plants
from $8. Africa, 807.
on a new Cycad from the Isle of
Portland, 1024.
on a large specimen of Lyginoden-
dron, 1024,
SHARP (D.) on zoological bibliography
and publication, 490.
on the zoology of the Sandwich
Tslands, 492.
on the zoology and botany of the
West India Islands, 493.
SHARP (Dr. D.) on Mr. E. EL. Green's
‘ Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450.
SHAw (W. N.) on practical electrical
standards, 150.
recalculation of the total heat oy
mater from the experiments of Regnault
and of Rowland, 162.
on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,
230.
Shell-bearing deposits at Kintyre, the
high-level, Report on the character of,
378.
SHENSTONE (W. A.) on the production of
haloids from pure materials, 347.
SHERBORN (C. D.) on zoulogical biblio-
graphy and publication, 490.
SHERRINGTON (Prof. C.8.) on the pos-
sible infectivity of the oyster, and on
the green disease in oysters, 663.
SHIPLEY (A. E.) on the necessity for the
immediate investigation of the biology
of oceanic islands, 487.
and
1048
Shrinkage of the globe, the Post-Cam-
brian, J. Logan Lobley on, 789.
Shropshire, North, the superficial de-
posits of, C. Callaway on, 800.
Sillimanite gneisses in Central Anglesey,
E. Greeuly on, 783.
SILVERBERG (J.) on the influence of busi-
ness in ‘ futures ’on trade and agricul-
ture, 882.
Skomer Island, the geology of, F. T.
Howard and E. W. Small on, 797.
Skull of the 8. African fossil reptile Dia-
demodon, Prof, H. G. Seeley on, 805.
SLADEN (Percy) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at Naples,
478.
SMALL (E. W.) and IF. T. HOWARD on
the geology of Skomer Island, 797.
SMITH (E. A.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 492.
(John) on the discovery of marine
shells in the Drift series at high levels
in Ayrshire, 799.
-— (Prof. J. Lorrain) and Dr. F. F.
WESTBROOK on the occurrence of
fever in mice, 974.
—— (W.H.) on proposed modifications
of the rating system, 878.
-—- (the late Dr. Wilberforce) on the
physical and mental defects of children
in schools, 592.
Solar radiation, Twelfth report on the
best methods of recording the direct
intensity of, 241.
SOLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 366.
on the structure of a coral reef, 377.
Somaliland, stone implements in, H. W.
Seton-Karr on, 922.
South Wales coal district, a new popu-
lation map of the, B. V. Darbishire on,
865. ;
‘SSOWERBUTTS (Eli) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 494.
Species, the range of, in the Carbonife-
rous Limestone of N. Wales, G. H. Mor-
_ ton on, 787.
Spectra of the elements and compounds,
nave-length tables of the, Report on, 273.
Spectroscope, measurement by means of
the, of the velocity of rotation of the
planets, J. E. Keeler on the, 729.
Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, Highth
(interim) report on, 2438.
Spencer’s, Herbert, limit of growth, mul-
tiple cell division as compared with
bi-partition as, Prof. Marcus Hartog
on, 833.
‘*Spitzbergen, a journey in 1896 in, Sir
- W. Martin Conway on, 862.
*Spores, the number of, in sporangia,
Prof. F. O. Bower on, 1019.
REPORT—1896
Standard cell, one volt, with small tem-
perature coefficient, W. Hibbert on a,
713.
Standard of value, W. Fowler on, 884.
—— the monetary, Major L. Darwin on,
885.
Statistics and Economic Science, Ad-
dress to the Section of, by the Rt.
Hon. L. Courtney, 867.
—— of wasps, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth
on, 836.
STEBBING (Rev. T. R. R.) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 490.
Stellar systems, Dr. Isaac Roberts on the
evolution of, 707.
STEVENSON (Dr. Edgar) on the effect of
the destruction of the semicircular
canals upon the movement of the eyes,
982.
STEWART (Prof. A.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 377.
——- (Charles) on cotton ‘ futures,’
what they are, and how they operate
in practice, 881.
STILES (Dr. C. W.) on Post Office requia-
tions regarding the carriage of natural
history specimens to foreign countries,
477.
STOKES (Sir G. G.} on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 241.
*STOLPE (Dr. H.) on boat graves in
Sweden, 931.
Stone implements in Somaliland, H. W.
Seton-Karr on, 922.
Stonesfield slate, Final report on opening
further sections of the, 356.
Stoney (Dr. G. Johnstone) on the uni-
Sormity of size of pages of Scientific
Societies’ publications, 86.
— onpracticalelectrical standards, 150.
on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 241,
Stores (H.) on Paleolithic spear- and
arrow-heads, 925.
— on paloliths derived and re-
worked, 925.
STRANGE (E. H.), Prof. H. B. Dixon, and
E. GRAHAM on reflected waves in the
explosion of gases, 746.
Straws, the carbohydrates of cereal, First
report on, 262.
Street-lighting by electric incandescent
lamps, W. G. Walker on, 899.
STROH (A.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
527, 534.
STROUD (Prof. W.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 347.
*Sudan, the Egyptian,
Wilson on, 862.
Superficial deposits of North Shropshire,
C. Callaway on, 800.
Surveying, photographic, John Coles on,
850.
Sir Charles
INDEX.
*Survivals, pagan, F. T. Elworthy on
some, 927,
*Sweden, boat graves in, Dr. H. Stolpe
on, 931.
SWINBURNE (J.) on the uniformity of size
of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica-
tions, 86.
SWINHOE (Col. C.) on Mr. HE. LE. Green’s
* Coccide of Ceylon,’ 450.
—— on Post Office regulations regarding
the carriage of natural history speci-
mens to foreign countries, 477.
Sworn (8. A.) on absolute mercurial
thermometry, 729.
SyMONS (G. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 31.
—— on the application of photography
to the eiucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 172.
—— on seismological investigation, 180.
—— on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 241.
on the climatology of Africa, 495.
Tamarind, the wild, the singular effect
produced on certain animals by feed-
ing on, Dr. D. Morris on, 1017.
Taxation, That ability is not the proper
basis of, by Edwin Cannan, 877.
Taxes and rates, the distribution and in-
eidence of, G. H. Blunden on, 878.
TAYLOR (H.) on practical electrical
standards, 150.
— (H. M.) on the plotting of great
circle routes on a chart, 716.
TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 357.
Teleostean ova, the absorption of the yolk
in pelagic, H. C. Williamson on, 478.
*TERRY (H. B.) on expanded metal, 905.
Tertiary deposits in North Manxland,
Alfred Bell on, 783.
Thermal Unit, see ‘ Llectrical Measwre-
ments.’
Thermometry, absolute mercurial, S. A.
Sworn on, 729.
*THISELTON-DYER (W. T.) on the geo-
graphical distribution of plants, 1020.
THOMAS (J. W.) on the prowimate consti-
tuents of coal, 340.
THOMPSON (I. C.) on the marine zoology,
aes and geology of the Irish Sea,
—— (Prof. Silvanus P.) on the uniformity
of size of pages of Scientific Societies’
publications, 86.
on practicalelectricalstandards, 150.
on the teaching of science in element-
. ary schools, 268.
on the relation between cathode
|
|
i
|
|
1049
THOMPSON (Prof. Silvanus P.) on hyper-
phosphorescence, 713.
| —— (Prof. W. H.) on the physiological
effect of ‘ peptone’ when injected into
the circulation, 975.
THomson (Prof. J. J.) on practical
electrical standards, 150.
___ Address to the Section of Mathe-
matical and Physical Science by, 699.
| +—— and E. RUTHERFORD on the laws
of conduction of electricity through
gases exposed to the Réntgen rays, 710.
THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on the establishment
of a National Physical Laboratory, 82.
on the action of light wpon dyed
colours, 347.
TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest im
the United Kingdom, 357.
on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 366.
Tides, the effect of wind and atmospheric
pressure on the, Report on, 503.
| TILDEN (Prof, W. A.) on the investiga-
tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 265.
| TITHERLEY (A. W.) on the amides of
the alkali metals, and some of their
derivatives, 748.
Toms (F.) on metric measures and our
old system, 880.
Tower Bridge, Description of the general
features and dimension of the, by J.
Wolfe Barry, 897.
Trade combinations and prices, H. J.
Falk on, 876. °
Trade Routes of §8.E. Europe and Cyprus,
John L. Myres on, 929.
Trading, some economic issues in regard
to charitable or philanthropic, C. 8.
Loch on, 875.
| Tray (Prof. J. W. H.) on the preserva-
tion of plants for exhibition, 684, 692.
——— on floral deviations in some species
rays, Rontgen rays, and Becquerel |
rays, 712, 713.
of Polygonum, 1016.
Transparency of glass and porcelain to
the Réntgen rays, Prof. A. W. Riicker
and W. Watson on the, 710.
*TRAQUAIR (Dr. BR. H.) on Paleospondy-
lus Gunni, 832.
*Trawling apparatus, improvements in,
J. H. Maclure on, 832.
Trees, the ascent of water in, Francis
Darnin on, 674.
Trias, footprints in the, near Liverpool,
H. C. Beasley on, 779.
Trinil femur (Pithecanthropus erectus)
contrasted with the femora of various
savage and civilised races, D. Hepburn
on the, 926.
Tripoli, H. S. Cooper on a journey in, 849.
TRISTRAM (Rev. Canon H. B.) on the work
of the Corresponding. Societies Com-
mittee, 31.
1050
Trochophore, the relation of the Rotifera
to the, Prof. Marcus Hartog on, 836.
TROTTER (A. P.) on a direct-reading
Wheatstone’s bridge, 732.
TROUTON (Dr. F. T.) on the duration of
x-radiation at each spark, 711.
Tubercle bacillus, the so-called, A. Cop-
pen Jones on, 1015.
TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on the comparison
of magnetic instruments, 87.
—— on seismological experiments at Ox-
ford, 216.
TyLok (Dr. E. B.) on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 569.
*Type specimens, geological, Interim re-
port on the registration of, 804.
Typhoid and oysters, Prof. Rubert W.
Boyce and Prof. W. A. Herdman on,
663.
Typhoid bacillus, the agglutinating ac-
tion of human serum on certain patho-
genic micro-organisms, particularly
the, A S. Griinbaum on, 989.
Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy, Dr.
Oscar Montelius on, 931.
Uganda and the Upper Nile, Lieut.
C. F. S. Vandeleur on, 853.
United States, the currency question in
the, and its bearing on British interests,
Arthur Lee on, 883.
UNWIN (Prof. W. C.) on the effect of wind
and atmospheric pressure on the tides,
503.
— on the calibration of instruments
used in engineering laboratories, 538.
Uranws, Report on the linguistic and an-
thropological characteristics of the, 659.
Urophlyctis, some species of the genus,
Prof. P. Magnus on, 1010.
Value, the standard of, W. Fowler on, 884.
Valve, a new spherical, balanced for all
pressures, James Casey on, 901.
VANDELEUR (Lieut. C. F.S.) on Uganda
and the Upper Nile, 853.
Vascular bundles, the arrangement of
the, in certain Nympheacee, D. T.
Gwynne- Vaughan on, 1012.
Vatna Jokull, Iceland, the northern
glaciers of, F. W. W. Howell on, 859.
Venezuela and British Guiana, the vari-
ous boundary lines between, attributed
to Sir R. H. Schomburgk, Ralph
Richardson on, 861.
*Vertebrata, the ancestry of the, Discus-
sion on, 832,983. [See ‘ GASKELL (Dr.
W. H.)’} ;
—— Phoronis the earliest ancestor of
the, A. T. Masterman on, 837.
VINES (Prof. S. H.) on investigations
made at the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation Laboratory at Plymouth, 485.
REPORT—1896.
Vowels, the genesis of, R. J. Lloyd on,,.
972.
the interpretation of the phono-
grams of, 973.
WaAuL (André) and A. G. Green on the
constitution of sun yellow or curcu-
mine, and allied colouring matters,
753.
WALFORD (Edwin A.) on the Stonesfield
slate, 356.
WALKER (A. 0.) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea,
417.
—— (W. G.) on street lighting by electric
incandescent lamps, 899.
WALLACE (A. Russel) on the Selangor
caves, 399.
WALLER (Dr. A. W.) on fragments from
the autobiography of a nerve, 980.
WALLIS (KE. White) on the mental and
physical defects of children in schools,
592.
WALSINGHAM (Lord) on Mr.
Green’s ‘Coccide of Ceylon, 450.
on Post Office regulations regarding
the carriage of Natural History speci-
mens to foreign countries, 477.
WALTER (L. Edna) on the teaching of
science in girls’ schools, 761.
WALTHER (Prof. J.). Are there fossil
deserts ? 795
WARINGTON (Prof. R.) on the carbo-
hydrates of cereal straws, 262.
WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
and mental defects of children in schools,.
592.
Wasps, statistics of, Prof. F. Y. Edge-
worth on, 836.
E. EL.
| Water, The capacity of, for heat from 10°
to 20° C referred to its capacity at 10°
as unity, 162,
—— total heat of, Recalculaticn of the,.
from the eaperiments of Regnault and
of Rowland, by W. N. Shan, 162.
—— the ascent of, in trees, Francis
Darwin on, 674.
Waterworks, the Liverpool, J. Parry on,,.
897.
WATKIN (Col.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
527, 532.
WATSON (W.) on the comparison of mag-
netic instruments, 87.
—— and Prof. A. W. RUCKER on the
transparency of glass and porcelain to
the Rontgen rays, 710.
Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements ana
compounds, 273.
(W. W.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 367.
—— on the ancient rocks of Charnwood
Forest, 795.
INDEX.
Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, Report on,
273.
Waves, reflected, in the explosion of
gases, Prof. H. B. Dixon, E. H. Strange,
and E. Graham on, 746.
WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 527.
Weiss (Prof. F. E.) on the marine zoology,
botany, and geology of the Irish Sea,
417.
—— on the preservation of plants for
exhibition, 684.
WELDON (Prof. W. F. R.) on the necessity
Sor the immediate investigation of the
biology of oceanic islands, 487.
-— on zoological bibliography and pub-
lication, 490.
West India Islands, Ninth report on the
soology and botany of the, 493.
WESTBROOK (Dr. F. F.)and Prof. J.
LOBRAIN SMITH on the occurrence of
fever in mice, 974.
Weston tapestry maps, Rev. W. K. R.
Bedford on the, 850.
WETHERED (KE. B.) on the depths of the
sea in past epochs, 793.
WHARTON (Adm. W. J. L.) on the struc-
ture of a coral reef, 377.
Wheatstone’s bridge, a direct-reading,
A. Trotter on, 732.
WHHELER (W. H.) on the effect of wind
and atmospheric pressure on the tides,
503.
WHETHAM (W. C. D.) on electrolysis and
electro-chemistry, 230.
WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 31.
WILDERMANN (Meyer) on the velocity
of reaction before perfect equilibrium
takes place, 751.
WILLIAMS (Prof. W. Carleton) on the
electrolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 244.
WILLIAMSON (H. C.) on the life-history
of the eel, 479.
—— on the absorption of the yolk in
pelagic teleostean ova, 479.
*WILSON (Sir Charles) on the Egyptian
Sudan, 862.
*____ (Dr. J.) on anew hybrid Passion
Flower, 1022.
*____on a newspecies of Albuca (A. pro-
lifera, Wils.), 1025.
* on hybrid Albucas, 1025.
(W. E.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 241.
Wind and atmospheric pressure, Report
on the effeot of, on the tides, 503.
WINDOES (J.) on the Stonesfield slate,
356.
1051
WINGATE (David 8.) on physiologicat
applications of the phonograph, 669.
Wirral, erosion of the sea coast of, G. H.
Morton on the, 781.
Woop (Sir H. T.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 527.
WOODHEAD (Dr. Sims) on the organisa-
tion of bacteriological research in con-
nection with Public Health, 984.
WoopwaARD (Dr. H.) on the Stonesfield
slate, 356.
—— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 489.
—-- (H. B.) on the Stonesfield slate, 356.
—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 357.
on sections along the new railway
between Rugby and Aylesbury, 798.
*Wreck raising, J. Bell on, 905.
Writing of Australia, the aboriginal
stick and bone, Dr. G. Harley on, 941.
X-radiation, the duration of, at each
spark, Dr. F. T. Trouton on, 711.
*X-rays, H. F. Hyndman on the, 713.
, sce * ROntgen rays.’
Yorkshire, Post-Pliocene changes in
physical geography in, P. F. Kendall
on some, 801.
ZACHARIAS (Prof. E.) on the cells of the
Cyanophycez, 1021.
Zoological bibliography and publication,
Report on, 490.
—— science, the present position of
morphology in, E. W. Macbride on,
833.
—- Station at Naples, Report on the
occupation of a table at the, 478.
Appendiz:
I. On the life-history of the eel: on the
absorption of the yolk in pelagic tele-
ostean ova, by H. C. Williamson, 479.
Il. List of naturalists who have worked
at the Station from July 1, 1895, to
June 30, 1896, 481.
Ill. List of papers published in 1895
naturalists who have occupied
tables at the Station, 482.
Zoology, Address by Prof. EK. B. Poulton
to the Section of, 808.
-— of the Sandwich Islands,
report on the, 492.
—— and botany of the West India
Tslands, Ninth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 493.
——, botany, and geology of the Irish
Sea, Final report on the, 417.
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BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
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REPORT or tae SIXTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Ipswich, Septem-
ber, 1895, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Grants of ites CA OE 2) a Ox
Address by the President, Sir Douglas Galton . :
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee . : 4 4 : See)
Twenty-first Report on Underground Temperature. 75
Report on the Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications 77
Interim Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments. 79
Fifth Report on the Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena 80
Eleventh Report on the best “Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation. 81
Fourteenth and Fifteenth Reports on the Harthquake and Volcanic Phenomena
of Japan ‘ é : 2 é : » +, ok
Fifth Report on Earth Tremors in this Country . ‘ , : ; . 184
Eleventh Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis . : : . 186
Report on Electrical Standards . ; . 195
Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations . . . 209
Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools : : : . 228
Second Report on Quantitative Analysis by means of Electrolysis. ; . 235
Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy . A ; ; : . 263
1054
PAGE
Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours . 5 : : ‘ - 263
Ninth Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives . 272
Report on the Preparation of a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds . 273
Report on the Production of Haloids from Pure Materials. 341
How shall Agriculture best obtain the Help of Science? By Professor R.
WARINGTON 341
Report on the High- level Flint-drift in the Chalk near r Ightham : = . 349
Final Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius : 351
Fourth Report on the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales 352
Interim Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef : . 392
Twenty-first Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters. i : . 393
Appendix—Second List of Works. By W. WHITAKER . 394
Report on the Examinaticn of the Ground from which the Remains of the Cetio-
saurus in the Oxford Museum were obtained : 403
Sixth Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic. Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom : 404
Second Report on the Stonesfield Slate : : - . 414
Twelfth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palxozoic Rocks : 416
Twenty-second and Twenty-third Reports on the Erratic Blocks of F England,
Wales, and Ireland 5 : : 426
Some Suffolk Well-sections. By W. WHITAKER 3 436
On the Dip of the Underground Palzozoic Rocks at Ware and Cheshunt. By
J. FRANCIS . 441
Report on the Physiological ‘Applications of the Phonograph, and on the True
Form of the Voice-curves made by the Instrument . 454
Third Report on the Marine Zoology, Botany and Geology of the Irish Sea . 455
Fifth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands : 467
Report on Investigations made at the sence age of the Marine ‘Biological
Association at Plymouth : 469
Eighth Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and
Botany of the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to Investigate ascer-
tained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora ; . 472
Report on the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animaliam . 473
Report on making a Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at
Lighthouses and Light-vessels : ; . 473
Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at t Naples : . 474
Fourth Report on the Climatology of Africa : : . 480
Report on the Exploration of Southern Arabia . 1 - 491
Report on the Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories ~ AST
Report on an Ancient Kitchen Midden at Hastings, and a Barrow at the
~«- Wildernesse . : - : - . . 500
Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools . : Z : : . 503
Report on the Mental and Physical Defects of Children . : ; , . 503
Report on an Ethnographical Survey of the United ear ‘ : : . 509
Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury d : : : . 519
‘Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada : . . ; . 522
The Transactions of the Sections : : : , 2 : 3 : . 595
Index . : : : : : : : 5 : : : - 859
List of Publications. 5 é : : : : : : : | 881-884
(Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-115).
The following Publications are also on sale at the Office of the Asso-
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Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with
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Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (earriage, 43d.).
Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.
Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s,
Vi
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‘On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
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Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 6d.
Second Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.
Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
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Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
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Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d.
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The President’s Address, and Sectional Addresses, for 1889, 1892, 1893, 1895, 1896,
each 1s,
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BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Lise
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO OCTOBER 31, 1896.
Office of the Association:
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OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1896-97.
PRESIDENT.
SIR JOSEPH LISTER, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres.R.S.
VICE—PRESIDENTS,
The Right Hon. the Hart or Dursy, G.C.B., Lord THE PaINctPaL of University College, Liverpool.
Mayor of Liverpool. W. RaTuHBong, Esq., LL.D.
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Sur Henry E. Roscox, D.C.L., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
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VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Excellency the Right Hon. the Haru or The Hon. LiruTENANT-GOVERNOR of the Province
ABFRDEEN, Governor-General of the Dominion of Ontario.
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PouLton, Professor E. B., F.R.S, Warp, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon, Sir Joun Lupsock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D. epee
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M. A.,D. 0. L. Sivivy D., Sec.R R.S., F.R..
The Right Hon. Lord PLayrarr, K.C. B. Pele D., LL.D. , F.R.S,.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G.,K.T. | Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S. {Sir F.A. Abel, Bart., K.0.B., F.R.S.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. | Dr. Wm. Huggins, D. O.L., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1. Lord Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S. SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart. , F.R.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, 0.M.G., F.R.S. | Prof.J.S.Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, re D., F. R. 8. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. The Marquis of Salisbury, KG,
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart. , F.R.S. F.R.S.
Prof. Allman, M.D., F. RS. Sir W. H. Flower, K.0. B. F.R.S. | Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S,
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F, Galton, Esq., F.R.S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.Sj
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S. Biel ir Sclater, Esq., PasDs, ze Ee 8. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F. R.S.
Sir Douglas Galton, K.0. B., R.S.
AUDITORS.
Ludwig Mond, Esq., F.R.S. | Jeremiah Head, Esq., M.Inst.0.E, | Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S.
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LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
1896.
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report,
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1896.
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Esq.
Year of
Election.
1887. *Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.
1881. *Abbott, R.T. G. Whitley House, Malton.
1887. tAbbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,
1863. *ApeL, Sir Freperick Aveustus, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
and 2 Whitehall-court, London, S.W.
1886. {Abercromby, The Hon. Ralph, F.R.Met.Soc. 21 Chapel-street,
Belgrave-square, London, S.W.
1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D., Governor-
General of Canada. Ottawa. :
1885. {Aberdeen, The Countess of. Ottawa.
1885. tAbernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.
1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.
1873. *Asney, Captain W. pz W., R.E., C.B., D.C.L., F.RS., FLR.ALS.,
F.C.S. Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-gardens S., Earl’s Court, S.W.
6
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1886,
1877.
1884.
1873.
1882.
1869.
1877.
1873.
1894,
1873.
1877,
1860.
1887.
1892.
1884.
1871.
1879.
1869.
1879.
1896.
1890.
1890.
1865.
1883.
1896.
1884.
1887.
1884.
1864.
1871.
1871.
1895.
1891.
1871.
1884.
1886.
1862.
1896.
1894.
1891.
1883.
1868.
18738.
1896.
1891,
1883.
tAbraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.
tAce, Rey. Daniel, D.D. Laughton, near Gainsborough.
tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.
tAckroyd, Samuel, Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 388 Pont-street, Chelsea, London, 8. W.
tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.
*Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.
*Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.
*AcLAND, Sir Henry W. D., Bart., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Broad-street, Oxford.
*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, London, W.
tAcranp, Sir THomas Dyxz, Bart., M.A., D.C.L. Killerton, Exeter.
tApami, J.G., B.A. The University, Montreal, Canada.
tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.
tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
§Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Apams, Rey. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Principal of Bishop’s College,
Lennoxville, Canada.
*Apams, WILLIAM Grytts, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Campden Hill-square, London, W.
tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.
§Adamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.
tAddyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.
tApenny, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsford-
terrace, Dublin.
*Adkins, Henry. Ley-hill, Northfield, near Birmingham.
tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.
§Affleck, W. H. 28 Onslow-road, Fairfield, Manchester.
tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
tAenew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.
tAikins, Dr. W. T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
*Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.
tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.
*Aishitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.
§ArrKpn, Joun, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Burnbrae, Falkirk, N.B.
*Alabaster, H. 100 Wood-vale, Honor Oak, London, S.E.
*Albright, G.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tAxcocxr, Sir Rurmerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neeum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, London, S.W.
tAlexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.
tAlexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.
tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.
*Alexander, Patrick Y. 47 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
tAlexander, R., M.D. 13 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
§Alexander, William. 45 Highfield South, Rockferry, Chester.
Pa Charles J., F.G.S. Coolivin, Hawkwood-road, Boscombe,
ants.
tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
LIST OF MEMBERS. rf
Year of
Election.
1883.
1883.
1867.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1879.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1884,
1891.
1887.
1878.
1887.
1891.
1889.
1889.
1886.
1896.
1887.
1873.
1891.
1883.
1885.
1884.
1885.
1883.
1885.
1874.
1892,
1888.
1887.
1889.
1880,
1886.
1880.
1883.
fAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.
tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.
tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.h. 10 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
tAtcen, Atrrep H., F.C.S. Sydenham Cottage, Park-lane, Sheffieid,
*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. The Librarian, Peterhouse, Cambridge.
*Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
* Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
§Allen, F. J., M.A., M.B., Professor of Physiology, Mason College, ~
Birmingham.
tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,
tAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8.W.
tAllen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, vid Preston.
fAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, London, W.C,
* Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.
tAllen, W.H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.
tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.
§Allhusen, Frank E, The School, Harrow.
*ALLMAN, Grorcr J., M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E.,M.R.LA., F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.
f{Allport, Samuel, F.G.S. 50 Whittall-street, Birmingham.
§Alsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.
tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.
tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tAmbrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks,
Cardiff.
§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.
§Amevy, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.
tAmi, Henry, F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
{ Anderson, Charles Clinton. 4 Knaresborough-place, Cromwell-road,
London, S.W.
tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.
*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.
tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
{Anderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
*Anderson, R. Bruce. 35a Great George-street, London, 8. W.
tAnderson, Professor R. J.. M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.
tAnderson, R. Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Anperson, Tempest, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Stonegate, York.
*AnpeRsON, WILLIAM, U.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Director-
General of Royal Ordnance Factories. Lesney House, Erith,
Kent.
fAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.
tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
1895.§§ Andrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), London,
S.W.
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.
1886.
tAndrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.
§Andrews, William, F.G.S8. Steeple Croft, Coventry.
tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.
§AnGELL, Jonny, F.C.S. 5 Beacons-field, Derby-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Yoar of
Election.
1896.
1886.
1878.
1890.
1896.
1874,
1894.
1884.
1351,
1883.
1883.
1887,
1857.
1879.
1886.
1873.
1876.
1889.
1884,
1889.
1893.
1870.
1886.
1870.
1874.
1889.
1887.
1866.
1887.
1888.
1890.
1887.
1887.
1875.
1861.
1896.
1861.
1896,
§Annett, R. C. F. 11 Greenhey-road, Liverpool.
TAnsell, Joseph. 388 Waterloo-street, Birmingham,
tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
§Antrobns, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.
§Appleton, C. 314 King-street, Wigan.
tArcuer, W., F.R.S., M.R.L.A. 52 Lower Mount-street, Dublin.
§Archibald, A. Bank House, Ventnor.
*Archibald, Ii. Douglas. Care of Mr. F. Tate, 28 Market-street,
Melbourne.
tAReyiL, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W.; and
Inverary.
§Armistead, Richard. 383 Chambres-road, Southport.
*Armistead, William. 15 Rupert-street, Compton-road, Wolver-
hampton.
tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.
*ArmstRone, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cragside, Rothbury.
*ARMSTRONG, Sir ALEXANDER, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. ,F.R.G.S.
The Elms, Sutton Bonnington, ‘Loughborough.
tARMsTRONG, GuorGE FREDERICK, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the Univ ersity of Edinburgh, The
University, Edinkur ch.
*ArmstronG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemis-
try in the City ‘and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 55 Granville
Park, Lewisham, 8.E.
jArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
tArmstrong, John A. 32 Eldon-street, Neweastle- -upon-Tyne.
tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
tArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
yne.
tArnold-Bemrose, H., M.A., F.G.S. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.
tArnott, Thomas Reid. ’Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London,
N.W
tAscough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham.
*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.
{Ashe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
§Ashley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.
Asuton, THomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 36 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
tAshworth, Mrs. Harriet. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
*Ashw orth, J. Jackson. Hillside, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
tAshworth, J. Reginald, B.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.
tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.S. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.
tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Birchwood-grove, Burgess Hill, Sussex.
fAsquith, J.R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
*Assheton, Richard. Birnam, Cambridge.
tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C,
§Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Rockferry.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
yi f
Hlection.
1887.§§Atkinson, Rey. C. Chetwynd, M.A. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-
Mersey.
1865. *Arxinson, Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley
Surrey.
1884. tAtkinson, award, Ph.D., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S.A,
1894, §Atkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, London, 8. W.
1894, *Atkinson, Harold W. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.
1861. {Atkinson, Rev. J. A. The Vicarage, Bolton.
1881. tAtkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.
1881. {Arxinson, Ropprt WItti4M, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff,
1894. §Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.
1863. *Arrriztp, J., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 111 Temple-chambers,
London, E.C.
1884. tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1886. {Aulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.
1860. *Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William E. C., M.A. Kincraig, Winchester.
1888. tAyre, Rev. J. W., M.A. 30 Green-street, Grosvenor-square, W.
1877. *Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, London, 8. W.
1884. {Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
1863. {Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
1883. *Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.
1887. *Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1887. {Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
1881. {Baden-Powell, Sir George S., K.C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.A.S.,
F.S.S. 114 Eaton-square, London, S.W.
1877. {Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
1883. {Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
1892.§§ Baildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.
1883. *Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.
1893. §Bailey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.S., F.R.G.S. Edinburgh.
1870. {Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
1887. *Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.
1865. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1855. {Bailey, W. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.
1887. {Bailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
1866. {Baillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.
1894. *Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. University College, Liverpool.
1878. {Baily, Walter. 4 Roslyn-hill, London, N.W.
1885. {Bary, AtexanpEr, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.
1875. {Bain, Sir James, M.P. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
1896.§§ Barn, Jamzs, jun. (LocaL TREASURER). Toronto.
1885. {Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
1882. *Baxer, Sir Brnsamin, K.O.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S. W.
1891. {Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.
1881. {Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.
1875. {Baxer, W. Proctor. Brislington, Bristol.
1881. {Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy. M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
1884, {Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.
1871, Perce pl Hon. G. W., M.P. Whittinghame, Preston-
irk, N.B.
10
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1894.
1875.
1883.
1878.
1866,
1883.
1886.
1869.
1890.
1882.
1884.
1866.
1884.
1890.
1861.
1855.
1894.
1871.
1852.
1860.
1876.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1882.
1886.
1890.
1860.
1879.
1882.
1879.
1870.
1886.
1873.
{Balfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
{Batrovr, Issac Baytey,M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.
tBalfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.
*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.
*Batt, Sir Roperr SraweEt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
he EY in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.
*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Ballantyne, eWay MB, 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.
{Bamber, Henry Kk, BOS. oO Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.
{tBamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.
}Bance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton.
{Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.
{tBarber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
tBarber, Rey. S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.
*Barber-Starkey, W.J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.
*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, ‘Chester.
tBarelay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
§Barclay, Arthur. 29 Gloucester-road, South Kensington, London,
S.W
{Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
*Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.
*Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
*Barclay, Robert. Springfield, Kersal, Manchester.
tBarclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.
{Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelfor d-place, Leicester.
{Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.
tBarham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.
{Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross,
London, 8.E.
*Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.
{ Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.
*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.
*Barker, Rey. Philip C.,M.A., LL.B. The Vicarage, Yatton, Bristol.
{Barkxty, Sir Heyry, G.O.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
{Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Bagbaston, Birmingham.
{Barlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C. E. 2 Old Palace-yard, West-
minster, S. W.
1889.§§Barlow, H. W. L. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-road, Urmston, near
1883.
1878.
1883.
1885.
1873.
1861.
Manchester.
tBarlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.
tBarlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson's Col-
lege, Glasgow.
{Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice. 5 Great George-street, Dublin.
*BarRLow, WittiaM, F.G.S. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N.
{Bartow, Wit Henry, F.R.S. /M. Inst.C.E. igh Combe, Old
Charlton, Kent.
*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S, Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 11
Year of
Election.
1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
1889, {Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.
1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
1884. {Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada,
1881. ¢Barr, ArcursBaLp, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.
1890. {Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.
1895.§§ Barr, James Mark. Central Technical College, London, E.C.
1859. tBarr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1891. §Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.
1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1888. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1860. {Barrett, T. B. 20 Victoria-terrace, Welshpool, Montgomery.
1872, *Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1883. {Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.
1887. {Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
1874, *Barrincton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
1874. *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
1885. *Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
erove, Shortlands, Kent.
1881. {Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.
1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
1893. {Barrow, Groren, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.
1886, {Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
1886. Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 15 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham,
1896. §Barrowman, James. Stanacre, Hamilton, N.B.
1886. {Barrows, Joseph. The Popiars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
1886. {Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,
1858. tBarry, Richt Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.
1862. *Barry, CHartEs. 1 Victoria-street, London, 8.W.
1883. {Barry, Charles EK. 1 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
1875. {Barry, Jonn Wotrs,C.B., F.R.S.,M.Inst.C.E. 23 Delahay-street,
Westminster, S.W.
1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
1884. *Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York.
1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
1892. {Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.
1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Hyde Park, Leeds.
1884. {Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
1873. {Bartley,G.C.T.,M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street, S.W.
1892. {Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
1893. {Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
1884, {Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
1852. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
1892. {Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
1887. {Bartrum, John S. 18 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
12
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1876.
1888.
1891.
1866.
1889.
1869.
1871.
1889.
1883.
1868.
1889.
1884.
1881.
1836.
1863.
1867.
{Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
*Basset, A. B., M.A., F.RS. E Ge inoene Hall, Holyport, Berk-
shire.
tBassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Borseye London, N.
t{BasrasLR, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 6 Trevelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.
tBastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter.
t{Basrran, H. CuArtton, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London, 84 Manchester-square, London, W
tBatalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tBateman, A. E.,C.M.G. Board of Trade, London, S.W.
{Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, JAMEs, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Home House,
Worthing.
tBates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
{Baruson, WILLIAM, M. A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Bather, Francis Arthur, M. A., F.G.S. 185 Kensington High-street,
W.; and British Museum (Natural History), S.W.
{Batten, Edmund Chisholm. Thorn Falcon, near Taunton, Somerset.
§BavErRMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cay endish-road, Balham, London, S.W.
{ Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
1892.§§Bayly, F. W. Royal Mint, London, E.
1875.
1876.
1887.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1860.
1882.
1884.
1872.
1883.
1889.
1887.
1842.
1889.
1855.
1886.
1861.
1887.
1885.
1896.
1871.
1887.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Baynes, } Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
*Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Tuomas Sebastian, Bart., M. A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
{Beale, C. Calle Progress No, 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
tBeale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*BeaLe, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S. 61 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
§Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, 8.W.
t{Beamish, G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.
{Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.
{Beard, Mrs. Oxford.
§Beare, Prof. T. Hudson, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. University College,
W.C.
t Beaton, John, M.A. 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester.
*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.
{Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.LS., F.S.S. 18 Picca-
dilly, London, W.
{Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal.
*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.
*Beaumont, W. J. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
*Beaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,
London, W.C.
§Beazer, C. Hindley, near Wigan.
*Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, S.W.
Renee Joun Hamppen. Corbar Hill House, Buxton, Derby-
shire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 13
Year of
Election.
1885.§§Brpparp, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1870. §Breppor, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.
1896. §Bedford, F. 8. King’s College, Cambridge.
1858. §Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.
1890, {Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.
1891. §Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.
1878. {Brpson, P. Puiturrs, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1884. {Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
1873. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.
1874, {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
1891. “Belinfante, L. L., B.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.
1892. {Bell, A. Beatson. 1438 Princes-street, Edinburgh.
1873. { Bell, Asahel P. 32 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester.
1871. {Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
1884. {Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.
1896. §Brrt, Dueatp, F.G.S. 27 Lansdowne-crescent, Glasgow.
1894.§§Butt, F. Jerrrey, M.A.,F.Z.S. 35 Cambridge-street, Hyde Park,
London, W.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
1862, *BExL, Sir Isaac Lowrutan, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
1875, {BrtLt, Jams, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Howell Hill
Lodge, Ewell, Surrey.
1896. §Bell, James. 38 Russian Drive, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.
1891. {Bell, James, Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.
1871. *Ben1, J. Carrer, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
1883. *Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.
1864. {Bell, R. Queen’s Oollege, Kingston, Canada.
1876. {Bell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.CE. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1888. *Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
1842. Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
1893. {BrtrER, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.
1884, {Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada.
1886. §Benger, Frederick Baden, F.LC., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford.
1885. {Bennam, WiLL1AM Braxrannd, D.Sc. The Museum, Oxford.
1891. §Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 22 St. Alban’s-road, Harlesden, London,
N.W.
1870. {Bennetrr, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1896. §Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton.
1836, {Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
1881. §Bennett, John R. 16 West Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1883. *Bennett, Laurence Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
1896. §Bennett, Richard. 19 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
1881. {Bennett, Rev. S.H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.
1870. *Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
1887. {Bennion, James A., M.A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
1889. {Benson, John G, 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon: Tyne.
1848, {Benson, Starling. Gloucester-place, Swansea,
1887. *Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Stel-
lenbosch, 8. Africa.
14 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1863. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1885. *Bent, J. THeoporE. 15 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.
1884. {Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1896. *Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.
1894.§§ Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. The Heath, Boarshill, near
1865.
1886.
1894.
1862.
1865.
1882.
1890.
1880.
1884.
1885.
1890.
1863.
1870.
1888.
1885.
1882.
1891.
1886.
1887.
1884.
1881.
1873.
1880.
1888.
1887.
1871.
1892.
1883.
Abingdon.
tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
tBernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.
§Berridge, Douglas. The Laboratory, The College, Malvern.
{Besanr, Wittiam Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
*BessEMER, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, 8.E.
*Bessemer, Henry, jun. Town Hill Park,West End, Southampton.
tBest, William Woodham, $1 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
*Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. 55 Gunterstone-road,
London, W.
*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
tReveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.
§Bevington, Miss Mary E. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks, Kent.
{Bewick, Thomas John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Broad-street House, Old
Broad-street, London, E.C.
tBickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
*Bidder, George Parker. The Zoological Station, Naples.
*BipwEtL, SHELFoRD, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S, Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.
§Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, S.E,
{Billups, J. E. 29 The Parade, Cardiff.
{Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, London, N.W.
*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.
*Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. West Lea, Ranmoor,
Sheffield.
{Binnie, Alexander R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, London, 8.W.
tBinns, J. Arthur, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport.
*Birley, Miss Caroline, 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, London, W,
*Birley, H. K. 13 Hyde-road, Ardwick, Manchester.
*Biscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
{ Bishop, Arthur W., Ph.D. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.
{ Bishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1894,§§Bisset, James. 5 Hast India-avenue, London, E.C.
1885.
1886.
1889.
1889.
1881.
1869.
1834,
1876.
1884.
1877.
1855.
1896,
1884,
{Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.
*Bixby, Captain W. H. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.
t{Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tBlack, William. 12 Romnulus-terrace, Gateshead.
tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.
{Blackall, Thomas. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
Blackburn, Bewicke. Calverley Park, Tunbridge Wells,
{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.
{Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.
tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glascow.
*Brackigz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Belhaven-terrace, Kelvinside,
Glasgow.
§Blackie, Walter W., B.Sc. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
tBlacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 15
Year of
Election.
1883, {Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.
1896. §Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.
1895.§§ Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.
1888, {Blaine, R.S., J.P. Summerhill Park, Bath.
1883. {Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.
1892, {Blair, Alexander. 85 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1892. {Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.
1863. {Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. 6 St. Edmund’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood,
London, N.W.
1886. { Blake, Dr. James. San Francisco, California.
1849. *Braxr, Henry Wortasron, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.
1883. *Biaxkz, here J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 48 Olifton Hill, London,
N.W.
1846. *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
1891. {Blakesley, Thomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College
. Greenwich, London, S.E. =,
1886. {Biakie, John. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire,
1894. {Blakiston, Rev. C. D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.
1887. {Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.
1831.§§Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.
1895. §Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield,
1884. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.
1869, {Bianrorp, W. T., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hili, London, W.
1887, *Bles, A. J.S. 12 King’s Parade, Cambridge.
1887. *Bles, Edward J. 12 King’s-parade, Cambridge.
1887. {Bles, Marcus S. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1884, *Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
1880. {Bloxam, G. W., M.A. 11 Presburg-street, Clapton, London, N.E.
1888. §Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.
1870. {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan
cashire,
1859. {Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrev.
1885. {Bryru, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
1883. {Blyth, Miss Phoebe. 27 Mansion House-road, Edinburgh,
1867. *Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
1887. {Blythe, William 8S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1870. {Boardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.
1887. *Boddingtcn, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.
1889. {Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 30 Walbrook, London, E.C,
1884, {Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.
1881. {Bojanowski, Dr. Victor de. 27 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
1894. §Bolton, John. Clifton-road, Crouch End, London, N.
1883. §Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
1883. §Bonney, Miss 8. 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1871. *Bonnry, Rev. THomas Gerorer, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S8.A.,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1866. {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
1888. tBoon, William. Coventry.
1893.§§Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.
16
Year of
Election.
1890
1883.
1883.
1876.
1883.
1876.
1882.
1876.
1896.
1881.
1887.
1872.
1868.
1887.
1871.
1884.
1892.
1876.
1890.
1883.
1883,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
aggn Charles, F.S.S. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, Honea
C
§Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.
{Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C0
{Booth Rev. William H. Mount Nod-road, Streatham, London, 8. W.
Boothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham. 1, Guat
*Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
§Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
*Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. New Univer-
sity Club, St. James’s-street, London, 8. W.
§ Bose, Dr. J. C. Calcutta, India.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
§BorHamiEy, Cuartes H., F.LC., F.C.8., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Went-
worth, Weston-super-Mare.
tBott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.
{Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
tBottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
{Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester. >
*Borromiry, JawEs THomson, M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S
The University, Glasgow. soar
*Bottomley, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.
{Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany, King’s College
London. e aed
t Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow
§Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool
{Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, London,
{Bourny, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.LS., Professor of Biology i
Presidency College, Madras. Ia na
1893.§§ Bourne, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford.
1889.
1866.
1890.
1884.
1888.
1881.
1856.
1886.
1884.
1880.
1887.
1865.
1887.
1896.
1884.
1871.
1865.
1884.
{Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick
§ BouRNE, STEPHEN, F.S.8. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E.
{Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
§Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada. ,
tBowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.
*Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in
the University of Glasgow.
*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
{ Bowlby, Rev. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
t Bowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent.
{Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
tBowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.
§Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Mayfield, Knutsford
Cheshire. ;
§Box, Alfred Marshall. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
*Boycgr, Ruzert, M.B., Professor of Pathology, University College
Liverpool. :
*Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square. Dublin.
{Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
tBoytn, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A. The Deanery, Salisbury.
*Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, London, 8S. W. }
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 17
Election.
1892.§§Bors, CHARLES VERNON, F.R.S., Assistant Professor of Physics in
1872.
1869.
1894.
1893.
1892.
1857.
1863.
1880.
1864,
1870.
1888.
1879.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1861.
1885.
1890.
1868.
1877.
1882.
1866.
1891.
the Royal College of Science, London, 8.W.
*Brasroox, EH. W., F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, London, S.W.
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.
*Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.
§Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
§Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
tBrapy, Grorez S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.
*Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, S.0., Essex.
{Brawam, Puirre. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road, London, 8.1.
tBraidwood, Dr. 35 Park-road South, Birkenhead.
§Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.
{Bramley, Herbert. 6 Paradise-square, Sheffield.
§Bramwett, Sir Freperick J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, London, S.W.
{Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
*Brandreth, Rey. Henry. The Rectory, Dickleburgh.
*Bratby, William, J.P. Oakfield Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.
tBremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
*Bretherton, C. E. Goldsmith-buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
tBrettell, Thomas. Dudley.
tBrice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S8., F.R.G.S. 159 Strand, London,
WwW
C.
1886.§§Bridge, T. W., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Zoology in the Mason
1870.
1887.
1870.
1886.
1879.
1870.
1890.
1893.
1868.
Science College, Birmingham.
*Bridson, Joseph R. Bryerswood, Windermere.
tBrierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
tBrierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
TBrierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tBrierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
*Briae, Joun, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorlshire.
{Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.
tBright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.
{Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
London, S.W.
1893.§§Briscoe, Albert E., A.R.C.Se., B.Sc. Battersea Polytechnic,
1884.
1879.
1878.
1884,
1896.
1859.
1883.
1865.
London, 8.W.
tBrisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Brirrarn, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Alma Works, Sheffield.
{Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, 8.W.
*Brittle, John R:, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh Hill, Black-
heath, London, S.E.
*Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
*Bropuurst, BerNaRD Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 20 Grosvenor-street,
Grosyenor-square, London, W.
*Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common,
London, 8. W.
{Bropre, Rey. Perpr BrrrrncErR, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
1896. B
18 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884. {Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
US.A
1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne,
1881.§§Brook, Robert G. Raven-street, St. Helens, Lancashire.
1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1864, *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.
1855. tBrooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1888. {Brooke, Rev. Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings, Bath,
1887. §Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Manchester.
1863. tBrooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1887. {Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
1887. *Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent.
1883.§§Brotherton, E. A. Fern Cliffe, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
1883. *Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, S.E.
1886. §Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.
1885. *Browett, Alfred. 29 Wheeley’s-road, Birmingham.
1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
grave-crescent, Edinburgh.
1892. {Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.
1896. §Brown, A. T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.
1867. tBrown, Charles Gage, M.D., C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, S.W.
1855. {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
1871. t{Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.
1863. *Brown, Rev. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
1883. +Brown, Mrs. Ellen F, Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1881. {Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
1883. {Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1884. {Brown, Gerald Culmer. Lachute, Quebec, Canada.
1883. {Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 62 Stanley-street, Aberdeen.
1883. {Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.
1870. §Brown, Horace T., F.RS., F.C.S., F.G.S. 52 Nevern-square,
London, 8. W.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
1883. {Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh.
1895.§§Brown, J. Atxey, J.P., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. 7 Kent-gardens, Ealing,
London, W.
1870. *Brown, Professor J. Campsett, D.Se., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.
1876. §Brown, John. Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast.
1881. *Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
1882. *Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
1895. *Brown, John Charles. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham.
1859. tBrown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D. Haddington, N.B.
1894. {Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.
1882. *Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
1886. §Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.
1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1896. §Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.
1891. SBE0Te aL Forster, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Guildhall Chambers,
ardiff.
1865. t{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham,
1885. {Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.
1884. ¢Brown, William George, Ivy, Albemarle Co,, Virginia, U.S.A.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 19
Year of
Election.
1863.
1892.
1895.
1879,
1891.
1862,
1872.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1855.
1892.
{Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
{Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries,
*Browne, Henry Taylor. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W.
Browne, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
place-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
§Browne, Monracu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester,
“Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow,
Ireland.
{Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent.
{Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C.
{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
{Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
1893.§§Bruce, William S. University Hall, Riddle’s-court, Edinburgh.
1863.
1863.
1875.
1896.
1868.
1878.
1886.
1894,
1884.
“Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Brunel, J. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
“Brunner, Sir J. T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liverpool.
{Brunron, T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, London, W.
§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.
“Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F.R.S. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cam-
bridge.
§ Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.
tBryce, Rev. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada.
1894.§§Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.
1890. §Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.
1871.
1867.
1881.
1871.
1884.
1883.
1886.
1864.
1865.
1886.
1884,
1880.
1869.
1851.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1893.
1871.
1881.
1883.
1865,
§Bucnan, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
{Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.
{Bucwanan, Joun Youne, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.S.
10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.
tBuckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington,
London, W.
*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, London, W.C,
{Bucxtiz, Rev. Grorcr, M.A. Wells, Somerset.
*Buckley, Henry. 8 St. Mary’s-road, Leamington.
§Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.
*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S, 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, London, W.
{Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, London, W.C.
{Bucxni11, Sir J.C., M.D., F.R.S. East Cliff House, Bournemouth.
*Buckton, GrorcE Bownter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.
{Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
{Budgett, Samuel. Kirton, Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.
{Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland,
§BuLierp, ARTHUR. Glastonbury.
{Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
tBulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.
{Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.
{Bunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham.
B2
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1895
1886.
1842.
1875.
1869.
1881.
1891.
.§§Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.
deat S.H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.
{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
tBurdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
{Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly,
London, W.
tBurge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.
1894. §Burke, John. Owens College, Manchester.
1884.
1888.
1883.
1876.
1885.
1877.
1884.
1883.
1887.
1883.
1860.
1894.
1891.
1888.
1888.
Baran ee Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal,
anada.
{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
*Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.S.L, C.L.E., F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W.
tBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
{Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.
{Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A. -
{Burr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, E.C.
{Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, H.C.
*Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales.
{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
{Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, London, N.W.
{Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.
{Burt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
{Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
1894.§§ Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1866
1889.
1892.
1887.
1895.
1878.
1884.
1884.
1888.
1884.
1872.
1883.
1887.
1868.
1881.
1872.
1854,
1885.
1852.
1883.
1889.
1892.
1894.
1863.
. *Burron, Frepericxk M., F.LS., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.
tBurton, Rey. R. Lingen, Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.
{Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St,
George’s Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.
§Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. Bramhope, Old Charlton, Kent.
{Burcuer, J.G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, London, 8.W.
*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor.
tButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
tButtanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Batb.
*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester.
}Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
{Buxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.
{Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
{Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Essex.
{ByErtey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth-park, Liverpool.
{Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.
{Byrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
{Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.
{Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B,
{Caillard, Miss KE. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 21
Year of
Election.
1861.
1886.
1868.
1857.
1887.
1892.
1884.
1876.
1857.
1884.
1870.
1896.
1884,
1876.
1882.
1890.
1888.
1894.
1880.
1883.
1887.
1873.
1896.
1877.
1867.
1884.
1884.
1854.
1889.
1893.
1889.
1867.
1886.
1883.
1861.
1868.
1866.
1855,
1870.
1883.
1883.
1896.
1878.
1870.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
*Caldwell, William Hay. Cambridge.
tOaley, A. J. Norwich.
{Callan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.
{Cartaway, Cuaries, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 35 Huskisson-street,
Liverpool.
{Calvert, A. F., F.R.GS. The Mount, Oseney-crescent, Camden-
road, London, N.
t{Cameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D. 1 Huntly-gardens,
Glasgow.
t{Cameron, Sir Cuartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Cameron, J. H. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.
t{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
{Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place,
Edinburgh.
{Candy, F.H. 71 High-street, Southampton.
t{Cannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.LE, 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.
§Capper, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, London, W.C.
{Capper, Robert. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
tCapper, Mrs. R. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
*Carpurt, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, London, W.
*Carden, H. V. Surbiton.
tCarkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
{Carnegie, John: Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
{Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A
tCarpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
{Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
{Carr, J. Wesley, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.
{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
{CarRurHeRs, WitiiaAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S8. Central House,
Central Hill, London, 8.E.
}CarstaKe, J. Barwam. 380 Westfield-road, Birmingham.
{Carson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast.
*Oarson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. _ 1 Trinity College, Dublin.
jOarteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
tCarter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
§Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 69 Gloucester-road, Kew, Surrey.
*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. 1 Courtfield-gardens, S.W.
§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I., Borough and Water
Engineer. Albion-place, Bury, Lancashire.
22 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1862. {Carulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.
1884. *Carver, Rev. Canon Alfred J., D.D., F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, London, 8.W.
1884. {Carver, Mrs.. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, 8.W.
1887. {Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.
1866, {Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S, The Lawns, Highgate, London, N.
1896. *Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, London, E.C.
1871. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.
1873. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax.
1888. {Cater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.
1874, {Caton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.
1859. {Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
1886. *Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella, Devonshire House, New Malden,
Surrey.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
1883, {Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1859, {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
1883. {Chalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1859, {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
1883, {Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South-
port.
1884, {Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.
1883, {Chambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
1883, {Chambers, Charles, jun., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Coldba Observatory,
Bombay.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
1881. *Champney, John E. Woodlands, Halifax.
1865, {Chance, A.M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Chance, James T. 1 Grand Avenue, Brighton.
1886. *Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1888, {Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.
1861, *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester,
1889, {Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1884, {Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.
1877. {Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Firbank, Hereford.
1874, {Charles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.
1874. {Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
1866, {CuarNock, Ricuarp Srepuen, Ph.D., F.S.A. Crichton Club,
Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.
1886. {Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1884, gpk ee George, M.A., M.Inst.0.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
on, S.W.
1886. §Chattock, A. P. University College, Bristol.
1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.
1884, {Cuavveav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.
1883. {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
1864, {CuEapiz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, 8. W.
1887. {Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde.
1887. {Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.
3896. §Chenie, John, Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 23
Year of
Election.
1874. *Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E., 0.B. Care of Messrs. Cox &
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W.
1884. {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.
1896. §Cherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.
1879. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.
1865. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Holywell Lodge, Oxford.
1883. tChinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.
1884. {Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
1889. {Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.
1894. {Chisholm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.G.S. 26 Dornton-road, Balham,
London, S. W.
1842. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
1882. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.
1887. tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.
1893. *Curzun, Cuartzs, D.Sc., Superintendent of the Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.
1861. Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James's-square, Manchester.
1884. *Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.
1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. 3 Tankerville-road, Streatham, London,
S.W.
1876. *Curystat, Grorcr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.
1870. §CHuRcuH, A. H., M.A.,F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew,
Surrey.
1860. {Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, H.C.
1857. {Churchill, F., M.D, Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Co. Tyrone.
1896. §Clague, Daniel. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.
1890. {Clark, E. K. 81 Caledonian-road, Leeds.
1877. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.
Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.
1876. {Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
1892. §Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1892. {Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.
1876. {Clark, Dr. John. 188 Bath-street, Glasgow.
1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 12 Feversham-terrace, York.
1861. {Crarx, Latruer, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street,
London, 8.W.
1855. {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
1883. {Clarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1887. §Clarke, C. Goddard. Ingleside, Elm-grove, Peckham, 8.E.
1875. {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1886. {Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.
1886. §Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.
1875. {Ciarxer, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1861. *Clarke, John Hope. 62 Nelson-street, Choriton-on-Medlock, Man-
chester.
1877. { Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.
1896. §Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.
1884, {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.
1889, §CLaypEn, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.
1866. {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
1890, *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.
1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick.
1875, {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.
24 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1861.§§CLELaND, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.
1886, {Clifford, Arthur. Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1861. *Cxuirron, R. Bertamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 38 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.
1893. {Clofford, William. 36 Manstield-road, Nottingham,
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
1878. §Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 88 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1873. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1892. {Clouston, T.S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.
1883. *Crowrs, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in Univer-
sity College, Nottingham. 99 Waterloo-crescent, Nottingham.
1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington,
1881. *Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.
1885. {Clyne, James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen,
1891. *Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.
Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
1884. §Cobb, John. Summerhill, Apperley Bridge, Leeds.
1895, *CopzBoLp, Ferix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.
1889. {Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. {Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1892. {Cockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.
1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
1861. *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.
1881. *Corrin, Watrer Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, London, 8.W.
1865. {Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
1896. *Coghill, Perey de G. Camster, Cressington.
1884, *Cohen, B. L., M.P. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
1887. {Cohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1894. *Colby, Miss E. L. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith.
1895. *Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
1895. *Colby, William Henry. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith.
1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.
1893. {Cole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1879, {Cole, Skelton. 887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
1894, {Colefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, London, 8.W.
1893. {Coleman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.
1878. {Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W. ;
1854, *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
1892.§§Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, London, N.
1892. §Collie, Alexander, Harlaw House, Inverurie.
1887. {Cottre, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S. University College, Gower-street,
London, W.C.
1887. {Collier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
1869, {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
1893.§§Collinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham.
1854, {CoLLinewoop, Curuperr, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, London, W.C.
1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street,
London, W.
1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876. {Corxins, J. H., F.G.S. 60 Heber-road, Dulwich Rise, London, 8.E.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS, 26
Election,
1892.
1868.
1882.
1884,
1896.
1888.
1884,
1891.
t{Colman, H. G. Mason College, Birmingham.
*CormAN, J. J. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-street,
London, E.C,
{Colmer, Joseph G.,O.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
t{Colomb, Sir J.C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Treland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8.W.
*Comber, Thomas. Leighton, Parkgate, Chester.
tCommans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.
tComnoy, A. A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing,
Middlesex, W.
{Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.
1892.§§Comyns, Frank, M.A., F.0.8S. The Grammar School, Durham,
1884
. {Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.
1896,
1890.
1871.
1881,
1893.
1876.
1895.
1882,
1876,
1881.
1868.
1868.
1884,
1878,
1881,
1865.
1896.
1888.
1884.
§Connacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead.
tConnon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.
*Connor, Charles C. Notting Hill House, Belfast.
tConroy, Sir Joun, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford.
{Conway, Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. The Red House, Hornton-
street, London, W.
tCook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.
§Cooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood, Thorpe, Norwich.
tCooxz, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, London, 8. W.
*CooxE, Conrap W. 28 Victoria-street, London, 8S. W.
tCooke, F. Bishopshill, York.
{Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
{Cooxs, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, N.
tCooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.
{Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
§Cookson, E. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.
tCooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.
tCoon, JobnS. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts, U.S.A.
1895.§ §Cooper, Charles Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.
1893.
1883.
1868.
1889.
1884,
1878.
1871.
1885.
1881.
1842.
1891.
1887.
1894,
1881.
1883,
1870.
1893.
tCooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
{Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C.
tCooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey.
tCoote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cope, E. D, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Cope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.
{CorELand, Rarpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.
{Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.
{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.
Corbett, Edward. Grange-avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester.
§Corbett, E. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.
*Corcoran, Bryan. 9 Alwyne-square, London, N.
§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Sutton, Surrey.
§Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes House,,R.S.O., Lincoln.
*Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.
*CoRFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College. 19 Savile-row,
London, W.
*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.
26
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889.
1884,
1885.
1888.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1874.
1864,
1869.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1889.
{Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Cornwallis, F.S. W. Linton Park, Maidstone.
tCorry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.
{Corser, Rey. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath.
{Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.
{Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 83 Chancery-lane, London, W.C.
*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. G.W.R. Laboratory, Swindon, Wilts.
*CorreritL, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
{Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.I. 18 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.
{Corron, Wint1aM. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
tCottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallet, Somerset.
{Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{tCourtney, F. 8. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, London,
S.W.
1896.§§Courtnny, Right Hon.. Leonarp, M.P. 15 Cheyne Walk,
1890.
1896.
1863.
1863.
1872.
1895.
1871.
1867.
1867.
1892.
1882.
1888.
1867.
Chelsea, S. W.
{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
§Coventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool.
Oowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
{Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S8. 81 Belsize Park-gardens,
London, N.W.
Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.
*CowELL, Puitirp H. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E.
tCowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
{Cox, Robert. 34 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
{Oox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, London, S.W.
{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.
tCox, William. Fogegley, Lochee, by Dundee.
1883.§§Crabtree, William, M.Inst.C.E, 126 Manchester-road, Southport.
1890.
1892.
1884,
1876.
1858.
1884,
1887.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1846,
1890,
1883.
1870,
tCradock, George. Wakefield.
*Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
§Craiciz, Major P. G., F.S.8. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
tCramb, John, Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.
tCranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
tCraven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.
*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.
*Orawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate-
ford, Edinburgh.
*CRAWFORD AND Batcarrus, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.
*Crawshaw, The Right Hon, Lord. Whatton, Loughborough,
§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.
*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, London, N.
*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Year of
Election.
1885.
1896.
1879.
1876.
1887.
1896.
1896.
1880.
1890.
1878.
1857,
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1887.
§Creak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 36 Kidbrooke Park-road,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
§Cregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.
{Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffieid.
*Crewdson, Rev. George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.
*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.
§Crewe, W. Outram. 121 Bedford-street, Liverpool.
§Crichton, H. 6 Rockfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.
*Orisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.8. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, London, W.
*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.
{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.
tOrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
{Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
{Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen.
{tCromsrs, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balzownie Lodge, Aberdeen.
tCrombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
§Croox, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.
1865.§§Crooxns, W., F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.
1879.
1870.
1894.
1870.
1890
{Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.
tCrosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.
*CRosFIELD, WittIam. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.
1887.§§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1861.
1886.
1853.
1870.
1887.
1894,
1894.
1883,
1882.
1890.
1883.
1863.
1885.
1888.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1874.
1861.
1861.
1882.
tCross, Rey. John Edward, M.A., F.G.8. Halecote, Grange-over-
Sands.
tCrosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.
{Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.
*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.
*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup,
Kent.
§Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock-road, Oxford.
{tCrowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.
§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.
*Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oaks, Croydon.
{Crowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield.
{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.
tCrummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
*CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.
tCulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.
tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.
se Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.
*CunnineHam, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.I.C.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, London, W.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1877,
1891.
1852.
1892,
1885.
1869,
1885,
1892.
1850,
1892.
1885.
1892.
1884,
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881,
1889.
1854,
1883.
1889.
1863.
1867.
1894,
1870.
1862.
1876.
1896,
1849.
1894,
1861.
1896.
1882.
1881.
1878.
1894,
1882,
1888.
1872.
{Cunningham, David, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., F.S.S. Harbour-
chambers, Dundee.
*CunnincHaM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.
{Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh,
{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
tCunningham, Very Rev. John. St. Bernard’s College, Edinburgh.
{CunnincHaM, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.
{CunnineHaM, Rosert O., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.
*CuNNINGHAM, Rey. Wituiam, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.
t Cunningham, William. 14 Inverleith-gardens, Edinburgh.
Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
§Cunningham-Craig, E. H. 144 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
tCurphey, Wilkam S. 15 Bute-mansions, Hill Head, Cardiff.
*Currie, James, jun., M.A. Larkfield, Golden Acre, Edinburgh.
{Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.
{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.
tCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.
§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, London, 8. W.
tDageger, John H., F.I.C. Endon, Staffordshire.
}Daglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
{Dihne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.
*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.
tDale, J. B. South Shields.
tDalgleish, W. Dundee.
}Dalgleish, W. Scott, M.A., LL.D. 25 Mayfield-terrace, Edin-
burgh,
{DariinerrR, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, London, S.E.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
tDansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.
{Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
§Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,
Liverpool.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
{Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
*DARBISHIRE, ROBERT DUKINFIELD, B.A., F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
§Darbishire, W. A. Nantlle, Penygroes, R.S.0. North Wales.
Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.
*Darwin, Groner Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.
*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
§Darwin, Major Lronarp, Sec. R.G.S. 18 Wetherby-place, South
Kensington, London, S.W.
tDarwin, W. E., B.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.
{Daubeny, William M. 1 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
}Davenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 29
Year of
Election.
1880.
1884.
1870.
1885.
1891.
1890.
1875.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1893.
1896.
1887.
1873.
1870.
1864,
1842.
1882.
1883.
1885.
1891,
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869,
1869,
1860.
1864.
1886.
1891.
1885.
1884.
1855.
1859.
1892.
1870.
1861.
1887.
1861.
1884.
1866.
1884.
1893.
1878.
1884,
1870.
1896.
1889.
1896.
1889,
“Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.
tDavid, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
{Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.
tDavies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.
{Davies, Arthur. East Brow Cottage, near Whitby.
{Dayies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
§Davies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.
*Davies, Rey. T. Witton, B.A. Midland Baptist College, Nottingham.
*Davies, W. V. 3 Burn’s-avenue, Liscard.
{Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
*Davis, Alfred. 13 St. Ermin’s-mansions, London, 8.W.
*Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.
}Davis, Cartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham.
{Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.
{Davis, R. Frederick, M.A. Earlstield, Wandsworth Common, S.W.
*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. Almswood, Evesham.
tDavis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
{Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
{Davison, Cartes, M.A. 373 Gillott-road, Birmingham.
*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Davy, E. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter,
tDaw, R. R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
*Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales.
{Dawkrns, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.
tDawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.
tDawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. East Holt, Alverstoke, Gosport.
{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Dawson, Sir Wittiam, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
293 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common, Kent.
{Day, J.C., F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.
*Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick-square, London, S. W.
tDeacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
tDeakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.
tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
“Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, London, N.W.
{Desvus, Herwricu, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel,
Hessen.
{Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.
§Deeley, R. M. 10 Charnwood-street, Derby.
{Delany, Rev. William. St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.
*De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne,
tDe Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. Dublin.
§Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.
{Dendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.
§Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham-place, London, S.W.
buatie te F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Firth College,
effield.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1874,
1896.
1874,
1878.
1894.
1868,
1881.
1883,
1884.
1872.
1887.
1884,
1873.
1896.
1889.
1863.
1887.
1884,
1881.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1862.
1877.
1869.
1884,
1874,
1883
1888
1886
1879
1885.
1896
1887
1885
1890,
Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, London, W.
§De Rance, Cuarzes E., F.G.S, 55 Stoke-road, Shelton, Stoke-
upon-Trent.
§Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of,G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot,
Lancashire.
*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 63 Queensborough-terrace,
London, W.
{De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
*Deverell, F. H. 13 Lawn-terrace, Blackheath, London, S.E.
{Dewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.BS., F.RS.E., F.C.S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
{Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
{Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.
*Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.
{Dewick, Rev. E. S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.
{Dz Wrnzron, Major-General Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
{De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.
*Dew-Surru, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
§D’Hemry, P. 186 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
tDickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.
{Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
{Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.
tDickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.
{Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. 11 West Cliffroad, Birkdale,
Southport.
§Dickson, H. N., F.R.S.E. 2 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.
{Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen,
{Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.
*Dirxe, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartes Wenrwortn, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
{Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 86 Dawson-street, Dublin.
{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
{Dix, John William H. Bristol.
*Drixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork,
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.
. {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.
. §Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, London, 8S, W.
. t{Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Drxon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Manchester.
. {Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.
. §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Ecclestone Park, Prescot.
. {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
. {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen,
. {Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.
1885. §Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh.
1860
1892
. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne-park, London, W.
. {Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
1891, {Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.
1893, {Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.
1894
1875
. {Dockar-Drysdale, Mrs. 39 Belsize-park, London, N.W.
. *Docwra, George, jun. 108 London-road, Gloucester.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 31
Election.
1870.
1876.
1889.
1893.
1885,
1882.
1869,
1877.
1889.
1896,
1861.
1881.
1867.
1863.
1877.
1884.
1890.
1883.
1884,
1884,
1876.
1894,
1884.
1857.
1865,
1881.
1887.
*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.
fDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
{Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.
{Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.
{Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
{Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
tDonisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
*Donkin, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E. The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate.
{Donkin, R. 8.,M.P. Campville, North Shields.
§Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.
{Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. South Ken-
sin¢ton Museum, London, S.W.
{Dorrington, John Edward, Lypiatt Park, Stroud.
{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Henwick, Newbury.
*Doverass, Sir James N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Stella House, Dul-
wich, London, 8.E.
fDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada,
{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.
tDove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.
{Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.
TDowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
{Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.
fDowie, Robert Chambers. 13 Carter-street, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent. :
TDowning, S., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffoll:,
“Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Great Queen-street, S.W.
}Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
1894.§§Doyne, R. W., F.R.C.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
1883
1892.
1868.
1890.
1892.
1887.
1893.
1889.
1892,
1889,
1856.
1870.
1895.
1867.
1852.
1877.
1875.
. {Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.
*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tDrussrr, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C.
{Drew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.
{Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
Armagh.
{Dreyfus, Dr. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Drucz, G. CLariner, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford.
{Drummond, Dr, 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
{Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.
}Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle~
street, London, W.
*Duciz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonn Reynorps Moreron, Farl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.
{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.
*Duddell, William. Kensington Infirmary, Marloes-road, London, W.
*Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrstvart ELPHINsTONE GRANT-,
G.C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham.
{Durrerin and AvA, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.C.S.1., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.
{Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.
32 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1890. {Dufton,S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1884, {Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
1883. §Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.
1892. {Dulier, Colonel E.,C.B, 27 Sloane-gardens, London, 8.W.
1866. *Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
1891. *Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.
1880. {Duncan, William S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, London, W.
1896. §Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Birkenhead.
1881. t{Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.S. Nawton Grange, York.
1893. *Dunell, George Robert. 9 Grove Park-terrace, Chiswick, Middlesex.
1892. {Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo-
mew House, London, F.C.
1881. {Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.
1396. §Dunkerley, S. 23 Kelvin-grove, Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
1865. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
1882. {Dunn, J. T., M.Sc. F.C.S. Northern Polytechnic Institute,
Holloway-road, N.
1883. {Dunn, Mrs. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N.
1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1878. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
1884.§§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,
Wiss:
1859.
1893.
1891,
1885.
1869,
1895,
1887.
1884.
1885.
1869.
1895,
1868.
t{Duns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
*Dunstan, M. J. R. Newcastle-circus, Nottingham.
{Dunstan, Mrs. Newcastle-circus, Nottingham.
*Dunstan, WynpHAM R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Director of the
Scientific Department of the Imperial Institute, London, 8.W.
{D’ Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.S. Moorlands, Exmouth, Devon.
*Dwerryhouse, Arthur R. 8 Livingston-avenue, Sefton Park, Liver-
ool.
en John Sanford, F.R.G.S. Boscobel-gardens, N. W.
{Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.
*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.
§Dymond, Thomas S., F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory, Chelms-
ford.
tEade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1895.§§ Earle, Hardman H. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, 5. W.
1877.
1888.
1874.
1871.
1863.
1876.
1883.
1898.
1887.
1884,
1861.
1870.
1887,
1884.
{Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
tEarson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tEason, Charles. 80 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
*Easton, Epwarp. 11 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
tEaston, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.
tEastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.
§Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, H.C.
*Eccles, Mrs. S. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.
tEckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 6 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
tEde, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.
*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. The College House,
Leamington.
Year
LIS! OF MEMBERS. 33
of
Election.
1887. §EpcewortH, F. Y., M.A, D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College,
Oxford.
1870. *Edmonds, F. B. 6 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C.
1883. {Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.
1888, *Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, London, S.W.
1884, *Edmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
1883, {Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple,
London, E.C.
1867. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
1855. *Epwarps, Professor J. Baxnr, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
1884, {Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
1887. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.
1896. §Ekkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
1876,
1890.
1885.
1868,
1885.
1883.
1891.
1864,
1883.
1879.
1886.
1877.
1875.
1880,
1891.
1884,
1869,
1887,
1862.
1883.
1887.
1870.
1863,
1891.
1891.
1884,
1863.
1858.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
§Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford.
*Exear, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. , M.Inst.C.E. 113 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
fElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston,
Bedford.
tEllingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.
fEllington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S. W.
fElliott, A. C.,D.Se., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,
tZilott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A.
*Etxiort, Epwiy Barry, M.A.) -F-R.S., FR.A.S, Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
{Hliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire.
tEllioit, Thomas Henry, F.S.8. Board of Agriculture, 4 Whitehall-
place, London, S.W.
tEllis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
“ELLs, JouN Henry. Woodland House, Plymouth.
§Ellis, Miss M. A. 2 Southwick-place, London, W.
tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada.
tEtris, Wittram Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tEImy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.
fElphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A. , F.LS. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C.
tElwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.
§Etwortuy, FrepErick T, Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.
*Exy, The Right Rey. Lord Atwynz Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.
tEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Ni ewcastle-upon-Tyne,
{Emerton, Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset,
{Emerton, Mrs. Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.
tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
{£mpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
1890. {Emsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
1894, {Emtage, W. T. A. University College, Nottingham,
wee aa Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
896. c
at aon
34
_ LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1853.
1883.
1869.
1894.
1864.
1862.
1878.
1887.
1887.
1869.
1888.
{England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.
tEnglish, E. Wilkins, Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull.
{Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.
*Enys, John Davis. Enys, Pearyn, Cornwall. :
§Erskine-Murray, James R. 40 Montgomerie-drive, Glasgow.
*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
*Hsson, Professor WittraM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Merton Col-
lege, and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
tEstcourt, Charles, F.C.8. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester. hot"
*Estcourt, Charles. Vyrniew House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
*Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.1.C. 20 Albert-square, Manchester.
‘{Eruerriner, R., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square, 8. W.
{Etheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.
1883.§§Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras.
1891.
1881.
1889.
1887.
1870.
1896.
1865.
1891.
1889.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1881.
1875.
1865.
1891.
1886.
1871.
1868.
tEvan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire.
tEvans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.
*Evans, A. H. Care of R. H. Porter, 18 Prince’s-street, W.
*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Spring Bank, New Mills, near Stockport.
*Evans, ARTHUR JouNn, M.A., F.S.A. Youlbury, Abingdon.
§Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Spital, Cheshire.
*Eyans, Rey. Cuarits, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, London, W.
tEvans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.
{Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.
tEvans, Horace L. 6 Albert-buildings, Weston-super-Mare.
*Eyans, JamesC. Morannedd, Eastbourne-road West, Birkdale Parl,
Southport.
*Eyans, Mrs. JamesC. Morannedd, Fastbourne-road West, Birkdale
Park, Southport.
*Eyvans, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S., F:S.A.,
F.LS., F.G.S. (Presippnt. Exzcr). Nash Mills, Hemel
Hempstead.
{Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.0., Pembrokeshire.
{Evans, Sparke. 38 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.
tEvans, William Llewellin. Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff.
tEve, A. S. Marlborough College, Wilts.
{Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.
*Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
oe Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Derryvolgie,
Belfast.
1895.§§Everett, W. H., B.A. Derryvolgie, Belfast.
1863.
1886.
1883.
1881.
1874.
1876.
1883.
1871.
1884.
1882.
*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
{Everitt, William EK. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.
jEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.
tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh.
{Ewart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.
*Ewine, James Atrrep, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.
C.E., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mathematics in
the University of Cambridge.
tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.
*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
*Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
tEyre, G. E. Briscoe.. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants,
Eyton, Charles, Ilendred House, Abingdon.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 35
Year of
Election.
1890.
1896.
1865.
1886.
1896.
1883.
1877.
1891.
1892.
1886.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1886.
1859.
1885.
1866.
1883.
1857.
1869.
1883.
1887.
1890.
{Fazer, Epmunp Brcxert. Straylea, Harrogate.
§Fairbrother, Thomas. Lethbridge-road, Southport.
*Farr ey, Tomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
{Fairley, William.. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Liverpool.
{Fallon, Rev. W.S. 9 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.
§Farapay, F. J., F.LS., F.S.8. | College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.
tFards, G. Penarth.
*Faruer, J. Brerianp, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Royal
College of Science, 8.W., 4 Lichfield-road, Kew.
{Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes.
*Farnworth, Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.
tFarnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
{Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
{Farquhar, Admiral. Cuarlogie, Aberdeen.
{Farquharson, Colonel J., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
tFarquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
{Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.0. Haughton, Aberdeen.
*Farrar, The Very Rev. Freperic Witttam, D.D., F.R.S.- The
Deanery, Canterbury.
tFarrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.
{Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
*Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.
{Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.
§Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.
*Faweett, F. B. University College, Bristol.
1886.§§Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 8 Alva-street, Edinburgh.
1864.
1852.
1885.
1890.
1876.
1883,
1871.
1896.
1867.
1883.
1883.
1862.
1873.
1892.
1882.
1887.
1875.
1868.
1886.
1869.
1882.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.
*Fettows, Frank P., K.S.J.J., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
{Fenton,S.Greame. Keswick, near Belfast.
tFenwick, KE. H. 29 Harley-street, London, W.
{Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
{Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
*Farevson, Jonun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.
*Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon.
{Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace,
Edinburgh.
tFernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham.
*Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.
{Frrrers, Rev. Norman Macrxop, D.D., F.R.S.. Caius College
Lodge, Cambridge.
}Fergter, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London, 84 Cavendish-square,
London, W.
tFerrier, Robert M., B.Sc. College of Science, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton.
{Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.
{Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
tField, Edward. Norwich.
{Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Fretp, Roerrs, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, S.W.
}Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin's House, Wareham, Dorset.
Cc 2
36
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
ot
Election,
1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
1878. *Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1892. {Findlay, J. R., B.A. 3 Rothesay-terrace, Edinburgh.
1884. {Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
1887. {Finnemore, Rey. J., M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S. 12 College-road, Brighton.
1881
. {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.
Firth, Thomas. Northwich.
1895.§§Fish, Frederick J. Park-road, Ipswich.
1891.
{Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.
1884. *Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
1869.
tFisner, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.
1873. {Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.
1858.
1887.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1883.
1878.
1878.
1885.
tFishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 25 Blenheim-gardens, Willesden Green,
London, N.W.
}Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.
*Fison, Frenerick W., M.A., M.P.,F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.
{Frren, Sir J. G., M.A., LL.D. Atheneum Club, London, 8. W.
tFitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.
{Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
§FirzGrraLp, Grorcr Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Naturaland Experimental Philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin.
*FitzGerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 32 Eglantine-avenue, Belfast.
1894. §Fitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.E. Blackwall Tunnel Office, East
1857.
1888.
1865.
1881.
1876.
1876.
1867.
1870.
1890.
1892.
1869.
1888,
1862.
Greenwich, London, S.E.
{Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Bagot-street, Dubiin.
*Frrzpatrick, Rev. Toomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
{Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-strect, St. Paul's, Birmingham.
tFleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael's Vicarage, Ebury—
square, London, S.W.
{Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
{Fleming, Sandford, C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.
§Frercuer, ALFRED E., F.C.S. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey.
{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
{Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
tFletcher, George, F.G.S. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth.
{Frercuer, Lavineton E., M.Inst.C.E, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*Fietcuer, Lazarus, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
London, 8.W. 36 Woodville-road, Ealing, London, W.
§Frower, Sir WittrAm Heyry, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Se., F.R.S.,
F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Director of the Natural History De
partments, British Museum, South Kensington, London. 26
Stanhope-gardens, London, 8. W.
1889. {Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, London, S.W.
1877.
*Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.8. Downton, Salisbury.
1890. *Flux, A. W., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
1887.
{Foale, William. 8 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
1883. tFoale, Mrs. William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
1891.
1879.
§Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.
tFoote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
1880. {Foote, R. Bruce, F.G.S. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, Iondon, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 37
Year of
Election.
1873. *Forses, Grorcz, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
1883.
1885.
1890.
1875.
18838.
1894.
1887.
1867.
i883,
1884.
1877.
1882.
1896.
1875.
1865.
1865.
George-street, London, 8. W.
{Forses, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor-
poration of Liverpool, The Museum, Liverpool.
tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.
{Forp, J. Raw1inson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.
*Forpuam, H. Grorcx, F.G.S. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.
§Formby, R. Kirklake Bank, Formby, near Liverpool.
§Forrest, Frederick. Castledown, Castle Hill, Hastings.
+Forrest, Sir Joun, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Perth, Western
Australia.
{Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonards-on-Sea.
{Forsyru, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Pure
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
e Cambridge. :
{Fort, George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.
{Forrescuz, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.
{Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend.
§Forwoob, Sir Witt1am B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.
{Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8.W.
tFoster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Foster, Crement Le Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno.
1883. {Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.
1857. *Foster, Gzorce Oarery, B.A., F.RS., F.C.S., Professor of
1896.
1877.
1859.
1863.
1896.
1866.
1868.
1888.
Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Foster, Miss Harriet, Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.
§Foster, Joseph B. 4 Cambridge-street, Plymouth.
*Fosrer, Micuart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., Sec.R.S., F.LS.,
F.C.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge.
Great Shelford, Cambridge.
tFoster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
§Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside.
tFowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.
{Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
§Fowler, Gilbert J. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
1892.§§Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-cireus,
1876.
1882.
1884.
1883.
_ 1883.
1896.
1883.
1847.
1888.
1886.
1881.
1889
London, F.C.
*Fowler, John. 16 Kerrsland-street, Ililihead, Glasgow.
{Fowrer, Sir Jouy, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, 5S. W.
{Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth.
*Fox, Charles. 104 Ritherdon-road, Upper Tooting, London, 8.W.
§Fox, Sir Cuartes Dovetas, M.Inst.C.H. 28 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.
§Fox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.
{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Falmouth.
*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The’Clive, Wellington, Somerset.
t{Fox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.
{Foxwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*FoxwrEtt, Herzen S., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
E ies Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-
yne.
38 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
Francis, Witi1aM, Ph.D., F.L.S.,F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, E.C. ; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.
1845. {FRANKLAND, Epwarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.
1887. *FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason College, Birmingham.
1894, §Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 9 Pembridge-gardens, London, W.
1895. §Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.
1882, {Fraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin. _
1885. {Fraser, Ancus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 282 Union-street, Aberdeen.
1865. *Fraszr, Jonn, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
1871. {Frasrr, Toomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
1859. *Frazer, Daniel. Rowmore House, Garelochhead, N.B._,
1871. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
1884. *Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1884,.*Fream, W., LL.D., B.Sc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury:
1877. §Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.
1884, *FremanTLeE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. 10 Sloane-gardens,
London, 8. W.
1869. {Frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.
1886. {Freshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill,
London, W.
1887. {Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.
1887. {Froehlich, The Chevalier. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.
1892. *Frost, Edmund. The Elms, Lasswade, Midlothian.
1882. §Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
1883. {Frost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
1887. *Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, London, W.
1875. tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1875. *Fry, Joseph Storrs. 13 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1884. §Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.
1895.§§Fullarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.
1872. *Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, London, 8.E.
1859. [Futter, Freperick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton, — . ‘
1869. {Futer, G., M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington, W,,
1884, §Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.
1891. {Fulton, Andrew. 238 Park-place, Cardiff.
1881. {Gabb, Rey. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.
1887. {Gaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.
1836, *Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
1857. {Gacrs, AtpHonsE, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
1863. *Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.
1896. §Gair, H. W. 21 Water-street, Liverpool.
1876. {Gairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
1850, ¢{Garrpner, W. T., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine in the
University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.
1876. {Gale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glasgow.
1863. {Gale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.
1885. *Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 39
Year of
Election.
1861.
1889.
1875.
1887.
1860.
1860.
1869.
1870.
1889.
1870.
1888.
1877.
1868.
1889,
1887.
1882.
1894,
1896.
1882,
1884,
1887.
1882.
1873.
1883.
1894.
1874.
1882.
1892.
1889.
1870.
1870.
1896.
1896.
1862.
1890.
1875.
1892,
1871.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1867.
tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester,
tGalloway, Walter. Eighton Banks, Gateshead.
{Gattoway, W. Cardiff.
*Galloway, W.J.,M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
*Gatton, Sir Doveras, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D. F.RS., F.L.S.,
E.G.S., F.R.G.S. 12 Chester-street, Grosvener-place, London,
S.W
*Gatron, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Se, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S.
42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.
tGatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. New University Club,: St.
James’s-street, London, S. W.
§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D.,C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.
§Gamble, David, jun. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay.
tGamble, J. C. St. Helens, Lancashire.
*Gamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.S. Dehra Duin, North-West Provinces,
India.
tGamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.
{Gamern, ArrHuR, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Avenue de la Gare, Lausanne,
Switzerland,
tGamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.
{Garpiver, Watrter, M.A., F. R. 8., F.L.S. 46 Hills-road, cent
bridge.
*Gardner, IL Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Biasthouene:
Gardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.
§Gardner, James. The Grove, Grassendale, Liverpool.
tGARDNER, JOHN STARKIN, F.GS. 29 Albert Embankment, S.E.
{Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.
{Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-gardens,
London, 8. W.
fGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, 8.E.
§Garson, J.G.,M.D. 64 Harley-street, London, W.
§Garstang, Walter, M.A., F.Z.S. Lincoln College, Oxford.
*Garstin, John Ribton, M. A., LL.B. M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellincham, Treland.
tGarton, William, Woolston, Southampton.
§Garvie, James. Devanha House, Bowes-road, New Southgate, N.
tGarwood, H. J., B.A., F.G.8. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, betel’
§GASKELL, WALTER Horsroox, M.A. M.D., BEDI F.R.S. «The
Uplands, Great Shelford, near Cambridge.
§Gatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., Die D., F.R.S. E,, F.LS., F,G.S. Fel-
bridge Place, East Grinstead, Sussex.
{Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.
{Gavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.
tGeddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Geddes, John. 9 Melville- crescent, Edinburg h.
tGeddes, John. 33 Portland-street, "Boutiiport.
tGeddes, Professor Patrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.
tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.
{GurKin, Sir Arcuibatp, LL.D., D.Se., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, London, N.W.
40 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871. {Gurxte, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. 31 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh.
1882, *GenzsE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwith.
1875. *George, Rey. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.
1885. {Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.
1884, *Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford.
1884, {Gibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada,
1865. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.
1874. {Gibson, rr Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.
1892. §Gibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George-
square, Edinburgh.
1876. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,
Edinburgh.
1896. §Gibson, Harvey, M.A., Professor of Botany, University College,
Liverpool.
1884. {Gibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
1889. *Gibson, T.G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.
1893. {Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
1887. {Grrren, Sir Roprrt, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. Board of
Trade, London, 8.W.
1888. *Gifford, H. J. Liyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.
1884. tGilbert, HK. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.
1842, GuiLBERt, Sir JosepH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Har-
penden, near St. Albans.
1883.§§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.
1857. {Gilbert, J. T., MR.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
1884, *Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.
1895.§§ Gilchrist, J. D. F. Carvenon, Anstruther, Scotland.
1896. *Gilchrist, Perey C. Frognal Bank, Finchley-road, Hampstead,
N.W.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
1878, {Giles, Oliver. Crescent Villas, Bromsgrove.
Giles, Rey. William. Netherleizh House, near Chester.
1871. *Grtt, Davin, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Observatory,
Cape Town.
1888. §Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.
1888. {Gilland, E, T. 259 West Seventy-fourth-street, New York,
U.S.A.
1884, {Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
1896. §Gilmour, H. B, Underlea, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1892, *Gilmour, Matthew A. B. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hatnilton, N.B.
1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
1898. *Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham, London.
1867. {Gunspure, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.
1884. {Girdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
1886. *Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle StationP.O., Assa.,N.-W.T., Canada.
1883, *Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1883. *Gladstone, Miss E. A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1850. *Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 84 Denmark-villas, Hove,
Brighton,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Eleotion.
1849. *Guapstonn, Jonn Hatt, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, London, W.
1890. *Gladstone, Miss Margaret E. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1861. *GuaisHER, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road,
South Croydon.
1871. *GuaisHeER, J. W.L., M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
1883. {Glasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.
1881. *GuazEBRook, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. 7 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
1881. *Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, London, W.
1859. {Glennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere,
Surrey.
1867. {Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
1874. {Glover, George IT. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.
1870. {Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1889. {Goddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1872. {GoppaRrD, RicHarD. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1886, {Godlee, Arthur. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
1887. tGodlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.
1878. *Godlee, J. Lister. Whip’s Cross, Walthamstow.
1880. {Gopman, F. Du Cane, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
18838. {Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.
1852. tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
1879.§§Gopwin-AvstEen, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
¥.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford.
1876. {Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.
1881. {GotpscumipT, Kpwarp, J.P. Nottingham.
1886. {Gotpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.C.S.L, F.R.GS.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.
1890. *GonneR, E. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Hconomy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.
1884, tGood,Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
1852. tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
1878. {Goodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.
1884. {Goodbody, Robert. J*airy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1886, {Goodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1885. {Goopmay, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1884. *Goodridge, Richard E. W. 1030 The Rookery Building, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.
1884. oon Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
anada.
1883. {Goouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1885. {Gordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton. 50 Queen’s
Gate-gardens, London, S.W.
1885. {Gordon, Rey. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.
1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne's Mansions, West-
minster, S.W.
1884. *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. 8 St. Mary-street, St.
Andrews, N.B.
1857. {Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
1885. {Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.
1887. {Gordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, London, S.W.
1865, {Gorz, Gzorer, LL.D., F.R.S. 67 Broad-street, Birmingham.
1896. §Gossage, F. H. Camphill, Woolton, Liverpool.
42
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1875.
1873.
1849.
1881
1894
1888
1867
1876.
1883.
1873.
1886.
1875
1892.
1893.
1896.
1892.
1864.
1881.
1890,
1864.
1865.
1876.
1881.
1893.
1870.
1892.
1892.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1878.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1866.
1893.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1888.
1887.
1887.
1858.
*Gorcu, Francis, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
the University of Oxford.
tGott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire. , ,
tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
t{Gough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York.
tGould, G. M. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tGouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey. .
{Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
{Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire. Bo a
tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.
{GranHAme, James. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
§Grange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.
tGranger, F. 8., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street, Nottingham.
§Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Canada.
tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.
{Grantham, Richard F., F.G.S. Northumberland-chambers, Northum-
berland-avenue, London, W.C.
Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
{Gray, Professor ANDREW, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Univer-
sity College, Bangor.
*Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Rotherham.
t{Gray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston.
tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.
tGray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbrole-crescent, W.
*Gray, James H., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow. .
§Gray, John, B.Sc. 351 Clarewood-terrace, Brixton, London, 8.W.
tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Cleveland Villa, Shurdington Road,
Cheltenham.
{Gray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
{Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
t{Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, Colonel Wirt1Am. Farley Hall, near Reading.
t{Gray, William Lewis. 386 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
{Gray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
{Greaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Bir-
mingham.
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.
*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.
{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.
tGreaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.
*Grece, Clair J.. LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.
§GREEN, JosEPH R., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 17 Blooms-
bury-square, London, W.C.
{Greene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, London, 8.W.
pears Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London,
“Greenhalch, Thomas. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 43
Year of
Election.
1882.
1881.
1884,
1884,
1884,
1887.
1863,
1890.
1875.
1877.
1887.
1887.
1861.
1860.
1868.
1894,
1896.
1883.
1881.
1859,
1870.
1878.
1836.
1894,
1894.
1859.
1870.
1884,
1884.
1891.
1847.
1870.
1888.
1884.
1881.
1894,
1894,
1896.
1892.
1891.
1863.
1869.
1886.
1891.
1887.
{GreEnuitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, W.C
§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire. 3
tGreenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London,
N.W
tGreenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada.
tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
tGreenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby.
tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.
tGreenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.
Greenwood, F., M.B. Brampton, Chesterfield.
tGreenwood, Holmes, 78 King-street, Accrington.
tGreenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park. Rolling Mills,
Birmingham. ;
*Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Grec, Ropert Purries, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts. aT, TH
t{Greeor, Rev. Watrer, M.A. Lauder Villa, Bonnyrigg, Midlothian.
tGregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.0.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S.W.
tGregory, J. Walter, D.Sc., F.G:S. British Museum, Cromwell-
road, London, 8. W.
§Gregory, R. A. 11 Southey-road, Wimbledon, Surrey,
tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.
tGregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, S.O., Yorkshire.
tGrierson, THomas Borie, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
tGrieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin-
cent-street, Glassow.
{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Grithn, 8. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, London, N.
*Griffith, C.L. IT. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.
*Griffith, Miss F. H. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.
*GrirFitH, G., M.A. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.) College-
road, Harrow. ;
{Grifith, Rev. Henry. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex,
t{Grirrirus, E. H., M.A., F.R.S. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
tGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
{Griffiths, P, Rhys, B.Se., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.
tGriffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
tGrimsdale, T. F.,M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool.
*Grimshaw, James Walter, Australian Club, Sydney, New South
Wales.
tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
tGripper, Edward. Mansfield-road, Nottingham.
{Groom, P., M.A., F.L.S. 38 Regent-street, Oxford.
tGroom, T. T. The Poplars, Hereford.
§Grossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tGrove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.
{Groyer, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.
*Groves, THomas B., F.C.S. Belmont, Seldown, Poole, Dorset.
tGruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.
tGrundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.
tGrylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.
{GuittemarD, F.H. H. Eltham, Kent.
Guinness, Henry, 17 College-green, Dublin.
44
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1842.
1891.
1877.
1866.
1894.
1880.
1896.
1876.
1883.
1896.
1857.
1876.
1884.
1887.
1884.
1881.
1842,
1888.
1892.
1870.
1879.
1887.
1879.
1883.
1881,
1854,
1887.
1885.
1896,
1884,
1866.
1896.
i891.
1891.
1873.
1888.
1858.
1883.
1885.
1869.
1881.
1892.
1878.
1875.
1861.
1890.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
¢Gunn, John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.
tGunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh.
{Gtynruer, Abert C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S8., Pres.L.8.,
F.Z.8. 23 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.
{Ginther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.
§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.
*Gustav, Jarmay. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.
tGuthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
tGuthrie, Malcolm. Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
§Guthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
tGwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
tGwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHaanel, E,, Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.
tHackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester.
{tHadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.
*Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A.,F.Z.S. Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.
Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
*Hadfield, R. A. The Grove, Endcliffe Vale-road, Sheffield.
tHaigh, E., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.
Haigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.
tHaxnr, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants.
{ Hale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester.
*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.
*Hall, Miss Emily. Burlington House, Spring Grove, Isleworth.
{Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London,
W.C.
*Hatt, Hue Ferein, F.G.8. Staverton House, Woodstock-road,
Oxford.
tHall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.
§Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N.
§Hall, Thomas B, Larchwood, Rockferry, Cheshire.
tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada.
*Hatt, TownsHenD M.,F.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple.
§Hall-Dare, Mrs. Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.
*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire.
§Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.
*Haiert, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
§Hatirpurton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
King’s College, London. 9 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-street,
London, W.C.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Holmeside, Hazelwood,
Derby.
*Hamel, ee D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.
tHamilton, David James. 14 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
tHamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Hammond, Robert. Ormond House, Great Trinity-lane, London, E.C.
tHanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.
tHance, Edward M., LL.B. Municipal Buildings, Liverpool.
tHancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, 8.W.
tHancock, a 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon-
don, E.C.
tHankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45
Year of
Election.
1882. tHankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.
1884.§§Hannaford, E. P. 2573 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
1894. §Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, London, W.
1886, §Hansford, Charles. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester.
1859, *Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.8.
(GENERAL SECRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford.
1890, *Hanrcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate,
London, 8. W.
1886. *Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S, 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
1892. *Harden, Arthur, Ph.D., M.Sc. Ashville, Upper Chorlton-road, Man-
chester.
1865. tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
1869. {Harding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.
1877. tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
1869, {Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.
1894. {Hardman, 8. C. 225 Lord-street, Southport.
1894, t{Hare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.
1894. {Hare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.
1838. *Harr, Cuartzs Joun, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, London, W.
1858. tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
1883. {Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1883. {Harereaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1890. {Hargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.
1881. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.
1890. §Harker, ALFRED, M.A.,F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1896. §Harker, Dr. John Allen. Springfield House, Stockport.
1887. tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1878. *Harkness, H. W., M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.
1871. {Harkness, William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London.
1875. *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex.
1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest-hill, London,
S.E
1883. *Harley, “Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London,
W.C
1862, *Hartry, Rev. Ropert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West-
bourne-road, Forest-hill, London, S.E.
1868. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
1881. *Harmer, Srpyey F., M.A., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge.
1882. {Harper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.
. tHarpley, Rey. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.
1884. {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. Wallbrac-place,
Montreal, Canada.
1872. *Harris, Alfred. Lwunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
1888. {Harris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, London, N.W.
1842. *Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Moray-place, Dunedin, New Zealand.
1889, §Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great.George-street, West-
minster, S.W.
1884. {Harris, Miss Katherine E, 73 Albert Hall-mansions, Kensington-
gore, London, S.W.
1888. {Harrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, London, 8. W.
1860, {Harrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.
46
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1864,
1874.
1858.
1892.
1889.
1870.
1853.
1892.
1895.
1886.
1876.
1875.
1893.
1871.
1896.
1890.
1886.
tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park
London, W.
tHarrison, Joun. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.
§Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough,
tHarrison, Rearnatp, F.R.O.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, London, W.
tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
tHarrison, Rev. 8. N. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
§Harrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.
tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham.
*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.
tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.
*Harrianp, E. Sipney, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
t{Harriny, Watter Nort, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 36 Water-
loo-road, Dublin.
§Hartley. W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.
*Hartnell, Wilson. 8 Blenheim-terrace, Leeds.
*Hartoe, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.
1887.§$Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.
1885.§§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.
1862. *Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors.
1884.
1882.
1898.
1875.
1889.
1893.
1857.
1896.
1887.
1872.
1864.
1884,
1889,
1887.
1887.
1886.
1890.
1877.
1861.
1885,
1891.
1894.
1896.
1896.
1873.
1858.
1896.
tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
tHaslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester,
§Haslam, Lewis. Ravenswood, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Hastines, G. W. 23 Kensington-square, London, W.
tHatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
{Hatton, John L.S. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, London, E.
tHavenron, Rev. Samvet, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
§Hause, Edward M. 42 Bedford-street, Liverpool.
*Hawkins, William. LEarlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.
*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St, James’s, 8. W.
*HawksHAw, JoHN Crarke, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Down-
street, W., and 33 Great George-street, London, 8. W.
*Haworth, Abraham. Hilston House, Altrincham.
tHaworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.
*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tHaworth, S. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.
tHaworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.
tHawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.
tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.
*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
*Haycraft, John Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology,
University College, Cardiff.
tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff.
tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford.
§Hayes, F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin.
§Hayes, Wiliam. Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.
*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland..
*Haywarp, R.B,M.A.,F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin, Isle of Wight.
*Haywood, A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 47
Year of
Election.
1879.
1851,
1883.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1883.
1866.
1884.
1883.
1865.
1892.
1889.
1884.
1835.
1888.
1888.
1855.
1867.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1867.
1873.
1883.
1891.
1892.
1880,
1896.
1885.
1892.
1856,
1873.
*Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rock Ferry.
§Heap, Juremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 47 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.
{Headley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
{Headley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere.
*Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.
*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester,
tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.
{Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
*Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.
{Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
tHearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
{Heath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.
}Heaton, Charles, Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham.
*Heaton, Witiiam H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University
College, Nottingham.
*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
§Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosyenor-
street, Coventry. ; :
{Hxuavisivz, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
*Heawood, Edward, M.A. 3 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, London,
S.E.
*Heawood, Percy Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham. i
tHecror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director
of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New
Zealand. :
tHeddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B.
*Hepers, KintmvewortH, M.Inst.C.E. Wootton Lodge, 39 Streat-
ham hill, London, S.W.
*Hete-Suaw, H.8., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 20 Waverley-road, Liverpool.
§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Sussex Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.
tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.
*Henderson, A..L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, 8.E.
tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. 277 Lewisham Hich-road,-London, 8.E.
*Henverson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A.,F.C.S., F.L.C., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow. }
{Henderson, John. 3 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.
*Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall-mansions,
London, 8. W.
§Henderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool.
tHenderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.
§Henigan, Richard. Alma-road, The Avenue, Southampton:
Hennessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. Clarens, Montreux,
Switzerland.
*Henricr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D:, F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 384
Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.
48
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1892.
1855.
1855.
1890.
1890.
1892.
1887.
1893.
1891.
1871.
1874.
1895.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
t{Henshaw, George H. 43 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Hepburn, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.
*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford, Kent.
tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
{Hepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.
{Hepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.
*Herbertson, Andrew J. University Hall, Edinburgh.
*HerpMan, WittraM A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in University College, Liverpool.
*Herdman, Mrs. 32 Bentley-road, Liverpool.
tHern, 8. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.
*HerscHEL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.
§HerscHet, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.
§Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street,
Southport.
1894.§§Hewetson, G. H. 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.
1890.
{Hewetson, H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 11 Hanover-square,
Leeds.
1884.§§ Hewett, George Edwin. Cotswold House, St. John’s Wood Park,
1894,
1896.
1893,
1885.
1882,
1883.
1866.
1879.
1861.
1886.
1833.
1887.
1888.
1875,
1877.
1886.
1884,
1887.
1864,
1875.
1871.
1891,
London, N.W.
{Hewins, W.A.S.,M.A.,F.S.S. 26 Cheyne-row, Chelsea, London,S8. W.
§Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.
{Hewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.
t{Hewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue,
The Plains, Belfast.
tHeycock, Charles T., M.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.
§Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. Crowell,
Tetsworth, Oxford.
*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
tHeywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
§Heywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.
*Heywoon, JAmgs, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A., F.R.G.8., F.S.8. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
{Heywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
{Hichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The College, Cheltenham.
tHicxs, H., M.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon, N.W.
§Hicxs, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of Firth
College, Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield.
tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Hndcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.
tHickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Hicxson, Sypney J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in
Owens College, Manchester.
*Hiern, W.P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.
tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E, Alfred
House, Birkenhead.
tHieers, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 5 Trebovir-road, Earl’s Court,
London, S.W.
§Higgs, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. 12 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
Yeur
LIST OF MEMBERS. 49
of
Election.
1894
1885
1872
1881
1887.
1884.
1886,
1881.
1885,
1888,
1876.
1885.
1886.
1863,
1887.
1858.
1870.
1883.
1888.
1886.
1881.
1884.
1884.
1890.
1858.
1884.
1881.
1879.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1877.
1883.
1877.
1876.
1852.
1863.
1887.
1896.
1880
Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
. §Hill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. The Vicarage, Downton, Wilts.
. *Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.
.§§Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathly, Kast Grinstead.
*Hill, Rev. Canon Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
. “Hit, Rev. Epwiy, M.A., F.G.S. The Rectory, Coclifield, R.S.O.,
Suffolk.
tHill, G. H., F.G.S. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.
THill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.
tHitt, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, London.
tMili, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.
*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
{Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts.
THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
*Hittmovusp, WititaM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford.
tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.
{Hincxs, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,
Clifton, Bristol.
tHinpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey.
*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.
*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.
tHingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.
tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York.
tHineston, Witt1am Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 37 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.
tHirschfilder,C. A. Toronto, Canada.
*Hirst, James Andus. Adel Tower, Leeds.
tHirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
tHoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetis, U.S.A.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Hobbes, Robert George, M.R.I. Livingstone House, 374 Wands-
worth-road, London, S.W.
tHobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. Hill House, Park-road, Dewsbury.
*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc., F.G.S. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington,
London, W.
tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport,
tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth,
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
*Hopexin,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
§Hodgkinson, Arnold. 16 Albert-road, Southport.
-§§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
8 Park-villas, Blackheath, London, S8.E.
1896. D
5U
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1884.
1863.
1863.
1896.
*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Hodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.
tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Hodgson, Dr. Wm., J.P. Helensville, Crewe.
1894.§§Hogg, A. F. 73 Stanhope-road, Darlington.
1894,
1854.
1883.
1873.
1885.
1883.
1884.
1896.
1887.
1891.
1879.
1896.
§Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, London, E.C.
*Holcroft, George. Tyddyngwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly.
tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.
*Holden, Sir Isaac, Bart. Oakworth House, Keighley, Yorkshire.
tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
tHolden, John J. 23 Dulke-street, Southport.
tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada,
§Holder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.
*Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.
tHolgate, Benjamin, I.G.S. Cardigan Villa, Grove-lane, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
{Wolland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley, S.E.
§Holland, Mrs. Hooton. .
*Holland, Philip H. 38 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W
1889.§§ Holliinder, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, Londen, W.C.
1886.
1865.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1892,
1882.
1896.
1896.
1896.
1891.
1875.
1847,
1892.
1865,
1877.
1856.
1842.
1884.
1865.
1884.
1882.
1870.
1871.
1858.
1891.
1885,
tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
tHollingsworth, Dr. T.S. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth.
*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
*Holmes, Charles, St. Helen’s, Dennington Park-road, West Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.
*Hotmns, Tomas VINCENT, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E.
§Holt, Alfred. Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool.
§Holt, R. D. 1 India-buildings, Liverpool.
§Holt, William Henry, 11 Ashville-road, Birkenhead.
*Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.
tHooxrr, Sir Joserm Datron, K.C0.8.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
FE.RS., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
§Hooker, Reginald H., M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.
*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Rutford-road, Streatham, London,
5. W
*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Holy Trinity Vicarage, Blackheath
Hill, Greenwich, 8.1.
tHooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur, 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
* Hopkins, Edward M. Orchard Dene, Henley-on-Thames.
tHopkins, J.S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Hopxinson, CHARLES. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester.
*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.
*Horxinson, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
*Horxinson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret-
street, Cavendish-square, London, W.; and The Grange, St.
Albans.
{Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
{Horder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
tHorne, Jonn, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff
Court-buildings, Edinburgh,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 51
Year of
Election.
1875.
1884.
1887.
1892.
1893.
1884.
1868.
1859.
1896.
1886.
1887.
1896,
1884.
1883.
*Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest
Hill, London, S.E.
*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.
t Horsley, Reginald E., M.B. 46 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
*Horstey, Victor A. H., B.Se., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 25 Cavendish-
square, London, W.
*Hotblack, G.S. 52 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
{Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.
*Hough, 8.8. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
fHoughton, F. T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
§Hoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.
tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
1893.§§ Howard, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff.
1883.
1886,
1887.
1882.
1886.
1876.
1885.
1889.
1857.
1868.
1891.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1865.
1863.
1883.
1883.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1894,
1867,
1858.
1892.
1887.
1883.
tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.
*Howarp, James L., D.Sc. 86St. John’s-road, Waterloo, near Liverpool.
*Howard, S. 8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.
tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 18 Cavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.
tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
tHowden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B.
§Howden, Robert, M.B. University of Durham College of Medicine,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.
tHowett, Rey. Canon Hryps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
§Howell, Rev. William Charles, M.A., Vicar of Holy Trinity, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.
§Howes, Professor G. B., F.L.S. Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 21 413-street, Washington, U.S.A.
tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.
*How tert, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
tHoworrn, Sir H. H, K.CIE., MP., DCL, FRS., E.S.A.
Bentcliffe, Eccles, Manchester.
tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tHoyle, James. Blackburn.
§Hoytz, Wittram E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHudd, Alfred E., F.8.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tHupson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Dawlish.
§Hudson, John E. 125 Milk-street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
*Houpson, Wittram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.
*Hueerns, WinriaM, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
90 Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, 8.W.
t Hughes, Alfred W. Woodside, Musselburgh.
t{Hughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
§Hughes, Miss KE. P, Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.
D2
52 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871. *Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
1887. tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.
1896. §Hughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool.
1870. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-chambers, Liverpool.
1891.§§Hughes, Thomas, F.C.8. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
1868.§§Hueues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge.
1891. t{Hughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.
1865. tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Birmingham.
1867. §Hut1, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Arundel-gardens,
Notting Hill, London, W.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. Breamore House, Salisbury.
1887. *HumMeEt, Professor J. J. 152 Woodsley-road, Leeds.
1890. {Humphrey, Frank W. 68 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W.
1878. {Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
1880. {Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S.. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames. :
1877. *Hunt, AntHuR Roors, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.
1891. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.
1886. tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.
1891. tHunt, D. de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,
Cardiff.
1875. *Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
1881. tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
1889. {Hunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.”
1881. {Hunter, Rey. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.
1884, *Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.
1869. *Hunter, Rev. Robert. LL.D., I.G.8. Forest Retreat, Staples-road,
Loughton, Essex.
1879. {Hunrineron, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. King’s College, London, W.C.
1885. {Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.
1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
1883. *Hurst, CuaRtes Herpert, Ph.D. Royal College of Science,
Dublin.
1869. tHurst, George. Bedford.
1882. { Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden.
1861. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.
1896, *Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Holly Lodge, Cressington, Liverpool.
1887. {Husband, W. I. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.
1882. tHussey, Major E. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.
1894, *Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.
1876. { Hutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
1896. §Hutchinson, W. B. 144 Sussex-road, Southport.
Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1864. oes 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
1887. *Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1861. *Hurron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
1883. t{Hyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.
1871. *Hyett, rea A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 58
Year of
Election.
1882.
1883
*T’Anson, James, F.G.8. Fairfield House, Darlington.
. §Idris, T. H. W. 58 Lady Margaret-road, London, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
1884. *Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.
1885. {im-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.
1888.
1858.
1893.
1876,
*Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.
fIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
tIngle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.
TInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1891. {Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.
1852.
1885.
1886.
1892.
tIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.
tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
tIveland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh.
1892. {Irvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.
1892. {Irvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.
1882
1888,
1883.
1881.
1891.
1886.
1859.
1884.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1874.
1887.
1885.
1866.
1869,
1887.
1874.
1865.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1860.
1886.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
. §Invine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Hockerill, Bishop Stortford,
Herts.
*Isaac, J. F. V., B.A. Royal York Hotei, Brighton.
tIsherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
fIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square,
London, W.
*Ismay, THomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.
tIzod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie~-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.
*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc., F.C.S. 358 Collins-street, Mel-
bourne, Australia.
tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.
*Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset.
*Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester,
tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.
§Jackson, Moses, J.P. 189 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.
§Jacobson, Nathaniel, Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.
*Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, Nice, France.
*Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.
*James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.
*James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln's Inn, London,
W.C.
tJames, Edward H. “Woodside, Plymouth.
tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.
tJames, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.
{James, John. 24 The Parade, Cardiff.
{James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street. Strand,
London, W.C.
tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.
54
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1858.
1896.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1859.
1889.
1870.
1891.
1891.
1855.
1867.
1885.
1887.
1864.
1891.
1878.
1880.
1852.
1893.
1878.
1889.
1884,
1891.
1884,
1884.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1883.
1865.
1888.
1875.
1872.
1870.
1863.
1881.
1890.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1883.
f{James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
*Jameson, H. Lyster. Killencoole, Castlebellingham, Ireland.
tJameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W.
{Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.
§Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 87 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
{Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B.
t{Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
*Jarp, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Aberdeen.
tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
tJasper, Henry. Holmedale, New Park-road, Clapham Park,
London, S.W.
{Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.
*Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
{Jetireys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
tJeffreys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield.
§Jzrrs, OsmunD W. 164 Falkner-street, Liverpool.
tJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.
tJenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., }'.C.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
§Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London,
S.W.
“Jenkins, Sir Jonn Jones, M.P. The Grange, Swansea.
tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.
§Jennings, G. H. Ashleigh, Ashleigh-road, Leicester.
{Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary’s Office, The Castle, Dublin.
Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
tJevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.
tJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.
tJohn, E. Cowbridge, Cardiff.
tJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
§JoHNsoN, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.
{Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge,
tJohnson, Ben. Micklegate, York.
*Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.S. 1 Victoria-road, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.
tJohnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
*Johnson, G. J. 86 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, London, N.
{Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
{Jobnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.
tJohnson, R. S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
{Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.
*Jounson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin. r
{Johnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.
{Johnson, W. H. F. Liandaff House, Cambridge.
tJohnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.
tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.
tJohnston, Sir H. H., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, 8. W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 55
Year of
Election.
1859.
1864,
1884.
1885.
1884.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1864,
1864,
1871.
1888.
1896.
1888.
1881.
1849,
1887,
1891.
1896.
1890.
1891.
1887,
1891.
1883.
1895.
1884,
1877.
tJohnston, James, Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
{Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, N.W.
tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.
tJohnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.
tJohnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,
*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.
tJounston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,
France.
tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.
*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
{Jorty, Wittiam, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.
§Joly, C. J.. M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
tJory, Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 39 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.
tJones, Baynham. Walmer House, Cheltenham.
tJones, D..E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools. 7 Marine-terrace,
Aberystwith.
tJones, D. Edgar, M.D. Spring Bank, Queen-street, Cardiff.
§Jones, E. Taylor. University College, Bangor.
§Jones, Rev. Edward, F.G.S. Fairfax-road, Prestwich, Lancashire.
tJones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.
tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.
*Jonus, Rev. G. Hartweit, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.
*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, Waterloo, Liverpool.
§§Jones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Hastern Railway, Ipswich.
tJones, Rey. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent’s Park, London, N. W.
tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal Coliege of Science, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8.W.
1881. *Jonzs, J. Virtamu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
1873.
1880.
1860.
1896.
1883.
1891.
1875,
1884.
1891.
1891.
1879.
1890,
1872
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.
tJones, Theodore B. i Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
tJones, Thomas. 15 Gcwer-street, Swansea.
Jones, Toomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 17 Parson’s Green, Ful-
ham, London, 8.W.
§Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester.
tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
tJones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Jose, J. E. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.
{Joseph, J.H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Jotham, F. H. Penarth.
tJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.
t{Jowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.
jJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.
tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James's, S.W.
1848, *Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berkshire.
1883.
1886.
1896,
1891,
1848,
1870
tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,
tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
§Joyce, Joshua. 151 Walton-street, Oxford.
{J ove John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
. {Jupp, Joun Wester, C.B., F.R.S.,F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
Royal College of Science, London. 16 Cumberland-road, Kew.
56 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883. tJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane,
London, W.C.
1868. *Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road,
London, N.
1888, {Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 38 Lindenallee, Westend,
Berlin.
1887. {Kay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1859. {Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington, W.
1884, {Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada. ,
1875. {Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
1886. tKeen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.
1894.§§Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.LS., F.Z.S., F.S.8. 11 Queen’s-gate,
London, S.W.
1894 §§Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
Essex.
1892. {Keiller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 54 Northumberland-
street, Edinburgh.
1887. {Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 55 Crescent, Salford.
1884, {Kelloge, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.
1864, *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
1885. §Keltie, J. Scott, Assist.Sec.R.G.S., F.S.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
1847, *Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The University, Glasgow.
1877, *Kelvin, Lady. The University, Glascow.
1887. {Kkemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester.
1884, {Kemper, Andrew U., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.
1890. §Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, Arunde!-road, Eastbourne.
1891. §Kenpatt, Percy F., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
1875, {Knnnepy, ALEXANDER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Victoria-
street, S.W., and 1 Queen Anne-street, Cayendish-square,
London, W.
1884, {Kennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada,
1876. {Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.
1884, {Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884. {Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
1886. {Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1898. §Kent, A. F. Stanley, F.G.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, London, S.E.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
1886. §KENWARD, JAmzEs, F.S.A. 43 Streatham Hich-road, London, 8.W.
1857. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
1876. {Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.
1881. {Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsey, Isle of Man.
1892.§§Kerr, J. Graham, Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1884. {Kerr, James, M.D, Winnipeg, Canada.
1887. {Kerr, James, Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.
1883. ne Rev. Joun, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College,
xlasrow.
1889. {Kerry, W. H. R. Wheatlands, Windermere.
1887. {Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.
1869, *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1869. tear William Johannes. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
‘heshire,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 57
Year of
Election.
1883. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
1876. {Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1886, §Kipston, Rosert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling,
1885, *Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.
1896. *Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.
1890. {Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.
1878, {Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square «North,
Dublin.
1860. {Krvanan, G. Henry, M.R.1.A., Dublin.
1875. *Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.
1888. {King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath,
1888. *King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants,
1883. *King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.
1875. *King, F. Ambrose. A-vonside, Clifton, Bristol.
1871. *King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.
1855, {King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
1883. *King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead.
1870, {King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, N.W.
1883. *King, Joseph, jun. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming,
1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. 3 Clifton-park, Clifton, Bristol,
1875. *King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.
1870. {King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1889, §King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea,
1869, {Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
1875, §Kinezerr, Cuartes T., F.C.S, Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst
Kent.
1867. {Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
1892. {Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B.
1870. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
1870. {Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1890. *Kirson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
1896. §Klein, L. de Beaumont. 6 Devonshire-road, Liverpool,
1886. {Klein, Rev. L. Martial. University College, Dublin.
1869, {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
1886, {Knight, J. M., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
1888. {Knott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-street,
Edinburgh.
.1887. *Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
1887, *Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
1887. {Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
1874. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
1883. {Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
1883. {Knowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
1876. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
*Knox, George James. 27 Portland-terrace, Regent's Park, N.W.
1875. *Knubley, Rev. E, P., M.A. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
1883. {Knubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
1892. {Kohn, Charles A., Ph.D. University College, Liverpool.
1890, *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Wilmslow, Cheshire.
1888, *Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.
188]. ma pee hig Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, Lon-
on,
1870. {Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool.
58
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1858.
1884.
1885.
1870.
1877.
1859,
1889.
1887.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1896,
1893.
1884.
tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
{Laflamme, Rev. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec,
Canada.
*Laing, J. Gerard. 111 Church-street, Chelsea, S.W.
§Laird, John. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
tLake, W.C., M.D., F.R.G.S. Teignmouth.
{Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.
*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Old Lodge, Salisbury.
t{Lams, Horacs, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. Burton-road, Didsbury, Manchester.
{tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tLamsert, Rev. Brooks, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, S.E.
§Lambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowan, Newland, Lincoln.
t{Lambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.
tLamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.
1893.§§Lamplugh, G. W.,F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
1890.
1884,
1871.
1886.
1877.
1883.
1859,
1886.
1870.
1865.
1880.
1884.
1878.
1885.
1887.
1881,
1883.
1896.
1870.
1870.
1891.
1888.
1892.
1888,
1870.
1878.
1884.
1870.
1881.
London, S.W.
t{Lamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.
tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.
tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, London, 8.E.
tLang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness.
tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.
*Lanetey, J.N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLanxester, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of
Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
2 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
* LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
§ Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
t{Lapworru, Cuares, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Physiography in the Mason Science College, Birmingham.
13 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.
t{Larmor, Jospen, M.A.,D.Se., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
§Lascelles, B. P., M.A. The Moat, Harrow.
*Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, 8.W.
*LarHam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, S. W.
tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. Catesby House, Manor-
road, Barnet, Herts.
tLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, London, E.
tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, London, E.C.
§Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Se., F.L.S. King’s College, Cambridge.
tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia.
*Law, Channell. Jlsham Dene, Torquay.
tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.
§Law, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.
tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. 59
of
Election,
1889. §Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Winchester-terrace, Newcastle-upons
1885.
1853.
1888.
1856.
1883.
1875.
Tyne.
iganson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.
tLawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
§Layard, Miss Nina F. 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.
tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.
tLeach, Colonel Sir G., K.C.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, London,
S.W
1870. “Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Pembury-road, Tun-
1894,
1884.
1884,
1847.
1863.
1884.
1872.
1884,
1895.
1861.
1896,
bridge Wells.
*Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College,
Sheffield.
*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.
tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Leatham, Edward Aldam. 46 Eaton-square, London, S.W.
tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.
tLezsovr, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tLeckie, R. G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Barham Rectory, Claydon, Ipswich.
tLee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.
§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. Ashburton, Devon.
1891.§§Lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandati-road, Cardiff.
1884. *Leech, Sir Bosdin T, Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.
1896.
1887.
*Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.
tLeech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1892. *Lurs, CuartEs H., M.Se. 6 Heald-road, Rusholme, Manchester.
1886. *Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.
1882.
1859.
1896.
1883,
1889.
1881.
1872.
1869.
tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.
tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.
§Lees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.
*Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.
*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.
*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.
tLe Fevverr, J. E. Southampton.
{Lurevee, The Right Hon. G.SHaw, F.R.G.S. 18 Bryanston-square,
London, W.
tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
1892. {Lehfeldt, Robert A. Firth College, Sheffield.
1868. {LxrrcesterR, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.
1856. {Lxrien, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,
1890. {Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.
1891.
1867.
1859.
18282.
1867.
1878.
1887.
1871.
tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.
{Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
§ Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton,
tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
{Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.
*Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, London, W.
{Lronarp, Hueu, M.R.I.A. 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.
1874, {Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
60
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884,
1890.
1883.
1880,
1894.
1896.
1887,
1890.
1893.
1879.
1870.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1884,
1860,
1876,
1887.
1887.
1878.
1881.
1871.
1883.
1895,
1882.
1888,
1861.
1876.
tLesage, Louis, City Hall, Montreal, Canada.
*Lester, Joseph Henry, 651 Arcade-chambers, St. Mary's Gate,
Manchester.
§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.
tLercuer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.
}Leudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.
§Lever, Mr. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.
*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.
tLevy, J. H. Florence, 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park,
London, S.W.
*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, 8.E.
fLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, London, 8S. W.
tLewis, Atrrep Lionen. 54 Highbury-hill, London, N.
tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.
§Lewis, D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwith,
tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff,
tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.
tLewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.
*Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.
{LrppEc1, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D. Ascot, Berkshire.
tLietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
*Lightbown, Henry. Hayfield*Mills, Pendleton, Manchester.
*Liverick, The Right Rev. Caartzs Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
tZimpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical Works, Manchester.
tLincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
*Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, London, S.E.
tLindsay, Rey. T, M., M.A., D.D, Free Church College, Glasgow.
tLisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.
§ Lister, Sir Joseru, Bart., D.C.L., Pres.R.S. (PRESIDENT.) 12 Park-
crescent, Portland-place, W.
*Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.
tLister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E.
*Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
*LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.
Care of Messrs. Kegan Paul & Co., Charing Cross-road, W.C.
1864.§§Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
1880.
1889.
1842,
1865.
1865.
1886,
1891.
1886,
1865.
1854,
{LLEWELYN, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.
Lloyd, Rey. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
ener , Rey. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-
yne,
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
tLloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
tLloyd, John, Queen’s College, Birmingham.
tLloyd, J. Henry, Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
*Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt. 4 Halkyn-avenue, Sefton Park,
Liverpool.
{Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
*Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury.
*Losiey, James Logan, F.G.8. City of London College, Moorgate-
street, London, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 61
Year of
Election.
1892.
1867.
1892.
1863.
1886.
1875.
1894,
1889.
1896.
1876,
1883.
1883.
1883.
1866,
1883.
1883.
1876.
1872.
1881.
1883.
1861.
1894.
1889.
1883.
1896.
1887.
1886.
1876.
1883.
1875.
1892.
1889.
1867.
1885.
1891.
1885.
1892.
1861.
1886.
1850.
1894.
1881.
1853.
1881.
1870.
1889.
1878,
§Loch, C.S., B.A. 154 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.
*Locke, John. 163 Holland-road, Kensington, London, W.
tLockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Locxyer, J. Norman, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
*Lopen, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
*Lopexz, OrtveR J., D.Sce., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.
*Lodge, Oliver W. F. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.
tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.
§Lomas, J. 16 Mellor-road, Birkenhead.
tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.
*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLongden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
tLonge, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham.
tLongmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.
*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.
a el Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
urrey.
*Longstatf, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.
*Longton, E. J., M.D. The Priory, Southport.
*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
tLord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
tLord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, W.
§Louis, Henry, Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Love, A. E. H., M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Love, E. F. J..M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.
*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.8S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens,
London, W.
tLove, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport.
*Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 29 Park-crescent, Monkgate, York.
§Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.
tLow, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, London, W.
*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.
§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Cardiff.
*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.
tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.
*LowE, Epwarp JosEru, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.
*Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E, The Birches, Burton-road, Derby.
ee oo Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
urgh.
{Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield.
tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.
*Lussock, The Right Hon. Sir Jonn, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.R.S.,F.LS., F.G.S. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.0., Kent,
tLubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, London, W.
tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead,
tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, 8S. W.
62
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889.
1891.
1875.
1881.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1892.
1853.
1883.
1874.
1864.
1871.
1884.
1884.
1874,
1885.§
1896.
1896.
1862.
1854.
1876,
1868.
1878.
1896.
1896.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1896.
1884.
1834.
1840.
1896.
1884.
1886.
1887.
1884.
1884,
1891.
1876,
tLuckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.
{Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.
*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*Lundie, Cornelius. 382 Newport-road, Cardiff.
t{Lunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh.
tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 25 Charlotte-street, Hull.
*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Coal Mining in
Yorkshire College, Leeds. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.
*Lupton, Sypney, M.A. <A. Audley-mansions, 44 Mount-street,
London, W.
*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
{Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., M.P., F.G.S. 48 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.
tLyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada,
{Lyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.
§Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
§Lyster, A. G. Dockyard, Coburg Dock, Liverpool.
§LystER, GrorcE F. Plas Isaf, Ruthin.
*Lyrn, F, Maxwett, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, London, 8. W.
*MacapaM, Srrvenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Ndinburgh; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
*Macapam, Wititam Ivison, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S. Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.
}Macarisrer, ALEXANDER, M.A.,M.D.,F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.
tMacAnrister, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
§Macalister, N. A. S. 2 Gordon-street, London, W.C.
§Macattum, Professor A. B., Ph.D. (Locan Sxcrerary.) The
University, Toronto.
§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon,
§MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.
*M‘Arthur, Alexander, F.R.G.S. 79 Holland Park, London, W.
§McArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Chester,
tMacarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
Macauray, James, A.M., M.D. 26 Carlton-vale, London, N.W.
MacBrayne, Robert. 65 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
MacBrins, E. W., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.
MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.
McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.
McCausland, Orr. Belfast.
*McClean, Frank, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Rusthall House,
Tunbridge Wells.
*M‘Crietianp, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*
+4+im
++ *& ++
LIST OF MEMBERS. 63
Year of
Election.
1868.
1872
1878
1892.
1892.
1883.
1886.
1884,
1884.
1884,
1883.
1878.
1884.
1884.
1881.
1871.
1885.
1879.
1867.
1888.
1884.
1884,
18738.
1885.
1884.
1885.
1867.
1884.
1883.
1884,
$M‘Crrvrocx, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B., F.RS.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
. *McClure, J. H., F.R.G.S. 77 Mayfield-street, Hull.
. *M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
*McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. University College, Dundee.
tMcCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.
tMcCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.
tMacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.
*McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1483 St. Catherine-street, Montreal,
Canada.
MacDonnell, Hercules H.G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
tMacDonnell, Rey. Canon J.C.,D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutter-
worth.
tMcDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
tMacpoveaLL, ALAN, M.Inst.C.E. (Locan Skcrerary.) 32 Adelaide-
street East, Toronto, Canada.
tMcDougall, John. 35 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F'.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
{M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
tMacfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.
tMacfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
tMacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, London, W.
tMacGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont-
real, Canada.
t{McGowen, William Thomas. Oal-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
tMacgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*MacGrucor, JAMES Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{M‘Gregor-Robertson, J.. M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, Hillhead,
Glasgow.
*M‘Intosu, W. C.,M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
{MclIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.
{Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.
tMackay, Alexander Howard, B.A., B.Sc. The Academy, Pictou,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
1885.§§Mackay, Joun Yutx, M.D. The University, Glasgow.
1896. *McKechnie, Duncan. Eccleston Grange, Preston.
1873
1883.
1880.
1884.
1884.
1883.
1872.
1867,
. {McKewnoprick, Jonn G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. 2 Florentine-
gardens, Glasgow.
t{McKendrick, Mrs, 2 Florentine Gardens, Glasgow.
*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Atheneum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
t{McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
{McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.
{Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.
*Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, London, S.E.
t{Macgigz, SamurL JosepH. 17 Howley-place, London, W,
64
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1887.
1867.
1889.
1891.
1850.
1872.
1896.
1892.
1892.
1892.
18738.
1885.
1860.
1873.
1882.
1892.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1868.
1892.
1892.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1874.
1884.
1867.
1883.
1878.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1883
1883.
1868.
1875.
1896.
1878.
1869.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1881.
tMcKilligan, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.
t{Macxrnper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tMcKinley, Rev. D. 33 Milton-street, West Hartlepool.
tMackintosh, A. C. Temple Chambers, Cardiff.
tMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
*McLacHtan, Ropert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Olarendon-road,
Lewisham, S8.E.
§Maclagan, Miss Christian. Ravenscroft, Stirling.
t{MactaGan, Sir Doveras, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. 28
Heriot-row, Edinburgh. :
tMaclagan, Philip K. D. 14 Belgrave-place, Edinburgh.
tMaclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent Edinburgh.
{McLandsborough, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
*M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.
tMaclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
+MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
tMaclean, Inspector-General,C.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.
*Maclean, Magnus, M.A., F.R.S.E. The University, Glasgow,
t{McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMcLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
{McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.
§McLxop, Hersert, F.RS., F.C.S.. Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
{Macleod, Reginald. Woodhall, Midlothian.
{Macleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.
*Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range,
Manchester.
*McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.G.S. 20 Nevern-square, South
Kensington, London, 8.W.
t{MacManon, Major P. A., R.A., F.R.S., Professor of Electricity in
the Artillery College, Woolwich. 40 Shaftesbury-avenue,
London, W.C.
*M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.
tMacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
t{MeMurrick, J. Playfair. Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.
{M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
tMeNicoll, Dr. E. D. 15 Manchester-road, Southport.
{Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
tMaconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros., Lowestoft.
{Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
*Macrory, Epwunp, M.A. 19 Pembridge-square, London, W.
{Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.
{Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.
tMaggs, Thomas Charles, F.G.S._56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.
t{Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
*Magnus, Sir Philip, B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.
§Maguire, Thomas Philip. Eastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.
t{Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.
tMain, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.
tMainprice, W. S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart., F.G.S. Stirling, N.B.
{Maitland, P.C. 136 Great Portland-street, London, W.
tMaleolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.
1888,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
Year of
Election.
1874, {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
1889. {Maling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1857. Matter, Jomn WitrraM, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.
1896. *Manbré, Alexandre. 15 Alexandra-drive, Liverpool.
1887. {MancuestER, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D, Bishop's
Court, Manchester.
1870. {Manifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool,
1885. tMann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
t
1894.
1878.
1864,
1888.
1891.
1889,
1887.
1870.
1887,
1883.
Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.
§Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.
§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
{Mansel-Pleydell, J. C., F.G.S. Whatcombe, Blandford.
tMansergh, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.
{Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Manville, E. 3 Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-
shire.
tMarcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.
{Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.
{Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.
1887.§§Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.
1864, {Markuan, Sir Crements R., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Pres.R.G.S.,
F.S.A. 21 Eccleston-square, London, 8S. W.
1894.§§Markoff, Dr. Anatolius, 44 Museum-street, London, W.C.
1863.
1888.
1888,
1881.
1887,
1884.
1892,
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889,
1889.
1892.
188].
1890.
1881.
1886.
1849,
1865.
1883.
1887.
1891,
1848.
1883.
tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Marr, J. E., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.G.8, St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leffingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.
*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.
*Marsh, Henry. Hurstwood, Roundhay, Leeds.
{Marsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.
{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 387 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
*MarRsHALL, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy
in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,
Cambridge.
{Marshall, Frank, B.A. 81 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc, F.R.S.E, 131 Warrender Park-road,
Edinburgh.
*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Church Institute, Leeds.
tMarshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.
fMarshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.
*MarsHaty, WitLIaM Baytuy, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.
*Marsuatt, Wittiam P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham. ,
§Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge,
Marten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, 8. W.
*Martin, Rey. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.
*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.
{Martin, Henry D, 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
ce oun Brppuren, M.A., F.S.8. 17 Hyde Park gate, London,
1896, E
66
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1889.
1890.
1865.
1883.
1891.
1878.
1847.
1886.
1879.
1896.
1893.
1891.
1885.
1883.
1887.
1890,
1865.
1894.
1865.
1889.
1861.
1881.
1888.
1858.
1885.
1885.
1865.
§Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 8 Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New
Barnet, Herts.
Sic William, 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.
*Martineau, Rev. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London,
W.C.
tMartineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Marwick, Sir James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.
t{Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.
{Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, F.C.
{Masketyne, Nevin Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Basset Down
House, Swindon.
t{Mason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.
tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.
§Mason, Philip B., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Burton-on-Trent.
*Mason, Thomas. 6 Pelham-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.
tMasson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.
*Mather, William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.
{Mathers, J. S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.
{Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Mathews, G. B., M.A. Bangor.
*Mathews, G. S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tMathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London,
WwW
*Matuews, WitiraM, M.A., F.G.S. 21 Augustus-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.
{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-voad, Birkdale, Southport.
{Matthews, 1’. C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
{MarrHews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.
{Matthews, J. Duncan. Springhill, Aberdeen.
{Maughan, Rey. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1893.§§Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.
1865.
1894.
1876.
1887.
18838.
1883.
1884.
1878.
1871.
1879.
1887.
1881.
1867.
1883.
1879.
1866.
*Maw, Grore®, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.
§Maxim, Hiram 8. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, 8. W.
{Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
tMaxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.
§May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.
{Mayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.
*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C,
*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.
{Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
§Meiklejohn, John W.8., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W.
{Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settlements.
*Metpoua, Rapwart, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
t{Mrtprvum, Cuartes, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis,
Mauritius.
{Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.
*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
t{Metto, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
Year of
Election.
1883. §Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
1896. §Mellor, G. H. Weston. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
1881.
1887.
1847.
1863.
1896.
1862.
1879.
1880.
1889,
1863.
1896.
1869.
1886.
1865,
1881.
1893.
1881.
1894.
1889.
1886.
1881.
1885.
1889.
1892.
1882.
1875.
§Melrose, James. Clifton Uroft, York.
{Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.
}Melville,Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,Galway.
{Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
§Menneer, R. R. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street,
London, S.W.
tMennett, Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.
§MerRivate, Jonn Herman, M.A. Togston Hall, Acklington.
tMerry, Alfred 8S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea. |
*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
§Metzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.
tMratt, Louts C., F.RS., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
the Yorkshire College, Leeds.
tMiddlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.
{Middlemore, William. KHdgbaston, Birmingham.
*Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.
§Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.
{Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 15 Grange-road, West Hayr-
tiepool,
“Miers, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford. :
tMilburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
tMiles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.
{Mizes, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton.
§Miti, Huew Rosert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Librarian R.G.S. 109 West
End-lane, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
*Millard, William Joseph Kelson, M.D., F.R.G.S. Holmleigh, Rock-
leaze, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
tMiller, A. J. 15 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
tMiller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
1895.§§ Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Bosmere House, Norwich-road, Ipswich.
1892. {Miller, Hugh, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 3 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh,
1888.
1885.
1886,
1861.
1884.
1895.
1876.
1868.
1880.
1834.
1835.
1882.
1885.
1885.
tMiller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.
tMiller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
{Miller, Rev. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.
*Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.
{Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Se. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
§Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. Thoroughfare, Ipswich.
}Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.
*Mitis, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.RS., F.C.S8., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glascow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasrow.
§Mills. Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Mansfield ‘Woodhouse,
Mansfield.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S.E. Inveresk.
{Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*MItne, Joun, F.R.S., F.G.S. Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight,
tMilne, J.D. 14 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
}Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
E2
68
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1882.
1880.
1855.
1859.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1873.
1885.
1885.
1879.
1895.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1878.
1877.
1884.
1887,
1891.
1882.
1892.
1872.
1872.
1596,
1884,
1894.
1891.
1890.
1857.
1896.
1891.
1881.
1898.
1875.
1891.
1896,
1887.
1882.
1889.
1892.
1867.
1898,
{Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.
tMilnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 224 Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
{Mincuin, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Surrey.
{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
tMitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
tMitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
tMitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-yardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
tMitchell, Mrs. Charles T. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
tMitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tMitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen.
tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.
t{Mrvart, St. Grores, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S. Hurst-
cote, Chilworth, Surrey.
*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.
tMoffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.
tMoir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
tMolloy, Constantine, QC. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
*Molloy, Rey. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-creen, Dublin.
tMonaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Monp, Lupwic, Ph D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent's
Park, London, N.W.
*Mond, Robert Ludwig, B.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
*Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens,.
London, W.
tMontgomery, Very Rev. J. F. 17 Athole-crescent, Edinburgh.
t{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Edgware-road, W.
tMoon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
§Moore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man.
tMoore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.
§Moore, H. E, 41 Bedford-row, London, W.C.
tMoore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.
tMoore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.
*Moors, Jonn Carricr, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 115 Katon-square,
London, 8.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
*Moore, Rev. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.
§Mordry, W. M. Redholm, Loughborough.
tMoyel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff. ;
tMorean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.
§Morgan, C. Lloyd, F.G.S., Principal of University College, Bristol.
16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tMorgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, 8.W.
tMorgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.
§Morgan, George. 61 Hope-street, Liverpool.
tMorgan, John Gray. 388 Lloyd-street, Manchester.
§Morgan, Thomas, J.P. Cross House, Southampton.
§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tMorison, John, M.D., F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.
t{Morison, William R. Dundee.
tMorland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
Year of
Election.
1895.§§Morley, Edward W., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry
in the Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
1891. {Morley, Hf. The Gas Works, Cardiff. :
1883. *Mortny, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 47 Broadhurst-gar-
dens, South Hampstead, London, N.W.
1889. {Mortey, The Right Hon. Jonny, M.A., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S.
95 lm Park-gardens, London, 8.W.
1896. §Morrell, R.S. Caius College, Cambridge.
1881. {Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.
1880. {Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn, R.S.O., Car-
marthenshire.
1883. {Morris,C. 8. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
1892. {Morris, Daniel, C.B., M.A., F.L.S. 11 Kew Gardens-road, Kew.
1883. {Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
1880. §Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
1883, {Morris, John. 4 The Elms, Liverpool.
1896. *Morris, J. T. 18 Somers-place, W.
1888. {Morris, J. W., F.L.8. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
1874, {Morrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.
1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
1886. {Morrison, John T, Scottish Marine Station, Granton, N.B.
1865. {Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Drittield.
1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1857. §Morton, Grorer H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
1858. *Morron, Henry Josern. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.
1871. {Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
1887. {Morton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.
1886, *Morton, P. F. Hook House, Hook, near Winchfield, Hampshire.
1896. §Morton, William B. 9 Chilworth-buildings, Stranmillis-road, Bel-
fast.
1883. {Moseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset. ;
1878. *Moss, Jonn Francis, I'.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.
1876. §Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.1.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.
1864, *Mosse, J. R. 5 Chiswick-place, Eastbourne.
1892. {Mossman, Rh. C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.
1873. {Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.
1892. *Mostyn, S.G., B.A. Colet House, Talgarth-road, London, W.
1869. §Morr, AtBrrr J., F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.
1566.§§Morr, Freprrickx T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.
1862. *Movar, FrepErick Jonn, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.
1856. {Mould, Rev. J.G., B.D. Roseland, Meadtoot, Torquay.
1878. *Moutron, J. Frercurer, M.A., Q.C., F.R.S, 57 Onslow-square,
London, 8.W.
1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
1861. *Mounitcastle, William Robert. The Wigwam, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.
1877. {Movunt-Epecumber, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgeumbe, Devonport.
1887. {Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.
1888. {Moyle, R. E., B.A., F.C.S. ‘The College, Cheltenham.
1884, {Moyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada,
1884, {Moyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
70
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1894.
1876.
1874.
1876.
1872.
1876.
1883.
1883,
1891.
1884,
1880,
1866,
1876.
1885.
1864,
1855.
1890.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1891,
1859.
1884,
1884.
1872.
1892.
1865,
1885,
1874.
1870.
1891.
1890,
1886.
1892.
1890.
1876.
1872.
1887.
1896.
1887.
{Mugliston, Rev. J.. M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.
*Muir, Sir John, Bart. Demster House, Perthshire.
{Morr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Caius College, Cambridge
tMuw, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. F.RSE. Beechcroft, Bothwell,
Glasgow.
{Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S,. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, 8S. W.
*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 61 Warrender Park-road, .
Edinburgh.
{MourHatt, Micnart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
{Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
{Mutter, The Right Hon. F. Max, M.A., Professor of Comparative
Philology in the University of Oxford. 7 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
“Mutter, Hvueo, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tMuller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
t{Munpetta, The Right Hon. A. J., M.P., F.R.S. 16 Eivaston-
place, London, 8.W.
t{Munro, Donald, F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.
*Munro, Rosert, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
*Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead.
t{Murdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.
tMurphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.
tMurphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.
§Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland.
{tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.
{Murray, G. R. M., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural His-
tory), South Kensington, London, S.W.
{Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
{Murray, Joun, LL.D., Ph.D., F.RS., F.R.S.E. ‘Challenger
Expedition Office, Edinburgh.
{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada,
{Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton,
{Murray, T. S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.
{Murray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Murray, W. Vaughan, F.R.G.S. 2 Savile-row, London, W.
§Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
{Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
USA
*Myres, John L., M.A., F.S.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
§Nacet, D. H., M.A., F.C.S. Trinity College, Oxford.
*Nairn, Michael B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
§Nalder, Francis Henry. 16 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.
{Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
fNarrs, Admiral Sir G. S&S, K.C.B, R.N., F.R.S., F.R.GS.
1 Beaufort-villas, Surbiton.
tNason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D., F.C.S. Troy, New York,
US.A
§Neal, James E., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool,
§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 71
Year of
Election.
1883.
1887,
1887.
1855.
1886.
1868.
1866.
1889.
1869.
1842.
1889.
1886.
1842,
*Neild, Theodore, B.A. Dalton Hall, Victoria Park, Manchester.
{Neill, Joseph 8. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.
{Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
{Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glaszow.
{Nettlefold, Edward. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tNevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.
JNeville, F. H. Sidney College, Cambridge.
tNevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
*Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.
tNewbolt, F.G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.
*NEwMAN, Professor Francis WitttamM. 15 Arundel-crescent,
Weston-super-Mare.
1889.§§ Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Roseaere, Epping.
1860.
1892.
1872.
1883.
1882.
1867.
1875.
1866,
1867.
1887.
1884,
1883.
1887.
1881.
1893.
1887.
1885.
1896.
1878,
1877.
1874.
1884,
1863.
1879.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1863.
1888,
*Newron, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.
tNewroy, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, S. W.
tNewton, Rey. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
{Nias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
{Nias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
{Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
fNicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.
}Nicwotson, Sir Cuarzes, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.
tNicnorson, Henry Atterne, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.
*Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.
tNicHotson, Josnpx §., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newhattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,
{Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.
{Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.
fNicholson, William R. Clifton, York.
tNickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.
{Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.
§Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edin-
burgh.
§Nisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.
{Niven, Cartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Aber-
deen.
{Niven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.
}Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
tNixon, T. Alcock. 33 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*Nosiz, Sir Anprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tNoble, T.S., F.G.8. Lendal, York.
tNock, J. B. Mayfield, Penns, near Birmingham.
{Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.
tNolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
§Norman, Rey. Canon AtFrED Merrie, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS.
Houghton-le-Spring, R.S.0., Co. Durham.
tNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.
72
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1865.
1872.
1885.
1881.
1886.
1894.
1861.
1896.
1887.
1882.
1878.
1885.
1858.
1884.
1857.
1894.
1896.
1885.
1876.
1885.
1893.
1859,
1884.
1881.
1887.
1896.
{Norris, RrcHarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
{Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
*Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire.
tNorth, William, B.A., F.C.S. 84 Micklegate, York.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
{Norton, Lady. 385 Eaton-place, London, S.W.; and Hamshall,
Birmingham.
§Norcurt, S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. 9 Museum-street, Ipswich.
t{Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
§Nugent, the Right Rev. Monsignor. 18 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo,
Liverpool.
{Nursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C. ‘
§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
tO'Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
{Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, E.C.
*Optine, Witt1aM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
f{Odlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.
{O’Donnavan, William John, 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.
§Ocden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.
§Ocden, Thomas. 4 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.
tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
{Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.
{Oaitvin, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Heriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.
{Ogilvie, Miss Maria M., D.Sc. Gordon's College, Aberdeen.
{Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.
*Oele, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
{O’Halloran, J. S., O.M.G., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute,
Northumberland-avenue, London, W.C.
fOldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.
t{Oldham, Charles. Romiley, Cheshire.
§Oldham, G. 8S. Town Hall, Birkenhead.
1892.§§Oldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
1853.
1885.
1893.
1892.
1863.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1889,
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.
t{OrpHAm, JAmwes, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull,
{Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.
t{Oldham, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs.
HS. King & Co., Cornhill, London, E.C.
{Oliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.
tOxtver, Dantex, LL.D.,F.RS., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
* University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,
urrey.
{Oliver, F. W., D.Sc., Professor of Botany in University College,
London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew, Surrey.
{Oliver, J. A. Westwood. The Liberal Club, Glasgow.
§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.
§Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. ‘
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 73
Election.
1882.
1860.
1880.
1872.
1883.
1867.
1883.
1883.
1880.
1861.
18658.
1883.
1884,
1884.
1838.
§Olsen, O. T., F.RAS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s - terrace,
Grimsby.
*OmMANNEY, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, London, W.
*"Ommanney, Rey. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.
tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, S.W.
tOppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.
tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
tOrd, Miss Maria, Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
tOrd, Miss Sarah. 2 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.
fO’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
tOrmerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester.
tOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
tOrpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., I.E. Care of G. H. Orpen, Esq.,
Erpingham, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.
*Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
1887.§§O'Shea, L. T., B.Sc. Firth College, Shettield.
1865.
1869,
1884,
1884,
1882.
1881,
1896,
1882.
1889,
1896.
1888.
1877.
1889.
1883.
1883.
1872.
1894.
1884.
1875.
1870.
1883.
1896.
1889.
1873.
1878.
1866.
1883,
1886.
*OstzR, A. Fotterr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
*Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
fOsler, William, M.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.
fO’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.
*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.
*Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.
§Oulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.
tOwen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.
§Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester.
*Owen, Thomas, M.P. Henley-grove, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
fOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.
{Page, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tPage, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.
tPage, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.
*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.
tPaget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, London, E.C.
{Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
{Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*PALGRAVE, R. H. Inexts, F.R.S. Belton, Great Yarmouth.
tPalgrave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth,
§Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.
TPatMER, Sir Cartes Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, Yorkshire.
tPalmer, George. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.
§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.
Palmes, Rev. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
§Pant, F. J. Vander. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.
tPanton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
74
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1888.
1888,
1880.
1863.
1886.
1891.
1879.
1887.
1859.
1862.
1883.
1877.
1865.
1878.
1883.
1875,
1881.
1887.
1896.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1871.
1876.
1874.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1879.
1863.
1892.
1863.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1881.
1866.
1888.
1886.
1876.
1879.
1885.
1883.
1875.
1881.
1886.
tPanton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.A., F.G.S. Ontario Agricultural
College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
tPark, Henry. Wigan.
t¢Park, Mrs. Wigan.
*Parke, George Henry, F.LS., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.
{Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.
Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.
§Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.
}Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.
*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, N.E,
t{Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.
{Parson, T. Edgeumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.
*Parsons, Charles Thomas. Mountlands, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Parsons, Hon. C. A. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
TPart, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.
tPass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.
{Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.
{Paterson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.
§Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.
*Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.
*Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.
*Paton, Hugh. Care of the Sheddon Co., Montreal, Canada.
*Patterson, A. Henry. 16 Ashburn-place, London,S.W. *
{Patterson, T. L. Maybank, Greenock.
tPatterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.
tParrinson, Joun, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 11 Queen Victoria-street, London,
E.C
*Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.
t¢Pauz, Benzsamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Paul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
tPavy, Freperick Wittram, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.
*Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.
*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.
tPayne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Payne, J. C. Charles. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
{Payne, Mrs. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
tPayne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.
*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.
{Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.
{Peace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
tPeace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.
tPracu, B.N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.
{Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, Lon-
don, W.
tPeacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Prarce, Horace, F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S8, The Limes, Stourbridge.
*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. ‘The Limes, Stourbridge.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75
Year of
Election
1888. §Pearce, Rev. R. J.,D.C.L. Bedlington Vicarage, R.S.O., Northum-
berland.
1884. {Pearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.
1886. {Pearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, 8S. W.
189]. {Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.
1893, *Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.
1883. {Pearson, Miss Helen KE. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1892. {Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.
1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1883. {Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1872. *Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.
1870. {Pearson, Rev. Samuel, M.A. Highbury-quadrant, London, N.
1883. *Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyffe, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.
1863. §Pease, H. F., M.P. Brinkburn, Darlington.
1889. {Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
borough.
1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, LL.D., F.S.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Bank
House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1888. {Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1885. {Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron Park, Edinburgh.
1884. {Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.
1883, {Prex, CurHBERTE., M.A.,F.S.A. 22 Beigrave-square, London, S. W.
1878. *Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.
1881. {Peggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.
1861. *Peile, George. Greenwood, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
1878. {Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.
1865. {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
1887.§§PENDLEBURY WiuttiamM H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.
1894, §Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.
1894, §Pengelly, Miss Hester. Lamorna, Torquay.
1896. §Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St, Asaph.
1881. {Penty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York.
1875. {Perceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.
1889. {Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
1895. §Percival, John, M.A. The South-Eastern Agricultural College,
Wye, Kent.
*Perigal, Frederick. Cambridge Cottage, Kingswood, Reigate.
1894, {Perkin, A. G., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-terrace,
Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.
1868, *Prrxin, Wit11am Heyry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.
1884, {PERKIn, Witt1am Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.
1864, *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
1885. {Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.
1886, {Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N. W.
1886, {Perrin, Mrs. 23 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, W.
1874. lr pee Fels M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. 31 Brunswick-square, London,
1883. {Perry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
76 LAST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1883. {Perry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.
1883. {Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.
1895. §Purrit, W. M. Frinpers, D.C. Lit; Professor of Egyptology in. Uni-
versity College, London, W. C.
1871. *Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A. S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth Avenue, Brighton.
1882. {Pfoundes, Charles. ” Spring Gardens, London, 8. W.
1886. {Phelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
1884. {Phelps, Charles Edgar. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
1884. {Phelps, Mrs. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
1886. {Phelps, Hon. E.J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, London, S.W.
1863, *PHenf£, JoHn Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8. W.
1892. {Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
1853. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
1853. *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.
1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, George-lane, Woodford, Essex.
1863, {Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889, {Philipson, John. 9 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883, {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.
1894. §Phillips, Stat-Commander HK. C. Dy RN., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liv erpool,
1896. §Phillips, George, jun. 14 Holly-road, Fairfield, Liverpool.
1887. {Phillips, H. Harcourt, FC.S. 183 Moss-lane East, Manchester.
1892. §Phillips, J. H. Poole, Dorset.
1880, {Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.
1890. §Phillips, R. W., M.A., “Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.
1883. {Phillips, “8. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.
1881. {Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.
1868, {Putpson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey,
S.W.
i894, {Pickarp-CampgipGE, Rev. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.
1884. *Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. 65 Canterbury-road, Oxford.
1883. “Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.
1885, *PICKERING, Spencer U., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 48 Bryanston-square,
London, Wi:
1884, *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.
1896. §Picton, W.H. College-avenue, Crosby, Liverpool.
1888. *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, London, W.
1871. {Pigot, Thomas F.,M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1884, {Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
1865. {Prxn, L.Owrn. 201 Maida-vale, London, W.
1873. {Pike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada.
1896. *Pilkington, A.C. The Hazels, Prescot, Lancashire.
Pim, George, M.R.ILA. Brenanstown , Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
1877. {Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
1868, {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
1876, {Pirte, Rey. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Daeoay of
Aberdeen. 383 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,
1884. {Pirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
1887. {Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.
1875, {Pitman, John. Redclitf Hill, Bristol.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 77
Election.
1883.
1864,
1883,
1893.
1868.
1842.
1867.
1884,
1883.
1893.
1857.
1881.
1888.
1846.
1896.
1862.
1891.
1892.
1868.
1883.
1883.
1863.
1887.
1883.
1886.
}Pitt, George Newton, M.A.,M.D. 24 St. Thomas-street, London, S.E.
TPitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
TPitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Hoiborn-circus, London, E.C.
*Pitt, Walter, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.
}Prrr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.GS.,
F.S.A. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, 8.W.
Prayrarr, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, S.W.
{Prayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria.
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, London, 8.W.)
*Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 31 George-street, Hanover-square, Lon-
don, W.
*Plimpton, R. T., M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, S.W.
tPlowright, Henry J., F.G.S. Brampton Foundries, Chester-
field
tPlunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds,
{Pocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.
fPorz, Wittram, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*Pollex, Albert. Dale-road, Cavendish Park, Rockferry.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff,
§Popplewell, W. C., M.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
{Porrat, WynpHAw 8S. Malshanger, Basingstoke.
*Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D, All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.
{Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
t{Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.
tPotter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Portland-terrace, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
*Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.Z.S., Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House,
Banbury Road, Oxford.
. *Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-square, London, W.
. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.
. {Powell, John. Waunarlwydd House, near Swansea.
. *Powell, Richard Douglas, M.D. 62 Wimpole-street, London, W.
- {Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.
- §Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, St. Ann-street,.
Manchester.
. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
. {Porntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham.
. [Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham,
. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 27 Norham-road, Oxford.
- [Pratt, Bickerton. Brynderwen, Maindee, Newport, Monmouth-
shire,
78
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1869. *Prercr, Winttam Henry, C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
1888. *Preece, W. Llewellyn. Telegraph Department, Midland Railway,
1884.
1894.
1892.
1889,
1894.
1893.
1893.
1884,
1856.
1882.
1888.
1875.
1891.
1892.
1864,
1889.
1876.
1888.
Derby. ;
*Pyemio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.
§Prentice, Manning, F.C.S. Woodfield, Stowmarket.
§Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.
§ Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.K., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.
tPreston, Arthur E. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.
*Preston, Martin Inett. 9 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.
§ Preston, Professor THOMAS. Bardowie, Orwell Park, Dublin.
*Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.
*Pricg, Rev. BarrHotomew, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Master
of Pembroke College, Oxford.
{Price, John E., FSA. 27 Bedford-place, Russell-square, London,
W.C.
Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
{Pricz, L. L. F.R., M.A., F.S.S8. Oriel College, Oxford.
*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.
tPrice, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.
{Prince, Professor Edward E. Canada.
*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Giles, Norwich.
*PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, London, W.
tProbyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, London, 8. W.
1881.§§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.
1863.
1885.
1884.
1879.
1872.
1871.
1875.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1842.
1887.
1885,
1852.
1881,
1882.
1874.
1866.
1878.
1884.
1860.
1885,
1885,
tProctor, R. 8S. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
tProfeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road,
Ilfracombe.
*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston, Stevenage, Herts.
*Puckle, Thomas John. 42 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
tPullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
*Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Ochil, Perth.
{Pullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.
*Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham,
§Pumpnrey, Witiram. 2 Oakland-road, Redland, Bristol.
§Purpiz, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.
{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.I). Belfast.
{Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York, The
Deanery, York.
{Purrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton.
{Purser, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
{Pursrr, Professor Jonny, M.A., M.R.L.A. Queen’s College,
Belfast.
tPurser, John Mallet. 8 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, London, W.
*Pusey, 8S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon,
§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
§Pye-Smith, Mrs, 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
Year of
Election.
1868.
1879.
1896.
1893.
1894.
_ 1870.
1870.
1896.
1877.
1879.
1855.
1888.
1887.
1864.
1896.
1894.
1885.
1863.
1884,
1884,
1861.
1889.
1876.
1883.
1887.
1835.
1869.
1868.
1893.
1863.
1861.
1889.
1864,
1892.
1870.
1895.
1874.
1889.
1870.
{Pyz-Suirn, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, London, 8.1.
tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
§Quaill, Edward. 3 Palm-grove, Claughton.
{Quick, James. University College, Bristol.
tQuick, Professor Walter J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A.
tRabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, London, S.W.
{Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
§Radcliffe, Herbert. Balderstone Hall, Rochdale.
tRadford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
{ Radford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.
tRadway, C. W. 9 Bath-street, Bath.
*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester.
tRainey, James T. 3 Kent-gardens, Haling, London, W.
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.
*Ramage, Hugh. 10 Bridle-road, Crewe.
*Rampaut, ArRtauR A., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.AS., M.R.LA.,
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin,
and Astronomer Royal for Ireland. Dunsink Observatory,
Co. Dublin.
tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.
{Ramsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.
tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.
tRamsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.
tRamsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.
{tRamsay, Major R. G. W. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.
*Ramsay, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, London, W.C.
tRamsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, London, W.
t{Ramsbottom, John. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*Rance, Henry. 6 Ormond-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletawn-road, West Ken-
sington, London, W.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.
tRansom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.
{Ransom, Witt1aM Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
{Ransome, Artuur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Sunninghurst, Deane
Park, Bournemouth.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
§Rapkin, J. B. Sideup, Kent.
omg Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
ais
tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, Kast Twickenham.
§Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.
§Rathbone, R. R. Glan y Menai, Anglesey.
tRaruszoneg, W., LL.D. Green Bank, Liverpool.
tRavenstern, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Albion House, 91 Upper Tulse-
hill, London, 8. W.
tRawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
}Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
80 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1866. *Rawiinson, Rey. Canon Gerorer, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
1887. tRawson, Harry. Earlswood, Hllesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.
1875. §Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
1886. {Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A., F.C.S. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-
gate, London, S.W.
1868. *RayteicH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S.,
FE.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.
1895.§§Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
Basingstoke.
1883. *Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. | Queen-street, Lancaster.
1896. §Read, Charles H., F.S.A. British Museum, London, W.C,
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A. 12 Blake-street, York.
1870, {ReapE, THomas Metiarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
1884, §Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.
1852. *RepreRN, Professor PErER, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
1892. {Redgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The Elms, Westgate-
road, Beckenham, Kent.
1863. {Redmayne, Giles, 20 New Bond-strest, Londen, W.
1889. {Redmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.
1889. {Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1888. {Rednall, Miss Edith E. Ashfield House, Neston, near Chester.
1890. *Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 4 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
1891. {Reece, Lewis Thomas. Somerset House, Roath, Cardiff.
1861. {ReEp, Sir Epwarp James, K.C.B., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
gardens, London, S. W.
1889. tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.
1891. *Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.
1894, *Rees, Edmund 8. G. 15 Merridale-lane, Wolverhampton.
1891. §Rees, I. Treharne, M Inst.C.E. Highfield, Penarth.
1891. tRees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.
1891. {Rees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.
1888. tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
1875. {Rees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
1881. §Reid, Arthur 8., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
1883. *Rerp, CLrement, F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8S.W.
1892. {Reid, KE. Waymouth, B.A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee.
1889. }Reid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1876. {Reid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1892.§§Reid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.
1887. *Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.
1850. {Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
1893.§§Reinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.
1875. §Rernotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.
1863. {REnats, KE. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
1894, §Renpatt, G. H., M.A., Principal of University College, Liverpool.
1891; §Rendell, Rev. J. R. Whinside, Whalley-road, Accrington.
1885. tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
1889. *Rennie, George B. Hooley Lodge, Redhill.
1867. {Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1883, *Reynolds, A. H. 2 Waterloo Road, Birkdale, Southport.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 81
Year of
Election.
1871.
1870,
1858.
1896.
1896.
1887.
1883.
1890.
1858.
1877.
1888.
1884.
1877.
1891,
1891.
1889,
1888,
1863,
1869,
1882,
1884.
{Rurnorps, JAMEs Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.
“Reynotps, Osporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 23 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Rernotps, Rrowarp, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, and Cliff Lodge, Hyde
Park, Leeds.
§Reynolds, Richard S. 73 Smithdown-lane, Liverpool.
§Rhodes, Albert. Fieldhurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire.
{Rhodes, George W. The Cottage, Victoria Park, Manchester.
tRhodes, Dr. James. 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.
{Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.
*Rhodes, John. Potternewton House, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
fRhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St, George’s-road,
London, S.W.
{Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.
*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Rua
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.
tRichards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.
{tRichards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.
{Richards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.
*Ricwarpson, ARTHUR, M.D. University College, Bristol.
tRicwarpson, Sir Bensamin Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 25
Manchester-square, London, W.
“Richardson, Charles. 6 The Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick,
London.
§Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.
*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, 150 Piccadilly,
’ London, W.
1889.§§Richardson, Hugh, Sedbergh School, Sedbergh R.S.0O., York-
1884,
1896.
1870.
1889,
1881.
1876,
1891,
1891,
1886,
1868,
1883,
1894.
1861.
1889,
1884,
1881,
1&83.
1883.
1892.
1873.
18
shire.
*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.
§Richardson, Nelson M. Montevideo, Chickerell, near Weymouth,
{Richardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.
fRichardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
PRichatdson, W.8B. Elm Bank, York.
§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow,
{Riches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff,
§Riches, T. Hurry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.
§Richmond, Robert. Leighton Buzzard.
tRickerrs, Cuarzes, M.D.,F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead,
*RIDpELL, Major-General Cartes J. Bucuanay, O.B., R.A., F.R.S,
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
*RipeAL, Samus, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-mansions, London, S.W,
§Ripiey, E. P. 6 Paget-road, Ipswich.
{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
TRidley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.
{Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.
*Rigg, Arthur. 5 Harewood-square, London, N.W.
*Rieae, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, London, E.
{ Rigg, F. F., M.A. 32 Queen’s-road, Southport.
tRintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.
{Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds,
96. ¥
82
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1892.
1867.
1889.
1869.
1888.
1869,
1878.
1887.
1859.
1870.
1894.
1891.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1896.
1883.
1868.
1883.
1859,
1884.
1883.
1883.
1892.
1888,
1886.
1861.
1887.
1883.
1863.
1878.
1895.
1876.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
1863.
1891,
1888,
1870.
1872.
1890.
1896.
1896,
*Rrvon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.LE.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment,
London, 8.W.
}Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh,
tRitchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
{Ritson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Rivington, John. Babbicomhe, near Torquay.
tRobb, W. J. Firth College, Sheffield.
*Ropsins, Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.
tRoberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.
*Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
*Roserts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.ALS., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.
*Roberts, Miss Janora. 5 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
} Roberts, Rev. John Crossby, F.R.G.S. 41 Derby-road, East Park,
Northampton. e
tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square,
London, E.C.
tRoberts, Samuel, The Towers, Sheffield.
tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.
§ Roberts, Thomas J. 31 North- road, Cowley Hill, St. Helens.
tRoserts, Sir Wit11aM, M.D., FR. S. 8 Manchester-square, W.
*Roperts-Austen, W. Cuanptrr, ©.B., F.RB.S., F.C.S., Chemist to
the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Col-
lege of Science, London. Royal Mint, London, E
tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.
JRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
tRobertson, I. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.
tRobertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.
tRobertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, Kdinburgh.
“Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, St.
John's Wood, London, N. W.
*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.
tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
§ Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 13 Victoria-street, Londoa, S.W.
tRobinson, John. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.
tRobinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.
tRobinson, Johu L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.
t{Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, London, 8. W.
*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Beechwood, Darlington.
tRobinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
tRobinson, T. W, U. Houchton-le-Spring, Durham.
tRobinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.
tRobottom, Arthur. 3 St, Alban’ s-villas, Highgate-road, London,
NAW:
*Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S,W,
*Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.
{Rochester, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, Kennington-park, S.E,
§Rock, W. H. 75 Botanic-road, Liverpool.
§ Rodger, Alexander M, The Museum, Tey Street, Perth.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 8&3
Year of
Election.
1885.
1894.
1885.
1866.
1867.
1890.
1883.
1882,
1884,
1889.
1876.
1892.
1891.
1894.
1869.
1872.
1881.
1855.
1883.
1892.
1894,
1885.
1874,
1887.
1880,
1859,
1869,
1891.
1893,
1865.
1876.
1884.
186],
1861.
1883.
1887.
1881.
1865,
1877.
1890.
1881.
1881.
1876.
1883.
1885.
1888.
“Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.
*Rodger, J. W. 80 Anerley-park, London, 8.E.
*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 Jokn-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.
tRoe, Sir Thomas. Grove-villas, Litchurch.
tRogers, James 8S. Ltosemill, by Dundee.
“Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.
tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.
§Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.
*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth.
tRogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham
tRoruir, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.
*Romanes, John. 3 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.
{Roénnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Rooper, T. Godolphin. The Elms, High Harrogate.
tRoper, C. H. Macdalen-street, Exeter.
*Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
*Roper, W.O. Town Clerk, Lancaster.
*Roscog, Sir Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
10 Bramham-gardens, London, S.W.
*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, London,
S.W.
{Rose, Hugh. Kilravock Lodge, Blackford-avenue, Edinburgh.
*Rose, T. K., D.Sc. 9 Royal Mint, London, E,
tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.
tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S, Toronto, Canada.
tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.
tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.G.8. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, London, 8.W.
*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.
*Rossz, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.RS., F.RAS., MARIA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown,
Treland.
§Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescott-street, Halifax, Yorkshire,
tRothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
*Rothera, George Bell, F.L.S. Orston House, Sherwood Rise,
Nottingham.
tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
*Rouse, M. L. 54 Westbourne-villas, West Brighton.
tRovurn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc, FBS, F.R.A.S., F.G.S, St,
_ Peter’s College, Cambridge.
tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow. (2,
tRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.
{ Rowe, Rev. Alfred W., M.A. Felstead, Essex.
Rowe, Rev. G. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.
Rowe, Rey. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.
tRowz, J. Brooxine, F.L8., FSA. 16 Lockyer-street, Pty-
mouth.
tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds,
*Rowntree, JouN 8. Mount Villas, York.
*Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.
{Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
{Roy, Cartes 8., M.D., F.R.S., Trinity College, Cambridge.
tRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.
tRoy, Parbati Churn, B.A. Calcutta, Bengal, India.
F2
84
Year of
Election
1875.
1892.
1869.
1882.
1896.
1887.
1847.
1889.
1875.
1884.
1890.
1883,
1852.
1876.
1886,
1852.
1886.
1883.
1891.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1875.
1889.
1865.
1861.
1883.
1871,
1885.
1866.
1886.
1898.
1881.
1857.
1883.
1873.
1872.
1887.
LIST OF MEMBERS,
*Riicxer, A. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, London. (GENERAL TREASURER.)
19 Gledhow-gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
§Rupter, fF. W., F.G.8. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.
{Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Union-court Chambers, Old
Broad-street, London, F.C.
§Rundell, T. W. 25 Castle-street, Liverpocl.
§Ruscoe, John, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Man-
chester.
{Rusxin, Jonny, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.S. Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side.
tRussell, The Right Hon. Earl, Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.
*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere,
tRussell, George. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.E,
{Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.
*Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
Russell, John. 89 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
{Russell, Robert, F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
fRussell, Thomas H. 38 Newhall-street, Birmingham,
*RussELL, WILLIAM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 384 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
{Rust, Arthur. . Eversleigh, Leicester.
*Ruston, Joseph. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln.
§Ruthertord, George. Garth House, Taft’s Well, Cardiff.
§RurwerrorD, Wit114M, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physi-
ology in the University of Edinburgh.
fRutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.
ftRuxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell-
gardens, London, S.W.
tRyalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 38 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C,
tRyder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
*RyLanps, THOMAS GLAZEBROOK, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.
{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.
fSadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, London,
{Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
*Sr. ALBANS, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.
§St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle-road, Cardiff.
JSaisBury, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S,
20 Arlington Street, London, S.W.
{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.
{Satmon, Rev. Grorez, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.
{Salmond, Robert G. Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.
*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells,
{Satvrn, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hawksfold, Haslemere.
tSamson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 85
Year of
Election.
1861.
1894,
1878.
1883,
1884.
1883,
1872.
1883.
1898.
1896.
1896.
1892,
1886,
1896.
1896.
1886.
1886.
1868,
1886.
1881.
1885,
1846.
1884,
1891.
1884,
‘1887,
1871.
1883.
1883.
1872.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1884,
1879,
1888.
1880,
1892.
1842,
1887.
1883.
1885,
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter's-square, Manchester.
§Samurtson, The Right Hon. Sir Bernuwarp, Bart., F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-gate, Lopdon, 8. W.
{Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent,
*Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter. .
tSanders, Henry, 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada,
tSanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. . East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, London, S.W.
§Sanperson, J. 8. Burpon, M.A., M.D., D.Se., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of
Oxford. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
{Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford,
{Sanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich,
§Saner, Mrs. Hightield, Northwich.
§Sang, William D.. 28 Whyte’s Causeway, Kirkcaldy, Fife.
§Sankey, Percy K. Down Lodge, Fairlight, Hastings.
*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.
§Sargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.
tSauborn, John Wentworth. "Albion, New York, U.S.A.
{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund-street, Birmingham,
{Saunders, A., M. Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn. .
tSaunders, Cc. T, Temple-row, Birmingham.
{SaunpeErs, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, Ww.
tSaunders, Rev. J. C. Cambridge.
{SaunpErs, TRELAWNEY W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Mio setenl
Newton Abbot, Dev on,
{Saunders, William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.
jSaunders, W. H. R. Lilanishen, Cardiff.
TSaunderson, C. E. 26 St: Famille-street, Montreal, Canada. ;
§Savage, Rev. E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Parsonage, Douglas,
Isle of Man.
{Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.
tSavery,G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.
*Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
§Sarycr, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D., Professor of Assyriology in the
University of Oxford. Queen’ s College, Oxford.
tSayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Scarborough, George. W hinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.
tScarth, William Bain. Wi innipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
*ScHArer, H. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.8., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, London. (GENERAL Secretary.) Croxley
Green, Rickmansworth.
*SCHARFF, Ropert F., Pl.D., B.Se., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)
tSchloss, David F. 1 Knar esborough-place, London, 8.W.
Schofield, Joseph, Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
{Schofield, IN Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old ‘Trafford, Man-
chester.
{Schotield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.
§Scholes, L. Eden-terrace, Harriet-street, Stretford, Manchester.
Scuunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C. Ss. Oaklands, Kersal ied
Manchester,
86 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election
1873, *ScuustER, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.
1887. {Schwabe, Colonel G, Salis. Portland House, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.
1847. *Scnarer, Puripe Luriey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G8.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.
1883. *Scrarer, W. Lurtry, M.A., F.Z.S, South African Museum, Cape
Town.
1867. {Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
1881. *Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. University Chemical Laboratory,
Cambridge.
1882. {Scott, Colonel A.deC.,R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
1878. *Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.
1881. §Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Lancashire College, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
1889, *Scort, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.. The Old Palace, Rich-
mond, Surrey. :
1885. {Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.
1886. {Scott, Robert. 161 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
1857. *Scorr, Ropert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.8., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8S. W.
1884. *Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, S.E.
1869. {Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
1895. §Scott-Elliott, G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S. Newton, Dumfries,
1881. *Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.
1883. {Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.
1895. §Scull, Miss E. M. L. 2 Langland-gardens, Finchley-road,
London, N.W.
1890. §Searle, G. F. C., B.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
1859. {Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.
1880 {Srpewrcr, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1861. *SrrLey, Harry Govier, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geolory in King’s College, London. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
1895. {Surron, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Abbeystead, Lancaster.
1891. {Selby, Arthur L.,M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.
1893. {Srrsy-Bieen. L. A., M.A. University College, Oxford.
1855, {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
1879. {Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
1885. {Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
1887. §Semple, James C., F.R.G.S., M.R.I.A. 2 Marine-terrace, Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.
1892. {Semple, William. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
1888. *Senrer, AtFREeD, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.
1858. *Senior, George. Ashgate-road, Chesterfield.
1888. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. Crystal Palace, London, 8.1.
1870. *Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1892.§§Seton, Miss Jane. 387 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.
1895. §Seton-Karr, H. W. Atherton Grange, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1892, §Seward, A. C., M.A., F.G.S. 338 Chesterton-road, Cambridge.
1891, {Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1891. {Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 87
Year of
Election.
1888.
1883,
1871.
1867.
1881.
1869,
1878.
1896.
1886,
1883.
1870.
1896.
1865.
1887.
1870.
1891.
1889.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1891.
1884.
1878.
1865.
1881.
1885.
1885.
1890,
1883.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1896.
1888.
1886.
1892.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1889,
1885.
1883.
1870.
1888.
1875.
1882,
1889.
1883.
1883.
1883,
tShackles, Charles F, Hornsea, near Hull,
{Shadwell, John Lancelot, 30 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Groves
road, London, W.
*Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, London, 8.W.
{Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
{Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
*Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter,
Smarr, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.
§Sharp, Mrs. E. 65 Sankey-street, Warrington,
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
tSharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
{Sharples, Charles H., F.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
§Shaw, Frank. Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.
tShaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
*Shaw, James B. 7 The Beeches, Didsbury, Manchester.
{Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
{Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, London, E.C,
*Shaw, Mrs. M. 8., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.
§Shaw, Saville, F.C.S. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
*Suaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
tShaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
tSheen, Dr. Alfred. 28 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.
{Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.
tShenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.
{SHensronr, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
tShepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.
tShepherd, Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen.
tShepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds.
{Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.
{Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
tSherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin,
tSherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, wd Lancaster.
§SHERRINGTON, C. 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 16 Grove-road, Liverpool.
*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.
tShield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, London, 8.W.
tShields, John, D.Se., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.
*Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.
tShinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey,S.W.
*Surptey, ArtHUR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
{Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.
tShirras, G. F, 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tShone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.
*SHOOLBRED, J. N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.
tShoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
{SHorz, Tuomas W., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
{SHorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, E.C.
tSibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Upper Brook-street, London, W.
{Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.
*Sidebotham, Edward John. TErlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, James Nasmyth, Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.
88.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1877.
1885,
1873.
1878.
1859.
1871.
1862.
1874.
1876.
1887.
1847.
1893.
1871.
1883.
1887.
1859.
1863.
1857.
1894,
1883.
1896.
1887.
1874.
1870.
1864,
1892.
1879.
1883.
1885.
1892.
1888.
1870.
1873.
1889.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1884.
1849.
1887.
1887,
1885.
1889,
1876.
*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson, M.P. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sipewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-gardens. Campden Hill, London, W.
tSicerson, Professor GrorcE, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 8 Clare-
street, Dublin.
tSim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh,
{Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
{Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.
tSimon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.
*Simon, Henry. Lawnhurst, Didsbury, near Manchester.
{Smon, Sir Jony, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.CS., Consulting
Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square,
London, W.
{Simpson, A. H., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottingham-
shire.
*Suupson, ALEXANDER R.,M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Simpson, F, Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.
{Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.
{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgetield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
{Snepson, Maxwe tt, M.D., LL.D., F.R.8., F.C.S., 9 Barton-street,
West Kensington, London, W.
§Simpson, Thomas. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, London, W.
{Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
*Simpson, W., F.G.S. The Gables, Halifax.
tSinelair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.
tSinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
*Sinclair, W. P. Rivelyn, Prince's Park, Liverpool.
*Sirear, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C.I.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.
{Sisley, Richard, M.D. 11 York-street, Portman-square, London, W.
{Skertchly, Sydney B. J. 8 Loughborough-terrace, Carshalton,
Surrey.
{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
{Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.
{Skinner, William. 35 George-square, Edinburgh.
§Sxring, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.
§StapEn, Watrter Percy, F.G.S., F.L.S. 13 Hyde Park-gate, Lon-
don, S.W.
{Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
§Siater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
tSleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Clifton, Bristol.
§Slocombe, James. Redland Honse, Fitzalan, Cardiff.
tSlooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
tSloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
§Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Se., F.G.S. County Council Offices, New-
port, Monmouthshire.
§Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham,
§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
*Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
{Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 89
Year of
Election.
1877.
1890.§
1876
1876.
1867.
1892.
1892,
1872.
1874.
1887.
1873,
1887.
1889,
1865.
1886,
1886,
1886.
1886.
1892,
1866.
1887.
1892.
1885.
1860,
1870.
1889.
1888.
1885,
1876.
1883.
1837.
1885,
1870,
1866.
1873.
1867.
1867.
1859,
1894.
1884,
1892.
1885,
1896.
1862.
tSmelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S, Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
§Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
. {Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
[Smieton, John G. 3 Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham,
London, S.W.
{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smirx, Apam Gittiss, F.R.S.E. 35 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edin-
burgh.
{Smith, Atseaider: B.Se., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.
*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S, Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W.
*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
tSmith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
*Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S, The Ob-
servatory, Madras.
tSaarn, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
{Smith, Edwin, 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
*Smith, Mrs. Emma. MHencotes House, Hexham.
{Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
{Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.
tSmith, E, Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.
*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
§Surra, Rev. F.J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford.
tSmith, Rev. Frederick. 16 Grafton-street, Glasgow.
{Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 21 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.
*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.
tSmith, H. L. Crabwal! Hall, Cheshire.
*Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.8.S. 49 Beaumont-square, E.
Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.
{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
*Smith, J. Guthrie. 65 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, tron Bridge,
Shropshire.
tSmith, M. Holroyd, Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax.
Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
{Saura, Roserr H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Birmingham.
{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C,
{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire,
{Smith, Thomas. Dundee.
tSmith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.
Coa Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York+
shire.
§Smith, T, Walrond. 32 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.
{Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.
“Smith, Watson. University College, London, W.C.
*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.
90
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1875.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1892.
1882.
1874,
1850.
1888.
1857.
1888.
1888.
1887.
1878.
1889,
1879,
1892,
1859,
1879.
1892.
1888.
1886.
1865.
1859.
1887.
1883.
1890.
1863.
1893.
1889,
1887,
1884,
1889,
1891,
1863.
1864,
1894.
1864,
1878.
1864,
1854,
1883,
*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton Downs, Bristol.
{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{SmirHELLs, ARTHUR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Yorke
shire College, Leeds.
tSmithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York.
{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.
§Smithson, G. E. T. Tyneside Geographical Society, Barras Bridge,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.
{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.
*SmytTH, CHARLES Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.
{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.
*SuytH, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.
*Snapz, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.
{Snell, Albion I’. Brightside, Salusbury-road, Brondesbury, London,
N.W.
{Snell, Rev. Bernard J.,M.A. 5 Park-place, Broughton, Manchester,
§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C,
tSnell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, S.W.
*Sotnas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Professor
of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity College,
and Lisnabin, Dartry Park-road, Rathgar, Dublin.
*Somervail, Alexander. Torquay.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
*Sorsy, H. Crrrron, LL.D.,F-.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.
tSorley, James, F.R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Sorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.
{Southall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-
ham.
*Southall, John Tertius. Parlkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
tSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
§Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 44 Brown-street, Manchester.
{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.
{Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.
*Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.
*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.
{Spence, Faraday. 67 Grey-street, Hexham.
{Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.
§Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.
*Spencer, John. Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Spencer, Richard Evans. 6 Working-street, Cardiff.
*Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co,
Durham.
*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High
bury, London, N.
{Spiers, A. H. Newton College, South Devon.
*Sprnier, JoHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N,
§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, S.W.
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
*Spracuz, Tuomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, 26 St. Andrew-
square, Edinburgh.
{Spratling, W. J., BSc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, S.E.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 91
Year of
Election.
1888.
1884
1888.
1884.
1892.
1883.
1865.
1881.
1883.
1894.
1893.
1883.
1876.
1894.
1873.
1881.
1881.
1884.
1892,
1896
1891.
1878.
1887.
1887.
1884,
1884,
1884.
1879.
1870.
1880.
1886.
1892.
1863.
1889.
1890.
1885,
1887.
1892,
1864.
1885.
1886.
1875.
1892.
1876.
{Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, London, E.C.
*Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.
*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 7 and 8 Paternoster-row, London, E.C.
{Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of En-
gineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. 49 May-
tield-road, Edinburgh.
*Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.
tSranrorp, Epwarp C.C., F.C.8. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
*Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.
‘{Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
*Stansfield, Alfred. Royal Mint, London, E.
{Staples, Sir Nathaniel, Bart. Lisson, Cookstown, Treland.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin,
{Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe.
Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 3 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
{Stavert, Rev. W. J., M.A., F.C.S. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-
Craven, Yorkshire.
*Stead, Charles. Red Barns, Freshfield, Liverpool.
tStead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
tStead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
{Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.
*Sreppine, Rev. Tuomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The
Common, Tunbridge Wells.
*Stebbing, W. P. D. 169 Gloucester-terrace, London, W.
{Steeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
{Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Steinthal, Rey. S. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.
{Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.
{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Stephens, W. Hudson. Lowville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A.
*SrmpHEnson, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.
*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. 23 Elm Grove-terrace, London-road,
Salisbury.
*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, near Swansea.
{Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester.
{Stevenson, D, A., B.Se., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.
*Srnvenson, James C. Westoe, South Shields,
{Stevenson, T. Shannon. Westoe, South Shields.
*Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S. Somerleyton Rectory, Lowes-
toft.
*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen,
*Stewart, A. H. St. Thomas's Hospital, London, S.E.
{Stewart, C. Hunter. 3% Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.
ae Cuartzs, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, London,
{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, Duncan. Bandora, Bridge of Allan, N.B.
*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.
{Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.
{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St..George’s-road, Glasgow.
92
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1867.
1876,
1867,
1865.
1890.
1883,
1845.
1887.
1862,
1886.
1886.
1874.
1888.
1876,
18853.
1857.
1895,
1895.
1878.
1861.
1876.
1888.
1887.
1887.
1873.
1884,
1888.
1874.
1871.
1881,
1876,
1863.
1889.
1882.
1881.
1889,
1879.
1884.
1883.
1887.
{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
{Srrrtine, Wit114M, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.
*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,
*Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
{Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.
*SrockeR, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
*Stokes, Sir GEorRGE GABRIEL, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lenstield Cottage, Cambridge.
tStone, EK. D., F.U.S. 19 Lever-street, Piccadilly, Manchester,
{Sronz, Epwarp Jamus, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A‘S., Director of
the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
{Stone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
{Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, London, E.C.
{Sronz, Joun. . 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.
{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. 49 Bolsover-street, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
{Stone, Thomas William, 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush,
London, W.
tSroney, Bryon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.
*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 8 Upper Hornsey Rise, London, N.
*Stoney, F. G. M., M.Inst.C.4. Tumbricane, Ipswich.
*Stoney, G. Gerald. 90 Meldon-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*SronEy, GrorcE JoHwnsronz, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MR.LA. 8
Upper Hornsey Rise, London, N.
§Stopes, Henry, I'.G.S. Mansion House, Swanscombe, Greenhithe,
Kent.
tStopes, Mrs. Mansion House, Swanscombe, Greenhithe, Kent.
TStorer, Edwin. Woodlands, Crumpsall, Manchester.
*Storey, H. L. Yealand Conyers, Carnforth.
§Storr, William, The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, F.C.
§Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.
*Stothert, Percy K. Audley, Park-gardens, Bath.
{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
*SrracueEy, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., C.S.I., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, W.
{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, 8S. W.
tStrain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
{Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mill-on-Tyne.
{Strange, Rey. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.
{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.
§Streatfeild, H.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Leigham Court-road, Streat-
ham, 8.W.
{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
tStringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.
*Stroud, Professor H., M.A., D.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
Year of
Election.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 93
1887. *Srroup, Wit114M, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
1876.
1878.
1876.
1872.
1892.
1884.
18938.
1896.
1888,
lege, Leeds.
*SrrurueErs, Joun, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Aberdeen. 24 Buckingham-terrace, Edin-
burgh.
{Strype, W.G. Wicklow.
*Stuart, Charles Maddock, St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.
*Stuart, Rev. Edward A.,M.A. St. Matthew, Bayswater, 5 Prince’s-
square, London, W.
{Stuart, Morton Gray, M.A, Ettrickbank, Selkirk.
{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada,
{Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
§Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
*Stubbs, Rev. E. Thackeray, M.A. Grove Lea, Lansdowne-grove,
Bath.
1885.§§Stump, Edward C. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.
1879.
1891.
1884,
1887.
1888,
1883,
1873.
1863.
1886.
1892.
1884
1863.
1889.
1891.
1881.
1881,
1879.
1883,
1887.
1870.
1887.
1890.
1891.
1889,
1873.
1887.
1895.
1890.
1896,
1887.
1893.
~ 1870.
1885.
1881.
*Styring, Robert. 64 Crescent-road, Sheffield.
*Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada,
{Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, London, E.
{Sunderland, John E. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.
tSutcliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.
tSutclitfe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.
tSutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
tSutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.
{Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.
{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
tSutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.
{Swales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.
§Swan, JoserH Witson, M.A., F.R.S, 58 Holland Park, London, W,
tSwanwick, Frederick. "Whittington, Chesterfield.
{Sweeting, Rev. T. E. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.
§SwINBURNE, JAuEs. 4 Hatherley-road, Kew Gardens, London,
*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon, ’
Cheshire.
§SwinHor, Colonel C. Avenue House, Oxford.
t{Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.
§Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S. The Municipal Technical School,
Gravesend.
{Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D, St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, Elmbourne-
‘ road, Tooting Common, London, 8.W.
§Sykes, E.R. 8 Gray’s Inn-place, London, W,C,
tSykes, Joseph. 113 Beeston-hill, Leeds.
§Sykes, Mark L. 19 Manor-street, Ardwick Green, Manchester,
*Sykes, T. H. Cringle House, Cheadle, Cheshire.
Sytvester, James JosepH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry, Oxford. Athenzeum Club, S.W.
tSymes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.
tSymus, Rrcnarp Guascorr, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
. Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
tSymington, Johnson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.
*Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.
94
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1859.
1855.
1886.
1872.
1896.
1865.
1877.
1871.
1867.
1894.
1893.
1891,
1891.
1890.
1892.
1883.
1878.
1861.
1857.
1893,
1890.
1858.
1884.
1887.
1874.
1887.
1881.
1884.
1882.
1887.
1861.
188].
1865.
1876.
1884,.
1881.
1883,
1870.
1887.
1883.
§Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, London,
N.W.
*Symons, WittraM, F.C.S. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton.
§Symons, W. H., M.D. (Brux.), M.R.C.P., F.1.C. Guildhall,
Bath.
tSynge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.R.GS. United Service
Club, Pall Mail, London, S.W.
§Tabor, J. M. 20 Petherton-road, Canonbury, N.
{Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.
*Tart, Lawson, F.R.C.S. 7 The Crescent, Birmingham.
tTarr, PererR GurHrig, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
tTait, P.M., F.S.S. 37 Charlotte-street, Portland-place, London, W.
tTakakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford,
tTalbot, Herbert, M.I.E.E. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham. 2
tTamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.
tanner, Colonel H. C. B., F.R.G.S. Fiesole, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
{Tanner, H. W. Luoyn, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.
*Tansley, Arthur G. 167 Adelaide-road, London, N.W.
*Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8., F.R.AS.
Woodlands Park, Altrincham, Cheshire.
tTarpry, Huew. Dublin.
*Tarratt, Henry W. St. Augustine, Southbourne, Christchurch,
Hants.
*Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.
tTate, George, Ph.D., F.C.S. College of Chemistry, Duke-street,
Liverpool.
tTate, Thomas, F.G.S. 5 Eldon-mount, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds,
*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.
§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
{Taylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
tTaylor, George Spratt, F.C.S. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W. :
*Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, 8.W.
*Taylor, H. M.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.
tTaytor, Rev. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. The Old Palace, Richmond,
Surrey.
*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.
t'Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham,
tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.
*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.
tTaylor, Rey. S. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.
tTaylor, 8. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport,
}Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon,
{Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.
tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.
1895.§§Taylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
1893,
Society, Edinburgh.
tTaylor, W. F. Bhootan, Whitehorse Road, Croydon, Surrey.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 95
Year of
Election.
1894,
1884,
1858.
1885.
1879.
1880.
1863.
1889,
1894.
1882,
1881.
1896.
1892.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1885.
1871.
1871,
1870.
1891.
1871.
1891,
1891.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1884,
1875.
1869.
1881.
1869.
1891.
1880,
1883.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1875.
1891.
18838.
1891.
1882.
1888.
1885,
1896.
1883.
1891.
*Taylor, W. W. 10 King-street, Oxford.
{Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.
{THALE, THomas PRIDGIN, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street, Leeds,
tTxatt, J. J. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S, 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.
{Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N.,F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester,
{Trwpte, The Right Hon. Sir Rrowarp, Bart., G.C.S.L, C.LE.,
D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, S.W,
tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Neweastle-upon-Tyne,
{Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.
§Terras, J. A., B.Sc. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.
§Terrill, William, 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.
{Terry, Sir Joseph. Hawthorn Villa, York.
*Terry, Rev. T. R. The Rectory, East Isley, Berkshire.
*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.
{Tetley, C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
+Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
*Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Gower-street, London, W.C.
tThin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W.
{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
{TuiseLron-Dyerr, W. T., C.M.G.,C.LE., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D,, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.
tThom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.
tThomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
+Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon
mouthshire.
*Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O,
tThomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.
§Thomas, E. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.
+ Thomas, Ernest C., B.A. 13 South-square, Gray's Inn, London, W.C,
{Tnomas, F. Wotrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
tThomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.
{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
§THomas, J. Brount. Southampton.
{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.
+Thomas, John Tubb, L.R.C.P. Eastfields, Newport, Monmouthshire,
*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Drumpellier House, Brunswick-
road, Gloucester.
tThomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.
{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.
tThomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.
tThomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton,
{Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
t{Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.
{Thompson, Charles 0. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.
tThompson, D’Arcy W., B.A., Professor of Zoology in University
College, Dundee. University College, Dundee.
*Thompson, Edward P. Whitchurch, Salop.
*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.
t{Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.
96
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1893.
1870.
1889.
1883.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1891,
1861.
1876.
1885.
1876,
1883.
1896,
1896.
1867.
1894,
1889.
1868.
1876.
1891.
1896.
1890.
1883.
1871.
1874,
1880.
1871.
1886,
1887.
1867.
1883,
1845,
1881.
1871,
1881.
1864,
1871.
1883.
1896.
1868,
1889,
*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, London, S.W.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.
{THomrson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.
t Thompson, Henry. 2 Eslington-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon,
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
{Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.
{Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.
*THompson, Isaac Cooxn, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 53 Croxteth-road,
Liverpool.
t{Thompson, J. Tatham. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.
*THompson, JosePpH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.
*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.
{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.
{THomeson, Srtvanus Paris, B.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A.S..
Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of
London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.
*Thompson, T. H. Redlynet-House, Green Walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Thompson, W. H., M.D., Professor of Physiology in Queen's
College, Belfast.
§Thompson, W. P. 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.
{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
{Thomson, Arthur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the
University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.
*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§THomson, JaAmus, F.G.8. 6 Stewart-street, Shawlands, Glasgow.
{Thomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glaszow.
tThomson, John. 704 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
§Thomson, John, 38 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.
§Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Zoology at the
School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.
{Tuomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. 6 Scrope-terrace,
Cambridge.
*THomson, JoHN MriLuar, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s
College, London. 85 Addison-road, London, W.
§THomson, WILLIAM,F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.
§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.
{Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
tThornley, J. E, Lyndon, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.
{Thornton, John. 38 Park-street, Bolton.
{Thornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.
§Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.
{Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lypiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham,
{Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.
{Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.
*Thorp, Josiah. Undercliffe, Holmfirth.
*THorP, WILLIAM, B.Sc., F.C.8. 24 Crouch Hall-road, Crouch End,
London, N.
{Tsorrr, T. E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.0.8., Principal
of the Government Laboratories, Somerset: House, London, W.C.
§Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 12 London-street, Southport,
§Thrift, William Edward. Trinity College, Dublin.
{Tuurtirer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., O.S.L, F.B.S., F.R.G.S,
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.
{Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
‘LIST OF MEMBERS. 97
Year of
Election.
1870.
1873.
1874.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1865.
1896.
1876.
tTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.L.A. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.
*Trppeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, S.W.
{Titpen, Wittram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London,
9 Ladbroke-gardens, London, W.
tTilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Tillyard, A. 2 M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.
{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.
{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.
§Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton.
¢Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
1891.§§Todd, Richard Rees. Por tuguese Consulate, Cardiff.
1889.
1857.
1896.
1888.
1864,
1887.
1887.
1865,
1865.
1873.
1887.
1886.
1875.
1886.
1884.
1884,
1873.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1876.
1883.
1870.
1868.
1891.
1884,
1868.
1891,
1887.
1883.
1884.
§Toll, John M. Carlton House, Kirkby, near Liverpool.
tTombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
§Toms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, London, S.W.
tTomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
*ToMLINSON, C'HARLES, F. Ri 8., F.C.8..-7 North-road, Highgate, N.
tTonge, Rev. Canon. ’Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
tTonge, James, F.G.S. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.
Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood. Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.
*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
= ee S.W.
{Topham, F. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.
tTopley, Mrs. W. 13 Havelock-road, Croydon.
{Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.
¢Torr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham,
tTorrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada.
*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
Townend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tTownsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
tTozer, Henry. Ashburton.
*Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.RS., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.
tTrarit, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.
tTRAILL, Wirtas A. Giant's ‘Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.
tTRaQvAIR, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Natural bine ’Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh
tTrayes, Valentine, Maindell Hall, Newport, Monmouthshire,
{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., EGS. Hartlepool.
{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
tTreharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.
Trench, F, A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*Tyench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.
{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.
{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884.§§Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
1879.
1896
U.S.A.
{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
: G
98 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871. {Trmmen, Rotanp, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 9 Osborne-mansions,
Northumberland-street, London, W.
1860, §TristraM, Rev. Heyry Baker, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Durham. The College, Durham.
1884. *Trotter, Alexander Pelham, Government Electrician and Inspector.
The Treasury, Cape Town.
1885. §Trorrer, Courts, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 17 Charlotte-square, Edin-
1891.
1887.
burgh.
tTrounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Trouton Frederick T., M.A., D.Sc. Trinity College, Dublin.
1896. §Truell, Henry Pomeroy, M.B., F.R.C.S. Clonmannon, Ashfield,
Co. Wicklow.
1885. *Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place,
1847.
1888.
1871.
1887.
18838.
1892.
1855.
1896.
1893.
1882.
1883.
1894.
1886.
1863.
1893.
1890.
1883.
1884.
1886.
1888.
1882
1865
1883.
1861.
1884.
1888.
1886.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1887.
London, W.
*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.
{Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D, 18 Daniel-street, Bath.
tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
{Tuke, W.C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
{TuppER, The Hon. Sir Cartes, Bart., G@.C.M.G.,C.B. 9 Victoria~
chambers, London, 8. W.
{Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawici.
{Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.
§Turner, Alfred. Elmswood Hall, Aigburth, Liverpool.
§Turner, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.
tTurner, G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.
{Turner, Mrs. G. 8. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.
*Turner, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., Sec. R.A.S., Professor of Astronomy
in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.
*Torner, THosas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.1.C. Ravenhurst, Rowley
Park, Stafford.
*TurNER, Sir Wriit1AM, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-
terrace, Edinburch.
tTurney, Sir Jouy, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.
*Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. School House, Swansea.
{Turrell, Miss S. S. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol.
*Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.
*Twigg,G.H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
§Tyack, Llewellyn Newton. University College, Bristol.
.§§Tyer, Edward. Horneck, 16 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, N. W.
. §Tytor, Epwarp Burnetr, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Anthropology, and Keeper of the Museum, Oxford University.
{Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S.__ Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, London, E,
*Tysoe, John. Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.
*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
t{Underhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.
{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.
§Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.
§Unwin, John. Eastcliffe Lodge, Southport.
t{Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, Liverpool.
*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W.
tUpton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 99
Year of
Election.
1872.
1876.
1859.
1866.
1880.
1885.
1896.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1883.
1886,
1868.
1865.
1870.
1869.
1884.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1895.
1881.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1896.
1896.
1864,
1890.
1868.
1883.
1891.
1886.
1860.
1890.
1888.
1890,
1896,
1891.
1884,
1886.
1870.
1892.
{Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, London, W.
tUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
fUrquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Treland.
{Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee,
tUssner, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
{Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.
*Vacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.
*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.
tVallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.
{Van Horne, Sir W.C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.
*Vansittart, he Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oalklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.
tVarpy, Rev. A.R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.
{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
*Vartey, 8S. Atrrep. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Varley, Mrs. S. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N. W.
{Varwell, P. Alphineton-street, Exeter.
{Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, London, W.
*VauGHan, His EminenceCardinal. Carlisle-place, Westminster,S. W.
{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
{Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.
§Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Howry Hall, Llandrindod, Radnorshire.
§Vetey, V. H.,M.A.,F.RS.,F.C.S. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.
*VerneY, Sir Epmunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,
Bucks.
*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.
tVernon, H. H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport,
*Vernon, Thomas T, 24 Waterloo-road, Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.
*Vicary, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
*Villamil, Major R. de, R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Char-
ing Cross, London, S.W.
{Vincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
*Vives, Sypney Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F-R.S., F.L.8., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.
{Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.
*Waclzill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.
{Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.
{Wadsworth, G.H. 3 Southfield-square, Bradford, Yorkshire,
tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.
§WaceEr, Harotp W.T. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
§Wailes, Ellen. Woodmead, Groombridge, Sussex.
tWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
{ Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.
{Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
ihn oe STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East York-
shire.
fWalcot, John. 50 Northumberland-street, Edinburgb,
a2
100
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1894.
1882.
1893.
1890.
fWaldstein, C., M.A., Ph.D. Slade Professor of Fine Art in the
University of Cambridge.
tWales, H. T. Pontypridd.
{Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.
{Watrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.
*Walkden, Samuel. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.
§ Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay.
{Walker, A. ‘'annett. Hunslet, Leeds. :
1896.§§ WALKER, B. E. (Locat Secretary). Toronto.
1885.
1896.
1885.
1885.
1883.
1891,
1883.
1894.
1866.
1896.
1890.
1894.
1866.
1855.
1867.
1886.
1866,
1884.
1888.
1887.
1883.
1881.
1895.
1896.
18833.
1863.
1892.
1887.
1889.
{Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
§ Walker, Major H. W. Gateacre, Liverpool.
{Walker, 0. C.,F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport, Shropshire.
§ Walker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York.
Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.
{ Walker, Frederick W. Hunslet, Leeds.
{Walker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool.
*Watxer, G.'T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
t{Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
§ Walker, Horace. Belvideré-road, Prince's Park, Liverpool.
t{Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrac2, Dundee.
*Walker, James, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
*Warxer, J. Francis, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham, York.
{Watxer, J. J., M.A. F.RS. 12 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.
*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
* Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.
{Walker, S. D. 88 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
t{Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, 8.E.
{Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.
{Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
{Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh,
*Walker, William, F.G.S. 13 Lendal, York.
§WaLker, W.G., A.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
§Walier, W. J.D. _Lawrencetown, Co. Down, Ireland.
tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
t{Wattace, Atrrep Russet, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Corfe
View, Parkstone, Dorset.
{Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick street, Edinburgh.
*Watter, Aucustus D., M.D., F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove
End-road, London, N.W.
*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 4 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.
1895.§§ Wats, E, Wuire, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,
1883,
1884,
1886.
1883.
1894.
1887.
1891,
1883.
1862.
1895.
1881.
1863,
Margaret-street, London, W.
tWallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
{ Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
tWallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Chevening, Montague-road, Edgbaston.
+Walmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.
*Walmisley, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
{Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.
§ Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.
{Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
tWatrote, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W.
§Waxstncuam, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S, Merton Hall,
Thetford.
{ Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver's Mount School, Scarborough.
+ Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 101
Year of
Election.
1884.
1887.
1874.
1881.
1879,
1890.
1874.
1887.
1857.
1880.
1884,
1883.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1858.
1884,
1887.
1878.
1882,
1884,
1875.
1887.
1896,
1896,
1895.
1875.
1870.
1892.
1875.
1887.
1884.
1886.
1883.
1892.
1885,
1882.
1884,
1889.
1863.
1863,
1867.
1892.
1879.
1894,
1882.
1854,
{Wanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
tWard, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Owens College, Man-
chester.
Ward, F. D., J.P., M.R.I.A. Wyncroft, Adelaide Park, Belfast.
§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.
tWaxp, H. Marswact, D.Se., FVR.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
University of Cambridge. New Museums, Cambridge.
{Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds,
§ Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
fWarp, Joun, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.
{ Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
*Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford,
S.E.
*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.
tWard, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool.
TWard, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.
{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,
f Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.
{ Wardle, Thomas, F.G.S. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
{ Wardwell, George J. 31 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.
*Waring, Richard S. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
§Warineton, Ropert, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Rural Economy
in the University of Oxford. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans. Herts.
{ Warner, F. L., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.
“Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
{Warren, Algernon. 6 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
{WarreEN, Major-General Sir Caartrs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, London, S.W.
§Warr, A. F, 4 Livingstone-drive North, Liverpool.
§ Warrand, Major-General, R.E. W esthorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.
{ Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.
“Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. 15 West Chislehurst Park, Eltham,
Kent.
{Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.
{Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh,
fWatherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Vhe Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.
}Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, London, W.
t Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.
*Watson, C. J. 34 Smallbrook-street, Birmingham.
{ Watson, C. Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, London, W.C.
§Watson,G. Atheneum-buildiugs, Park-lane, Leeds,
tWatson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham. ;
tWarson, Rey. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry,
{Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
t Watson, John, F'.1.C. 5 Loraine-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.
{ Watson, Joseph. Bersham-grove, Gateshead.
{ Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F’.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
{ Watson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.
§ Watson, William, M.D. Slateford, Midlothian.
“Watson, Wittiam Heyry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones, Cumber-
land.
“Watson, W., B.Sc. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, London, S.W.
tWatt, Alexander. 19 Brompton-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
{Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
102
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1869.
1888.
1875.
1884.
1870.
1896.
1878
1883.
1891.
1869.
1883,
1871.
1890.
1866,
1886.
1891.
1859,
1834,
1882.
1889.
1884.
1889.
1890,
1886,
1865.
1894,
1876,
1880.
1881.
1879.
1881.
{Watt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
tWarts, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.
*Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.
*Watts, Rey. Canon Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.
§Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.
§ Watts, W. II. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.
3. *Warts, W. Marswatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
*Warts, W. W., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W.; ; and Corndon, Worcester-road, Sutton,
Surrey.
tWaugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{ Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
{ Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.
tWebb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
tWebb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, London, N.W.
*Wess, WILLIAM FREDERICK, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
§ WEBBER, Major-General 0. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Egerton-
gardens, London, 8. W.
§ Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.
tWebster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.
t Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, LL.D., Q.C., M.P. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, London, S.W.
* Webster, Wi liam, F.C.S. 50 Lee Par k, Lee, Kent.
*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
48 W estendstrasse, Karlsruhe.
tWeeks, John G. Bedlington.
*Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.
{tWeiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
tWelch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
Fast, London, 8. W.
§ Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham Gardens, Oxford.
*Wexpon, W. F.R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Comparative
Anatomy and Zoology in University College, London, 30a
Wimpole-street, London, W.
*Weldon, Mrs. 304 Wimpole-street, London, W.
§ Wellcome. Henry S. Snow Hill Buildings, London, E.C.
§Wetts, CHartzs A., A.I.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.
§ Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. West Dean “Rectory, Salisbury.
1894.§§ Wells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.
1888.
1887.
1850.
1881.
1864.
1886,
1865.
1855.
1853.
tWelsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.
*Welton, T. A. 38 St. John's-road, Brixton, London, S.W.
t Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire,
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon, W entworth Castle, near
Bernsley, Yorkshire,
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
*Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C. S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.
tWesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, London, W.
tWest, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
{ West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
Year of
Election
1853,
1882.
1882.
1882.
1885.
1888.
1853.
1866.
1884,
1883.
1878.
1888.
1883.
1893.
1888.
1888,
1879.
1874.
1883.
1859.
1884,
1886.
1886,
1876.
1886.
1883.
1882.
1885.
1873.
1859.
1883.
1865.
1895.§
1884.
1859.
1877.
1883.
1886.
1883.
18938.
1881.
1852.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 103
t West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Vale of Health, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
tWestlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.
{WerrHErEeD, Epwarp B.,F.G.8. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-
ham.
*Wuanrton, Admiral W. J. L., C.B., R.N., F.B.S., F.R.AS., F.B.G.S.,
Hydrographer to the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-road, Wim-
bledon Park, Surrey.
{Wheateroft, William G. 6 Widcombe-terrace, Bath.
{Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
+ Wheatstone, Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s-park, London,
.W.
t{Wheeler, Claude L., M.D, 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
U.S.A
*Wheeler, George Brash. Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham,
Kent.
*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.
§Whelen, John Leman. Bank Hovse, 16 Old Broad-street, London,
E.C
t{Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Wuernam, W.C.D., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.
*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.
*WuipporNE, Rev. Grorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.8. St. George's
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, London, 8. W.
{Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Terrace, Belfast.
*Whitaker, T. Savile Heath, Halifax.
*Wauuiraker, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Freda, Campden-road,
Croydon.
{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.
t{Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.
t{White, Alderman, J.P, Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
t{White, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire. :
{White, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, London, W.
{White, Charles, 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.
*White, J. Martin, M.P. 5 King-street, Dundee.
tWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
t{Wuure, Joun Fornes. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.
t{White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.
{White, Joseph. Regent-street, Nottingham.
§ White, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College,
Bangor, North Wales.
tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.
{ White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
*White, William. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, London, W
*White, Mrs. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, London, W.
*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.
{ Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.
§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.1C. 20 Beeches-road, West
Bromwich.
{ Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.
t}Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
104 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Elevtiou.
1891. §Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Se., F.G.S. 47 Park-place,
Cardiff.
1896. § Whitney, Colonel C. A. The Grange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.
1857. *Wuirry, Rey. Joun Inwiye, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 33 Peak Hill-
gardens, Sydenham, London, 8.8.
1887. {Whitwell, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
1874. *Whitwill, Mark. Linthorpe, Tyndall’s Park, Bristol. |
1883. ¢{Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.
1870. tWhitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, Lon-
don, W.
1892. § Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.
1888. ¢{Wickham, Rev. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.
1865. { Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,
1886. {Wigein, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
1896. § Wigelesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1883. {Wigglesworth, Mrs. Ingleside, West-street, Scarborough.
1881. *Wigelesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate.
1878. {Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
1889. * Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1887. {Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1887. *Witpr, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
1896. §Wildermann, Meyer. 22 Park-crescent, Oxford.
1887. {Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.
1892. { Wilkinson, Rev. J. Frome. Barley Rectory, Royston, Herts.
1886. *Wilkinson, J. H. Hamstead Hill, Handsworth, Birmingham.
1879. { Wilkinson, Joseph. York.
1887. *Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.
1872. { Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
1890, {Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.
1896.§§ Wittason, J 8. (Locat Secrerary). Toronto.
1872. {Wittert, Henry, F.G.8. Arnold House, Brighton.
1891. { Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.
1861. * Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosyenor-square, London, W.
1887. {Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.
1883. *Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.
1861. * Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.
1875. *Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.
1883. {Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
1857. t Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairynghornwy, Holyhead.
1888. { Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entryhill, Bath.
1891. § Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Midwood, Christchurch-road,
Bournemouth.
1887. { Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.
1888. * Williams, Miss Katherine. Llandaff House, Pembroke Vale, Clifton,
Bristol.
1875. * Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.
1879. {Witt1aMs, Marraew W., F.C.S. 26 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
1891. {Williams, Morgan. 65 Park-place, Cardiff.
1886. { Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.
1883. {Williams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead,
London, N.W.
1883. { Williams, T. H. 21 Strand-street, Liverpool.
1888. t Williams, W. Cloud House, Stapleford, Nottinghamshire.
1877. *Witttams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.
1883, {Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire,
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. 105
of
Election.
1850.
1857
1876
1863
1895
*WILtIAMson, ALEXANDER Wit11aM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy. High
Pitfold, Haslemere.
. {Wirrramsoy, Bensamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.
. { Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
. } Williamson, John. South Shields.
. §Wittnk, W. 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.
1895.§§ Willis, John C., M.A., Senior Assistant in Botany in Glasgow
1882.
University. 8 Lawrence-place, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
t Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.
1859. *Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, London,
S.W
1886. {Wills, A.W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.
1886, {Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.
1885. {Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
1878.
{ Wilson, Professor Alexander §., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.
1876. t Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.
1894. *Wilson, Charles J., F.I.C., F.C.S. 19 Little Queen-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
1874, {Witsoy, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.0.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.8S. The Atheneum Club, London, 8.W.
1876. {Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
1890. {Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.
_ 1863. {Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
1847. *Wilson, Frederick. 9 Dent’s-road, Wandsworth Common, S.W.
1875. {Witson, GzorcE Fereusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
1874. *Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1863. { Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.
1895.§§ Wilson, Gregg. The University, Edinburgh.
1883. *Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, R.S.O., Kent.
1879. t{Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.
1885. tWilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
1890. tWilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.
1896. §Wilson, John H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany, Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
1865. {Wrtson, Ven. James M., M.A., F.G.S._ The Vicarage, Rochdale.
1884, t{Wilson, James S. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheritf Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.
1879. t Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.
1894, tWilson, Rev. R. J., M.A., Warden of Keble College, Oxford.
Oxford.
1876, tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, 8. W.
1847. *Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
1883. {Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.
1892. § Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1861.
{Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester,
1887. §Wilson, W., jun. Hillock, Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire,
1871.
1861,
1877.
*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Streete, Rathowen, Treland.
*Witsuire, Rev. Tuomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London,
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.
t{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
1886. {Winpiz, Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Ana-
tomy in Mason College, Birmingham.
106
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1893.
1863,
1894,
1888.
1883,
1884,
1881.
1883.
1863.
1861.
1883.
1875.
1878.
1883.
1881.
1883.
1893.
1883,
1864,
1890,
1871.
1872.
1845,
1863,
1884,
1883.
1884,
1884.
1896.
1888.
1872.
1883,
1888.
1887.
1869.
1886.
1866.
{ Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey. .
*Winter, G. K., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S. Arkonam, Madras, India.
*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent,
Bath.
{Witley, Arthur. 17 Acton-lane, Harlesden, London, N.W.
{Wopenotse, E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, London, S.W.
{Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.
f{Womack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Bedford College, Baker-street, W.
*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
§Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
t Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
tWoop, Sir H. Trunman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, London, W.C.
*Woop, Jamus, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
tWood, John, B.A. Wharfedale Colleze, Boston Spa, Yorkshire.
*Wood, J. H. Hazelwood, 14 Lethbridge-road, Southport.
Wood, Joseph T, 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.
tWood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.
tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
*Wood, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Bainbrigge-road, Headingley,
Leeds.
{Wood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
tWood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
*WoopaLt, JoHNn Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House.
Scarborough.
tWoodbury, C. J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.
ft Woodcock, Herbert S. The Elms, Wigan.
t Woodcock: T.,. M.A. 150 Cromwell-roud, London, S.W.
tWoodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N.W.
§ Woodhead, G. Sims, M.D. 1 Nightingale-lane, Balham, London,
S.W.
*Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire.
tWoodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Victoria-street, Westminster,
London, 8.W.
tWoods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E.,F.R.M.S. 16 Adelaide-street, Lea-
mington.
Woops, Samvrt. 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,
E.C
}Woodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, Lon-
don, S.W.
*Woopwarp, ArtHUR SmuirH, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper of
the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, London, 8S. W.
*Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sce., F.G.S. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
tWoodward, Harry Page, F.G.S.. 129 Beaufort-street, London,
S.W,
{Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, London, 8. W. ;
LIST OF MEMBERS. 107.
Year of
Election.
1870.
894,
1884.
1890,
1877.
1883,
1856.
1874.
1878.
1863.
1855.
1856.
1884.
1896.
1879.
1883,
1883.
1890.
1857.
1886.
1884,
1876.
1865.
1884,
1831.
1876.
1871.
1887.
1892.
1883.
1885.
1871.
1862.
1875.
1894.
1883.
1896.
1867.
1887.
1884,
{Woopwarp, Horace B., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
*Woodward, John Harold. 6 Brighton-terrace, Merridale-road,
Wolverhampton.
*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.
§ Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.LInst., F.S.S., MR.LA.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
Bee combo; Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
evonport,
*Woolley, Geaue Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.
tWoolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
{Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
{Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford, Stourbridge.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
tWorthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N.W.
t{Wragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
§ Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Baston, Liverpool.
t{Wrentmore, Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
*Wright, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
*Wricht, pel Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.
Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.
{Wrrent, E. Percevar, M.A., M.D., F.LS., MR.LA., Professor
of ners and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
tWright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.
{Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Fee ag U.S.A.
tWright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.
{ Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,
t{Wertcut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. (Locan TREASURER).
University College, Toronto, Canada.
Wrieut, T. G., M.D. 91 Northgate, Wakefield.
Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.
{Wrientson, Tuomas, M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Norton Hall,
Stockton-on-Tees.
t Wrigley, Rev. Dr., M.A., M.D., F.R.AS. 15 Gauden-road, London,
SW.
t{ Wyld, Norman. University Hall, Edinburgh.
§Wyllie, Andrew. 1 Leicester-street, Southport.
{Wyness, James D., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
+Wynnz, Artour Brevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
tYabbicom, Thomas Henry. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
*Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, London, E.
§Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.
§Yates, Rev.S. A. Thompson. 43 Phillimore-gardens, London,S.W.
{Yeaman, James. Dundee.
Yeats, Dr. Chepstow.
tYee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.
108
Year of
Election.
1877.
1891.
1884.
1891.
1886.
1894,
1884,
1884,
1896.
1876.
1885.
1886,
1883.
1887.
1890.
1868.
1886.
1886,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
tYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
{Yorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.
York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
§Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, London,
S.E
*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.
*Young, George, Ph.D. Firth College, Sheffield.
j Young, ae Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, London,
S.V
t Young, “goa George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto,
Canada.
§Young, J. Denholm, 88 Canning-street, Liverpool.
TYoune, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.
*Youne, Sypney, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bristol. 10 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, London, K. C.
t Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. ‘Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.
tYoungs, John. Richmond Hi, Norwich.
{Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
tZair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 109
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1892.
1881.
1894,
1894.
1887.
1892.
1894.
1893.
1880.
1887.
1884.
1890,
1893.
1887.
1884.
1894.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1894.
1861.
1894,
Sey.
1855.
1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.
~ 1889.
1862.
Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, United States.
Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18).
Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States. (3909, Locust-street).
Professor F. Beilstein. Technological Institute, St. Petersburg.
Professor E. van Beneden. The University, Liége, Belgium.
Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 3, Germany.
Professor M. Bertrand. L’Kcole des Mines, Paris.
Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. Washington, United States.
Professor Christian Bohr. 62 Bredgade, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Friirkenstrasse 3, Vienna, IX.
Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States.
Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts, United States.
Professor Brentano. 1 Maximilian-platz, Miinchen.
Professor W. ©. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Christiania.
Professor J. W, Brihl. Heidelberg.
Professor George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United
States.
Professor ID. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, United States.
Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna, (65 Via
Zamboni).
Professor J. B. Carnoy. Rue du Canal 22, Louvain.
Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. Mannheim.
Emile Cartailhac. Toulouse, France.
Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Leipzig.
Dr. A. Chauveau. The Sorbonne, Paris.
F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.
Professor Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. The University, Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.
Professor Cornu. Rue de Grenelle 9, Paris.
J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome. (5 Piazza S.
Pietro in Vincoli).
W. ie Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
tates.
Wilhelm Delffs, Heidelberg.
110
. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1864.
1872.
1870.
1890.
1876.
1894.
1892.
1894.
1892.
1874.
1886.
1887.
1894.
1872.
1894,
1894.
1887.
1892.
1881.
1866.
1861.
1884.
1884,
1889.
1892.
1870.
1889.
1889.
1876.
1884.
1892.
1876.
1889.
1881.
1872.
1895.
1889.
1887.
1893.
1894.
1893.
1893.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1884.
1867.
1876.
1881.
M. Des Cloizeaux. Rue de Monsieur 13, Paris.
Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples.
Professor V. Dwelshanvers-Dery. Liége, Belgium.
Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.
Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Holland.
Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.
Professor T. W. W. Engelmann. Utrecht.
Professor Léo Errera. 1 Place Stephanie, Brussels,
Dr. W. Feddersen. 9 Carolinenstrasse, Leipzic.
Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.
Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.
Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 34, Berlin, S.W.
W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.
Professor Léon Fredericq. Rue de Pitteurs 18, Liége, Beleium.
Professor C. Friedel. 9 Rue Michelet, Paris.
Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wentzelsgalatz, Prague.
Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Roon Strasse 10, Berlin.
Professor C. M. Gariel. -G Rue Edouard Detaille, Paris.
Dr. Gaudry. 57 Rue Cuvier, Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralory and Geology. Dresden.
+ aBnasep? J. Willard Gibbs. Yale College, New Haven, United
tates.
Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rkode Island, United States.
G. K.Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States,
Daniel C, Gilman. President of the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, United States.
William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.
Professor Gustave Gilson. Louvain.
A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.
Dr. Benjamin A. Gould. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.
General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.
Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.
Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.
Horatio Hale. Clinton, Ontario, Canada.
Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 37 Gorham-street, Cambridge, U.S.A.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.
Dr. Max von Hantken. Budapesth.
Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.
Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 35, Brussels,
Professor Ludimar Hermann. The University, Kénigsberg, Prussia.
Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoolog. Museum, Munich.
Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.
Professor W. His. Kdonigstrasse 22, Leipzig.
Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. Utrecht.
Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Newport, Rhode Island, United States.
Professor C. Loring Jackson. 12 Waye-street, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.
Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. The Observatory, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.
Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzerland.
W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. 32 Kast Preston-street, Baltimore, U.S.A.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 111
Year of
Election.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1884.
1873.
1894.
1896.
1856.
1894.
1887.
1894.
1887.
1877.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1882.
1887.
1872.
1887.
1883.
1877.
1837.
1871.
1871.
1894.
1887.
1867.
1881.
1887.
1890.
1894.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1848.
1887.
1894,
1893.
1877.
1894.
1864.
1887.
1889.
1894.
1864.
Professor C. Julin. Lidge.
Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.
M. Akin Karoly. 92 Rue Richelieu, Paris.
Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo,
Japan.
= els Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm Weber Strasse 3, Gottingen.
Professor L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 92, Wilmersdorf, Berlin.
Dr. Kohlrausch, Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, Charlot-
tenburg, Berlin. =
Professor A. von Kolliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.
Professor J. Kollmann. Basle, Switzerland.
Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-
versity, Berlin, N.W.
Maxime Kovalevsky. Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes. ;
Professor Krause. 31 Brueckenallee, Berlin, N.W.
Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.
Tieutenant R. Kund. German African Society, Berlin.
Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelm Str. 108, Breslau.
Professor J. W. Langley. 8474 Fairmount-street, Cleveland, Ohio,
United States.
Dr. S. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Washington, United States.
Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.
M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.
Professor A. Lieben. Wasagasse 9, Vienna, [X.
Dr. F. Lindemann. 42 Georgenstrasse, Munich.
Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.
Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. The University, Zurich.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany.
Professor Dr, Liitken. Norregade 10, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Dr. Otto Maas. Wurzerstrasse 16, Munich.
‘Dr. Henry C. McCook. Philadelphia, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe 11, Passy, Paris.
Professor 0. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Dr. C, A. Martius. Berlin.
Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 Rue de l'Université,
Paris.
Professor A. M. Mayer. Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.
Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. St. Petersburg.
Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.
Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. 57 Rue Cuvier, Paris,
Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djuvsholm, Stockholm,
Professor H. Moissan. The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).
ee VY. L. Moissenet. 4 Boulevard Gambetta, Chaumont, Hte.
arne.
Dr. Edmund von Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna, III.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.
Dr. F. Nansen. Christiania.
Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico dell’ Universiti, Padua, Italy.
Dr. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
112
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1884.
1887.
1894.
1894.
1890.
1889.
1890.
1895.
1887.
1890.
1894.
1870.
1884,
1887.
1886.
1887.
1868,
1895.
1886.
1873.
1896.
1892.
1890.
1881.
1895.
1894.
1883.
1874.
1846,
1873.
1876,
1892.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1866.
1889,
1881.
1894.
1881.
1884.
1864.
1887,
1887.
Professor Simon Newcomb. 1620 P.-street, Washington, United
States.
Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.
Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.
Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.
Professor W. Ostwald. Briiderstrasse 34, Leipzig.
Professor A. S. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, United States.
Maffeo Pantaleoni, Director of the Royal Superior School of Com-
merce. Bari, Italy.
Professor F. Paschen. 6, Theodorstrasse, Hannover.
Dr. Pauli, Hiéchst-on-Main, Germany.
Professor Otto Pettersson. Hogskolas Laboratorium, Stockholm.
Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. The University, Leipzig.
Professor Felix Plateau, 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand.
Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, United States.
Professor W. Preyer. Villa Panorama, Wiesbaden.
Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Jarvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States.
Professor Georg Quincke. Heidelberg. ;
L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich
(Sonnen-Strasse 7).
Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.
Rey. A. Renard. Rue du Roger, Gand, Belgium.
Professor Baron von Richthofen. Kurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin.
Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Rotterdam.
Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.
A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachu-
setts, United States.
Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.
Professsr Karl Runge, Kornerstrasse 194, Hannover.
Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Holland.
Dr. Ernst Schréder. Gottesanerstrasze 9, Karlsruhe, Baden.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 754, Berlin.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium,
Dr. A. Shafarik. Weinberge 422, Prague.
Professor R. D. Silva. L’Ecole Centrale, Paris.
Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht.
Professor Count Solms. Bot. Garten, Strassburg.
Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.
Dr. Alfred Springer. Box 621, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.
Professor Dr. Steenstrup. Linnesgade 6/2 K., Copenhagen.
Professor G. Stefanescu. Bucharest, Roumania.
Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘I'he University, Athens.
Professor E, Strasburger. The University, Bonn.
Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. The University, Breslau.
Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.
Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.
Dr. T. M. Treub. Java.
Professor John Trowbridge. Haryard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. ‘113
Year of
Election.
1890.
1889.
1886.
1894.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1874.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1896.
1887.
Arminius Vimbéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
Professor J. H. van’t Hoff. Amsterdam.
Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow.
Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium.
General F. A. Walker. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, United States.
Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.
Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Kiel.
Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Baden.
Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, United States.
Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.
Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen, [C/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig. |
Professor G. Wiedemann. Thalstrasse 35, Leipzig.
Professor R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
Baden.
Professor J. Wislicenus. Liebigstrasse 18, Leipzig.
Dr. Otto N. Witt. 33 Lindenallée, Westend-Charlottenburg, Berlin.
Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,
Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Professor E. Zacharias. Hamburg.
Professor F, Zirkel. The University, Leipzig.
1896. iH
114
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Brighton Public Library.
Bristol Naturalists’ Society.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College of South
Wales.
Cornwall, Royal So-
ciety of.
Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.
, Royal College of Surgeons in
Ireland.
——, Royal Geological Society of
Treland.
——,, Royal Irish Academy.
——, Royal Society of.
Dundee, University College.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
——, Royal Medical Society of.
— _, Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.
Glasgow Philosophical Society.
, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London, Admiralty, Library of the.
——, Anthropological Institute.
——,, Arts, Society of.
——,, Chemical Society.
——,, Civil Engineers, Institution of.
——, East India Library.
——, Geological Society.
. Geology, Museum of Practical,
28 Jermyn Street.
, Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
——, Kew Observatory,
Geological
AND IRELAND.
London, Linnean Society.
, London Institution.
, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.
——, Meteorological Office.
——,, Royal Asiatic Society.
——., Royal Astronomical Society.
——, Royal College of Physicians.
——., Royal College of Surgeons.
——, Royal Engineers’ Institute,
Chatham,
—, Royal Geographical Society.
—-, Royal Institution.
—., Royal Meteorological Society.
-—, Royal Society.
——.,, Royal Statistical Society.
——, Sanitary Institute.
——, United Service Institution.
—, University College.
——., War Office, Library of the.
——., Zoological Society.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
, Mechanics’ Institute.
Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.
, Public Library.
Norwich, The Free Library.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
—., Radcliffe Observatory.
Plymouth Institution.
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Sheffield, Firth College.
Southampton, Hartley Institution,
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Swansea, Royal Institution of South
ales
The Corresponding Societies
p. 31 of Report).
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
(see
115
EUROPE.
Petes sep enix « Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.
demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.
schaften. Moscow ......0.. Society of Naturalists.
ROOTES <5.ve 500 University Library. | —— —.....ee University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.
Sciences. INS plCEyeeacet eee: Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.
servatory. IRATIS Wess seeoncenc! Association Francaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of pour l’Avancement
Sciences. des Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library. —— ............Geographical Society.
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. ——dacaceeeveee Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | —— ............ Royal Academy of
ciety. Sciences.
Geneva............ Natural History So- | —— ............ School of Mines,
ciety. Pultovar 2c--sores Imperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. Rome? ............ Accademia dei Lincei.
PETANZ pa, avs. secede. Naturwissenschaft- —$—eseeceeeess Collegio Romano.
licher Verein, ————reveeeeceees Italian Geographical
PANG cstodcte os <n Leopoldinisch-Caro- Society.
linische Akademie. | —— ............ Italian Society of
Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise Sciences.
des Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. —— ...Lmperial Observatory.
Helsingfors...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Kasan, Russia ... University Library. Purini@heeews.s coc Royal Academy of
MALO Mes csee cones Royal Observatory. Sciences.
REG MG eeccviceele sess University Library. Utrecht) -........ University Library.
Lausanne......... The University. iene... 5... s4<- The Imperial Library.
Leyden ......... University Library. ————reevseeeeees Central Anstalt fur
TEES Seenace eee University Library. Meteorologie und
Lisbon ............Academia Real des Erdmagnetismus.
Sciences, PALIT IC His wena esiaeioes General Swiss Society.
ASIA,
OSU ope aSpanCee The College. Calcutta ......... Presidency College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ___......... Hooghly College,
tony Ph 2 RS cc cans Medical College.
——eewveeees Grant Medical Col- | Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo,
lege. Madras..........+. The Observatory.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society, | ——_eaceeeeeeeee University Library.
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope. .
. The Royal Observatory.
116
AMERICA.
Albany ......++ The Institute. New York...... Lyceum of Natural
Boston.....-.++++ American Academy of History.
Arts and Sciences. | Ottawa ......-.. Geological Survey of
California .....- The University. Canada.
bans Lick Observatory. Philadelphia...American Medical As- |
Cambridge ...... Harvard University sociation. see 4)
Library. —— ... American Philosophical
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. Society.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | —— ..-Franklin Institute.
tific Society. Toronto ...... The Observatory.
Montreal ......... McGill University. Washington ... The Naval Observatory.
aoe eee Council of Arts and | —— ... Smithsonian Institution.
Manufactures. — ...United States Geolo-
New York ...... American Society of gical Survey of the
Civil Engineers. : Territories.
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.
Brisbane. . . . Queensland Museum.
Sydney . . . ~ Public Works Department.
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND.
Canterbury Museum.
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